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Contents

CHAPTER I ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Location Area ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Location and accessibility .................................................................................................................... 5
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Relevancy of the Camp ........................................................................................................................ 7
Limitations............................................................................................................................................ 7
Organization of the Report ................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Literature Review ................................................................................................................................. 7
Methodology ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Results and Discussions ....................................................................................................................... 7
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER II ........................................................................................................................................ 8
TRAVERSING:.................................................................................................................................... 8
CLOSED TRAVERSE: ........................................................................................................................ 8
OPEN TRAVERSE: ............................................................................................................................. 8
BALANCING THE TRAVERSE: ....................................................................................................... 9
ADJUSTMENT OF ANGULAR ERROR AND BEARING: ............................................................. 9
DISCREPANCY AND LINEAR MISCLOSURE: ............................................................................ 10
TOTAL STATION: ............................................................................................................................ 10
SETUP:................................................................................................................................................. 6
POWER AND PREPARATION: ......................................................................................................... 6
ANGLE MEASUREMENT: ................................................................................................................ 7
DISTANCE AND ANGLE MEASUREMENT: .................................................................................. 8
CO-ORDINATE MEASUREMENT: .................................................................................................. 8
MEASURING THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS:........................................................... 9
DISTANCE SETTING-OUT MEASUREMENT:............................................................................... 9
CO-ORDINATES SETTING-OUT MEASUREMENT: ..................................................................... 9
LEVELING .......................................................................................................................................... 9
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING: .......................................................................................................... 10
PROFILE LEVELING: ...................................................................................................................... 10
CROSSSECTIONING: ...................................................................................................................... 10
RECIPROCAL LEVELING: ............................................................................................................. 11
Temporary adjustment of level ........................................................................................................... 11
PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVEL: ................................................................................. 11
TACHEOMETRY: ............................................................................................................................. 13
CONTOURING.................................................................................................................................. 13
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING ........................................................................................................ 14
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BRIDGE SITE SURVEY ................................................................................................................... 14
Triangulation ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Principle of triangulation: ................................................................................................................... 15
2.5. ROAD SITE SURVEY ............................................................................................................... 15
2.5.1 Elements of a horizontal curve .................................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER III ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Topographic Surveying ...................................................................................................................... 17
Reconnaissance .................................................................................................................................. 17
Major and minor traverse ................................................................................................................... 17
Leveling .............................................................................................................................................. 18
Detailing ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Computation ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Plotting of major & minor traverse: ................................................................................................... 20
Road Site Survey ................................................................................................................................ 20
Horizontal alignment .......................................................................................................................... 20
Vertical alignment .............................................................................................................................. 20
Leveling .............................................................................................................................................. 20
Longitudinal section ........................................................................................................................... 21
Crosssection...................................................................................................................................... 21
Topographic survey of road alignment............................................................................................... 21
Bridge Site Surveying ........................................................................................................................ 21
Site Selection ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Topographic Survey ........................................................................................................................... 22
Longitudinal Section ......................................................................................................................... 22
Cross-sectioning ................................................................................................................................. 22
Levelling............................................................................................................................................. 22
Reciprocal leveling: ............................................................................................................................ 22
Detailing ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Hydrological survey ........................................................................................................................... 23
Computation and plotting ................................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER IV..................................................................................................................................... 25
Topographic Surveying ...................................................................................................................... 25
Road Site Surveying ........................................................................................................................... 25
Bridge Site Surveying ........................................................................................................................ 25
CHAPTER V ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Recommendation ................................................................................................................................ 26
References .......................................................................................................................................... 27

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References

Appendix A Traversing

Appendix B Road Survey

Appendix C Bridge Survey

Appendix D Maps and Graphs

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADB Agricultural Development Bank


CTI Central Training Institute
IOE Institute of Engineering
WCB Whole Circle Bearing
NRS Nepal Road Standard
IP Intersection Point
BC Beginning of Curve
MC Mid of Curve
EC End of Curve
RL Reduced Level
TBM Temporary Benchmark
HI Height of Instrument
C Contour
T Tree
P Pole
GL Ground Level

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background
The survey camp helps the students in the surveying practices and provides the
idea about the real application of survey works in the actual field.
Location Area

The area where surveying was performed is situated at Scout International


Training Centre (ITC), Nuwakot. The major traverse was run throughout the
area. Our objective was to prepare the topographic map of given small area,
which is the part of Scout ITC. So we were assign to prepare the topographic
map of area including Dormitory, Office, etc. and including all artificial and
natural that may come in general survey work.

The minor traverse was run within the major traverse through the (two, 2) plot of
the given map, which covers the buildings with several supporting buildings of.

The main buildings are:

Dormitory
Reception
Cottage

Beside this there were wind velocity, garden, fences, trees, road etc.

Location and accessibility


The detail of the area
is:
Country:
Nepal
Zone:
Bagmati
District:
Nuwakot
Location:
Scout ITC, Nuwakot
Total area:
The area was very much accessible. There was no obstruction in accessing the site
for different surveys.

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Objectives
These are main objectives of the study:
To prepare the topographic map of the given area with horizontal control and
vertical control with required accuracy.
To gain the knowledge on selection and planning of possible bridge site and axis
for the future construction of the bridge.
To fix the alignment of road and determine the topography.
To be familiarized with the modern surveying instruments such as total stations
and theodolite.

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Relevancy of the Camp
The main significance of the survey camp is the partial fulfillment of the bachelor's
degree in civil engineering. Apart from the academic purpose it is also helpful in the
application of the theoretical knowledge about surveying in the real field. Surveying is
one of the major field works to be done by civil engineers before the actual
commencement of any project hence the survey camp helps to apply various
surveying techniques used for these tasks. It is also helpful to work in group with co-
ordination.
Limitations
The limitations are:
The instruments used for the survey work were different for different days.
The consistency of the surveyor.
Weather.
Temperature.

