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4 April 2017

4th Year Civil Engineering

Lecture 1 : Introduction to Steel


Design

Dr. James H. Haido, Assistant Professor


Email: james.haido@uod.ac

REFERENCES
Segui W. T. Steel Design, 5th Edition, 2013.

Aghayere A. and Vigil J. Structural Steel


design - A Practice-oriented Approach. 2009.

McCormac J. C. Structural Steel Design,


4th Edition, 2008.

Williams A. Steel Structures Design ASD/LRFD. 2011.

Smith J. C. Structural Steel Design: LRFD Approach. 1996.

Gaylord E. H. and Stallmeyer J. E. Design of Steel Structures.


1992.
2
Bowles J. E. Structural Steel Design. 1980.

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STEEL DESIGN CODES

American Institute of
Steel Construction
(AISC). Steel
Construction Manual,
13th edition, 2005.

Design Examples,
AISC, version 13.0,
2005.
3

we study steel design?


PURPOSE OF THE COURSE
Steel Design course provides students with
understanding the performance of steel structural
members. Accordingly, design steel structures
under the effects of expected loading based on
design criteria given in building codes.

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COURSE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of present course,
students would be able to:

Analyze steel members and


connections under applied loading.
Design of steel systems using
Allowable Stress Design ASD and
Load and Resistance Factor Design
LRFD methods.
Analyze and design of steel
structures with computerized
5
approaches.

COURSE OUTCOMES
1- Understand of ASD and LRFD design
and performance criteria of
steel structures.

2- Analyze and design of tension members.

3- Analyze and design of compression members


(columns).

4- Analyze and design of beam structures.

5- Analyze and design of beam-column structures.


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6- Analyze and design of bolt and welded connections.

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CLASS POLICIES

Midterm Exam 20%

Quizzes, Assignments 15%

Class Activities, attendance 5%

Final Exam 60%

Total 100%

COURSE OUTLINE
Required
No. Subject Period
(Week)
1 Introduction to Steel Design 1
Analysis and design of tension
2 2
member
Analysis and design of axially-loaded
3 2
compression members
4 Analysis and design of beams 3
Analysis and design of members
5 under bending and axial 2
compression force (Beam Column)
Analysis and design of bolted and
7 2
welded connections
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UNITS

UNITS (CONTINUED)

1000 kg

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PREREQUISITE COURSE

1- Structural Analysis

2- Strength of Materials

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


A- Steel Structures as Green technology
In the past, steel was primarily made with the refining of
virgin iron ore.

Nowadays, only about 30% is manufactured by virgin


iron because steel is a highly recyclable material. The
modern fabrication of constructional steel shapes is
changed to be a green technology which referred to
using of recycled steel scrap material (waste) in steel
production. Thus, 95% of the used steel in structural
shapes manufacture is from recycled steel scrap
materials.

In the modern manufacture of new structural steel, old


steel (steel scraps) are fed into an electric arc furnace 12
(EAF) where they are heated up to 3000F.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


B- Advantages & Disadvantages of Structural Steel
Advantages
1- High strength per unit of weight (weight of the structure
will be small).

2- Steel properties are uniform, homogeneous and do not


change appreciably with time.

3- Steel follows Hooks law up to fairly high stresses, so it


behaves closer to elastic design assumptions.

4- High ductility material (resist high deformation without


failure).

5- High toughness material (ability to absorb large amount


13
of energy due to applied forces).

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


B- Advantages & Disadvantages of Structural Steel

Advantages (continued)

6- Easily be recycled and reused.

7- Easy and quick to fabricate and erect.

8- Construction of steel structures is not as affected by


weather.

9- Easier to make addition to existing steel structure.

10- Wide variety of shapes and sizes.


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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


B- Advantages & Disadvantages of Structural Steel

Disadvantages

1- Steel is susceptible to corrosion (need protection by


galvanizing or coating with zinc-rich paint and
consequently high maintenance cost).

2- Needs to be protected from fire (high fireproofing cost).

3- Susceptibility to buckling with increasing the length and


slenderness of compression steel members (needing to
stiffening).

4- Susceptible to brittle fracture due to the presence of


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stress concentrations, and fatigue.

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


C- American Institute for Steel Construction Manual
American Institute for Steel Construction (AISC) is
the premier technical specifying and trade organization in
the US for the fabricated structural steel construction
industry.

