Pso Chapter16 PDF

Chapter 16.
Particle Swarm Optimization
Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition
Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Introduction
Overview of the basic PSO
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
Chapter 16. Particle Swarm Optimization Aspects of Basic PSO
Basic Variations of PSO
PSO Parameters
Particle Trajectories
Single-Solution Particle Swarm Optimizers
Contents
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
Aspects of Basic PSO
PSO Parameters
References102

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Introduction
Particle swarm optimization (PSO):
developed by Kennedy & Eberhart [3, 7],
first published in 1995, and
with an exponential increase in the number of publications
since then.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Introduction
Particle swarm optimization (PSO):
developed by Kennedy & Eberhart [3, 7],
first published in 1995, and
with an exponential increase in the number of publications
since then.
What is PSO?
a simple, computationally efficient optimization method
population-based, stochastic search
based on a social-psychological model of social influence and
social learning [8]
individuals follow a very simple behavior: emulate the success
of neighboring individuals
emergent behavior: discovery of optimal regions in high
dimensional search spaces
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Introduction: What are the origins of PSO?
In the work of Reynolds on boids [12]: Flocking is an

emergent behavior which arises from the interaction of simple
rules:
Collision avoidance
Velocity matching
Flock centering
The work of Heppner and Grenander on using a rooster as
an attractor [5]
Simplified social model of determining nearest neighbors and
velocity matching

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Origins of PSO (cont)
Initial objective: to simulate the graceful, unpredictable

choreography of collision-proof birds in a flock
At each iteration, each individual determines its nearest
neighbor and replaces its velocity with that of its neighbor
Resulted in synchronous movement of the flock
Random adjustments to velocities prevented individuals to
settle too quickly on an unchanging direction
Adding roosters as attractors:
personal best
neighborhood best
particle swarm optimization

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Overview of basic PSO

What are the main components?
A swarm of particles
Each particle represents a candidate solution
Elements of a particle represent parameters to be optimized

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Overview of basic PSO

What are the main components?
A swarm of particles
Each particle represents a candidate solution
Elements of a particle represent parameters to be optimized
The search process:
Position updates
xi (t + 1) = xi (t) + vi (t + 1)
where
xij (0) U(xmin,j , xmax,j )
Velocity
drives the optimization process
step size
reflects experiential knowledge and socially exchanged
information
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Social network structures (Figure 16.4):

Social interaction based on neighborhoods
First used network structures: star and ring topologies
(a) Star (b) Ring
Figure: Social Network Structures

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Other social structures (Figure 16.4):
(a) Von Neumann (b) Pyramid
Figure: Advanced Social Network Structures

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Other social structures (cont...)
(a) Clusters (b) Wheel
Figure: Advanced Social Network Structures

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Global Best (gbest) PSO
Uses the star social network

Velocity update per dimension:
vij (t + 1) = vij (t) + c1 r1j (t)[yij (t) xij (t)]

yj (t) xij (t)]
+c2 r2j (t)[
vij (0) = 0 (usually, but can be random)

c1 , c2 are positive acceleration coefficients
r1j (t), r2j (t) U(0, 1)

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Global Best PSO (cont)
yi (t) is the personal best position calculated as (assuming

minimization):

yi (t) if f (xi (t + 1)) f (yi (t))
yi (t+1) =
xi (t + 1) if f (xi (t + 1)) < f (yi (t))

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Global Best PSO (cont)
y(t) is the global best position calculated as
y(t) {y0 (t), . . . , yns (t)}|f (

y(t))
= min{f (y0 (t)), . . . , f (yns (t))}
or
y(t) {x0 (t), . . . , xns (t)}|f (

y(t))
= min{f (x0 (t)), . . . , f (xns (t))}
where ns is the number of particles in the swarm
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
gbest PSO Algorithm

Create and initialize an nx -dimensional swarm, S;
repeat
for each particle i = 1, . . . , S.ns do
if f (S.xi ) < f (S.yi ) then
S.yi = S.xi ;
end
if f (S.yi ) < f (S.
y) then
S.
y = S.yi ;
end
end
for each particle i = 1, . . . , S.ns do
update the velocity and then the position;
end
until stopping condition is true ;

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Local Best (lbest) PSO

Uses the ring social network
yij (t) xij (t)]
+c2 r2j (t)[
yi is the neighborhood best, defined as:
yi (t + 1) {Ni |f (
yi (t + 1)) = min{f (x)}, x Ni }
with the neighborhood defined as
Ni = {yinNi (t), yinNi +1 (t), . . . ,
yi1 (t), yi (t), yi+1 (t), . . . , yi+nNi (t)}
where nNi is the neighborhood size
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Local Best PSO (cont...)
Neighborhoods:
Neighborhoods are based on particle indices, not spatial
information
Neighborhoods overlap to facilitate information exchange
The lbest PSO algorithm?
gbest PSO vs lbest PSO:
Speed of convergence
Susceptibility to local minima?

