ethnical

esearch Bulletin No. 3-49

Marine Diesel

Power Plant Practices

The Socie~ of Naval Architects

and Marine Engineers
 This Bulletln has been prepared by

Panel M-37 (Diesel Plant Practices)

of

THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS

TECHNICAL AND RESEARCH PROGRAH

Alan L. Roven, Chairman

Working Committee:

Willlam L. McCarthy
William S. Peters
David R. Rodger

Review Committee:

John M, Dabbar H. Wiboe Nielsen

Jose Femenia I. Hilary Rolih
A.A. Freelund Joseph Tiratto
Hans Klein Woud William P. Towner
Louis H. Hensen La9kar Wech91er

Reviewed and Approved by

SHIPS MACHIMERY COMMITTEE

Thoma9 P. Mackey, Chairman

Allen Chin, Vice Chairman

RODert J. Bazzini L199a A. Martinez

John W. Boy19ton* Robert M. Uorai9
Norman H. Brubaker Charle9 A. Narvicz
William G, Bullock Michael G. Par90n9*
Harmon M. Burford* F. Everett Reed
James E. COrliSS Alan L. Roven
Pranci9 X. Critelli John T. Schroppe*
Allen E. Crout John K. Stuart
Robert M. Freeman Gerald C. Sven90n
Jo9eph D. Hamilton Andrev A. Szypula
Richard W. Harking Richard P. Thor9en
Carl F. Horlite* Jo9eph Tiratto
Everett C. Hunt* William Watson
Chegter L. Long* John D. William9
Charles W. Wi190n

Corresponding Member

Franci9 M. Cagliari
Deputy Executive Director
 Technical and Re9earch Bulletin 3-49

MARINE DIESEL POWER PLANT PRACTICES

Preparea by

PANEL M-37
DIESEL PLANT PRACTICES

of the

SHIPS MACHINERY COMMITTEE

Publis~ea by

THE SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS

601 Pavonia Avenue, Jersey City, Nev Jer9ey 07306

June 1990

COpyright 1990 by The SOCiety of Naval Architects ana Marine Engineers

 DEDICATION

This edition of Marine Diesel Power Plant Practices is dedicated to the

memory of Professor Jens T. Helm, vho compiled the original edition.

DISCLAIMER

It 19 understood and agreed that nothing expregsed

herein is intended or shall be construed to give any
person, firm or corporation any right, remedy, or
claim against SNAME or any of its officers or
members.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 DEFINITIONS

3.0 STANDARD CONDITIONS

3.1 Ambient conditions

3.2 Fuels

4.0 PROPULSION POWER REQUIREMENT

4.1 Engine ratings

4.2 Propeller-engine relationship
4.3 Propulsion transmission power absorption
4.4 Engine selection

j.O ENGINE STANDARD PRACTICES

j.1 Effect of ambient conditions

5.2 Fuel consumption
5.3 Lubricating oi1 consumption
5.4 Intake air requirements
5.5 Exhaust gas
5.6 Heat dissipation to cooling water and lubricating oil

6.0 AUXILIARY AND SHIPS SERVICE REQUIREMENTS

6.1 Electric load

6.2 Fresh water requirements
6.3 Heating steam or thermal fluid demands
6.4 Trade support service requirements
6.5 Oil-fired boiler fuel consumption

i.O WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION

7.1 Sources and uses of waste heat

7.2 Exhaust gas beat recovery for basic ships services
7,3 Enhanced heat recovery
7.4 Heat recovery at the charge air cooler
7.5 Waste heat turbogenerator cycles
7.6 Exhaust gas turbines

8.0 ~WER TAKE-OFF UTILIZATION

8.1 Power take-offs

8.2 Electrical generation from power take-offs
8.3 Pumps driven from power take-offs

-i-
9.0 SUPPORT SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

9.1 Automation and control

9.2 Electric generating plant
9,3 Fuel systems
9.4 Compressed air systems
9.5 Lubricating oil systems
9.6 Fresh water generating plant
9.7 Fresh water cooling systems
9.8 Sea water systems
9.9 Steam systems
9,10 Bilge systems
9,11 Engine room ventilation
9.12 Stores refrigeration systems
9.13 HVAC systems
9.14 Access and overhauling gear