AISC Manual is the design guide given by AISC


organization which provides detailed information about
structural shapes, methodology and specifications related
to design and construction of steel structures.
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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


C- American Institute for Steel Construction
Manual (continued)

Design Approaches Given by AISC:


1- Allowable Stress Design (ASD): is referred to a method of
steel design where the selected cross-sectional properties of
member are large enough to prevent the maximum
applied axial force, shear, or bending moment from exceeding
an allowable or permissible value.

2- Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): is steel


design method which used load factors to magnify the service
loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength
to resist the factored loads. In addition, the theoretical strength
of the member is reduced by the application of a resistance
factor. 17

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


C- American Institute for Steel Construction
Manual (continued)
Historical development of AISC manual can be given as follows:

1- In 1923: Formation of building codes begins, formalizing


design process and requirements. Principle design philosophy
is based on the concept of allowable stresses (ASD).

2- In 1986: AISC introduces the strength based Load and


Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) specification.

3- In 2005: AISC publish a single manual for combined ASD and


LRFD approaches in the thirteenth edition of AISC manual.

4- In 2010: The unified approach continues with the 2010


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specifications given in the 14th edition of AISC manual
with some recent revisions.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


C- American Institute for Steel Construction
Manual (continued)
AISC-Manual (13th Edition, 2005) Parts
This manual includes 17 parts as follows:

Part 1. Dimensions and Properties


Part 2. General Design Considerations
Part 3. Design of Flexural Members
Part 4. Design of Compression Members
Part 5. Design of Tension Members
Part 6. Design of Members Subject to Combined Loading
Part 7. Design Considerations for Bolts
Part 8. Design Considerations for Welds
Part 9. Design of Connecting Elements
Part 10. Design of Simple Shear Connections
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Part 11. Design of Flexible Moment Connections

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


C- American Institute for Steel Construction
Manual (continued)
AISC-Manual (13th Edition, 2005) Parts (continued)
This manual includes 17 parts as follows:

Part 12. Design of Fully Restrained (FR) Moment Connections


Part 13. Design of Bracing Connections and Truss Connections
Part 14. Design of Beam Bearing Plates, Column Base Plates,
Anchor Rods, and Column Splices
Part 15. Design of Hanger Connections, Bracket Plates, and
CraneRail Connections
Part 16. Specifications and Codes
Part 17. Miscellaneous Data and Mathematical Information

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties
The two most important properties of structural steel used
in structural design are the yield tensile and ultimate
strengths.

This stress-strain
relationship is
appropriate for
steel with defined
yield point.

A typical stressstrain curve 21

for a structural steel

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties (continued)
If the tensile strength of steel is very high, the yield point
will be undefined on stress-strain relationship as in the
following figure.

this method
of determining the
yield strength is
called the 0.2%
offset method

22
A typical stressstrain curve for
steel with undefined yield point

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties (continued)
For practical design, the stressstrain diagram for
structural steel is usually idealized as shown as follow:

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A practical idealized stressstrain curve


for steel behavior under tension

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties (continued)
Structural steel is specified using the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) designation.
The AISCM lists the different types of structural steel used in
steel building construction, the applicable ASTM designation,
and tensile and ultimate strength properties; these are shown in
the following Table for commonly used structural steels:

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties (continued)

Another property of steel that is of interest to the structural


engineer is the coefficient of thermal expansion, which has
an average value of 6.5 1E-6 in./in. per F.

This property is used to calculate the expected expansion and


contraction of a steel member or structure and is useful in
determining the size of expansion joints in building structures or
the magnitude of forces that will be induced in the structure if
the movement is restrained.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties (continued)

Due to the different rates of cooling in a structural steel


member during the final stages of the manufacturing process,
initial stresses will exist in the member prior to any loads being
applied. These preexisting stresses that are caused by the
different cooling rates of the different fibers of the steel section
are called residual stresses.

The residual stresses are usually considered in internal


equilibrium in a structural steel section and therefore have no
impact on the plastic moment or tension capacity of a steel
member. It does, however, affect the load deformation
relationship of a structural member. The impact of residual
stresses is most significant for axially loaded members, such as
columns, because it causes a reduction in the modulus of 26
elasticity.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties (continued)

Brittle fracture the sudden failure of a structural steel


member due to tensile stresses that cause a cleavage of the
member, and it occurs without prior warning.