Organization of the Report


This report comprises of five chapters as below;
Introduction
This chapter describes about the survey camp area. It mainly focuses on the short
background of the survey site for topographical survey, bridge survey and road
survey. It also includes the objectives of the survey camp, its relevancy and
limitations.
Literature Review
This chapter focuses on short literature background, relevant to various field work
carried out during the survey camp.
Methodology
This chapter focuses on the various methods used in the field to successfully carry out
the tasks.
Results and Discussions
This chapter focuses on the results obtained from the field work of the survey camp.
Conclusion
This chapter provides the conclusion obtained from the field work and also provides
recommendation for future reference.

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CHAPTER II
LITERATURERE VIEW
SURVEYING
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of distinctive features
on the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of the earth, by means of
measurements of distances, directions and elevations.
The major principles of surveying are:
Working from whole to part
Redundancy in measurement
Consistency of work
Independent check
Accuracy required

TRAVERSING:
Traversing is a type of surveying connecting number of survey lines forming
the framework. It is also a method of control surveying. The survey consists of the
measurement of
Angles between successive lines or bearings of each line.
The length of each line.
The directions and the lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an
angle-measuring instrument such as theodolite and a tape. If the co-ordinates of the
first station and the bearing of the first line are known, the co-ordinates of all
successive points can be computed as follows:
XB = XA + L Sin
YB = YA + L Cos
Where, L=Length of traverse leg
=Bearing of line AB in WCB
XA= Easting of A.
XB= Easting of B.
YA= Northing of A.
YB= Northing of B.

There are two types of traverse. They are as follows:

CLOSED TRAVERSE:
If the figure formed by the lines closes at a station i.e. if they form a polygon or it
starts and finishes at the points of known co-ordinates then the traverse is called
closed traverse.

OPEN TRAVERSE:
If a traverse starts and finishes at points other than the starting point or point of known
co-ordinates, then the traverse is called open traverse.

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(i) Closed Loop Traverse (ii) Closed (Linked) Traverse (iii) Open Traverse
Fig 1: Types of Traverses

BALANCING THE TRAVERSE:


During the computation of the traverse, we need to balance the traverse because of the
different errors in the field measurement. There are different methods of adjusting a
traverse such as:
Bowditch method
Transit method
Graphical method
Axis method

The basis of these methods is on the assumptions that the errors in linear
measurements are proportional to L and that the errors in angular measurements are
inversely proportional to L where L is the length of a traverse leg. The Bowditchs
Rule is commonly used to balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements
are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and in the departure is distributed in
proportion to the lengths of sides. The Bowditch rule gives the correction as,
Correction to lat or dep= Total error in lat or dep * length of that leg
Perimeter of the traverse
i.e. correction in lat/dep = (L or D)*L/P
Where,
Lat = latitude
Dep=departure
L= length of line.
P= perimeter of traverse.

ADJUSTMENT OF ANGULAR ERROR AND BEARING:


The error (e) in a link traverse due to bearing may be determined by comparing the
two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse. If the
closed traverse, has N number of sides then,
Correction in bearing for the first line = e/N
Correction in bearing for the second line = 2*(e/N)
And similarly, correction for bearing for the last line = N*(e/N) = e

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In a closed traverse, Theoretical sum of the interior angles should be equal to (2n-
4)*90 where n is the number of traverse stations. If the angles are measured with the
same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles may be distributed equally
among each angle of the traverse.

DISCREPANCY AND LINEAR MISCLOSURE:


In order to measure the lengths of the sides of the traverse, two ways distance
measurement (forward and backward) is done. The difference in values obtained by
forward and backward distance measurements is called discrepancy. The reciprocal of
mean of the two measurements divided by the discrepancy is called precision. Both
the discrepancy and the precision for each traverse leg should be within the given
limits.
Mathematically,
Discrepancy = Forward length - Backward length |
&, Linear precision = 1 / (Mean length / Discrepancy)

TOTAL STATION:

INTRODUCTION:
A total station is an optical instrument used a lot in modern surveying and
archaeology and, in a minor way, as well as by police, crime scene investigators,
private accident Reconstructionist and insurance companies to take measurements of
scenes. It is a combination of an electronic theodolite (transit), an electronic distance
meter (EDM) and software running on an external computer known as a data collector
With a total station one may determine angles and distances from the instrument to
points to be surveyed. With the aid of trigonometry and triangulation, the angles and
distances may be used to calculate the coordinates of actual positions (X, Y, and Z or
northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points, or the position of the instrument
from known points, in absolute terms.
Some total stations also have a GPS interface which combines these two technologies
to make use of the advantages of both (GPS - line of sight not required between
measured points; Traditional Total Station - high precision measurement especially in
the vertical axis compared with GPS) and reduce the consequences of each
technology's disadvantages (GPS - poor accuracy in the vertical axis and lower
accuracy without long occupation periods; Total Station - requires line of sight
observations and must be set up over a known point or within line of sight of 2 or
more known points). Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means
of electro-optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating
glass cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best quality total stations are
capable of measuring angles down to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive "construction
grade" total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10arc-seconds.
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared
carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's optical
path, and bounced off of the object to be measured. The modulation pattern in the
returning signal is read and interpreted by the onboard computer in the total station.
The distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and
determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most
total stations use a purpose-built glass Porro prism as the reflector for the EDM
signal, and can measure distances out to a few kilometers, but some instruments are
"reflectorless",andcanmeasuredistancestoanyobjectthatisreasonablylightin

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0
color, out to a few hundred meters. The typical Total Station EDM can measure
distances accurate to about 3 millimeters or 1/100th of a foot.
Some modern total stations are 'robotic' allowing the operator to control the
instrument from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an
assistant staff member to hold the reflector prism over the point to be measured. The
operator holds the reflector him/herself and controls the total station instrument from
the observed point.