10.0 TYPIC.kLMACHINERY LISTS

10.1 Low-speed diesel engine propulsion plant machinery list

10.2 Medium-speed diesel engine propulsion plant machinery list

11.0 OVERALL PI-ANTFUEL AND LUBRIC.ATI

NG 01L CONSUMPTION

11.1 Fuel and lube oil consumption of a low-speed diesel plant

11.2 Fuel and lube oil consumption of a medium-speed diesel plant

l~,o WEIGHTS, CENTERS OF GRAVITY AND VOLUMES

12.1 Masses
12.~ ceter~ Of gra~,
ity
12.3 Voltlme

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

A. The Ideal Gas Law

B. WHTG Plants: Procedure for Heat Recovery Estimates
c. Procedure for WHTG Performance Estimates
o. Mollier Diagram

-ii-
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this bulletin is to set forth guidelines, practices and

allowances suitable for use in preliminary stages of the design of marine
diesel power plants for the propulsion of typical merchant ships. The
bulletin is intended to aid the designer in tbe use of engine anufacturers
performance data and to report plant design practices.

The earlier edition of this bulletin (Marine Diesel Power Plant Performance
Practices, 1975) generalized performance data for the ranges of engine types
then available. The rapid evolution of diesel engine design in recent years,
leading to engines whose performance data are frequently very different from
their predecessors, coupled with the ready availability of performance data
published by the engine anufacturer, renders this approach both less
reliable and less necessary. Nevertheless, although some generalized data are
included in tl]ebulletin, in very early design stages when a particular engine
design has not yet been selected, better results are likely if data extracted
from current specifications for an engine of the general type most likely to
be fitted, can be used.

The scope of this bulletin is generally limited to addressing diesel

propulsion plants with main engines of the low-speed, crosshead type, and
trunk piston engines with outputs as low as 100 bkW (brake kilowatts) per
cylinder at speeds up to about 1200 RPM. In attempting to generalize data,
uncommon engine types and those not in current production have not generally
been included, For the most part, only turbocharged engines have been
considered.

-1-
2.0 DEFINITIONS

Brake power is the power available at an engines output flange, before

deductions for the power consumption of speed reducing devices. A
clarification will be necessary in regard to auxiliaries directly driven by
the engine, in order to determine if a stated brake power is bare engine or
net.

Shaft power is the net power supplied to the connected load after passing
through all speed-reduction and other transmission devices and thrust
bearings, and after power for auxiliaries directly driven by the engine or
transmission equipment has been subtracted, but before subtracting the power
consumed in stern tube bearings and (as used here) line-shaft bearinga. A
clarification will be necessary in regard to shaft-driven auxiliaries.

Maximum continuous rating (MCR) is the highest power which an engine is

capable of delivering continuously, at a stated engine speed, under conditions
stated by tbe manufacturer. In an alternative definition, it is the design
condition for engine-associated equipment, including shafting and auxiliaries,

Brake mean effective pressure (B~P) is a derived parameter roughly indicative

of engine loading. It is the ratio of the work done per working cycle
corresponding to the brake power, to the displacement volume of the
engine (i.e.; the volume of all of the cylinders, calculated from the bore and
stroke). If the BMEP were applied to a piston through its power stroke, it
would produce the work equivalent to the brake power.

1S0 is the International Organization for Standardization, a worldwide

federation of national standards bodies. ISO standarda are recognized, but
without complete compliance, by many manufacturers.

Distillate fuel, as used here, is the pure, clean, clear refined petroleum
product, without traces of residuum or heavy fuel, suitable for uge without
heating, at normal ambient temperatures.

Heavy fuel, as used here, is any fuel oil containing more than trace
quantities of residuum, likely to require heating before use.

-2-
3.0 ST.4NDASDCONDITIONS

3.1 Ambient conditions

Standard ambient conditions shown below are derived from International

Standard Organization (1S0) Stmdard 3046/1, Reciprocal Internal Combustion
Engines-Performance-Part 1..