Brittle fracture results from low ductility and poor fracture


toughness of the structural member or connection. Other
factors affecting brittle fracture include the presence of
geometric discontinuities in a steel member, such as notches
and rate of application of load.

Brittle fracture of a steel


member results from a single
Application of loading.
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Notched beam

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


D- Structural Steel Properties (continued)
Fatigue failure occurs due to repeated applications of
loading to a structure and it occurs over time, starting with a
small fatigue crack. Members repeatedly loaded, primarily in
tension, are more susceptible to developing fatigue cracks.

In typical building structures, the number of cycles of


loading is usually < 100,000 cycles, whereas steel bridges
can have > 2 million cycles of loading during bridge life.

The fatigue strength of a steel structure is usually found


at service load levels; it is a function of the stress category
which, in turn, is greatly dependent on the connection
details used in the structure. It is also a function of the
stress range in the member, which is the algebraic
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difference between the maximum and minimum stress
in a member or connection during one load cycle.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Primary emphasis of steel design is focused on:

1- The selection of the appropriate cross sections for the


individual members of the structure being designed.

2- Choosing a standard cross-sectional shape that is


widely available rather than requiring the fabrication of a
shape with unique dimensions and properties (in the other
words, requiring abnormal shape).

3- Selection on economical section, even if it means using


slightly more material.

4- Choosing of sections produced by hot-rolling.


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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Hot-Rolling Production of Steel Sections
This fabrication process takes place in a mill.

The hot steel passes through a series of rollers that


squeeze the material into the desired cross-sectional shapes.

Molten steel is taken from an electric arc furnace and


poured into a continuous casting system where the steel
solidifies but is never allowed to cool completely.

Rolling the steel while it is still hot allows it to be deformed


with no resulting loss in ductility.

During the rolling process, the member increases in


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length and is cut to standard lengths, usually a maximum
of 65 to 75 feet.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Wide-flanged: W-shapes
Typical
Commonly used as beams
W-shape
or columns in steel buildings.
Sometimes used as the top
and bottom chord members
for trusses, and as diagonal
braces in braced frames.
The inner and outer flange
surfaces of W-shapes are
parallel.
e.g.: A W14x90, implies a
member with a nominal
depth of 14 in. and a self-
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weight of 90 lb./ft.

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Wide-flanged: M-shapes
M-shapes are similar to the
W-shape, but they are not as
readily available or widely
used as W-shapes and their
sizes are also limited.
The listed M-shapes in
AISCM have a maximum
depth of 12.5 and a
maximum flange width of 5.
e.g.: M12x10 indicates a
shape with a nominal depth
of 12 in. and a self-weight of
32
10 lb./ft.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
S-Shapes
Also known as American
Standard beams or I-beam.
Similar to W-shapes except
that the inside flange surfaces
are sloped by 2:12.
Commonly used as joist
beams.
e.g.: S12 35 implies
a member with
a 12-in. actual depth
and a self-weight
of 35 lb./ft. length
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of the member.

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
HP-Shapes
HP-shape is similar to W-
shapes.
Commonly used in bearing
pile foundations.
Have thicker flanges and
webs.
Nominal depth of these
sections is approximately
equal to the flange width.
Flange and web
thicknesses are
approximately equal.
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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot
Rolling
Channel or C- and MC-Shapes
Inside faces of the channel flanges
sloped.
Commonly used as beams to support
light loads, such as in catwalks or as
stair stringers.
C-shapes are American Standard
channels, while MC-shapes are
miscellaneous channels.
e.g.: A C12 30 implies a C-shape with
an actual depth of 12 in. and a weight of
30 lb./ft., MC 12 35 implies a channel 35
with an actual depth of 12 in. and a self-
weight of 35 lb./ft.

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Angle (L) Shapes
Have equal or unequal length legs.
They are used as lintels
to support brick cladding and block wall
cladding, web members in trusses and
frame bracing.
Used as single angles or as double
angles placed back-to-back.
Single angle has three axes (xx, y
y, and zz) about which the member
could bend or buckle.
An angle with the designation
L4x3x1 4 implies a member with a long 36
leg length of 4, a short leg length of 3,
and a thickness of 1 4.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot
Rolling
Structural Tees: WT-, MT-, and ST-
Shapes
Structural tees are made by cutting a
W-shape, M-shape, or S-shape in half.
Commonly used as brace members
and as top and bottom chords of
trusses.
Also used to strengthen existing
steel beams where a greater moment
capacity is required.
e.g.: W14x90 is cut in half, the
resulting shapes will be WT 7x45. 37
ST- and MT- shapes are made from
S-shapes and M-shapes, respectively

