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Electrical Conduction
R
Ohms law V = IR I
l
Area, A V
Ef
Conduction in Metals
Filled states
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors like Si and Ge have relatively narrow band
gap generally below 2 eV.
Therefore, it is possible to excite electrons from the valence to
the conduction band. This is called intrinsic semi conductivity.
Every electron that is excited to the conduction band leaves
behind a hole in the valence band.
An electron can move in to a hole under an electrical potential
and thus holes are also charge carriers.
Conduction band
Band gap
Hole
Valence band
Intrinsic conductivity
Electrical conductivity of a conductor primarily depends on two
parameters charge carrier concentration, n, and carrier
mobility, . Conductivity, = n e
e is absolute charge (1.6 x 10-19 C).
Intrinsic semiconductors have two types charge carriers,
namely electrons and holes
=n e e+p e h
where, n and p are concentration of electron and hole charge
carriers respectively and e and h are their mobility.
Since each electron excited to conduction band leaves behind
a hole in the valence band, n = p = ni and
= n e ( e + h) = p e ( e + h) = ni e ( e + h)
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The conductivity is enhanced by adding impurity atoms
(dopant) in extrinsic semi conductors . All semi conductors for
practical purposes are extrinsic.
A higher valence dopant e.g. P (5+) in Si (4+) creates an extra
electron (n-type) while a lower valence dopant like B (3+) creates
a hole (p-type) as shown in the atomic bonding model below.
This increases the charge carrier concentration and hence the
enhancement in conductivity.
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Free Hole
electron
Si P Si Si Si B Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
n-type p-type
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The band theory model of n-type and p-type extrinsic
semiconductors are shown below.
In n-type, for each impurity atom one energy state (known as
Donor state) is introduced in the band gap just below the
conduction band.
In p-type, for each impurity atom one energy state (known as
acceptor state) is introduced in the band gap just above the
valence band.
Conduction band
Donor
state Band gap Acceptor
state
Valence band
n-type p-type
Extrinsic conductivity
Large number of electrons can be excited from the donor state
by thermal energy in n-type extrinsic semiconductors.
Hence, number of electrons in the conduction band is far
greater than number of holes in the valence band, i.e. n >> p
and
=n e e
In p-type conductors, on the other hand, number of holes is
much greater than electrons (p >> n) due to the presence of the
acceptor states.
=p e h
Effect of Temperature
Metals
Increasing temperature causes greater electron scattering due
to increased thermal vibrations of atoms and hence, resistivity,
, (reciprocal of conductivity) of metals increases (conductivity
decreases) linearly with temperature.
Effect of Temperature
Metals contd
The resistivity of metals depends on two other factors namely,
impurity level and plastic deformation as these generate
scattering centers for electrons.
Increase in impurity level results in more scattering centers
and decreases the conductivity.
Similarly plastic deformation introduces more dislocations
which act as scattering centers and increase the resistivity.
total = t + i + d
Effect of Temperature
Intrinsic Semiconductors
In intrinsic semiconductors the carrier concentration increases
with temperature as more and more electrons are excited due to
the thermal energy.
Effect of Temperature
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Temperature dependence of extrinsic semiconductors, on the
other hand is totally different.
For example, an n-type conductor exhibits three regions in the
temperature vs. carrier concentration curve.
Effect of Temperature
Extrinsic Semiconductors contd..
In the low temperature region known as Freeze-out region,
the charge carriers cannot be excited from the donor level to
conduction band due to insufficient thermal energy.
In the intermediate temperature range ( 150 450 K) almost
all the donor atoms are ionized and electron concentration is
approximately equal to donor content. This region is known as
Extrinsic region.
In the high temperature region sufficient thermal energy is
available for electrons to get excited from the valence to the
conduction band and hence it behaves like an intrinsic semi
conductor.
Electrical properties of some metals at RT