2.

8 Potential
Mechanical work
In physics, mechanical work is the amount of
energy transferred by a force.
Like energy, it is a scalar quantity.

Its SI unit: joules (J) = Newton meter.

F Fl

Ft F

If force is constant: W Fl l ( F cos )l F l

If force is not constant: W F l , W l F dl

1
 Electric potential
B

dl
Et
E

+q En

Fig. 2.9 Illustrating electric potential

Fig. 2.9 shows an arbitrary path between two points A and B

in an electric field E .
If there is a point charge +q in the electric field E , the
2
 electric force on +q is: F q E .
If the electric force moves the charge +q from A to B, the
electric field will do mechanical work:
A
B B

A

WA B F dl q E dl q E dl
B

A (2.29)
The definition of electric potential difference
The electric potential difference VAB between the points A
and B is defined as: if the electric force moves a unit positive
charge from A to B, the electric filed will do the work VAB.
V AB A E dl (volts) (2.30)
B

The definition of electric potential

The electric potential at point A is defined as the electric

3
potential difference between the point A and a reference
point:
VA E dl
Reference point

The potential is a relative quantity; it depends on where

you choose the reference point.

Please describe the definition of the electric potential

difference VAB.

If move a unit positive charge from A to B, the electric field

will do the work VAB.
4
 Find the potential difference between two points A and B
due to a charge qi as shown in Fig. 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Potential due to a point charge

Solution:
Consider a contour on path from A to B.
From equation (2.30), the potential difference between
points A and B due to a charge qi is
5
 B
E
dl
dri dri
90o

A
ri ri
0o

ar
qi qi

VAB E dl
B

Now B

VAB
qi qi
E Ear a dl
B
a
,

4 0 ri 2 r A 4 0 ri 2 r
rBi
A
ar dl ( dl ) cos90 (dl ) sin dri
rAi
qi
6
 1 1

q i dri qi
V AB
rBi

r Ai 4 0 ri 2 4 0 rAi rBi (2.31)

If the reference point is at infinity, then the potential at A due
to charge qi is
1 1

qi dri qi qi 1
VA

rAi 4 0 ri 2
4 0 rAi 4 0 rAi
qi
VA
4 0 rAi (2.32)
The potential at B (the reference point is at infinity) due to
charge qi is
1 1

qi dri qi qi 1
VB

rBi 4 0 ri 2 4 0 rBi 4 0 rBi

7
 qi
VB
4 0 rBi

qi 1 1
VAB VA VB
4 0 rAi rBi

It explains that the potential difference between A and B

VAB VA VB E dl is independent of the actual path
B

taken.

Findthe potential difference between two points A and B

due to a number of charges as shown in the following
Figure.

8
 B
q3
q2 qn
qi
A
q1

Summing the contribution from all the charges:

VA VB
n
qi n
qi
i 1 4 0 rAi , i 1 4 0 rBi (2.33)
the potential difference between A and B:
V AB V A VB
qi 1 1

n

i 1 4 0 rAi rBi (2.34)

Note:
If the electric field E points in the direction from A to B,
9
VA is higher than VB.

Because: if the electric field E points in the

direction from A to B, E and dl have the same
direction: E dl 0 , then
B

VAB VA VB E dl 0 VA VB
B

10
 The electric potential for other charge distributions:

If the reference point is at infinity, we have

L

1
1. Line charge L per unit length: VA
4 0 L r
dl

S

1
2. Surface charge s per unit area:
VA dS
4 0 S r
V

1
3. Volume charge V per unit volume:
VA d (Vol )
4 0 vol
r

r distance from the elemental charge to point A.

11
 Equipotential surface
On the equipotential surface, the values of electric
potentials are the same.

Prove that the direction E is always at right angle with

equipotential surface (that is normal to equipotential surface)
Prove:

Choose any two points A and B, which are on the same

equipotential surface, calculate VAB by integrating along the
12
equipotential surface:
VAB VA VB E dl Et dl 0
B B

A A

That means Et = 0, E only has the component E n .

Example: The equipotential surface of the point charges +Q
and Q:

13
2.9 Potential gradient

Because V and E describe the same electric field, they

have internal relationship.

According to V A V A VReference point E dl ,

Reference point

from E, we can calculate V.

From V, how to calculate E ?*

E grad V V
Using above equation, we can obtain the electric field E by
evaluating the gradient of the potential function V.
14
Prove:

dl E -lines
P an E

V V+ V
Equipotential surfaces
Fig. 2.11 Electric flux lines and equipotential surfaces
(Note: an is unit normal vector)
As shown in Fig. 2.11, the solid lines denote the electric flux
lines and the broken lines denote equipotential surfaces.
According to : V (V V ) V the point with V EV dl the point with V E dl ,
the point with V the point with V V

15
because l is a very small increment, the change in potential
between equipotential surfaces V and V + V is
V E dl E l
the point with V V
the point with V

V E l E cosl El l

where E E cos is the component of

l E along l s
direction.
Choose the direction of step l so that coincides with E , i.e.

