Unit 2 Electric Field (Electrostatic Field)

In this unit, we will be studying the fundamentals of

the electric (or electrostatic) field, such as
Coulombs law
Gausss theorem
electrostatic potential and energy.
Maxwells first and second equations will be
formulated.

1
Electric charge**
The atom is a basic unit of matter.
It consists of a nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of
positively charged protons and neutrons.

2
 An atom containing an equal number of protons and
electrons is electrically neutral; otherwise it has a
positive or negative charge.
Positive charge comes from having more
protons than electrons;
Negative charge comes from having more
electrons than protons.

3
 Example of charge accumulation
Charge could be accumulated by rubbing fur on various
substances, such as amber. This property derives from
the triboelectric effect ():

4
 The electric charges will produce electric
field.

A conductor is a material which contains

movable electric charges.

The moving electric charges in a

conductor, are electric current.

Electric current will produce magnetic field.

5
 How do you know there is electric field nearby us?

Ifyou have a permanent magnet, how do you know

there is magnetic field nearby it?

6
 The outline we study electric field
(1) From force:

D dS
F

E
q D E

F

S

SD dS Q D V

(2) From mechanical work:

WAB q E dl VAB E dl VA E dl
B B Reference point
A A A

E gradV E dl 0 E 0

l

V
2V

7
Universal law of gravitation**
The gravitational force between two masses m1 and m2 is
given by the relationship:

where G: the universal gravitation constant.

It is an example of an inverse square law force.
The force is always attractive and acts along the line
joining the centers of the two masses.
The forces on the two masses are equal in size but opposite
in direction.

8
9
2.1 Coulombs law

Coulombs law states that the force F acting on two charges

Q and q separated by a distance r is
Qq
F (2.1)
r2
where is a proportional constant.

Q q

-F F
r

Fig. 2.1 Illustrating Coulombs law

Charge Q is measured in coulombs (C).

10
 1

In SI Units (International System of Units), 4 0 .
0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.85410-12 Farad/m 1/3610-9 F/m. (F: Farad)
Qq
F
Hence we have: 4 0 r 2 (N) (2.2)

Same-sign charged particles repel one another, while

different-sign charged particles attract.

Two positive charges repel each other. One positive charge and one negative charge
attract each other.

11
 The forces acting among electric charges are additive.

The force computation follows:

Principle of linear superposition

12
2.2 Electric field strength E

Electric field strength E is defined as the force per

unit charge, i.e.
F
E li m
q 0 q (2.3)
The charge q is assumed to be very small so that it
does not affect the field E .

Fig. 2.2 Illustrating the definition of electric field strength

13
 Unit of E: volts per meter (V/m)
If E is produced by charge Q, then at point P (see
Fig. 2.2):
F 1 Qq Q

E li m li m a
2 r
a
q 0 q q0 q 4 0 r 4 0 r 2 r

Q
E
4 0 r 2
ar
(2.4)
Ifthere are several (say m) charges, then the field at
P is a vector summation of the fields produced by
each of the charges:
E E1 E2 ... Em
m
Qn
(2.5)
a
n 1 4 0 rn
2 n

14
In eqn. (2.5), a is a unit vector in the direction along
n

the vector r (from the charge n to the point P).

n

Example:

Electric field strength due to 2 charges

15
Some simple examples of the electric fields produced by
point charges:

16
Charge density
Volume charge density
Charge may be distributed over a volume of
space.

We denote volume charge density by V, having the units of

coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3).
If charge density by V is uniform in the volume:
Q
V Q V Volume (uniform distribution)
Volume
If charge density by V is not uniform in the volume:
q dq
V lim
v0 v
Q V dv (not uniform distribution)
dv v
17
 Surface charge density
Charge may be distributed across a surface.

We denote surface charge density by S, having the units of

coulombs per square meter (C/m2).
Q
S Q S Surface area (uniform distribution)
Surface area
q dq
S lim
s 0 s
Q S ds (not uniform distribution)
ds s

18
 Line charge density
Charge may be distributed along a line.

We denote line charge density by L, having the units of

coulombs per meter (C/m).
Q
L Q L Line length (uniform distribution)
Line length
q dq
L lim
l 0 l
Q L dl (not uniform distribution)
dl L

19
2.3 Field due to a line charge
In Fig. 2.3, the line OA of finite length lies on the z-axis,
charged with L coulombs per meter (C/m).