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot
Rolling
Steel Plates and Bars
Bars can have circular, square, or rectangular cross sections.
If the width of a rectangular shape is 8, it is classified as a
bar. If the width > 8, the shape is classified as a plate.
Usual designation for both is the abbreviation PL (for plate,
even though it could actually be a bar) followed by the
thickness in inches, the width in inches, and the length in
feet and inches; for example, PL 3 853-21 2.
Used to strengthen existing steel beams and as supporting
members in built-up steel lintels.
Plate widths are usually specified in 1 2. increments, while
thicknesses are specified in 1 8. increments. The practical 38
minimum thickness is 1 4-in., with a practical minimum
width of 3 to accommodate required bolt edge distances.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot
Rolling
Steel Plates and Bars

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot
Rolling
Hollow Sections
Hollow structural section (HSS) members are rectangular,
square, or round tubular members.
Used as columns, hangers, and braced-frame members.
HSS members are not as susceptible to lateral torsional
buckling and torsion as W-shape or other open sections.
Frequently used as lintels spanning large openings
especially where eccentricity of the gravity loads may result
in large torsional forces.
Produced either by bending plate material into the desired
shape and welding the seam or by hot working to produce a
seamless shape. 40

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot
Rolling
Hollow Sections
e.g.: HSS 6x4x1 4 implies a rectangular hollow structural
steel with outside wall dimensions of 6 in one direction
and 4 in the orthogonal direction, and a wall thickness of
1 4, except at the rounded corners.

HSS 4x0.375 implies a round hollow structural steel with


an outside wall diameter
of 4 and a uniform wall thickness of 3 8.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Structural Steel Pipes
Structural pipes are round structural tubes similar to HSS
members
Sometimes used as columns.
Available in three strength categories: standard (Std),
extra strong (X-strong), and double-extra strong (XX-
strong).
Bending moment capacity and the axial compression load
capacity of these sections are tabulated in AISCM.
Steel pipes are designated with the letter P, followed by
the nominal diameter, and then the letter X for extra strong
or XX for double extra strong.
e.g.: P3 represents a nominal 3 standard pipe, P3X 42
represents a 3 extra-strong pipe, and P3XX represents a
3 double-extra-strong pipe.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Structural Steel Pipes

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Built-up Sections
Used when the design requirements are especially severe
(standard steel sections are inadequate to support the loads).
Built-up sections include welded plate girders and plates
welded to the top or bottom flanges of W-sections.
Built-up sections can also be used as lintels and as
reinforcement for existing beams and columns.
Other built-up shapes include double angles (e.g., 2Lx5x5x1 2)
and double channels (e.g., 2Cx12x25) placed back-to-back in
contact with each other or separated by spacers, and W- and M-
shapes with cap channels that are used to increase the
bending capacity of W- and S-shapes about their
weaker (yy) axis. 44

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Built-up Sections

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Standard Sections Produced in Hot Rolling
Standard structural steel shapes and the corresponding ASTM
designations or steel grades are given in Table as follows:

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Cold-Formed Steel
Structural shapes of this type are created by bending thin
material such as sheet steel or plate into the desired shape
without heating.
Only relatively thin material can be used, and the resulting
shapes are suitable only for light applications.
An advantage of this product is its versatility, since almost any
conceivable cross-sectional shape can easily be formed.
Cold-working will increase the yield point of the steel, and
under certain conditions it may be accounted for in design due
to the expense of a reduction in ductility.
Because of the small thickness of the cross-sectional
elements, the problem of instability is a particularly important
factor in the design of cold-formed steel structures.
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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


E - Standard Cross-sectional Steel Shapes
Cold-Formed Steel

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


F - Basic Structural Steel Elements
Typical steel
building is
consisted of:

A- Beams and
Girders
B- Columns
C- Beam-columns
D- Hangers

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


F - Basic Structural Steel Elements

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


F - Basic Structural Steel Elements
Structural Steel Systems:
The common types of
structural systems are made
with a combination of several
structural members used in
steel building structures
include trusses, moment
frames, and braced frames.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


F Considerations of Structural Steel Design
Safety: Steel members for any structures must be
designed to safely support the expected vertical and
horizontal loads. Safety factor includes strength and
deformation aspects.