D
Target
Total
Station
Fig2: Working Principle of Total Station

The basic principle of Total Station is that the distance between any two points can be
known once the time light takes to travel the distance and back and the velocity of
light is known. Then the following relation, which is already programmed in the
memory of the instrument along with other correction factors, calculates the required
horizontal distance and is displayed on the LCD screen.

SETUP:
1. Place tripod approximately over a known point locking legs at a convenient height
so machine will be at or lower than eye level and the legs are at equal distances
from each other. Eyeball the head of the tripod so it is as close to level as possible.
Be sure the legs of the tripod are firmly planted into the ground.
For smooth surfaces (such as concrete, asphalt, or tile), use folding metal tripod
footing to secure the legs.
2. Remove instrument carefully from casing with both hands. Place on top (supporting
with top handle) of tripod and tighten centering screw below platform into
instrument, aligning the three corners of machine and platform. Use sight tangent
screw on back side of LCD display to center the instrument over the exact known
point to be surveyed.

POWER AND PREPARATION:


a. Attach one of the batteries to the side of instrument with the clamp side up. Press
any one of the five buttons below the display to turn on machine. It shall beep and
the display should indicate the instrument is not level and must be leveled and
indexed (precisely level internal components).
To switch power off, hold ESC button and press indicated button that corresponds
to OFF on the display.
If the battery is at a low level, the following will be displayed, Battery is low!-
switch batteries and charge the drained one using provided jack.
Prior to storing the instrument for its next use, check the status of both provided
batteries. If either is only ENTIRELY drained, charge overnight using given
equipment.

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b. Locate the horizontal level bubble above the LCD display. Rotate instrument by
loosening the horizontal clamp and align the display with any two of the leveling
screws. Tighten or loosen the left screw so bubble is in center. Rotate instrument
clockwise to the next two screws and again use the left one to center bubble. Rotate
to the final two pair of screws and center bubble. Check stationary leveling bubble
to see if it is center. If not, repeat previous leveling process.
If the error message Tilt out of range is displayed, it is indicating the instrument is
off-level. Re-level the instrument.
c. To index the vertical circles, loosen the vertical clamp, and manually rotate the
telescope either way twice. The beep should be heard and the zenith angle (ZA
vertical angle) will appear on the LCD display.
d. Loosen the horizontal clamp and rotate the instrument clockwise twice to index the
horizontal circles. The beep is heard again and the horizontal angle (HAR) is
displayed.
Vertical and horizontal indexing has now been completed.
e. Note the menus displayed. Each option shown on the home page (reached by
pressing ESC) opens a section which contains several (up to 3) pages. To scroll
through these pages to reach other options, press button left of the yellow ESC
button that readsPX.
f. Set the target and instrument height by pressing Ht. in S-O mode. Measure the target
height by reading the measurement on the reflector pole at the clamp (set at any
arbitrary height suitable for job). Measure the instrument height by taping the
distance from the black point on side of instrument (level with center of telescope)
to the known point on ground.
Be sure to note the units used (currently default set at feet and decimal
fractions of feet; see manual to change to metric units) and height of
instrument and target in the field book.
When using two reflecting poles, be sure to set each at same height

ANGLE MEASUREMENT:
1. Sight the first point (focus with eye piece and align center hairs with center of
reflector) using the horizontal clamp and the fine motion screw. Set the angle to zero
by pressing 0SET in THEO mode. Sight the second target and read the HAR on the
display.
If you wish to read the angle by rotating the instrument to the left, press R/L in
THEO mode (display will read HAL or HAR for left or right respectively).
2. For higher accuracy, the average of a number of readings can be taken using
repetition. Sight the first target and press REP in THEO mode. Press BS (back sight)
then sight the second target. Press FS (fore sight) and the angle between the two will
be displayed. Sight the first target again, presses BS, and site the second target again
and press FS. The average of the two readings will be displayed. Repeat up to 10
times for higher accuracy.
3. The slope of the line being shot can be displayed as a percentage by pressing ZA% in
THEO mode. This is read as VA and gives the percentage grade of the line. Press it
again to return to the Z A reading.
VA% will be displayed when the parameter is set to Horizontal 0 instead of
Zenith 0 but performs the same function.

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Fig3: TOTAL STATION

DISTANCE AND ANGLE MEASUREMENT:


This is the most useful and suggested method. The working procedure is described as
follow:
1. Sight target and select for slope, horizontal, or height (SHV) measurement. Press
Sdist to start the measurement and STOP to end. The distance, vertical, and
horizontal angle are displayed. Press SHV to view the other measurements
(Horizontal distance or Height difference).
2. To measure the horizontal distance several times and display the average, sight the
target and press Hdist in THEO mode. Three measurements are taken and the
average (H-A) is displayed after a few seconds.
The most recently taken data can be recalled and displayed by pressing RCL in the
EDM mode.

CO-ORDINATE MEASUREMENT:
This is not much more useful. So co-ordinate measurement is not suggested for use.
1. In order to begin the coordinate measure, set the initial coordinates of the station.
This is done by pressing the S-O button at the main menu. Then press the Stn-P
button on the second page of the S-O menu. Choose the Input button, then set the
initial coordinates and press ENTER.

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2. Sight the target and press COORD in S-O mode, then press STOP to end the
measurement. The coordinates of the target are given with respect to the initial
starting position (0, 0, 0) and designated direction to be north.