Total Barometric Pressure 750 m Hg

Outside Air Temperature 25C
Outside Air Relative Humidity 30%
Charge Air Coolant Temperature 25c

While 1S0 Standard 3046/1 is almost universally accepted and utilized by

diesel engine manufacturers internationally, any adjustment of engine output
or fuel rate due to hon or anticipated variations from standard ambient
conditions should be ade only after establishing the sctual quoted mbient
reference conditions for the specific engine in question. Paragraph 5.1 of
this document provides guidance for making these adjustments, Typically, for
marine applications, such adjustments may include quoted engine power output
and fuel rate variations due to anticipated barometric pressures, machinery
space air temperatures and relative humidities and charge air coolsnt/sea
water temperatures which are significantly different from an engines quoted
ambient reference conditions. Additionally, ranges of typical sea level and
engine room ambient conditions are presented below which can be utilized ag a
basis for initial engine performance adjustments where actual in-service
conditions are known.

Engine Room Air Temperature 25C to 45C

Engine Room Air Relative Humidity 35% to 55%
Outside Air Temperature -5C to 30C
Outside Air Relative Humidity 60% to 85%
Sea Rater Temperature OC to 32C
Barometric Pressure 730 to 790 mm Hg

3.2 Fuels

Most arine diesel engines are capable of operating on fuels of varying

quality ranging from distillate to lower quality grdes of heavy fuel. The
selection of a particular fuel is primarily m economic one, influenced by
such factors as availability, the fuel oil treatment snd conditioning
capabi1ities on board the vessel and the tolerance of the engine to
contaminants md variations in fuel properties which will directly influence
the amount of maintenance required by the engine. For the purpose of
preliminary design evaluations as in actual practice, fuel grade selection
should be based on expected fuel properties and contaminmts that are within
the limits established by the manufacturer for the spacific engine being
considered. Four grades of marine fuels, including a distillate and three
grsdes of intermediate fuels have been identified in Table 3-1 for reference
purposes. These fuels have been taken from 1S0 Standard 8217, Petroleum
Products-Fuels (Class F)-Specifications for Marine Fuels. Section 5.2
provides guidance for making adjustments to brake specific fuel rate for
operatiorion other than an enginea reference fuel.

-3-
 TABLE 3-I

1S0 STfiNDRROMARINE FUELS

LIMITS ON PROPERTY (I) ISO-F-DMX ISO-F-RME-25 ISO-F-RMG-35 ISO-F-RML-55

5 I80 380 700

?.5 35 55
43 EO 60 EO
jO ?0 30
0.2@ 15 IR (6)
(j) 0,951 0.991 (i)
0.01 @l@ @.15 0.20
(4) (4) (4)
1.0 1,0 1.0
45 (5) (5) (5)
!.0 5.0 5.0 S,@
500 600 E@@
i6i (s) (s)

below 39300

Nc~teS:(1) Ma..lmunor minimum values are shown. Actual values wiIl vary.
!~j Uaiue5 listed are Ram5bottcm, % mass, e?,
cept for DMX, uhlch ~S ~ 10%
res~due.
(7) No limit IS set by 1S0; typical values are 0.82 to 0.89.
(4) No sediment values ere pro~idedby 1S0; a value for water plus
5ediment of 2tiby ma~~ IS often used for hezvy fuels.
(5) Cetane numbers are not provided as procedures do ot apoIY,
Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Inde;;(CCfi
I ) may be listed.
(6) No llmit iS set by 1S0; values may exceed the 22% ma~:imumof the ne::t
better grade.
(7) No limit IS set by 1S0; CIMAC recommends a ma:<imumof I.010.
(8) Aluminum is used as an index of catalytic fines contamination. No
limit is set by 1S0: CIflfiC
recommends a ma>:imumof 30 PPM.

-4-
4.0 PROPULSION ~WER REQUIREMENT

4.1 Engine ratings

The rating gi~,enan engine by its anufacturer and approved by the regulatory
bodies reflects their confidence that the engine will perform reliably at that
level, under stated conditions. The rating of any particular odel may be
increased as time passes, to reflect component improvements or service
experience.

The rating is usually expressed as a continuous power output at a specific

engine speed, usually called the aximum continuous rating (MCR). An engine
may be given different ratings depending on application, for example, a high
performance rating may be given an engine intended for a warship application
in which the engine may be operated under conditions of auatained overload for
limited periods of time, and with reduced intervals between overhauls. This
might be in contrast to a lower rating given the same engine for a merchant
ship propulsion application, where the engine will be operated for long
periods at output levels well within the anufacturers experience, and with
component lives and service intervals acceptable in a commercial operation.
Similar considerations sometimes lead to the definition of a continuous
service rating, lower than the MCR by a percentage called the engine margin,