Fig. 2.3 Electric field due to a line charge (cylindrical coordinate)

The electric field dE at P produced by the element dl (the
distance from O to dl is l) is

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 L dl
dE a
(its direction is along r)
4 0 r 2 r
(2.6)
Consider the radial component dE :
a
r
We will take as variable. sin
L dl sin z
dE dE sin
(2.7)
2
a
2 A

4 0
dEz dE

sin a -

a
P dE

But l b tan
dl r

cos
b

dl ad sin
l 1

sin 2 cos 2

1
a d
O
d a
sin
2
sin
2

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 da
L a 2 sin sin d
dE sin L

a
2
4 0 a (2.8)
4 0
sin
The resultant electric field E at P can now be calculated by
integration:
L sin L
E cos 1 cos 2
2
d
4 0 a 4 0 a (2.9)
For the infinite line charge, 1 0, 2 ,
1

22
 L
E E a a
2 0 a (2.10)
Note that Ez = 0 and E = 0 and the field has cylindrical
symmetry.

23
2.4 Field due to a surface charge

Consider a uniformly charged surface with surface charge

density S coulombs per square meter (C/m2), as shown in
Fig. 2.4.
Surface

dQ = S dS
dS
ar

P
dE
r

Fig. 2.4 Electric field due to a surface charge

24
The total charge:
Q dS
surface
s

The field dE due to an elemental area dS on the surface is

S dS
dE a
4 0 r 2 r
(2.11)
The resultant field E is obtained by integrating dE over
the entire surface:
S ar
E dS
S 4 0 r 2
(2.12)

25
Example 2-1

Find the electric field due to an infinitely large surface

charged with S C/m2.

Fig. 2.5 Electric field due to an infinite charged plane

Solution:
26
 Consider an infinite charged
surface in the y-z plane.
Assume both sides are uniformly
charged.
We wish to evaluate the resultant
field at the point P(a,0,0).
Refer to the infinite strip of width
dy, the line charge L = Sdy (C/m)
Using the result of Section 2.3, the electric field at P (in
the radial direction of the strip), is
S dy
dE a
2 0 (2.13)

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 a
y
We will take as variable. tan ;
sin 2 cos 2 1 a
dy a
d a d
sin 2
sin 2
; sin
Therefore the x-component of d E is
1
S a 2 d sin
S dy sin sin s
dE x dE sin ax ax ( d ) a x
2 0 a 2 0
2 0
sin
(2.14)
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 S S
1 2 ax
2
Ex (d )ax
2 0 2 0 (2.15)
Since the plane is infinitely wide, 1 ; 20;
1

S
Ex
2 0
ax
(2.16)
Or, more generally
S
En an
2 0 (2.17)
where an is a unit vector in the outward normal direction
29
from the plane.
Note: En is independent of the distance of P from the plane.

Field due to a volume change v (C/m3)

Q V d (Vol)
Volume

dQ V d (Vol )
vol

V d (Vol ) dQ =V d(Vol)
dE ar
4 0 r 2
d(Vol)

V d (Vol )

or dV
1 ar
E ar
4 0 vol r 2 P
dE r

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2.5 Electric flux and electric flux density D

Electric flux density D

We have studied that in free space:

Q
E
4 0 r 2
ar
0 : permittivity () of free space
Electric field strength in materials:
Q
E
4r
a
2 r : permittivity of material
where
r 0 r : relative permittivity
In air: r = 1.005
In snow: r = 3.3
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 In alcohol: r = 25
In water (distilled): r = 80
In water (sea): r = 80
Electric field strength E depends on the material
property of electric field.

Now we introduce a new quantity:

D E
D: the electric flux density.

If D is produced by a point charge Q, then:

Q
D a
4r 2 r

Here D only depends on the sources.