MEASURING THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS:


1. Sight the first position and press either S distance, H distance, or V dist in EDM
mode to start the measurement. Stop the measurement by pressing the STOP and
sight the next point. Press MLM on the same page to start the measurement, the
press STOP to stop the measurement. The slope, horizontal, and height difference
between the two points is displayed. This can be repeated as many times as
necessary.
2. The slope may be read as a percentage by pressing S% in the same mode after the
missing line measurement has finished. This displays the percent grade between the
two points.

DISTANCE SETTING-OUT MEASUREMENT:


1. To find the direction and distance of a point set out a wanted distance from the
instrument station, sight the reference direction and press 0SET in THEO mode to
set the HAR at 0. Turn theodolite until the required angle is displayed and locks the
horizontal movement.
2. Press ESC to go to basic mode and go to S-O mode. Go to S-O_D for the data and
input the desired distance to set out. Set the reflecting prism in the sighting line and
press SO_Hd to start the distance measurement. The difference between the desired
distance and the measured distance is displayed on the 1st line.
3. Move the reflecting prism towards or away from the Instrument until H distance
becomes 0m to determine the point at the desired distance.
If there is negative (-) data: Move prism away from Instr.
If positive (+) data: Move prism towards Instr.
Press STOP to end the measurement.

CO-ORDINATES SETTING-OUT MEASUREMENT:


a. Set the station coordinates and initial azimuth angle. Press S-O_P in S-O mode
and input the desired coordinates for N and E and press YES to store the data.
Press SO_HA in S-O mode to start the angle measurement. The setting-out
horizontal angle, dHA is displayed. Use the horizontal clamp and fine motion
screw to turn theodolite until dHA reads 0 00 00 and lock the clamp.
b. Sight the reflecting prism on the sighting line and press SO_HD and move
reflecting prism until H reads 0m as in part 3 of the distance setting-out
measurement.

LEVELING
Leveling is the branch of surveying. Leveling is the art of determining the relative
heights of different points on or below the surface of the earth. The purpose of which
are as below:
To find the elevation of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum.
To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respects to a
given or assumed datum.

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To prepare a longitudinal and cross section of a project in order to determine the
volume of earthwork.

Following are some special methods of direct (spirit) leveling:

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING:
It is the method of direct leveling whose objective is solely to determine the
difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect of each other. This type of leveling is also known as fly leveling.

- - - - - - - - - - - - --

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --

Fig4: Differential Leveling

PROFILE LEVELING:
It is the method of direct leveling the objective of which is to determine the elevations
of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the
surface along that line.

B
L L D
cp

cp L
A C

L= position of level
Cp= change point
Fig5: Profile Leveling

CROSSSECTIONING:
Cross-sectioning or cross leveling is the process of taking levels on each side of main
line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the
surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both.

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L
L

c/s-3 c/s-2

c/s- 1
c/s-4
Fig6 : Cross section leveling

RECIPROCAL LEVELING:
It is the method of leveling in which the difference in elevation between two points is
accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible to
set up the level between the two points.

Temporary adjustment of level


The temporary adjustment for a level consists of the following:

Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the
stand and leveling the instrument approximately.

Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with
reference to the plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly
vertical and horizontal line of sight truly horizontal.
Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective
is not in the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eyepiece
for distinct vision of the cross hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the image
of the object in the plane of crosshairs.

PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF LEVEL:


To check for the permanent adjustments of level
two-peg test method should be performed. Two
staffs were placed at A and B of known length
(about 60 m). First the instrument was setup on
the line near B and both staff readings (Top,
Middle, and Bottom) were taken.
Then, the instrument was setup at the middle C
on the line and again both staff readings on A and
B was taken. Then computation was done in
order to check whether the adjustment was within
the required accuracy or not. The error obtained
was within the given Permissible error. So, the
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permanent adjustment was not required. Fig7.Two pegTest

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TACHEOMETRY:
The objective of the tachometric survey is the preparation of the topographic map or
plan with both horizontal and vertical controls. For the survey of high accuracy, it
provides a check on the distances measured by tape.
The formula for the horizontal distance, for the tachometer with the additive constant
0.00 and multiplying constant 100.00 is,
H= K S Cos2+C*Cos
The formula for the vertical distance is,
V = (K S Sin2)/2 = H Tan
Where, S = staff intercept =Top Reading Bottom Reading
K = Multiplying Constant (Generally = 100)
= Vertical angle on Theodolite.
Thus knowing the V value, reduced level (R. L.) of instrument station, Height of
instrument (H. I.) and central wire reading (R) the R. L. of any point under
observation can be calculatedas:
R. L. of Point = R. L. of Instrument Station + H. I. + V- R

CONTOURING
A contour is an imaginary line, which passes through the points of equal elevation. It
is a line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface. The
horizontal distance between two consecutive contour lines is called horizontal
equivalent. The difference in elevation between successive contour lines is called
contour interval. Index contour is the contour lines with the values equal to the fifth
multiple of the contour interval. Index contour lines must be darkened. While drawing
the contour lines, the characteristics of the contours should be approached.
The characteristics are as follows:
Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in the case of
an overhanging cliff.
Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the
case of a vertical cliff.
Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a gentle
slope.
Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are parallel,
equidistant and straight, these represent an inclined plane surface.
Contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope at the point.
A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the
map itself.
A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring
contours with lower values inside depict a pond or a depression without anoutlet.
When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes across
them. Contours represent a ridgeline, if the concavity of higher value contour lies
towards the next lower value contour and on the other hand these represent a
valley if the concavity of the lower value contour, lies toward the higher value
contours.
The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley.
Contours do not have sharp turnings.