The pressure in the cylinder of a diesel engine, averaged over the entire
cycle, including the compression stroke as well aa the power stroke, is the
mean indicated pressure (MIP). When the MIP is ultiplied by the echanical
efficiency of the engine, the result is the mean effective pressure (MEP).
The MEP is directly proportional to the torque applied to the drive shaft, so
that the product of MEP and RPM ia directly proportional to bkW, Stated
al~otherway, the MEP is directly proportional to the bkW divided by the RPM.
This relation is shown in Figure 4-1: when the engine is run at its rated RPM
a~]dits rated torql~e(100 percent MEP), the rated brake output (bkW) is
de\reloped,

Figure 4-1 shows that an engine can only achieve its rated power output at, or
above, its rated RPM: at lower RPM the power that the engine can develop is
limited by the MEP.

The aximum torque that a cylinder can develop, and therefore its limiting
MEP, is a direct result of the amount of fuel which can be burned in the
cylinder in each cycle. This mount ia 1imited on the one hand by the amount
of air trapped in the cylinder (and by tbe ability of the fuel to combine with
sufficient oxygen in the time available), and also by the ability of the
CY1inder components to withstand the higher temperatures ad extended duration
of high cylinder pressure which reaulta. Sustained operation above the fuel
raCk setting corresponding to rated MEP will result in poor combustion
(reflected by carbon deposits and perhaps smoke), higher exhauat gas
temperatures, higher metal temperatures and shorter component lives of
pistons, cylinder heads, cylinder liners and exhaust valves and seata, and
greater-than-anticipatedwear rates of piston rings sod grooves, cylinder
liners and bearinga.

An engine may be derated, or given a rating lower than normal, to optimize

it for a particular application. This ay or may not result in component

-5-
 FIGURE 41
PROPELLER ENGINE REMTION

MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING (MCR)

RANGE OF
OPERATION,
CLEAN HULL,
LOADED

60 70 80 90 ~ 110

ENGINE RPM, PERCENT

-6-
changes different from the standard outfit. In general, derating follows one
of the following patterns:

- An engine may be derated to a lower power output at rated RPM, so that

MEP is reduced. The SFC is likely to be reduced and lower maintenance
costs can be expected.

- An engine ight be derated to a lower RPM, but at the rated MEP. In the
case of engines directly connected to the propeller, a higher propeller
efficiency may then be possible, SFC will most likely be reduced, but
maintenance cost will most likely be unaffected.

- An engine may also be derated to develop a reduced ~P at a reduced RPM,

thereby yielding all of the above advantages, i.e.; reduced RPM, lower
aintenance costs and the potential for higher propeller efficiency.

When a given amount of power is to be obtained from a derated engine, that

engine will generally be larger, heavier and have a higher acquisition cost
per bkW than the normally-rated model of the same engine.

Auxiliary sizing and shafting design are based on the MCR, The abilityof a
derated engine to be upgraded to its normal rating to meet a future
requirement may jl]stifythe use of the normal MCR for these purposes.

4.2 Propeller-engine relationship

The amount of power &hich a propeller will absorb at a given ship speed will
vary with the condition of the propeller, the surface condition of the hull,
the draft and trim of the ship, and the sea and wind conditions, A typical
propeller power absorption characteristic for a trial condition, with the hull
and propeller clean and smooth, at a particular draft and trim, and in calm
sea and wind conditions, is shown in Figure 4-z. In service, the power
absorption characteristic (at the same draft and trim, and even in calm Seas
and winds) will mo~,eup ad to the left as ~hon, reflecting the fact that at
any particular service speed, an increased amount of power will be absorbed by
the propeller as the condition of the hull and propeller deteriorate through
roughenin~ and fouling.

The sea margin is defined as the difference between the power required to
achieve a particular speed in tbe trial condition, and the poer required to
acbie~,
e the same speed i service. The extent and rate of increase of
prOpeller power absorption in service ca be limited bY the US= of advanced
hull coatings and by frequent cleaning or other reconditioningof the hull and
propeller. Sea margins of up to 20 percent are common when weather effects
are limited, but when allowances for extreme weather are included the argin
will be higher,

The lower portion of Figure 4-2 shows the relation between the RPM of a fixed
pitch propeller md the speed of the ship. This relation enables the power
requirements of the ship to be correlated with the output of the engine, as in
Figure 4-1. Controllable pitch propellers permit adjustment of the propeller
power absorption curve to help to compensate for deteriorating condition of
the hull and propeller, but this alone ia usually not sufficient reason to fit
one.

