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Adisa Azapagic et al's environmental impact classification factors (EICF)

PowerPoint presentation: 153 KB

This page is based heavily on the work of Adisa Azapagic et al

as presented in the Appendix of Polymers, the Environment and Sustainable Development [1]
and Box A3 of the Appendix of Sustainable Development in Practice - Case Studies for Engineers and
Scientists [2].

Azapagic et al use a problem-oriented approach to the definition of environmental impacts within the Inventory
Analysis phase of Life Cycle Assessment under eight categories. The categories can be directly mapped to both
ISO/TR 14047:2003(E) [3], the British Standard BS8905:2011 [4] and the European Environment Agency
environmental impacts [5]:

European Environment
Azapagic et al ISO/TR 14047:2003(E) BS8905:2011
Agency
Acidification Potential (AP) Acidification Acidification Acidification
Aquatic Toxicity Potential
Ecotoxicity Ecotoxicity Ecotoxicity
(ATP)
Eutrophication Potential (EP) Eutrophication/Nitrification Eutrophication Eutrophication
Global Warming Potential Climate change and global
Climate change Global warming potential
(GWP) warming
Human Toxicity Potential
Human toxicity Human toxicity Human toxicity
(HTP)
Non-Renewable/Abiotic Depletion of abiotic/biotic
Resource depletion
Resource Depletion (NRADP) resources
Ozone Depletion Potential
Stratospheric ozone depletion Stratospheric ozone depletion Stratospheric ozone depletion
(ODP)
Photochemical Oxidants Photochemical ozone
Photo-oxidant formation Photochemical oxidation
Creation Potential (POCP) formation (summer smog)
Land use

NB: EICF for cork extraction and granulate processing are summarised on a separate page and are not included in the
data below.

Non-Renewable/Abiotic Resource Depletion (NRADP) includes depletion of fossil fuels, metals and minerals.
The total impact can be calculated using:

where Bj is the quantity (burden) of the resource used per functional unit (e.g. per kg of product for a chemical) and
ec1,j represents the estimated total world reserves of that resource. Classification factors for NRADP are given in
Table 1.

Table 1: Classification factors for Non-Renewable/Abiotic Resource Depletion

Resource depletion (vs world
Burden Units References
reserves)
Coal reserves 87 200 109 tonnes 1, 2
Oil reserves 124 9
10 tonnes 1, 2
Gas reserves 109 1012 m3 1, 2

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Global Warming is caused by the atmosphere's ability to reflect some of the heat radiated from the earth's surface.
This reflectivity is increased by the greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. Increased emission of GHGs (CO2,
N2O, CH4 and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)) will change the heat balance of the earth and result in a warmer
climate over future decades. Global Warming Potential (GWP) is derived by summing the emissions of the GHG
multiplied by their respective GWP factors, ec2,j. The GWP value is calculated in kg using:

where Bj represents the emission of greenhouse gas j. GWP factors, ec2,j, for different greenhouse gases are
expressed relative to the GWP of CO2, which is therefore defined as unity. The values of the GWP depend on the time
horizon over which the global warming effect is assessed. GWP factors for shorter times (20 years and 50 years)
provide an indication of the short-term effects of greenhouse gases on the climate, while GWP values for longer
periods (100 years and 500 years) are used to predict the cumulative effects of these gases on the global climate.
Methane is removed from the atmosphere much more rapidly than CO2 so its short term effect is even greater than is
suggested by the 100 year GWP [5]. The classification factors for GWP are given in Table 2a.

Table 2a: Classification factors for Global Warming Potential

Lifetime in the Percentage of 2000
Global Warming Potential
Burden atmosphere emissions
(vs CO2 over 100 years)
(years) [6] (in CO2e) [6]
CO2 (carbon dioxide) 1 [1, 2] 5-200 [6] or 50-200 [3] 77%
CH4 (methane) 11 [1] or 21 [2, 3] or 23 [6] 10 [6] or 123 [3] 14%
Nitrous oxide 296 [6] or 310 [3] 115 [6] or 120 [3] 8%
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
400 [1, 2] or 10-12000 [6] 1-250 0.5%
(HFCs)
Trichloroethane 100 [7] - -
Chlorofluorocarbons (PFCs) 5000 [1, 2] or >5500 [6] >2500 0.2%
SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) 3200 22200 1%
Other volatile organic
11 [1, 2] - -
compounds

The InterGovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) publication "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis
- Summary for Policymakers" reported:

atmospheric carbon dioxide at 379 ppm (vs 280 ppm pre-industrial value) with an annual (and increasing)
growth rate of 1.9 ppm per year,
atmospheric methane at 1774 ppb (vs 715 ppb), and
atmospheric nitrous oxide at 319 ppb (vs 270 ppb) in 2005.