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 Electricflux (psi)
The relationship between and D is similar to:
I and J
Consider electric flux density D on asurface S.
Case 1: electric flux density D is uniform on the
surface S and its direction is the same with the surface
S.

DS D
S
The electric flux density D is the electric flux per unit
area.
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 Case 2: electric flux density is uniform on the surface
D

S and its direction is not the same with the surface S .

Dt

Dn

Dn S ( D cos ) S D S

Case 3: electric flux density is not uniform on the

D

surface S and its direction is not the same with the

surface S .

Imagine that we have an electric flux flowing

through S. To find the flux, we need to take the dot
34
product of with the unit surface normal to S at each
D

point, which will give us a scalar field, which we

integrate over the surface.
Dnk S k lim Dnk S k D dS
N N

S 0 k 1 S
N
k 1

D dS

S

S k

Dk

Dnk

Dtk

35
 Consider a point charge, in free space.

At the spherical surface r,

Q
E ar
4 0 r 2

Q
D 0 E
4r
a
2 r (2.18)
D dS S
Q Q Q
a r dS
(2.19)
dS 4r Q
2
S 4r 2 4r 2 4r 2

Electric flux is said to exist between positive and

S

negative charges. In SI units, one flux leaves +1 coulomb of

36
charge and terminates on -1 coulomb of charge, and is
numerically equal to Q.

Electric flux is measured in coulombs (C).

Because D S , electric flux density D is measured in
coulombs per square meter (C/m2).

37
2.6 Gausss theorem

Gausss theorem states that the total electric flux passing

through a closed surface (any shape) (Gaussian surface) is
numerically equal to the electric charge enclosed.

D an

Q
dS + + +
+ + +
+ +

closed surface S

Fig. 2.6 Illustrating Gauss theorem

Refer to Fig. 2.6. The directed elemental area is

38
 S (S )an (2.20)
The flux through the surface S is
D (S ) cos D S (2.21)
Total flux through the closed surface is
d D dS 0 E dS Q (2.22)
S S S

Prove:
(1) If there is only one point charge Q in the closed surface:
D dS S r 2 r
Q Q 1 Q
a dS a dS 4 Q
S 4r 2 4 4
r
S

(From mathematics:
S r 2 ar dS 4
1
if Q is inside the closed surface:

39
 S r 2 ar dS 0
1
if Q is outside the closed surface: )

(2) If there are N point charge Q1, Q2,, QN, in the closed
surface:
D dS D
S S
1 dS D 2 dS D N dS Q1 Q2 QN
S S

Example:
Consider two charged spherical surfaces of radii r1 and r2, as
shown in Fig. 2.7, in free space.

40
 D surface

r
r1 +
+ +
+Q
+ r2
-Q

Fig. 2.7 Electric flux density between two concentric spheres

At the spherical surface r (r1 < r < r2),
D dS DdS D dS D 4r 2 Q

S S S

Q
D
4r 2
D Q
E
0 4 0 r 2

41
2.7 Maxwells first equation

Gausss theorem SD dS Q (2.22)

is Maxwells first equation in integral form.

The electric charge Q in (2.22) can also be found by

considering the volume charge density distribution V(x,y,z),
i.e.
Q V d (vol )
vol

From (2.22), we can write:

D dS Q
S vol
V d (vol ) (2.23)
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Applying divergence theorem* to (2.22),
D dS D d (vol ) (2.24)
S vol

Comparing (2.23) and (2.24)*,

D dS
S vol
D d (vol ) V d (vol )
vol (2.25)
Hence*,
div D D V (2.26)
Eqn. (2.26) is Maxwells first equation in differential form.

43
Example 2-2
Find the electric field due to a charged hollow sphere of
radius a in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Electric field due to a charged hollow sphere

Solution:
From symmetry the field E depends only on the spherical
coordinate r and only E r exists.

Consider the Gaussian surface of radius r and centre O. By

44
Gausss theorem,

Q
Er
E dS 4 r
, r>a (2.27)
2
S 0
= 0, r < a
Hence,
Q
Er
4 0 r 2 , r>a (2.28)
=0 r<a
i.e. the field outside the sphere is identical to that due to a
point charge placed at the origin, but no field exists within
the sphere.

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