-7-
 FIGURE 42
SPEED - POWER CURVES

MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS
PDWER

/
AVERAGE SERVICE
POWER

!
SEA
MARGIN /

1/
AVERAGE
SERVICE
CONDITION

SHIP SPEED

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4.3 Propulsion transmission power absorption

The following paragraphs summarize the features and performance of direct-

dri~,e,geared and diesel-electric propulsion installations. The power
absorption addreased here is only that associated with the transmission of net
engine brake power to propulsion shaft power: power absorbed in non-propulsion
loads, such as attached pumps and auxiliaries are discussed in Section 8,0,
and should be deducted first when determining the net power available for
propulsion. While the information presented here is adequate for initial
estimates, anufacturers data should be utilized when available.

4.3.1 Component allowances

Recommended allowances for power absorbed in various propulsion trmsmisaion

system components are listed in the Table 4-1, These components, alone or in
varying combinations, are commonly utilized in direct, geared or diesel-
electric transmission systems, and the power that each component absorbs is in
addition to power absorbed in the basic transmission system. The power
absorbed is generally the result of surface friction, hydraulic slip or
windage and ultimately results in increases in lubricating oil, hydraulic
fluid or air temperature.

TABLE 4-1

Transmission component allowances

COM~NENT PowER coNsuMED (AND TRANSMITTED)

AS A FRACTION OF INPUT,MWER

propeller thrust bearing 0.005 (0.995) per shaft line

friction clutches and
mechanical couplings O (1,0) if non-slip
hydraulic couplings 0403 (0.97)
gears 0.01 (0.99) for each mesh or stage

These allowances are sufficient to estimate shaft power from net engine brake
power and vice versa. Power consumed in line shaft bearings, stern tubes snd
strut bearinga may reduce the abaft power by a further l%,

The allowance in Table 4-1 are intended for use at rated power: they will
have to be corrected for other output levels using a load correction factor
from Figure 4.3-1.

Applications of the components are discussed below.

Propeller thrust bearing: The propeller (or main) thrust bearing

transmits propeller thrust in both the ahead snd astern direction, to the
ships structure. In multiple-shaft installations, one thrust bearing
per shaft line is required. For direct drive the ain thrust bearing is
usually integral with the ain engine, built into the aft end of the
engine bed plate. In some diesel-electric plants, the main thrust
bearing is installed aft of the propulsion otor as a separate component.
However, in ost installations utilizing reduction gears, and in any of

-9-
 FIGURE 4.31
MECHANICAL DRIVE SYSTEM LOAD CORRECTION FACTOR

0 20 io 60 80 100

X RATED SHAFT POWER

-1o-
 the more recent diesel-electric installations, the ain thrust bearing is
integral with the gear set or propulsion motor.

Friction clutches and mechanical couplings: Friction clutches, self-

s>mchronizing and other echanical couplings have no mechanical losses
once engaged. Pneumatically-operatedfriction clutches are easily
adapted to remote control and are commonly utilized in ultiple-diesel
engine, geared installations, Pneumatic friction clutches cannot
tolerate slip, In applications where some slip is anticipated (cable
laying, trawling, ice operations, etc.), hydraulically-actuatedfriction
clutches have been employed, and in these cases an allowance would have
to be retie,

Hydraulic couplings: Hydraulic coupling systems are frequently employed

in special-purpose ships fitted with geared-diesel installations,
typically to obtain very low shaft RPMs, reduction in alternating shock
loads between the engine and propeller (as a result of such problems as
propeller fouling or blockage during ice breaking, fishing, cable laying
or similar operations), improved acceleration and reversing times for
fixed pitch propeller systems and rapid shaft-braking capabilities,

Reversing gears: In geared-diesel, fixed pitch propeller installations,

when non-reversing engines are fitted, a reversing element is
incorporated in the gear set, Generally, the gears are in constant mesh,
and the choice of ahead and astern operation is made through the
selection of the proper clutch. The continuous eshing of the gears
results in a transmission 10ss, which should be take as ~ additiOal
gear mesh allowance.