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Components
Previous velocity, vi (t)

inertia component
memory of previous flight direction
prevents particle from drastically changing direction

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Components

inertia component
Cognitive component, c1 r1 (yi xi )
quantifies performance relative to past performances
memory of previous best position
nostalgia

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Components

inertia component
Cognitive component, c1 r1 (yi xi )
quantifies performance relative to past performances
memory of previous best position
nostalgia
yi xi )
Social component, c2 r2 (
quantifies performance relative to neighbors
envy

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Geometric Illustration Figure 16.1

x2 x2
(t)
y (t + 1)
y
social velocity x(t + 2)

inertia new velocity
x(t + 1) velocity
new velocity social velocity
x(t + 1)
cognitive velocity
inertia velocity
cognitive velocity
x(t) x(t)
y(t) y(t + 1)
x1 x1
(a) Time Step t (b) Time Step t + 1
Figure: Geometrical Illustration of Velocity and Position Updates for a

Single Two-Dimensional Particle
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Cumulative Effect of Position Updates (Figure 16.2)

x2 x2
y
x1 x1
(a) Time Step t (b) Time Step t + 1
Figure: Multi-particle gbest PSO Illustration

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Stopping Conditions
Terminate when a maximum number of iterations, or FEs, has

been exceeded
Terminate when an acceptable solution has been found, i.e.
when (assuming minimization)
f (xi ) |f (x ) |
Terminate when no improvement is observed over a number of

iterations

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Stopping Conditions (cont)

Terminate when the normalized swarm radius is close to zero,
i.e.
Rmax
Rnorm = 0
diameter(S(0))
where
Rmax = ||xm y||, m = 1, . . . , ns
with
||xm y|| ||xi y||, i = 1, . . . , ns
Terminate when the objective function slope is approximately
zero, i.e.
0 y(t)) f (
f ( y(t 1))
f (t) = 0
f (
y(t))
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Basic PSO Variations: Introduction
Main objectives of these variations are to improve

Convergence speed
Quality of solutions
Ability to converge

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Exploration-Exploitation Tradeoff
Exploration: the ability to explore regions of the search space

Exploitation: the ability to concentrate the search around a
promising area to refine a candidate solution

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Exploration-Exploitation Tradeoff
Exploration: the ability to explore regions of the search space

Exploitation: the ability to concentrate the search around a
promising area to refine a candidate solution
c1 vs c2 and the influence on the explorationexploitation
tradeoff

yj (t) xij (t)]
+c2 r2j (t)[

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping:
Problem with basic PSO:

Velocity quickly explodes to large values

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping:

Solution:
Limit step sizes

vij (t + 1) if |vij (t + 1)| < Vmax,j
vij (t + 1) =
Vmax,j if |vij (t + 1)| Vmax,j

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping:

Solution:
Limit step sizes

vij (t + 1) =
Controls global exploration of particles

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping:

Solution:
Limit step sizes

vij (t + 1) =

Optimal value is problem-dependent

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping:

Solution:
Limit step sizes

vij (t + 1) =

Optimal value is problem-dependent
Does not confine the positions, only the step sizes

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping Problem (Figure 16.5)

x2
velocity update
position update
xi (t + 1)
v2 (t + 1)
0
xi (t + 1)
0
v2 (t + 1)
v1 (t + 1) xi (t)
x1
Figure: Effects of Velocity Clamping

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
More Velocity Clamping Problems
What happens when, for a dimension,
xmax,j xmin,j << Vmax ?
What happens if all velocities are equal to the maximum

velocity?
Particles search on the boundaries of the hypercube,
[xi (t) Vmax , xi (t) + Vmax ]

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping:
Dynamically changing Vmax when gbest does not improve

over iterations [13]
0
Vmax,j (t) y(t)) f (
if f ( y(t t ))
0
Vmax,j (t + 1) = t = 1, . . . ,
Vmax,j (t) otherwise


Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Clamping:
Dynamically changing Vmax when gbest does not improve

over iterations [13]
0
Vmax,j (t) y(t)) f (
if f ( y(t t ))
0
Vmax,j (t + 1) = t = 1, . . . ,
Vmax,j (t) otherwise

Exponentially decaying Vmax [4]
Vmax,j (t + 1) = (1 (t/nt ) )Vmax,j (t)

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Inertia Weight[15]
Developed to control exploration and exploitation
Controls the momentum
Velocity update changes to
vij (t + 1) = wvij (t) + c1 r1j (t)[yij (t) xij (t)]
yj (t) xij (t)]
+c2 r2j (t)[
For w 1
velocities increase over time and swarm diverges
particles fail to change direction towards more promising
regions
For 0 < w < 1
particles decelerate
convergence also dependent on values of c1 and c2
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Inertia Weight (cont...)