The amount of carbon dioxide released during the manufacture of different materials is given in the Table below [8].
Timber contains stored carbon dioxide* from the atmosphere, so whilst some carbon dioxide is released during its
harvesting and processing, "there is 8.3 kg of carbon dioxide [sic] absorbed during both the growth and milling process
of timber", so no net carbon dioxide is produced. In the context of "renewable/bio-based" materials, note that the
manufacture of fertiliser is ranked as the fifth of 123 UK production sectors for carbon intensity at 4.61 (units are
percentage point change at 70/tonne carbon) and its use produces both methane and nitrous oxide emissions [6].
Those industries which are more carbon intensive than fertilisers are cement/lime and plaster at 9.00, electricity
production and distribution at 16.07, refined petroleum at 23.44 and, finally, gas distribution at 25.36 [6].

Table 2b: Amount of CO2 released per kg of material [8]

Material CO2 (kg/kg material)
Aluminium 27.50 kg
Copper 8.5 kg (1.72-7.51kg [9])

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Glass 1.30 kg
Iron 1.75 kg
Lead 2.50 kg
Lime 1200 kg [10, 11]
Plastic 3.40 - 11.00 kg
Rubber 4.80 kg
Steel 3.20 kg
Wood n/a*

There is a Table of embodied energy values at http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/sme/mats324/mats324A9

NFETE.htm#energy.

The British Standard PAS 2050:2008 - Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of
goods and services enables a consistent approach to measuring the embodied greenhouse gas emissions from
products and services across their lifecycle, and is applicable to a wide range of sectors and product categories. It is
expected that it will form the basis for an internationally agreed standard in this area.

Further reading: H Goosse, PY Barriat, W Lefebvre, MF Loutre and V Zunz, Introduction to climate dynamics and
climate modeling, Online textbook, Universit Catholique de Louvain, 2008.

Software: CCaLC is a carbon fooprinting tool for estimation of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions throughout the
whole supply chain. It uses the internationally accepted life cycle methodology defined by ISO 14044 and PAS2050, is
claimed to be simple to use by non-experts and comes with comprehensive databases(including the Ecoinvent
database).

Acidification is a consequence of acids (and other compounds which can be transformed into acids) being emitted to
the atmosphere and subsequently deposited in surface soils and water. Increased acidity of these environments can
result in negative consequences for coniferous trees (forest dieback) and the death of fish in addition to increased
corrosion of manmade structures (buildings, vehicles etc.). The Vancouver Sun [12] has reported that anthropogenic
CO2 emissions absorbed by the ocean may have pushed local waters through an acidity tipping point beyond which
shellfish cannot survive: ten million dead scallops are the latest victims in the waters near Qualicum Beach.

Acidification Potential (AP) is based on the contributions of SO2, NOx, HCl, NH3 and HF to the potential acid
deposition in the form of H+ (protons). The AP value is calculated in kg using:

where ec4,j represents the AP of gas j expressed relative to the value for SO2 and Bj is its emission in kg per
functional unit. Classification factors for AP are given in Table 4.

Table 4: Classification factors for Acidification

Burden Acidification potential (vs SO2) References
SO2 (sulphur dioxide) 1 1, 2
NOx (oxides of nitrogen) 0.7 1, 2
HCl (hydrogen chloride) 0.88 1, 2
HF (hydrogen fluoride) 1.6 1, 2
NH3 (ammonia) 1.88 1, 2

Nutrient enrichment results from substances (primarily nitrogen and phosphorous from fertilisers) entering
ecosystems and disturbing the normal biological balance. Some organisms may gain an unnatural advantage at the
expense of other life forms. The principal consequence of nutrient enrichment is oxygen depletion, but normally
low-nutrient habitats such as moorland can be damaged by such nutrient enrichment. The use of commercial
inorganic fertilisers, in conjunction with increased livestock densities and the concentration of livestock production, has

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brought about a significant increase in the nutrient load on cultivated land. This material overload can result in runoff
to watercourses leading in turn to eutrophication or contaminated water supply systems [5]. It has been known for
decades that high levels of nitrogen deposition have the potential to change plant community composition and
biodiversity. However, Emmett [13] has predicted substantial effects from lower, chronic levels of deposition.