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TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Topographical surveying is the process of determining the positions of natural and
artificial features of the locality by means of conventional signs up on a topographical
map. Topographical surveys are three-dimensional; they provide the techniques of
plane surveying and other special techniques to establish both horizontal and vertical
control.
Hence the fieldwork in a topographical surveying consists of three parts.
It establishes both horizontal and vertical control.
It locates the contours.
It also locates the details such as rivers, streams, lakes, roads, houses, and trees
etc.

The technical specification includes all the requirements that should be fulfilled
during the survey work:
In the selection of the traverse station, the ratio of maximum traverse leg to
minimum traverse leg less than 2:1 for major traverse and less than 3:1 for minor
traverse should be maintained.
The traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions is measured by means of a
tape calibrated against the standard length provided in the field with the
discrepancy between forward and backward measurements better than1:2000.
Traverse angle are measured on two sets of reading by Theodolite. The difference
between the face left and face right observations should not be more than 180
2* L.C.
The R.L. of traverse stations is determined by fly leveling from the given TBM.
Two-peg test should be performed before the start of fly leveling. The collimation
error should be less than 1:10000. Equal foresight and back sight distances should
be maintained to eliminate collimation error. The permissible error for fly leveling
is (25K) mm, where K is the loop distance in km.
The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles of the traverse should
be less than 1(n) minute for Major Traverse and 1.5(n )minutes for Minor
Traverse (n = no of traverse station). For major and minor traverse the relative
closing error should be less than 1: 2000 and 1: 1000respectively.
The detail survey of the given area is done by tacheometric method with reference
to the major and minor traverse stations. Conventional symbols should be used for
plotting.

BRIDGE SITE SURVEY


The preliminary survey for the construction of bridge over a river is known as bridge
site survey. Before the construction of a bridge all details of the site is required for
designing the bridge. The purpose of the bridge site survey was not only to prepare
plan and layout of the bridge site but also from the engineering point of view, the
purpose is to collect the preliminary data about the site such as normal water flow
level, high flood level, geological features of the ground for planning and designing of
the bridge from the details taken during the surveying. Moreover bridge construction
is an important aspect in the development of transportation network. Surveying is
required for topographical mapping, knowledge of longitudinal sections of the river
and cross sections at both the upstream and in downstream side of the river for the
construction of abridge.

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Triangulation
It is the process of measuring the angles of a chain or network of triangles formed by
stations marked on the surface of the earth. It is used for fixing the centerline and
abutment of long bridges over large rivers and transferring the control points across
the river.
Principle of triangulation:
If all the three angles and the length of one side of a triangle are known, then by
trigonometry the length of the remaining sides of the triangle can be calculated. The
side of first triangle, whose length is pre-determined, is called the base line and the
vertices of the individual triangles are known as triangulation stations.

Triangulation station
Triangulation line

Fig8: .Bridge Triangulation

2.5. ROAD SITE SURVEY

Roads are prepared ways between different places for the use of vehicles, peoples and
animals. In countries like Nepal, where there are less chances of airways and almost
negligible chances of waterway, road from major means of the transportation system.
Therefore it would not be an exaggeration in saying that the roads have an utmost
importance. Road alignment is an important aspect in the development of
transportation network of the country. Road alignment and bridge site survey goes
side by side to run a road between two terminals and to carry a survey for a bridge
construction along the route. This specific job is essential for an engineer combating
with the mountainous topography of Nepal. The alignment of roads requires some
changes in direction due to terrain or other unavoidable features. Such changes in
directions cannot be at sharp corners but have to be gradual which necessitates the
introduction of curves in between the straights.

2.5.1 Elements of a horizontal curve

Back tangent: The tangent T1I at T1, the point of commencement of the curve is
called back tangent. Forward tangent: The tangent IT2 at T2, the end point of the
curve is called forward tangent.
Point of intersection: The point I where back tangent when produced forward and
the forward tangent produced backward meet, is called point of intersection.
Angle of intersection: The angle between the back tangent IT1 and the forward
tangent IT2 is called angle of intersection.
Angleofdeflection:Theanglethroughwhichforwardtangentdeflectsiscalled
angle of deflection of the curve(). It may be either to the right or to the left.

15
Fig. 9: Elements of a circular curve

Point of commencement: The point T1 where the curve originates from the back
tangent is called point of commencement of the curve.
Point of tangency: The point T2 where the curve joins the forward tangent is called
point of tangency
Tangent distance: The distance between point of intersection and point of
commencement of the curve or the distance between point of intersection and
point of tangency are called tangent distances.
Length of the curve: The total length of the curve from the point of
commencement to the point of tangency is called length of the curve.
Long chord: The chord joining the point of commencement and the point of
tangency is called long chord.
Mid-ordinate: The ordinate joining the midpoint of the curve and long chord is
called mid-ordinate.
Normal chord: A chord between two successive regular pegs on the curve is called
normal chord.
Sub chord: When a chord is shorter than a normal chord, it is called sub chord.
1. If the angle of intersection is given, then

= 180-I (I= angle of intersection)

R=1719/D (D= degree of curve)


IT1=IT2=R tan(/2)

L= m

Length of chord=2R sin(/2) m


Apex distance= R(sec(/2)-1) m

Chainage of first tangent point= chainage of IP-tangent length


Chainage of second tangent point=chainage of first IP+ curve length
Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC+ L/2

16
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The survey camp was completed within a period of 12 days.
Topographic Surveying
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying. They are as
follows:
1. Working from whole to apart
2. Independent check
3. Consistency of work
4. Location of a point from at least two points
5. Redundancy in measurement
The different methodologies were used in surveying to solve the problems that arise
in the field. These methodologies are as follows:

Reconnaissance

Recce means the exploration or scouting of an area. In survey, it involves walking


around the survey area and roughly planning the number of stations and the position
of the traverse stations. Recce is primarily done to get an overall idea of the site. This
helps to make the necessary observations regarding the total area, type of land,
topography, vegetation, climate, geology and intervisibility conditions that help in
detailed planning. The following points have to be taken into consideration for fixing
traverse stations:
The adjacent stations should be clearly intervisible.
The whole area should include the least number of stations possible.
The traverse station should maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to
minimum traverse leg less than 2:1 for Major Traverse and 3:1 for Minor
Traverse.
The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid the
refraction. The stations should provide minimum level surface required for setting
up the instrument.
The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid the
refraction
Thinking the above given points into consideration, the traverse stations were
fixed. Then two way taping was done for each traverse leg. Thus, permanent
fixing of the control points completes recce.