Explorationexploitation trade-off
large values favor exploration
small values promote exploitation
Best value is problem-dependent

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Inertia Weight (cont...)

Explorationexploitation trade-off
large values favor exploration
small values promote exploitation
Best value is problem-dependent
Dynamically changing inertia weights
w N(0.72, )
linear decreasing [17]
(nt t)
w (t) = (w (0) w (nt )) + w (nt )
nt
non-linear decreasing [23]
0
w (t + 1) = w (t )
with w (t) = 1.4
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Constriction Coefficient [2]

Developed to ensure convergence to a stable point without
the need for velocity clamping
vij (t + 1) = [vij (t) + 1 (yij (t) xij (t))
yj (t) xij (t))]
+2 (
where
2
= p
|2 ( 4)|
with
= 1 + 2
1 = c1 r1 , 2 = c2 r2
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Constriction Coefficient (cont...)
If 4 and [0, 1], then the swarm is guaranteed to

converge to a stable point
[0, 1]
controls explorationexploitation
0: fast convergence, exploitation
1: slow convergence, exploration
Effectively equivalent to inertia weight for specific :
w = , 1 = c1 r1 and 2 = c2 r2

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Synchronous vs asynchronous updates
Synchronous:
Personal best and neighborhood bests updated separately from
position and velocity vectors
slower feedback
better for gbest

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Synchronous vs asynchronous updates
Synchronous:
Personal best and neighborhood bests updated separately from
position and velocity vectors
slower feedback
better for gbest
Asynchronous:
new best positions updated after each particle position update
immediate feedback about best regions of the search space
better for lbest

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Velocity Models
Cognition-only model:
vij (t + 1) = vij (t) + c1 r1j (t)(yij (t) xij (t))
particles are independent hill-climbers

local search by each particle
Social-only model:
yj (t) xij (t))
vij (t + 1) = vij (t) + c2 r2j (t)(
swarm is one stochastic hill-climber

Selfless model:
Social model, but nbest solution chosen from neighbors only
Particle itself is not allowed to become the nbest
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Basic Parameters
Swarm size, ns
Particle dimension, nx
Neighborhood size, nNi
Number of iterations, nt
Inertia weight, w
Acceleration coefficients, c1 and c2

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Acceleration Coefficients
c1 = c2 = 0?
c1 > 0, c2 = 0: cognition-only model
c1 = 0, c2 > 0: social-only model
c1 = c2 > 0:
particles are attracted towards the average of yi and yi
c2 > c1 :
more beneficial for unimodal problems

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Acceleration Coefficients (cont)

c1 < c2 :
more beneficial for multimodal problems
Low c1 and c2 :
smooth particle trajectories
High c1 and c2 :
more acceleration, abrupt movements

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Acceleration Coefficients (cont)

c1 < c2 :
more beneficial for multimodal problems
Low c1 and c2 :
smooth particle trajectories
High c1 and c2 :
more acceleration, abrupt movements
Adaptive acceleration coefficients
t
c1 (t) = (c1,min c1,max ) + c1,max
nt
t
c2 (t) = (c2,max c2,min ) + c2,min
nt

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Simplified Particle Trajectories [19, 22]
No stochastic component
Single, one-dimensional particle
Using w
Personal best and global best are fixed:
y = 1.0, y = 0.0
1 = c1 r1 and 2 = c2 r2

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Example trajectories:
30
20
10
im
xt
-10
-20
-30
-40 -6e-16
0 50 100 150 200 250 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
t re
(a) Time domain (b) Phase space
Figure: Convergent Trajectory for Simplified System, with w = 0.5 and

1 = 2 = 1.4
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
500
400
300
200
100
im
xt
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500 -6e-16
0 50 100 150 200 250 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
t re
Figure: Cyclic Trajectory for Simplified System, with w = 1.0 and

1 = 2 = 1.999
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
6e+06 8e+99
6e+99
4e+06
4e+99
2e+06
2e+99
0
0
im
xt
-2e+06 -2e+99
-4e+99
-4e+06
-6e+99
-6e+06
-8e+99
-8e+06
-1e+100
-1e+07 -1.2e+100
0 50 100 150 200 250 -6e+99 -4e+99 -2e+99 0 2e+99 4e+99 6e+99 8e+99 1e+100
t re
Figure: Divergent Trajectory for Simplified System, with w = 0.7 and