16
cos = 1:
V
V El or E
l
We can see that E s direction (normal to the equipotential
V
surface) is that l reaches the maximum (because l is
shortest). That is:
V dV
E an an
l max dl max
(2.35)

17
 dl E -lines
P an E

V V+dV
Equipotential surfaces
The above relationship can be written as:
dV
an gradV
dl max
, E grad V V (2.36)

18
 Example: The electric field in two infinitely large parallel
plates

The surface charge density on plate 1 is +S and on plate 2 is

-S. Apply Gausss theorem,
S
E ax

Suppose the reference point of electric potential is on the
plate 2, calculate V12:
19
 S S S
V12 E dl a x dl a x
0
a x dx a x d
point 2 0

point 1 d
d

2 1

V=0 V=V12

The two parallel plates form a capacitor.

The capacitance is defined as d
x

Q
C
x=0

V coulombs/volt (or F, Farad)

where Q is the electric charge on one plate; V is the potential
difference between the two plates.

The capacitance between two parallel plates:

20
 Q S S S
C S
V C
S
d d d

21
 Example: Equipotential surfaces and field lines

V V
El
l l
El

1. The direction of field line is the direction of electric field

E.
2. The density or closeness of E-lines gives indication on the
electric field strength.
3. Between two adjacent equipotential surfaces, the potential
22
 difference is the same.
4. E-lines are always at right angles with equipotential
surface (that is normal to equipotential surface).

More examples:

(Image method)
23
Conceptual Questions:

Base your answers to the following questions on the

equation: E = - V / l.

1. If the potential in a region of space is constant, is the

electric field necessarily zero in the region? (Yes.)

2. If the electric field is zero in a region of space, must

V be zero between points in that region? (Yes.)

3. If E is zero in a region of space, must the potential V

be zero at all points in that region, too? (No.)
24
 Metals are equipotential surfaces in electrostatic field

In electrostatic field, there are no any moving charges.

In conductors: V = constant, V = 0, E = - V / l = 0

25
Lighting electric field:

2.10 Maxwells second equation

Maxwells second equation in integral form

Consider the loop formed between points A and B in Fig.
2.12.

26
 Fig. 2.12 Illustrating Maxwells second equation
We already know that the potential difference is independent
of the path taken.
Because, VAB = VA VB , VBA = VB VA
therefore, VAB = VBA, or VAB + VBA = 0,7
V AB E dl E dl V BA E dl E dl
B A

A 2 B 1

i.e. V AB V BA 2E dl 1 E dl l E dl 0 (2.37)
Now we have:
27
 l
E dl 0 (2.38)
Eqn. (2.38) is Maxwells second equation in integral form.
An electric field is said to be conservative.

Maxwells second equation in differential form* (proof

not required)
E 0 (2.39)

Eqn. (2.39) is Maxwells second equation in differential

form.

28
 The following expressions have the same meaning:
E
l
dl 0

E 0

The potential difference is independent of the path taken.

An electric field is a conservative field.

What is the physical meaning of E dl

l
0 ?

What is the physical meaning of E 0 ?

29
2.11 Potential energy of a system of point charges
Suppose the reference point is at infinity.
The energy needed to establish a point charge Q
At the beginning, q = 0, v=0
At the end, q = Q, v = V
For simplicity, we increase the charge linearly: q = mQ,
v = mV
where m increases from 0 to 1.
To increase the charge dq, the work needed from the
outside of the system is:
dW = v dq = mV d (mQ)
The total work to increase the charge to Q is:

W mVd ( mQ ) QV mdm QV
1 1
W QV
. This is:
1 1

0 0 2 2 (self energy)
30
 The energy needed to establish two point charges Q1, Q2
Refer to Fig. 2.13. We wish to find the work done in
establishing charges Q1, Q2 at positions 1 and 2 (and in this
order).

Fig. 2.13 Potential energy of system of point charges

Let Vij denote the potential at point i
due to charge at point j.
Work done in establishing Q1
31
 1
W1 Q1V11 (self energy) (2.40)
2
Work done in establishing Q2, in small increments
1
W2 Q2V22 Q2V21 (2.41)
2
self energy mutual energy
V21 : the potential at point 2 produced by the charge at point 1.
Q1 Q2

Q2V21 Q2 Q1 Q1V12
But
4 0 r12 4 0 r21 (2.42)
1 1 1
Therefore W2 Q2V22 Q2V21 Q1V12 (2.43)
2 2 2
Let WE = total work done, then:
1 1 1 1
WE W1 W2 Q1V11 Q2V22 Q2V21 Q1V12
2 2 2 2
32
 1 1 1 1
Q1 (V11 V12 ) Q2 (V21 V22 ) Q1V1 Q2V2
2 2 2 2 (2.44)
where V1 and V2 are the potentials at points 1 and 2.
WE Q1V1 Q2V2
1
or 2 (2.45)
Extending to n charges:
WE
1
Q1V1 Q2V2 Q3V3 ... QnVn J (2.46)
2

When there is a distribution of charge V (x,y,z) which is

function of position in the volume considered, total stored
energy is given by
WE V V d (vol )
1
2 vol (2.47)
33