Eutrophication Potential (EP) is defined as the potential of nutrients to cause over-fertilisation of water and soil
which in turn can result in increased growth of biomass. The EP value is calculated in kg using:

where Bj is an emission of a species such as N, NOx, NH4+, PO43-, P and chemical oxygen demand (COD). The
parameters ec5,j are measured relative to PO43-. Classification factors for EP are given in Table 5.

Table 5: Classification factors for Eutrophication

Burden Eutrophication Potential (vs PO43-) References
Phosphates 1 1, 2
Nitrates 0.42 1, 2
Ammonia 0.33 1, 2
Oxides of nitrogen 0.13 1, 2
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 0.022 1, 2

Sundqvist [14] references eutrophicating substances to Chemical Oxygen Demand (DOD) with 1 kg of NO3 - equal to 4.4 kg
COD, 1 kg of NOx equal to 6 kg of COD, 1 kg of NH3 equal to 16 kg COD and 1 kg phosphorus equal to 140 kg COD.

Photochemical Oxidant Formation results from the degradation of the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of light. Excess ozone can lead to damaged plant leaf surfaces,
discolouration, reduced photosynthetic function and ultimately death of the leaf and finally the whole plant. In
animals, it can lead to severe respiratory problems and eye irritation. Photochemical Oxidants Creation Potential
(POCP) is related to the potential for VOCs and oxides of nitrogen to generate photochemical or summer smog. It is
usually expressed relative to the POCP classification factor for ethylene. The POCP value is calculated in kg using:

where Bj is the emission of the species participating in the formation of summer smog and ec6,j is the classification
factor for photochemical oxidation formation. Classification factors for ATP are given in Table 6:

Table 6: Classification factors for Photochemical Oxidation

Burden Photochemical Smog (vs Ethene) References
Ethene (a.k.a. Ethylene) 1 1, 2
Methane 0.006-0.007 1, 2, 14
Carbon monoxide 0.030 14
Styrene 0.142 15
Other hydrocarbons (except methane) 0.416 1, 2
Non-methane volatile organic compounds
0.416 14
(NMVOC)
Aldehydes 0.443 1, 2
Other volatile organic compounds 0.007 1, 2

Ozone is formed and depleted naturally in the earth's stratosphere (between 15-40 km above the earth's surface).
Halocarbon compounds are persistent synthetic halogen containing organic molecules that can reach the stratosphere
leading to more rapid depletion of the ozone. As the ozone in the stratosphere is reduced more of the ultraviolet rays

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in sunlight can reach the earth's surface where they can cause skin cancer and reduced crop yields. Ozone
Depletion Potential (ODP) indicates the potential for emissions of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds and other
halogenated hydrocarbons to deplete the ozone layer. Chlorofluorocarbons are now of minor importance since they
were banned by the Montreal Protocol [16]. Fertiliser-induced N2O emissions are now the single most important driver
of stratospheric ozone depletion on a global scale [17]. Extensive farming may now be seeing decreasing yields, and
combined with competition for land use between food, fuel and bio-based feedstocks, there is a need for a thorough
evaluation of bio-based materials at local, regional, national and global scales [16, 18]. The ODP value is calculated in
kg using:

where Bj is the emission of an ozone-depleting gas j. The ODP factors ec3,j are expressed relative to the ODP of
trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) [19. Classification factors for ODP are given in Table 3.

Table 3: Classification factors for Ozone Depletion

Burden Ozone Depletion Potential (vs CFC-11) References
Trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11) 1 1, 2
Chlorinated hydrocarbons 0.5 1, 2
Chlorofluorocarbons 0.4 1, 2
Other volatile organic compounds 0.005 1, 2

Human and Eco-Toxicity result from persistent chemicals reaching undesirable concentrations in each of the three
elements of the environment (air, soil and water) leading to damage to humans, animals and eco-systems. The
modelling of toxicity in LCA is complicated by the complex chemicals involved and their potential interactions.

Human Toxicity Potential (HTP) takes account of releases of materials toxic to humans in three distinct media - air
(A), water (W) and soil (S). The HTP value is calculated in kg using:

where ec7,jA, ec7,jW and ec7,jS are human toxicological classification factors for substances emitted to air, water and
soil respectively and BjA, BjW and BjS represent the respective emissions of the different toxins to each of the media.
The toxicological factors are calculated using scientific estimates for the acceptable daily intake or tolerable daily intake
of the toxic substances. The human toxicological factors are still at an early stage of development so that HTP can
only be taken as an indication and not as an absolute measure of the toxicity potential. Classification factors for HTP
are given in Table 7.