Major and minor traverse


The skeleton of lines joining those control points, which covers the whole entire area,
is called Major Traverse. Work on Major traverse must be precise. So two-set of
reading should be taken for Major Traverse. For convenience, the readings are taken
by setting the theodolite at 00000 for one set and 900000 for the second.
In the Survey Camp, two traverses - major and minor had to be established. The major
traverse had 32 control stations including two given control points. The control
stations were named as EM1, EM2 and so on along with CP1 and CP2 (the two given
control points) .The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was
maintained within 2:1. The discrepancy in length between the forward measurements

17
and the backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:2000. Two sets
of theodolite readings were taken for measuring the horizontal traverse angles. The
difference between the mean angles of two sets of readings was within a minute for
all the angles.
It is not sufficient to detail the area by enclosing with the help of major traverse.
Minor traverse is that one which runs through the area to make detailing easy. Minor
traverse covers only small area. Less precise work than that of major traverse is
acceptable so that single set reading is sufficient minor traverse. There were 1 minor
traverse in which there were 2 control stations in one and 3 in the other and named as
em1,em2 and so on. The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg
was maintained within 3:1. The discrepancy in length between the forward
measurements and the backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within
1:1000.
In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be equal to
(2n-4)*90 where n is the number of traverse stations. If the angles are measured with
the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles may be distributed
equally among each angle of the traverse.
The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by comparing the
two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse. If the
closed traverse, has N number of sides then,
Correction for the first line=
Correction for the second line=
And similarly, correction for the last line = e

Leveling
The two peg test was done before the leveling for determining the precision for the
collimation error of auto level. The method of fly leveling was adopted for RL
transfer. The R.L. of given TBM 1 point was found by transferring the level from
known TBM 2 compound by the process of fly leveling. In this method leveling
instrument was used and the level was transferred directly by taking BS and FS at
every turning point.
The collimation error of the instrument is checked before leveling as bellow.

Detailing
The method of tacheometry was used for the detailing process. The detailing task was
completed with the help of theodolite and total stations.

Computation
For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method (latitude
and departure method). In this method, two terms latitude and departure are used for
calculation. Latitude of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate lengths
measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction. The latitude (L) of a line is
positive when measured towards north, and termed Northing and it is negative when
measured towards south, and termed Southing. The departure (D) of a line is positive
when measured towards east, and termed Easting and it is negative when measured
towards south, and termed Westing. The latitude and departures of each control
station can be calculated using the relation:

18
Latitude =l Cos
Departure = l Sin
Where, length of the traverse legs
=Reduced bearing
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of the
traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. Such error is known as
closing error.
Mathematically,
Closing error (e) =
Direction, tan =

The sign of L and D will thus define the quadrant in which the closing error lies.
The relative error of closure = Error of Closure / Perimeter of the traverse
=e/p
= 1 / (p / e)
The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by comparing the
two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse. If the
closed traverse, has N number of sides then,
Correction for the first line=

Correction for the second line=


And similarly, correction for the last line = =e

In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be equal to
(2n-4) x 90 where n is the number of traverse sides. If the angles are measured with
the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles may be distributed
equally among each angle of the traverse.
The Bowditchs method or the compass rule is mostly used to balance a traverse
where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in
latitude and in the departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides.
Mathematically,
Correction in departure of a side of traverse
= (Total Dept. Misclosure / Traverse Perimeter)*(length of that side)
Correction in latitude of a side of traverse
= (Total Lat. Misclosure / Traverse Perimeter) *(length of that side)
In order to measure the lengths of the sides of the traverse, two ways taping
(forward and backward) is done. In difficult areas where taping is not possible, other
methods like the subtense bar is used. The difference in values obtained by forward
and backward taping is called discrepancy. In addition, the reciprocal of the
discrepancy divided by the mean of the two measurements is called precision. Both
the discrepancy and the precision for each traverse leg should be within the given
limits.
Mathematically,
Discrepancy = | Forward length - Backward length
And linear precision =

19
The coordinates of traverse station were found out by resection. The resection point
was selected at the top of hostel building from where all the known points can be
sighted. The coordinates of known points are given below.

Plotting of major & minor traverse:


After computing the co-ordinate of each of the control points, they were made ready
to plot. Full size grid sheets i.e. A1 sizes with gridlines of 5cm Square was used for
plotting. The gridlines were made with the help of a beam compass. Both major and
minor traverses were plotted to 1:500 scales. The plotted traverse was made at the
center of the sheet with the help of least co-ordinates and highest co-ordinates.

Road Site Survey

Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance was conducted to select alignment of road corridor of about 10/10 m
left and right and 600m long and pegs were fixed for intersection points (IP).
Obligatory points, permissible gradient, geometry of tentative horizontal curves were
considered as per Nepal Road Standards(NRS), 2070:
The longitudinal gradient was taken less than12%..
Two successive curves were not overlapped.