1 = 2 = 1.9
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Convergence Conditions:
What do we mean by the term convergence?
z2
1
w
0 2.0 4.0
phi z1
Figure: Convergence Map for Values of w and = 1 + 2

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Convergence Conditions (cont)

Convergence behavior is sensitive to the values of w and c1 , c2
Theoreticall derived heuristics for setting these values:
Constriction coefficient
The trajectory of a particle converges if
1
1>w > (1 + 2 ) 1 0
2
Since 1 = c1 U(0, 1) and 2 = c2 U(0, 1), the acceleration
coefficients, c1 and c2 serve as upper bounds of 1 and 2
So, particles converge if
1
1>w > (c1 + c2 ) 1 0
2

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Convergence Conditions (cont)

It can happen that, for stochastic 1 and 2 and a w that violates
the condition above, the swarm may still converge
40
30
20
10
x(t)
-10
-20
-30
0 50 100 150 200 250
t
Figure: Stochastic Particle Trajectory for w = 0.9 and c1 = c2 = 2.0

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Guaranteed Convergence PSO
For the basic PSO, what happens when
xi = yi = y
and if this condition persists for a number of iterations?

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Guaranteed Convergence PSO
For the basic PSO, what happens when
xi = yi = y
and if this condition persists for a number of iterations?

The problem:
w vi 0
which leads to stagnation, where particles have converged on
the best position found by the swarm

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Guaranteed Convergence PSO (cont)
How can we address this problem?

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Guaranteed Convergence PSO (cont)
How can we address this problem?

Force the global best position to change when
xi = yi = y
This is what happens in the GCPSO, where the global best

particle is forced to search in a bounding box around the
current position for a better position

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
GCPSO Equations
The position update of the global best particle changes to
x j (t + 1) = yj (t) + wv j (t) + (t)(1 2r2 (t))
where is the index of the global best particle

The velocity update of the global best particle then has to
change to
v j (t + 1) = x j (t) + yj (t) + wv j (t) + (t)(1 2r2j (t))
where where (t) is a scaling factor

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
GCPSO Equations (cont)
The scaling factor is defined as

2(t) if #successes(t) > s
(t + 1) = 0.5(t) if #failures(t) > f
(t) otherwise

where #successes and #failures respectively denote the

number of consecutive successes and failures
y(t)) f (
A failure is defined as f ( y(t + 1))

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Social-Based Particle Swarm Optimization
Spatial neighborhoods
Fitness-Based spatial neighborhoods
Growing neighborhoods
Hypercube structure
Fully informed PSO
Barebones PSO

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Spatial Social Networks: Algorithm 16.4
Neighborhoods usually formed on the basis of particle indices

Based on spatial neighborhoods:
Calculate the Euclidean distance E(xi1 , xi2 ), i1 , i2 = 1, . . . , ns ;
S = {i : i = 1, . . . , ns };
for i = 1, . . . , ns do
0
S = S;
0
for i = 1, . . . , nNi 0 do
0
Ni = Ni {xi 00 : E(xi , xi 00 ) = min{E(xi , xi 000 ), xi 000 S };
0 0
S = S \ {xi 00 };
end
end

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Fitness-Based Spatial Neighborhoods
The neighborhood of particle i is defined as the nN particles

with the smallest value of
E(xi , xi 0 ) f (xi 0 )
where E(xi , xi 0 ) is the Euclidean distance between the particles

Overlapping neighborhoods are allowed

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Growing Neighborhoods
Start with a ring topology having smallest connectivity, and
grow towards a star topology
Particle position xi2 (t) is added to the neighborhood of
particle position xi1 (t) if
||xi1 (t) xi2 (t)||2
<
dmax
where dmax is the largest distance between any two particles
3t + 0.6nt
=
nt
with nt the maximum number of iterations.
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Hypercube Structure
Neighborhood structure for binary-valued problems

Particles are defined as neighbors if the Hamming distance
between the bit representation of their indices is one
Total number of particles must be a power of two, where
particles have indices from 0 to 2nN 1
Hypercube has the properties [1]:
Each neighborhood has exactly nN particles.
The maximum distance between any two particles is exactly
nN .
If particles i1 and i2 are neighbors, then i1 and i2 will have no
other neighbors in common.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Fully Informed PSO
Velocity equation is changed such that each particle is

influenced by the successes of all its neighbors, and not on the
performance of only one individual
Each particle in the neighborhood, Ni , of particle i is regarded
equally:
nNi !
X r(t)(ym (t) xi (t))
vi (t + 1) = vi (t) +
nNi
m=1
where nNi = |Ni |, and r(t) U(0, c1 + c2 )nx