Table 7: Classification factors for Human Toxicology

Burden Human Toxicity Potential References
CO (carbon monoxide) 0.012 1, 2
NOx (oxides of nitrogen) 0.78 1, 2
SO2 (sulphur dioxide) 1.2 1, 2
Hydrocarbons (excluding methane) 1.7 1, 2
Chlorinated hydrocarbons 0.98 1, 2
Chlorofluorocarbons 0.022 1, 2
As (arsenic vapour) 4700 1, 2
Hg (mercury vapour) 120 1, 2
F2 (fluorine) 0.48 1, 2
HF (hydrogen fluoride) 0.48 1, 2
NH3 (ammonia) 0.0017-0.020 1, 2

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As (arsenic as solids) 1.4 1, 2

Cr (chromium) 0.57 1, 2
Cu (copper) 0.02 1, 2
Fe (iron) 0.0036 1, 2
Hg (mercury as liquid) 4.7 1, 2
Ni (nickel) 0.057 1, 2
Pb (lead) 0.79 1, 2
Zn (zinc) 0.0029 1, 2
Fluorides 0.041 1, 2
Nitrates 0.00078 1, 2
Phosphates 0.00004 1, 2
Chlorinated solvents and compounds 0.29 1, 2
Cyanides 0.057 1, 2
Pesticides 0.14 1, 2
Phenols 0.048 1, 2

Styrene has an odour threshold 0.08 ppm (parts per million) [20] to 0.32 ppm [21]. Permitted levels in the workplace
range from 10 ppm (new build facilities in Sweden) to 100 ppm (e.g. UK) for time weighted average exposure. The
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) level
for styrene is 700 ppm [22] based on acute inhalation toxicity data in humans [23, 24].

In the United States, the National Toxicology Program 12th Report on Carcinogens [American Composites
Manufacturers Association - Regulatory Bulletin - 23 July 2008] has recommended that styrene be listed as "reasonably
anticipated to be a human carcinogen".

Aquatic Toxicity Potential (ATP) has a value calculated in m3 using:

whewhere ec8,jA represents the toxicity classification factors of different aquatic toxic substances and BjA is their
respective emissions to the aquatic ecosystem. ATP is based on the maximum tolerable concentrations of different
toxic substances in water by aquatic organisms. As with HTP, the classification factors for ATP are still developing and
hence should only be used as indicators of potential toxicity. Classification factors for ATP are given in Table 8.

Table 8: Classification factors for Aquatic Toxicology

Aquatic toxicology (m3 x Aquatic toxicology
Burden References
12
10 /g ) (pg/m3 )
As (arsenic) 0.181 5.52 1, 2
Cr (chromium) 0.907 1.10 1, 2
Cu (copper) 1.810 0.55 1, 2
Hg (mercury) 454 0.0022 1, 2
Ni (nickel) 0.299 3.34 1, 2
Pb (lead) 1.810 0.55 1, 2
Zn (zinc) 0.345 2.90 1, 2
Oils and greases 0.0454 22.0 1, 2
Chlorinated solvents and compounds 0.0544 18.4 1, 2
Pesticides 1.180 0.85 1, 2
Phenols 5.350 0.19 1, 2

Azapagic [25] has recently stated that "Toxicity estimations in LCA are notoriously unreliable and difficult". While the
dilution volume method above does represent an approach previously used , an updated methodology has now been
developed (driven by CML in the Netherlands). The method now predominantly used to calculate eco-toxicity (including

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aquatic ecotoxicity) is based on 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalence (with units of kg 1,4-DB eq.). Eco-toxicity potential
(ETP) is calculated for all three environmental media and comprises five ETPn indicators:

where n (in the range 1-5) represents freshwater aquatic toxicity, marine aquatic toxicity, freshwater sediment toxicity,
marine sediment toxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity respectively. ETPi,j represents the ecotoxicity classification factor for
toxic substance j in the compartment i (air, water, soil) and Bi,j is the emission of substance j to compartment i. ETP is
based on the maximum tolerable concentrations of different toxic substances in the environment by different
organisms.