Two-speed gears: Two-speed gears are sometimes employed in geared-diesel

engine, fixed pitch propeller installations where the operating profile
requires significant amounts of time in more than one speed and power
range. For example, in tug boats, one gear ratio would be used for
running free and mother towing. In a father and son engine
installation, the use of a two-speed gear and associated clutches can
allow either engine to run at its rated output when clutched-in, while
producing different propeller (vessel) speeds.

4.3.2 Direct Drive

In direct drive, the engine is directly coupled to the propeller shafting.

Direct drive is ost commonly utilized with low-speed, direct-reversingdiesel
engines, whose relatively low RPM is a suitable match to propeller
requirements. In fixed pitch propeller installations, these engines are
direct reversing. There is generally no clutch, but there will always be a
propeller thrust bearing, It should be noted that the thrust bearing,
although integral with the engine, will not normally be loaded when an engine
is run on a test bed. The power consumed by the thrust bearing must be taken
into account when determining available shaft power from installed-engine
brake power, as explained in Section 4.3.4,

4.3.3 Geared Drive

Medium and high-speed diesel engines offer advantages, in comparison to low-

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speed engines, which include reduced volume, weight and acquisition cost per
kW, but because they operate at speeds well above those which would result in
good propeller efficiency, they are most often geared to the propeller shaft.
The gear set ay permit even lower propeller RPM than might have been possible
for a low-speed direct-drive engine in the same application.

The gear set permits the output of two or more engines to be combined to drive
a single propeller. The engines are typically connected with friction
clutches to a multiple-input, single-output reduction gear. When a ultiple-
engine installation is fitted with a controllable pitch propeller, flexibility
is enhanced because, regardless of the number of engines in use, they can
operate at or near their rated RPM while ship speed is varied.

Single reduction gear sets can provide engine-to-propeller RPM ratios as high
as 9:1 or 10:1 and are normally used. Idler wheels are utilized in ultiple-
engine installations where the distance between engine and shaft center lines
is large (for example, for high-output, ultiple V-engine configurations).

Geared diesel engine installationsrequire a propeller thrust bearing.

Clutches will be present in multiple-engine installations and ogt single-
engine installations.

Where manufacturers data are not available, the allowances of Table 4-1 can
be utilized for the gearing and additional components but must be corrected
by applying a load correction factor aa illustrated in Section 4.3.4.

4.3.4 Calculation of shaft power

The following relation illustrates the procedure for calculating the available
shaft power of each shaft line, from net engine brske power:

skw = (bow)
k,here:

skW = available shaft power per shaft line, in kW

bkW = total available engine brake power per shaft line, in kW
Ft = factor for thrust bearing power transmitted, from Table 4-1
Fg = factor for reduction,gear power transmitted, from Table 4-1
Fh = factor for hydraulic coupling power transmitted, Table 4-1
FL = load correction factor, from Figure 4.3-1

When available, anufacturers data should be utilized in this calculation in

lieu of the values from Table 3-1 and Figure 4,3-1. Care ust be taken when
using manufacturer data for basic transmission systems to determine if
allowances for components are included.

4.3.5 Electric Drive

Diesel-electric drive is common in special-purpose built vessels, including

research ships, ice breakers, cable layers and ferries, where the advantage
of precise speed control, rapid reversing, low machinery noise, high torque at
low propeller RPM and flexibility in machinery arrangement have mde them
attractive alternatives. Diesel-electric drive has become incresaingly
attractive in large passenger and cruise ships, where there ia additional

-12-
advantage to be gained by integrating propulsion and ships service electrical
systems so that power to all services is provided through a single
distribution bus by one or more diesel-generators. With this arrangement,
through proper load anagement, a minimum number of generators, each operating
in its most efficient range, can be utilized to obtain the lowest fuel
consumption over a wide operating range of ship speeds and ships service
loads. Various power conditioning components, including transformers,
filters, rectifiers, frequency converters and motor generator sets, may also
be employed in these systems to meet specific requirements.

Compared to geared drive and to lower output direct-drive installations (3,000

kW or leas), electric-drive systems are generally heavier and more expensive,
per kW installed. At the same time, electric-drive tranamisaion systems are
typically five to ten percent leas efficient at rated output, than comparable
geared or direct-drive systems.

Along with the electrical and electronic components, varioua mechanical

transmission components discussed in Sections 4.3.1 and 4,3.3 are commonly
utilized in electric-drive systems, including a thrust bearing. Some
electric-drive systems also include reduction gears. The power consumed by
all components must be included when determining the overall efficiency of an
electric-drive system.