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Fully Informed PSO (cont)
A weight is assigned to the contribution of each particle based

on the performance of that particle:
PnN p (t) i m m
m=1 f (xm (t))
vi (t + 1) = vi (t) + Pn
Ni m
m=1 f (xm (t))
where m U(0, c1n+c

N
2
), and
i
1 ym (t) + 2 ym (t)
pm (t) =
1 + 2

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Fully Informed PSO (cont)
Advantages:
More information is used to decide on the best direction to
seach
Influence of a particle on the step size is proportional to the
particles fitness
Disadvantages
Influences of multiple particles may cancel each other
What happens when all particles are positioned symmetrically
around the particle being updated?

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Barebones PSO
Formal proofs [18, 19, 22] have shown that each particle
converges to a point that is a weighted average between the
personal best and neighborhood best positions:
yij (t) + yij (t)
2
This behavior supports Kennedys proposal to replace the
entire velocity by

yij (t) + yij (t)
vij (t + 1) N ,
2
where
= |yij (t) yij (t)|
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Barebones PSO (cont)
The position update is simply
xij (t + 1) = vij (t + 1)
Alternative formulation:
(
yij (t) if U(0, 1) < 0.5
vij (t + 1) = yij (t)+yij (t)
N( 2 , ) otherwise
There is a 50% chance that the j-th dimension of the particle

dimension changes to the corresponding personal best position

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Hybrid Algorithms
Selection-based PSO
Reproduction in PSO
Mutation in PSO
Differential evolution based PSO

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Selection-Based PSO: Algorithm 16.5

Calculate the fitness of all particles;
for each particle i = 1, . . . , ns do
Randomly select nts particles;
Score the performance of particle i against the nts randomly
selected particles;
end
Sort the swarm based on performance scores;
Replace the worst half of the swarm with the top half, without
changing the personal best positions;
What are the problems with this?

Any advantages?

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Global Best Spawning: Algorithm 16.6

if y(t) is in a potential minimum then
repeat
y = y(t);
for NumberOfSpawns=1 to 10 do
for a = 1 to NumberOfSpawns do
ya = y(t) + N(0, );
if f (ya ) < f (
y) then
y = ya ;
end
end
end
y) f (
until f ( y(t)) ;
y(t) = y;
end
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Using Arithmetic Crossover

An arithmetic crossover operator to produce offspring from
two randomly selected particles [10, 11]:
xi1 (t + 1) = r(t)xi1 (t) + (1 r(t))xi2 (t)
xi2 (t + 1) = r(t)xi2 (t) + (1 r(t))xi1 (t)
with the corresponding velocities,
vi1 (t) + vi2 (t)
vi1 (t + 1) = ||vi (t)||
||vi1 (t) + vi2 (t)|| 1
vi1 (t) + vi2 (t)
vi2 (t + 1) = ||vi (t)||
||vi1 (t) + vi2 (t)|| 2
where r1 (t) U(0, 1)nx
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Using Arithmetic Crossover (cont)
Personal best position of an offspring is initialized to its

current position:
yi1 (t + 1) = xi1 (t + 1)
Particles are selected for breeding at a user-specified breeding

probability
Random selection of parents prevents the best particles from
dominating the breeding process
Breeding process is done for each iteration after the velocity
and position updates have been done

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Using Arithmetic Crossover (cont)
Disadvantage:
Parent particles are replaced even if the offspring is worse off in
fitness
If f (xi1 (t + 1)) > f (xi1 (t)) (assuming a minimization problem),
replacement of the personal best with xi1 (t + 1) loses
important information about previous personal best positions
Solutions:
Replace parent with its offspring only if fitness of offspring is
better than that of the parent.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Mutation PSO
Mutate the global best position:
0 0
y(t + 1) = y (t + 1) + N(0, 1)
0
where y (t + 1) represents the unmutated global best position,
0
and is referred to as a learning parameter
Mutate the componets of position vectors: For each j, if
0
U(0, 1) < Pm , then component xij (t + 1) is mutated using [6]
0 0
xij (t + 1) = xij (t + 1) + N(0, )xij (t + 1)
where
= 0.1(xmax,j xmin,j )

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Mutation PSO (cont)
Each xij can have its own deviation:

0
ij (t) = ij (t 1) e N(0,1)+ Nj (0,1)
with
0 1
= p
2 nx
1
=
2nx

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Mutation PSO (cont)

