CAR PARK BARRIERS: As an illustration of the use of a PLC, consider the coin-operated barriers for a car park.

The in- barrier is to open when the correct money is

inserted in the collection box and the out-barrier is to open when a car is detected at the car park side of the barrier. Figure shows the types of value systems that can be
used to lift and lower the pivoted barriers. When a current flows through the solenoid of value A, the piston in a cylinder moves upwards and causes the barrier to rotate
about its pivot and rise to let a car through. When the current through the solenoid of value A ceases, the return spring of the value results in the value position changing
back to its original position. When the current is switched through the solenoid of valve B, the pressure is applied to lower the barrier. Limit witches are used to detect when
the barrier is down and also when fully up. With two of the systems shows in figure, one for the entrance barrier and one for the exit barrier, and the connections to PLC
inputs and outputs, the ladder program can be of the form show in figure.

CAR ENGINE MANAGMENT: IN modern car is likely to include many electronic control systems involving microcontrollers, the engine control system being one, its aim
being to ensure that the engine is operated at its optimum settings. As in block diagram the system consists of sensors supplying, after suitable signal conditioning, the
input signals to the microcontroller and its providing output signals via drivers to actuate actuators.** The engine speed sensor is an inductive sensor and consists of a coil
for which the inductance changes as the teeth of the sensor wheel pass it and so gives an oscillating voltage. The temperature sensor is usually a thermistor. The mass air
flow sensor may be a hot sensor; as air passes over a heated wire it will be cooled, the amount of cooling depending on the mass rate of flow. The oxygen sensor is
generally a closed end tube made of zirconium oxide with porous platinum electrodes on the inner and outer surfaces. Above about 300 degree Celsius the sensor becomes
permeable to oxygen ions and so gives a voltage between the electrodes.

PLC: A programmable Logic Controller is a digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement functions such a s logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes and has been specifically designed to make programming easy. The term logic is
used because the programming is primarily concerned with implementing logic and switching operations. Input devices eg, switch and output devices eg. Motors, being
controlled are connected to the PLC and then the controller monitors the input and outputs according to the program stored in the PLC by the operator and so controls the
machine or process. PLCs have the great advantage that is possible to modify a control system without having a rewire the connections to the input and output devices, the
only requirement being that an operator has to key in a different set of instructions. Also they are much faster than relay operated systems. The result is a flexible system
which can be used to control systems which vary quite widely in their nature and complexity. Such systems are widely used for the implementation of logic control function
because they are easy to use and program. PLC are similar to computers but have certain features which are specific to their use as controllers. There are: (1) They are
rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity and noise. (2) The interfacing for inputs and outputs is inside the controller. (3) They are easily
programmed.

MICROPROCESSOR: System using microprocessors basically have three parts: a central processing unit (CPU) to recognise and carry out program instructions, input and
output interfaces to handle communications between the microprocessor and the outside world (the term port is used for the interface) and memory to hold the program
instructions and data. Microprocessors which have memory and various input/ output arrangements all on the same chip are called microcontrollers.** The microprocessor
is generally referred to as the central processing unit. It is that part of the processor system which processes the data, fetching instructions fro memory, decoding them and
executing them. The general architecture of a microprocessor is

ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU): it is responsible for performing the data manipulation. REGISTER: Internal data that the CPU is currently using is temporally held in a
group of registers while instructions are being executed. These are memory locations within the microprocessor and are used to store information involved in program
execution. A microprocessor will contain a group of registers, each type of register have a different functions. CONTROL UNIT: The control unit determines the timing and
sequence of operations. It generates the timing signals used to fetch a program instruction from memory and execute it. ** There are a number of types of register, the
number, size and types of registers. Varying from one microprocessor to another. The common types of Registers are (1) Accumulator Register (A): is where data for an
input to the arithmetic and logic unit is temporarily stored. In order for the CPU to be able to access, i.e. read, instruction or data in the memory, it has to supply the address
of the required memory word using the address bus. When this has been done, the required instruction or data can be read into the CPU using the data bus. Since only one
memory location can be addressed at once, temporary storage has to be used when numbers combined. (2) STATUS REGISTER OR CONDITION CODE REGISTER OR FLAG
REGISTER: This contains information concerning the result of the latest process carried out in the arithmetic and logic unit. It contains individual bits with each bit having
special significance. The bits are called flags. The status of the latest operation is indicated by each flag with each flag being set or reset to indicate a specific status. (3)
PROGRAM COUNTER REGISTER (PC) or INSTRUCTION POINT (IP): This is the register used to allow the CPU to keep track of its position in a program. This register
contains the address of the memory location that contains the next program instruction. As each instruction is executed, the program counter register is updated so that it
contains the address of the memory location where the next instruction to be executed is stored. The program counter is incremented each time so that the CPU executes
instructions sequentially unless an instruction, such as JUMP or BRANCH, changes the program counter out of that sequence. (4) MEMORY ADDRESS REGISTER (MAR):
This contains the address or data. Thus, for example, in the summing of two numbers the memory address register is loaded with the address of the first number. The data
at the address is then moved to the accumulator. The memory address of the second number is then loaded into the memory address register. The data at this address is
then added to the data in the accumulator. The result is then stored in a memory location addressed by the memory address register. (5) INSTRUCTION REGISTER (IR): This
stores an instruction. After fetching an instruction from the memory via the data bus, the CPU stores it in the instruction register. After each such fetch, the microprocessor
increments the program counter by one with the result that the program counter points to the next instruction waited to the fetched. The instruction can then be decoded
and used to execute an operation. This sequence is known as the fetch execute cycle. (6) GENERAL PURPOSE CYCLE: These may serve as temporary storage for data or
addresses and be used in operations involving transfers between other registers. (7) STACK POINTER REGISTER (SP): The contents of this register form an address which
defines the top of the stack in RAM. The stack is a special area of the memory in which program counter values can be stored when a subroutine part of a program is being
used.** The number and form of the registers depends on the microprocessor concerned. MEMORY: The memory unit in a microprocessor system stores binary data and
takes the form of one or more integrated circuits. The data may be program instruction codes or numbers being operated on. The size of the memory is determined by the
number of wires in the address bus. The memory is defined by the number of wires in the address bus. The size of a memory unit is specified in terms of the number of
storage locations available; 1K is 2 10 = 1024 locations and thus a 4K memory has 4096 locations. There are a number of forms of memory unit: (1) ROM: For data that is
stored permanently a memory device called a read-only-memory (ROM) is used. ROMs are programmed with the required contents during the manufacture of the integrated
circuit. No data can then be written into this memory while the memory chip is in the computer. The data can only be read and is used for fixed programs such as computer
operating systems and programs for dedicated microprocessor application. They do not remove their memory when power is removed. (2) PROM: The term programmable
ROM is used for ROM chips that can be programmed by the user. Initially every memory cell has a fusible link which keeps its memory at 0. The 0 is permanently changed to
1 by sending a current through the fuse to open it permanently. Once the fusible link has been opened the data is permanently stored in the memory and cannot be further
changed.
MICROCONTROLLER: For a microprocessor to give a system which can be used for control, additional chips are necessary, e.g. memory devices for program and data
storage and input/output ports to allow it to communicate with the external world and receive signals from it. This microcontroller is the integration of a microprocessor
with memory and input/output interface, and other peripherals such as timers, on a single chip. The general microcontroller has pins for external connections of inputs and
outputs, power, clock and control signals. The pins for the inputs and outputs are grouped into units called input / output ports. Usually such ports have eight lines in order
to be able to transfer an 8 bit word of data. Two ports may be used for a 16-bit word, one to transmit the lower 8 bit and the other the upper 8 bits. The ports can be input
only, output only or programmable to be either input or output.
SELECTING A MICROCONTROLLER: In selecting a microcontroller the following factors need to be considered. (1) NUMBER OF INPUT / OUT PUT PINS: How many input /
output pins are going to be needed for the task concerned. (2) INTERFACED REQUIRED: What interfaces are going to be required? For example, is PWM required? Many
microcontrollers have PWM outputs, e.g. the PIC17C42 has two. (3) MEMORY REQUIREMENTS: What size memory is required for the task? (4) THE NUMBER OF
INTERRUPTS REQUIRED: How many events will need interrupts? (5) PROCESSING SPEED REQUIRED: The microprocessor takes time to execute instructions this time
being determined by the processor clock.
MECHANICAL SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS: The models used to represent mechanical systems have the basic building blocks of springs, dashpots and masses. Springs
represent the stiffness of a system, dashpots the forces opposing motion, i.e. frictional or damping effects and mass the inertia or resistence to acceleration. The
mechanical system does not have to be really made up of springs, dashpots and masses but have the properties of stiffness, damping and inertia. All these building blocks
can be considered to have a force as an input and a displacement as an output.

BUILDING UP A MECHANICAL SYSTEM: Many systems can be considered to be essentially a mass, a spring and dash pot combined in the way and having an input of a
force F and an output of displacement x. To evaluate the relationship between the force and displacement for the system, the procedure to be adopted is to to consider just
one mass, and just the forces acting on that body. A diagram of the mass and just the forces acting on it is called a free body diagram. ** When several forces act
concurrently on a body, their single equivalent resultant can be found by vector addition. If the forces are all acting along the same line or parallel lines, this means that the
resultant or net force acting on the block is the algebraic sum. Thus for the mass in fig. C, if we consider just the forces acting on the block then the net force applied to the
mass is the applied force F minus the force resulting from the stretching or compression of the spring and minus the force from the damper. Thus net force applied to mass,
m = F kx cv, where v is the velocity with which the piston in the dashpot, and hence the mass, is moving. This net force is the force applied to the mass to cause it to
accelerate. Thus net force applied to mass = ma. ** Hence F kx c (dx/dt) + kx = F. This equation, called a differential equation, describes the relationship between the
input of force F to the system and the Output of displacement x. Because