References

1. A Azapagic, A Emsley and I Hamerton, Polymers, the Environment and Sustainable Development, John Wiley &
Sons, March 2003, ISBN 0-471-87741-7. PU CSH Library.
2. A Azapagic, S Perdan and R Clift (editors), Sustainable Development in Practice - Case Studies for Engineers and
Scientists, John Wiley & Sons, May 2004. ISBN 0-470-85609-2. Second edition, 2011: ISBN
978-0-470-71872-8. PU CSH Library.
3. Environmental Management Life Cycle Impact Assessment Examples of Application of ISO14042,
International Standard PD ISO/TR 14047:2003(E), 11 December 2003. ISBN 0-580-43112-6.
4. BS 8905:2011 Framework for the assessment of the sustainable use of materials - guidance, BSI Group,
London, August 2011.
5. P Kamierczyk (editor), Sustainable use and management of natural resources, EEA Report No 9/2005. ISBN
92-9167-770-1. ISSN 1725-9177.
6. N Stern, The Economics of Climate Change (Stern Review), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. ISBN
0-521-70080-9. PU CSH Library. Executive Summary.
7. DR Shonnard, Evaluating the Environmental Performance of a Flowsheet, in D Allen and D Shonnard, Green
Engineering: Environmentally Conscious Design of Chemical Processes, Prentice Hall, 2002. ISBN
0-13-061908-6.
8. Forests, Timber and the Greenhouse Effect, NSW Department of Primary Industries, 13 May 2004.
9. Life cycle assessment of offshore and onshore sited wind power plants based on Vestas V90-3.0MW turbines,
Vestas Wind Systems A/s, Randers (DK), 29 March 2005, accessed 08 February 2007 at 11:37.
10. PA Ochoa George, AS Gutirrez, JB Cogollos Martnez and C Vandecasteele, Cleaner production in a small lime
factory by means of process control, Journal of Cleaner Production, 18 (2010), pp. 11711176.
11. A Sagastume Gutirrez, J Van Caneghem, JB Cogollos Martnez and C Vandecasteele, Evaluation of the
environmental performance of lime production in Cuba, Journal of Cleaner Production, 31 (2012), pp. 126136.
12. R Shore, Acidic water blamed for BCs 10-million scallop die-off, The Vancouver Sun, 26 February 2014.
13. B Emmett, Nitrogen a major driver of biodiversity loss, Acid News, June 2008, (2), 13-15.
14. J-O Sundqvist, Chapter 15: Assessment of Organic Waste Treatment, pages 247-263 in Jo Dewulf and Herman
van Langenhove (editors), Renewables-Based Technology: Sustainability Assessment, Wiley, Chichester, 2006.
ISBN 978-0-470-02241-2. PU CSH Library
15. Styrene: Part 1 Environment, European Union Risk Assessment Report, European Chemicals Bureau Institute for Health and Consumer
Protection Priority List 1 volume 27, European Commission Joint Research Centre report EUR 20541 EN, 2002.
16. M Weiss, J Haufe, M Carus, M Brando, S Bringezu, B Hermann and MK Patel, A review of the environmental
impacts of biobased materials, Journal of Industrial Ecology, April 2012, 16(S1), S169S181.
17. AR Ravishankara, JS Daniel and RW Portmann, Nitrous oxide (N2O): the dominant ozone-depleting substance
emitted in the 21st century, Science, 2 October 2009, 326(5949), 123-125.
18. E Wrdinger, U Roth, A Wegener, R Peche, W Rommel, S Kreibe, A Nikolakis, I Rdenauer, C Prschel, P
Ballarin, T Knebel, J Borken, A Detzel, H Fehrenbach, J Giegrich, S Mhler, A Patyk, GA Reinhardt, R Vogt, D
Mhlberger and J Wante,
Kunststoffe aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen: Vergleichende kobilanz fr Loose-fill-Packmittel aus Strke bzw.
Polystyrol, Projektgemeinschaft BIfA / IFEU / Flo-Pak Endbericht (DBU-Az. 04763), March 2002.
19. Chemical Profile for trichlorofluoromethane (CAS Number 75-69-4), Scorecard - the pollution information site,

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accessed 08 February 2006.

20. J May, Solvent odor thresholds for the evaluation of solvent odors in the atmosphere, Staub-Reinhalt, 1966,
26(9), 385-389.
21. JE Amoore and E Hautala, Odor as an aid to chemical safety: odor thresholds compared with threshold limit
values and volatilities for 214 industrial chemicals in air and water dilution, Journal of Applied Toxicology, 1983,
3(6), 272-290.
22. Styrene IDLH Documentation, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16 August 1996.
23. Styrene monomer, in AIHA Hygienic guide series. American Industrial Hygiene Association, Akron OH, 1959.
24. RRD Stewart, HC Dodd, ED Baretta and AW Schaffer, Human exposure to styrene vapor, Archives of
Environmental Health, 1968, 16(.), 656-662.
25. A Azapagic, Private communication, 25 February 2009.

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Created by John Summerscales on 08 February 2006 and updated on 05-Jun-2015 9:58. Terms and conditions.
Errors and omissions. Corrections.

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