Secrest and Lamont [14] adjust particle positions as follows

yi (t) + vi (t + 1) if U(0, 1) > c1
xi (t + 1) =
y(t) + vi (t + 1) otherwise
where
vi (t + 1) = |vi (t + 1)|r
r is a random vector with magnitude of one and angle
uniformly distributed from 0 to 2 and

N(0, (1 c2 )||yi (t) y(t)||2 ) if U(0, 1) > c1
vi (t+1)| =
N(0, c2 ||yi (t) y(t)||2 ) otherwise

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Differential Evolution PSO
After the normal velocity and position updates,

Select x1 (t) 6= x2 (t) 6= x3 (t)
Compute offspring:

0
x1j (t) + (x2j (t) x3j (t)) if U(0, 1) Pc
xij (t + 1) = or j = U(1, nx )
xij (t) otherwise

where Pc (0, 1) is the probability of crossover, and > 0 is

a scaling factor
Replace position of the particle if the offspring is better, i.e.
0 0
xi (t + 1) = xi (t + 1) only if f (xi (t + 1)) < f (xi (t)), otherwise
xi (t + 1) = xi (t)

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Differential Evolution PSO (cont)

Apply DE crossover on personal best positions only [24]:

0 yij (t) + j if U(0, 1) < Pc and j = U(1, nx )
yij (t + 1) =
yij (t) otherwise
where is the general difference vector defined as,
y1j (t) y2j (t)
j =
2
and y1j (t) and y2j (t) randomly selected personal best
positions
0
yij (t + 1) is set to yij (t + 1) only if the new personal best has
a better fitness
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Sub-Swarm Based PSO
Cooperative Split PSO

Hybrid Cooperative Split PSO
Predator-Prey PSO
Life-cycle PSO
Attractive and Repulsive PSO

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Cooperative Split PSO
Each particle is split into K separate parts of smaller

dimension [19, 20, 21]
Each part is then optimized using a separate sub-swarm
If K = nx , each dimension is optimized by a separate
sub-swarm, using any PSO algorithm
What are the issues?
Problem if there are strong dependencies among variables
How should the fitness of sub-swarm particles be evaluated?

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Cooperative Split PSO: Fitness Evaluation

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Cooperative Split PSO: Algorithm 16.8

K1 = nx mod K and K2 = K (nx mod K );
Initialize K1 dnx /K e-dimensional and K2 bnx /K c-dimensional swarms;
repeat
for each sub-swarm Sk ,k = 1, . . . , K do
for each particle i = 1, . . . , Sk .ns do
if f (b(k, Sk .xi )) < f (b(k, Sk .yi )) then
Sk .yi = Sk .xi ;
end
if f (b(k, Sk .yi )) < f (b(k, Sk .y)) then
Sk .
y = Sk .yi ;
end
end
Apply velocity and position updates;
end
until stopping condition is true ;
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Cooperative Split PSO (cont)
Advantages:
Instead of solving one large dimensional problem, several
smaller dimensional problems are now solved
Fitness function is evaluated after each subpart of the context
vector is updated, allowing a finer-grained search
Improved accuracies have been obtained for many optimization
problems

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Hybrid Cooperative Split PSO

Hybrid Cooperative Split PSO:
Have subswarm and a main swarm
Main swarm solves the complete problem
After one iteration of the cooperative algoritihm, replace a
randomly selected particle from the main swarm with the
context vector
Randomly selected particles personal best should not be a
neighborhood best
After a GCPSO update of the main swarm, replace a randomly
selected particle from each subswarm with the corresponding
element in the global best position of the main swarm
Randomly selected subswarm particles personal best should
not be the global best for that particle.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Predator-Prey PSO
Competition introduced to balance explorationexploitation
Uses a second swarm of predator particles:
Prey particles scatter (explore) by being repelled by the
presence of predator particles
Silva et al. [16] use only one predator to pursue the global best
prey particle
The velocity update for the predator particle is defined as
y(t) xp (t))
vp (t + 1) = r(
where vp and xp are respectively the velocity and position
vectors of the predator particle, p
r U(0, Vmax,p )nx
Vmax,p controls the speed at which the predator catches the
best prey
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Predator-Prey PSO (cont)

The prey particles update their velocity using
vij (t + 1) = wvij (t) + c1 r1j (t)(yij (t) xij (t))
yj (t) xij (t))
+ c2 r2j (t)(
+c3 r3j (t)D(d)
d is Euclidean distance between prey, i, and the predator
r3j (t) U(0, 1), and D(d) = ed
D(d) quantifies the influence that the predator has on the
prey, growing exponentially with proximity
Position update of prey particles: If U(0, 1) < Pf , then the
prey velocity update above is used, otherwise the normal
velocity update is used
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Life-Cycle PSO
Life-cylce PSO is used to change the behavior of individuals