Horizontal alignment

Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal plane. For this,
the bearing of initial line connecting two initial stations was measured using compass.
The interior angles were observed using 20" theodolite at each IP and then deflection
angles were calculated.
The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length
from the apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that
the tangent does not overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from
IP along the line bisecting the interior angle.
Tangent length (T) = R Tan/2
Length of curve (L) = R/180
Apex distance = R x (sec (/2)-1)
Chainage of BC= Chainage of IP- T
Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC+ L/2
Chainage of EC = chainage of MC + L/2

Vertical alignment
Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L-
section of the Road alignment, vertical alignment was plotted with maximum gradient
of 12% and minimum gradient of 1%. In the vertical alignment, we set the Vertical
curve with proper design. While setting the vertical alignment, it should keep in mind
whether cutting and filling were balanced or not.

Leveling
The method of fly leveling was applied in transferring the level from the given
B.M. to all the I.Ps, beginnings, mid points and ends of the curves as well as to the
points along the center line of the road where the cross sections were taken. After

20
completing the work of one way leveling on the entire length of the road, fly leveling
was continued back to the B.M. making a closed loop for check and adjustment.

Longitudinal section
In order to obtain the data for L-Section, staff readings were taken at points at 20m
intervals along the centerline of the road with the help of a level by the method of fly
leveling. Thus after performing the necessary calculations, the level was transferred to
all those points with respect to the R.L. of the given B.M. Then finally the L-Section
of the road was plotted on a graph paper on a vertical scale of 1:100 and a horizontal
scale of 1:500. The staff readings at BC, EC and apex were also taken. The RL of
each point were calculated.

Crosssection
Cross sections were taken at 10m intervals along the centerline of the road on both
side of the central line of the alignment and at points where there was a sharp change
in the elevation. While doing so, the horizontal distances of the different points from
the centerline were measured with the help of a tape and the vertical heights with a
measuring staff. The R.L. was transferred to all the points by performing the
necessary calculations and finally, the cross sections at different sections were plotted
on a graph paper on a scale of both vertical and horizontal is 1:100. Cross section was
run at right angles to the longitudinal profile on either side up to 10m distances and
the change in the slope was directly measured using the staff.

Topographic survey of road alignment


Topographic survey of road alignment was done by taking the deflection angle at
each point where two straight roads meet. The Chainage of intersection point, tangent
point and middle points were also taken by taping and applying formula. The staff
readings of each of these points were also taken. The R.L was also transferred to find
out the elevation and plot it in a map.

Bridge Site Surveying


The various methods performed during the bridge site survey were triangulation,
leveling, tacheometry etc. The brief descriptions of these methodologies are given
below:

Site Selection
There are various factors for the selection of bridge site such as geological condition,
socio-economical and ecological aspect etc. Therefore, the sites was chosen such that
it should be laid on the very stable rocks at the bed of river as far as possible and not
affect the ecological balance of the flora and fauna of the site area. The bridge axis
should be so located that it should be fairly perpendicular to the flow direction and at
the same time, the river width should be narrow from the economical point of view
and the free board should be at least 5m. The starting point of bridge axis should not
in any way lie or touch the curve of the road.
The site selected for the bridge axis was near the curve of the river with no
community but with the temples and the shed house nearby. For the purpose of the
shortest span, the stations were set perpendicular to the river flow direction. The
riverbanks were not eroded and were suitable for bridge construction. The chance of
change of direction of river on the selected axis line was nominal.

21
Topographic Survey
For the topographic survey of the bridge site triangulation was done. First the bridge
axis was set and horizontal control stations were fixed on either side for detailing.
Distances between stations on the same side of river i.e. base line were measured with
tape precisely. Then the interconnecting triangles were formed and angles were
measured with theodolite. The bridge axis length or span was calculated by solving
the triangles using the Sine rule. Thus the horizontal control was setout.
For vertical control, the level was transferred from the TBM 1 to the I.P.s of the road
and was transferred to the stations on the next bank by reciprocal leveling. For the
same bank direct level transfer method was used.

Longitudinal Section
The L-Section of the river is required to give an idea about the bed slope, nature of the
riverbed, and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the length of
the river. Keeping the instrument at the control (traverse) stations on the river banks,
the staff readings were taken at different points along the center line of the river up to
a 100 meters upstream and 60 m downstream. The RLs of the traverse stations being
known previously the levels of the different points on the river were calculated. Then
the L-Section of the riverbed was plotted on a graph paper on scale for vertical and
horizontal.
Cross-sectioning
For the longitudinal section of the river, the staff readings were taken at an interval of
20m. This was done up to 60m downstream and 1000m upstream. While taking the
reading the staff was erected on the bed of river and not over the stones. The chainage
was measured along the river flow direction by spreading the tape over water.
At every 20m chainage the readings were taken for cross sectioning. The spot heights
were taken where the change in slope was noticed or remarkable points were noticed
such as normal depth level flood depth level, riverbank, etc.

Levelling
Transferring R.L. from TBM to control points:
The R.L of benchmark TBM 1 was given and was transferred to the triangular stations
from the B.M. by fly leveling along the road turning points by taking the back sight
reading to the bench mark which should be within the given accuracy. Reciprocal
leveling method was applied to transfer the R.L. to the opposite bank of the river.

Reciprocal leveling:

Line of collimation Horizontal line

e
a1 b1
Line of level
A B
--------------------------------
- - - - - - - - - -River - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -- - - -

22
Line of collimation Horizontal line

e
a2 b2
Line of level
A B
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------- - - - - - - -- - - - --
- - - -River - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -

Fig10:- Reciprocal leveling

For transferring the RL across the bridge reciprocal leveling was performed. This
method eliminates the error due to focusing, collimation, earths curvature and
refraction of atmosphere etc.
True difference in elevation between A and B = H = ha- (hb-e)
Also the true difference in elevation = H = (ha'- e)-hb'
Taking the average of the two differences we get the difference in elevation between
A and B.