Cost: Designer must keep in mind lower cost of steel


element with selection of lightest weight members without
affect of strength.

Constructability: Arising problems must be avoided by


designer with understanding fabrication methods and
available fabrication facilities.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


G Design Codes of Steel Structures
Minimum requirements that will ensure the safety. Codes
consist of standards and specifications cover all aspects of
design, construction, and function of buildings, including
occupancy and fire-related issues.

Commonly used codes are:


a- The International Building Code (IBC).
b- The Uniform Building Code (UBC).
c- National Building Code (NBC).
d- The Standard Building Code (SBC).

where: The current edition of the IBC 2006 now references


the ASCE 7 load standard for calculation of all structural
loads. 53
The steel material section of the IBC references the AISC
specifications for the design of steel structures.

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


H - Gravity and Lateral Loads Path
The vertical load travels from the
Slab or Roof DeckBeamsGirdersColumnsFoundations
Horizontal (lateral) loads path is as follows:
lateral load travels from the Roof or Floor Diaphragm Lateral Force Resisting
System Foundations

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


I Forms of Veritical and Lateral Loads
Vertical (gravity) load: The common types of gravity loads
that act on building structures are roof dead load, floor dead
load, roof live load, snow load, and floor live load.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


I Forms of
Veritical and
Lateral Loads
(continued)
In general, any load
that is not permanently
attached to the
structure can be
considered a live
load. The three main
types of live loads that
act on building
structures are floor live
load, roof live load,
and snow load. Floor
live loads, L, are
occupancy loads that
are specified in ASCE 56

7, Table 4-1 or IBC,


Table 1607.1.

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INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN


H Forms of Veritical and Lateral Loads (continued)
Lateral Load: The types of lateral loads that may act on a
building structure include wind loads, seismic loads, earth
pressure, and hydrostatic pressures. These loads produce
overturning, sliding, and uplift forces in the structure.

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BASICS OF STEEL DESIGN


Selection of member size and connections that will safely
and economically resist the applied loads
Required strength not exceed the available strength
Demand < Capacity
Deflections and vibrations are within the prescribed limits.
Both allowable strength (ending of elastic behavior) and
ultimate strength are acceptable design considerations
Two main design philosophies are provided in steel manual,
namely Allowable Strength Design ASD and
Load & Resistance Factor Design LRFD. 58

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METHODS OF STEEL DESIGN


Allowable Strength Design: is a design method based on
the first and traditional approach of steel design which
carries out at the service load level (working load). In this
method, Strength Limit is utilized in terms of allowable
forces as: (Actual strength)/(Allowable strength) 1.00

Strength can be an axial force strength (as in tension or


compression members), a flexural strength (moment
strength), or a shear strength.

where 59

METHODS OF STEEL DESIGN (CONTINUED)


Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): is given by
AISC in 1986 and is applied at factored load level with
dependence on Strength Limit States concerning with
reduced strength as follows:

(Required Strength/Nominal Strength) 1.00


or
Factored load factored strength
(loads load factors) resistance resistance factor
LRFD has been an accepted method of design for reinforced
concrete for years and is the primary method authorized in the ACI 60
code, where it is known as strength design. Current AASHTO
standards also use load and resistance factor design

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METHODS OF STEEL DESIGN (CONTINUED)


Plastic Design Method: is based on a consideration of
failure conditions rather than working load conditions. Failure
means either collapse or extremely large deformations.
Same load factors of LRFD are used in this method. Plastic
method is optional according to AISC and it may be used for
design of continuous beams and girders.

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METHODS OF STEEL DESIGN (CONTINUED)

C
A B

A = ASD capacity = nominal strength/Factor of Safety


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B = LRFD capacity = nominal strength x reduction factor
C = Nominal capacity

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LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
The strength reduction or resistance factors (): account
for the variability of the material and section properties and
are, in general, usually less than 1.0. These factors are
specified for various limit states in the AISC specification,
and are shown in Table as hereunder:

63

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Load Factors: AISC Specification says to use the load
factors and load combinations prescribed by the governing
building code. If the building code does not give them, then
ASCE 7 (ASCE, 2010) should be used. The load factors and
load combinations in this standard are based on extensive
statistical studies and are prescribed by most building
codes. The basic load combinations for LRFD are:
Combination 1: 1.4D
Combination 2: 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Combination 3: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W)
Combination 4: 1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
Combination 5: 1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S
Combination 6: 0.9D + 1.0W
Combination 7: 0.9D + 1.0E 64