[9, 10]
An individual can be in any of three phases:
a PSO particle,
a GA individual, or
a stochastic hill-climber
All individuals start as PSO particles
If an individual does not show an acceptable improvement in
fitness, it changes to the next life-cycle
First start with PSO, then GA, then hill-climbing, to have
more exploration initially, moving to more explotation

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Attractive and Repulsive PSO (ARPSO)
A single swarm is used, which switch between two phases

depending on swarm diversity
Diversity is measured using
v
ns uX
1 X u nx
diversity(S(t)) = t (xij (t) x j (t))2
ns
i=1 j=1
where x j (t) is the average of the j-th dimension over all

particles, i.e. Pns
xij (t)
x j (t) = i=1
ns
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Attractive and Repulsive PSO (cont)
If diversity(S(t)) > min , then switch to attraction phase

Otherwise, swarm switches to repulsion phase until a
threshold diversity, max is reached
Attraction phase uses basic velocity update
Repulsion phase changes velocity update to
vij (t+1) = wvij (t)c1 r1j (t)(yij (t)xij (t))c2 r2j (t)(
yij (t)xij (t))

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Multi-Start PSO
Major problems with the basic PSO is lack of diversity when

particles start to converge to the same point
Multi-start methods have as their main objective to increase
diversity, whereby larger parts of the search space are explored
This is done by continually inject randomness, or chaos, into
the swarm
Note that continual injection of random positions will cause
the swarm never to reach an equilibrium state
Methods should reduce chaos over time to ensure convergence

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Craziness PSO
Craziness is the process of randomly initializing some particles

[7]
What are the issues in reinitialization?
What should be randomized?
When should randomization occur?
How should it be done?
Which members of the swarm will be affected?
What should be done with personal best positions of affected
particles?

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Repelling Methods
The focus of repelling methods is to improve exploration

abilities
Charged PSO:
Changes the velocity equation by adding a particle
acceleration, ai :
vij (t + 1) = wvij (t) + c1 r1 (t)[yij (t) xij (t)]

yj (t) xij (t)]
+ c2 r2 (t)[
+ aij (t)

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Charged PSO (cont)

The acceleration determines the magnitude of inter-particle
repulsion:
Xns
ai (t) = ail (t)
l=1,i6=l
The repulsion force between particles i and l defined as

Qi Ql ((xi (t)xl (t))
||xi (t)xl (t)|| if Rc ||xi (t) xl (t)|| Rp

3
ail (t) = Qi Ql (xi (t)xl (t))

Rc2 ||xi (t)xl (t)||
if ||xi (t) xl (t)|| < Rc

0 if ||xi (t) xl (t)|| > Rp

where Qi is the charged magnitude of particle i

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Charged PSO (cont)
Neutral particles have a zero charged magnitude, i.e. Qi = 0

Inter-particle repulsion occurs only when the separation
between two particles is within the range [Rc , Rp ]
Rc is the core radius
Rp is the perception limit
The smaller the separation, the larger the repulsion between
the corresponding particles
The acceleration, ai (t), is determined for each particle before
the velocity update

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Binary PSO
PSO was originally developed for continuous-valued search

spaces
Binary PSO was developed for binary-valued domains
Particles represent positions in binary space
xi Bnx , xij {0, 1}
Changes in a particles position then basically implies a

mutation of bits, by flipping a bit from one value to the other

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Binary PSO
Interpretation of velocity vector:

Velocity may be described by the number of bits that change
per iteration, which is the Hamming distance between xi (t)
and xi (t + 1), denoted by H(xi (t), xi (t + 1))
If H(xi (t), xi (t + 1)) = 0, zero bits are flipped and the particle
does not move; ||vi (t)|| = 0
||vi (t)|| = nx is the maximum velocity, meaning that all bits
are flipped

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Binary PSO
Interpretation of velocity for a single dimension:

Velocity is used to calculate a probability of a bit flip:
0 1
vij (t) = sig(vij (t)) =
1 + evij (t)
Position update changes to