Detailing
The detailing was done with the help of theodolite. The important details, which were
not included in the cross-section data, were taken. All the detailing points were noted
for the topographic view of the bridge site.
Triangulation was performed for the determination of the approximate span of the
bridge axis. The triangulation stations can be taken as the control points for detailing.
Two points on either bank of the river were fixed as control points and one of the
sides of the triangle was taken as the bridge axis. Then two triangles from each bank
were fixed.
The base line was measured accurately by two ways tapping as well as tacheometry
and interior angles were measured by taking two sets of reading by theodolite. The
accurate span of bridge was computed by applying sine rule. To minimize the plotting
error well-conditioned triangles were constructed i.e. the angles greater than 30
degree, less than 120 degree and nearer to 60 degree. The best triangle is equilateral
triangle.

Hydrological survey
Hydrological survey was conducted for highest flood level, normal water level and
low water level.

Computation and plotting


The following tacheometric formulas were used for the calculation of the horizontal
distance and R.L. of different points:
Horizontal distance of any point from the traverse station,
H = 100 x S x Cos2
Where, S = Staff intercept = Top - Bottom Stadia Reading

23
= Vertical Angle
And R.L. of any required Point is
R.L.(point)= R.L. of Station + H.I + H x Tan Mid Wire Reading
The topographic map, the longitudinal section and the cross section were plotted on
the respective scales after the completion of calculations. By taking an A1 grid sheet,
control stations were plotted accurately. Then all hard details as well as contours were
plotted with reference to the control stations by the method of angle and distances.
The highest flood level, normal water level and low water level were shown in the
map and cross section of the river.

24
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The survey camp was completed in a period of 11 days (2073/7/1 to 2073/7/12). The
three major tasks in the survey camp were topographic survey, bridge site survey and
road site survey. During the survey camp, the principle of working from whole to part
was followed.

For the surveying tasks, various modern surveying equipments such as total station,
theodolite and auto level were used. The survey camp was helpful in being familiar
with the use of these instruments and various techniques in surveying.

Various maps were plotted in grid sheet in appropriate scale. Various graphs showing
the longitudinal sections and cross-sections were also drawn.

Topographic Surveying
In the first day, reconnaissance was done and a rough sketch of the area with the
stations was drawn. Then major and minor control points were established. The
referencing of the control points, measurement of traverse legs, measurement of
internal angles, fly leveling and RL transfer, detailing from traverse stations were
carried out in the remaining days.
The leg ratio in the traverse legs were maintained 2:1 for major traverse and 3:1 for
minor traverse. The field observations and calculations for the topographic survey is
shown in appendix A-1 toA-3
The topographic map of the Scout International Training Centre, Nuwakot was plotted
in a grid sheet, reduced to a scale of 1:500.

Road Site Surveying


The road site surveying was done for a period of two days. The intersection points
were selected and the lengths between the intersection points were measured. Curves
of various radii were set at the intersection points and detailing at cross-sections was
done. The road survey was carried out up to chain age of 0+556.7 m.

The field observations and calculations of road site surveying are as shown in
appendix B-1 to B-17

The topographic map of the road site was plotted in a scale of 1:1000. Graphs
showing the cross-sections at the beginning of curves, mid of curves, end of curves
and also at the chainage interval of 20m was drawn.
Bridge Site Surveying

The bridge site surveying was done for a period of two days. On the first day,
triangulation was done. Then measurement of internal angles and measurement of
base lines was done. On the second day, the tachometric detailing was done.
The field observations and calculations of bridge site surveying are as shown in
appendix C-1 to C-19
The topographic map of the site was plotted in a scale of 1:500. Also graphs showing
cross sections at interval of 20m chainage and longitudinal section were drawn.

25
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion
From the survey camp, the following conclusions were drawn;
1. During surveying, the principle of working from whole to part is very important.
2. The major and minor control stations must be established depending upon the
area to be surveyed so that all detail points can be easily obtained.
3. From topographical surveying, we can be able to produce topographical map.
4. During bridge survey, the principle of triangulation must be used.
5. The linear measurement in bridge site surveying must be of higher precision so as
to obtain higher precision in axis length.
6. From bridge site surveying, we are able to produce topographic map, cross-
sections and longitudinal sections.
7. The preliminary knowledge on the nature of river and various features like high
flood level, water level, etc. can be known from bridge site survey.
8. During road site survey, we learned the process of laying out of road on actual
field.
9. The grade in road site must be maintained between 1% to 12% and a minimum
radius of 12m for the curves is maintained.
10. From road site surveying, we can be able to produce topographical map, cross-
sections and longitudinal sections of the roads.

Recommendation

The following recommendations have been made for the further study; we completed the
three project assigned to us in time although we faced minor difficulties. All results were
obtained within the limit given to us .This camp really helped us with the practical parts of
Survey Field Work as working condition in future. It increased our confidence in handling
instrument as well as completing project on submission date. This trip also offered us relief
from monotony of performing all survey practical. This trip provide us the opportunity for
positive interaction with friends and local communities. We recommend IOE for organizing
such trips frequently for all practical subject as is easy to understand. In this trip, we gain
the first hand concept of the subject matter that make it easier for us to grasp the concept.
Thus, the entire trip was very informative, effective and enjoyable.

26
References
1. A text book of Surveying- R. Agor, Khanna Publisher.
2. Surveying(Vol I & Vol II),Dr. B. C. Punmia, Khanna Publisher.
3. A Text Book of Surveying(Vol I &Vol II), DavidClark.
4. Surveying and Levelling , N. N. Bassak,Tata MC Graw Hill Education Pvt, Ltd.

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Fig 11. Scout International Training Centre

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