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LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Load Factors (continued):
where
D = dead load, L = live load due to occupancy, Lr = roof live
load, S = snow load, R = rain or ice load, W = wind load
E = earthquake (seismic load)

Note The load factor on L in combinations 3, 4, and 5 is


given as 0.5, which should be increased to 1.0 if L is
greater than 100 pounds per square foot or for garages or
places of public assembly. ASCE 7 combinations 6 and 7
arise from the expression shown by considering
combination 6 to use 1.0W and combination 7 to use
1.0E. In other words,
Combination 6: 0.9D 1.0W 65
Combination 7: 0.9D 1.0E

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Load Factors (continued):
Load combinations for ASD are also given in ASCE 7. These
combinations, as presented in the AISC Steel Construction
Manual (AISC 2011a), are as follows:
Combination 1: D
Combination 2: D + L
Combination 3: D + (Lr or S or R)
Combination 4: D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Combination 5: D (0.6W or 0.7E)
Combination 6a: D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
Combination 6b: D + 0.75L 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S
Combinations 7 and 8: 0.6D (0.6W or 0.7E)

66

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4 April 2017

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Load Factors (continued):
Remarks
All structural elements must be designed for the most
critical of the aforementioned load combinations.
Since most floor beams are usually only subjected to dead
load, D, and floor live load, L, the most likely controlling load
combinations for floor beams and girders will be LRFD load
combinations 1 or 2 for limit states design, and ASD load
combinations 1 and 2 for serviceability (deflections and
vibrations) design.
Roof beams and columns have to be designed or
checked for all load combinations, but load combinations 2 of
LRFD and 2 of ASD are more likely to control the design of
most floor beams and girders. 67

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Factory of Safety in ASD:
Corresponding to the two most common values of resistance
factors in LRFD are the following values of the safety factor
in ASD: For limit states involving yielding or compression
buckling, =1.67. For limit states involving rupture, = 2.00.
The relationship between resistance factors and safety
factors is given by:

Thus, for allowable strength design, the relationship between


loads and strength can be expressed as:

Where: Ra = required strength (sum of the service loads),


68
Rn = nominal strength (same as for LRFD),
= safety factor and Rn/ = allowable strength

34
4 April 2017

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Factory of Safety in ASD (continued):
Safety factor relationship will produce similar designs for
LRFD and ASD, under certain loading conditions. If both
sides of Ra and Rn relationship are divided by area (in the
case of axial load) or section modulus (in the case of
bending moment of beam), then the allowable stress design
formula will produce as:
fF
where
f = applied stress
F = allowable stress

69

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Serviceability Criteria of Steel Members:
The limits on vertical deflections due to gravity loads are
intended to ensure user comfort and to prevent excessive
cracking of architectural partitions.

These deflection limits are usually specified in terms of the


joist, beam, or girder span, and the deflections are calculated
based on elastic analysis of the structural member under
service or unfactored loads.

The service loads, instead of the factored loads, are


used in the deflection calculations because under the
ultimate limit state, when failure is imminent, deflection of
the structure is no longer important. 70

35
4 April 2017

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Serviceability Criteria of Steel Members (continued):
Under normal service conditions, the deflections are limited
so that the occupants of the building do not become alarmed
by any appreciable deflection, thinking the structure or member
is about to collapse. The maximum allowable deflections
recommended in IBC, are as follows:
Maximum allowable floor deflection due to service
live load L/360
Maximum allowable floor deflection due to service total
dead plus live load L/240
Maximum allowable roof deflection due to service
live load L/180
Maximum allowable roof deflection due to service total
dead plus live load L/240 71

where: L = simple span length of flexural member

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Applications
Problem A:

72

36
4 April 2017

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Applications
Problem A: Solution:

73

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Applications: Problem A: Solution:

Answer:
Combination 2
controls, and the
factored load is
214.4 kips.

74

37
4 April 2017

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Applications: Problem A: Solution:

Answer:
The required
nominal
strength is 238
kips.
75

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Applications: Problem A: Solution:

Answer:
Combination
4 controls,
and the
required
service load
strength is
158.5 kips.

76

38
4 April 2017

LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS,


AND LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
Applications: Problem A: Solution:

This example illustrates that the


controlling load combination for
LRFD may not control for ASD.

Answer:
The required
nominal
strength is
265 kips. 77

39

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