1 if r3j (t) < sig(vij (t + 1))
xij (t + 1) =
0 otherwise

A.M. Abdelbar and S. Abdelshahid.
Swarm Optimization with Instinct-Driven Particles.
In Proceedings of the IEEE Congress on Evolutionary
Computation, pages 777782, 2003.
M. Clerc and J. Kennedy.
The Particle Swarm-Explosion, Stability, and Convergence in a
Multidimensional Complex Space.
IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 6(1):5873,
2002.
R.C. Eberhart and J. Kennedy.
A New Optimizer using Particle Swarm Theory.
In Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on
Micromachine and Human Science, pages 3943, 1995.
102
Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
H-Y. Fan.
A Modification to Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm.
Engineering Computations, 19(7-8):970989, 2002.
F. Heppner and U. Grenander.
A Stochastic Nonlinear Model for Coordinated Bird Flocks.
In S. Krasner, editor, The Ubiquity of Chaos. AAAS
Publications, 1990.
H. Higashi and H. Iba.
Particle Swarm Optimization with Gaussian Mutation.
In Proceedings of the IEEE Swarm Intelligence Symposium,
pages 7279, 2003.
J. Kennedy and R.C. Eberhart.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Particle Swarm Optimization.

In Proceedings of the IEEE International Joint Conference on
Neural Networks, pages 19421948, 1995.
J. Kennedy and R. Mendes.
Neighborhood Topologies in Fully-Informed and
Best-of-Neighborhood Particle Swarms.
In Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Soft
Computing in Industrial Applications, pages 4550, 2003.
T. Krink and M. Lvberg.
The Life Cycle Model: Combining Particle Swarm
Optimisation, Genetic Algorithms and Hill Climbers.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
In Proceedings of the Parallel Problem Solving from Nature

Conference, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 2439,
pages 621630. Springer-Verlag, 2002.
M. Lvberg.
Improving Particle Swarm Optimization by Hybridization of
Stochastic Search Heuristics and Self-Organized Criticality.
Masters thesis, Department of Computer Science, University
of Aarhus, Denmark, 2002.
M. Lvberg, T.K. Rasmussen, and T. Krink.
Hybrid Particle Swarm Optimiser with Breeding and
Subpopulations.
In Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation
Conference, pages 469476, 2001.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
C.W. Reynolds.
Flocks, Herds, and Schools: A Distributed Behavioral Model.
Computer Graphics, 21(4):2534, 1987.
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Sizing Design of Truss Structures using Particle Swarms.
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Visualizing Particle Swarm Optimization Gaussian Particle
Swarm Optimization.
In Proceedings of the IEEE Swarm Intelligence Symposium,
pages 198204, 2003.

Introduction
Global Best PSO
Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
Y. Shi and R.C. Eberhart.

A Modified Particle Swarm Optimizer.
A. Silva, A. Neves, and E. Costa.
An Empirical Comparison of Particle Swarm and Predator Prey
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Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters

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Local Best PSO
PSO Parameters
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PSO Parameters
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Chapter 16.

Particle Swarm Optimization

Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Introduction: What are the origins of PSO?

In the work of Reynolds on boids [12]: Flocking is an

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Origins of PSO (cont)

Initial objective: to simulate the graceful, unpredictable

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Overview of basic PSO

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Overview of basic PSO

Social network structures (Figure 16.4):

(a) Star (b) Ring

Figure: Social Network Structures

Other social structures (Figure 16.4):

(a) Von Neumann (b) Pyramid

Figure: Advanced Social Network Structures

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Other social structures (cont...)

(a) Clusters (b) Wheel

Figure: Advanced Social Network Structures

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Global Best (gbest) PSO

Uses the star social network

vij (t + 1) = vij (t) + c1 r1j (t)[yij (t) xij (t)]

vij (0) = 0 (usually, but can be random)

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Global Best PSO (cont)

yi (t) is the personal best position calculated as (assuming

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Global Best PSO (cont)

y(t) is the global best position calculated as

y(t) {y0 (t), . . . , yns (t)}|f (

y(t) {x0 (t), . . . , xns (t)}|f (

gbest PSO Algorithm

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Local Best (lbest) PSO

Local Best PSO (cont...)

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Previous velocity, vi (t)

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Previous velocity, vi (t)

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Previous velocity, vi (t)

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Geometric Illustration Figure 16.1

social velocity x(t + 2)

(a) Time Step t (b) Time Step t + 1

Figure: Geometrical Illustration of Velocity and Position Updates for a

Cumulative Effect of Position Updates (Figure 16.2)

(a) Time Step t (b) Time Step t + 1

Figure: Multi-particle gbest PSO Illustration

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Terminate when a maximum number of iterations, or FEs, has

Terminate when no improvement is observed over a number of

Computational Intelligence: Second Edition Chapter 16: Particle Swarm Optimization

Stopping Conditions (cont)

Basic PSO Variations: Introduction

Main objectives of these variations are to improve