Three electric drive systems, AC/AC, DC/DC and AC/DC, are discussed below in
their ost common configurations. Figure 4.3-2 and Figure 4,3-3 provide data
suitable for initial estimates. However, overall electric-drive system
efficiency is very sensitive to the combination of components, and each
eff~ciency curve contained in Figure 4.3-3 is therefore shown with a shaded
envelope. When available for tbe specific system being evaluated,
manufacturers data should be utilized. Available shaft power can be
calculated from installed engine brake power using the sme method as in
Section 4,3.4,

AC/AC Drives: The basic AC/AC electric transmission system consists of

ultiple diesel-driven salient-pole synchronous generators, a low-speed
smchronous motor driving each propeller, associated switch gear,
propulsion control and excitation components. Compared to DC/DC and
AC/DC systems, AC/AC installations are generally more efficient, cheaper
to purchaae, operate and aintain, and weigh less per installed kW. AC/AC
drives are well suited for use with integrated electrical power
generating systems. Synchronous propulsion motors with outputs aa high
as 45,000 bkW are in service. For low and moderately powered AC/AC
installation, a reduction gear incorporated between the motor and
propeller allows the use of a lower cost, higherRPM, synchronous motor.
Acquisition cost can alao be reduced by employing off-the-shelf induction
otors and a multiple-input reduction gear, The difficulty of obtaining
speeds below 20% to 30% of rated RPM with synchronous motors can be
overcome by operating the otor as an induction otor at low RPM, or by
fitting a controllable pitch propeller. In high power, fixed pitch
propeller installations, more expensive cycloconverter systems ca be
used to obtain high torque at low RPM,

DC/DC Drives: DC/DC drive has been employed in installations of less than
7,500 skW, although single motor installations of up to 11,000 akW have

-13-
 FIGURE 4.3-2
ELECTRIC DRIVE EFFICIENCY VS. RATED SHAFT POWER
95

90

85

80

75
o

RATED SHAFT POWER X 1000,kW

FIGURE 4.33
ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEM LOAD CORRECTION FACTOR
1.00

0,95

0.90

0.85

0.80

o 20 40 60 80 100
Z RATED SHAFT PDWER
-14-
been delivered. They are considerably more expensive than equivalently
sized AC/AC and AC/DC systems in terms of acquisition and aintenance
costs and typically have the lowest efficiencies, However, DC/DC drive
systems can provide precise propeller RPM control down to 1% of rated
RPM, while transmitting 100% of rated torque, aking them an attractive
alternatilrein such applications as ice breaking, A typical DC/DC drive
system consists of multiple generators, ost commonly connected.in
series, a single or double-armature,low-speed propulsion motor coupled
directly to a fixed pitch propeller, a generator excitation gystem and a
voltage control system to control the RPM and direction of the propeller,
To reduce acquisition cost, ultiple, lower output, off-the-shelf DC
motors can be mounted in tandem and directly coupled to the propeller
shaft, or et,ensmaller, higher RPM motors can be utilized with a
ultiple-input gear set. Electrical power for ships gervices in ships
with DC/DC drive is usually provided by separate AC diesel generators.

AC/DC Drives: In most low and oderate power applications, AC/DC drive
has become preferable to DC/DC drive because of the lower acquisition
cost of AC generators and tbe advantages offered by an integrated
electric power system supplying both DC power for propulsion ad AC power
for ships services, The basic AC/DC drive consists of multiple AC,
salient-pole diesel generators, switch gear, drive transformers (if
required, depending on generator voltage), power converters and a DC
prop~llsiol>
motor directly coupled to each fixed pitch propeller, To
reduce system weight, volume and acquisition cost, generator voltage is
usually higher for higher-powered plantg. In systems employing generator
voltages higher than 600 volts, drive transformers are usually utilized
to step the voltage down to 600 \,olts,suitable for input to the power
converters. Semi-conductor controlled rectifiers (SCRS) usually form the
bagis of power converters employed to convert the 600 volt AC input to
regulated 750 volt DC output. Typically, six SCRS are grouped together
on a single bridge (a six-pulse converter) with several bridges being
paralleled to provide the current required to drive the proplsiOn motor.
The SCRS also incorporate solid-state microprocessor-based re~lator
circuits to provide for control of motor RPM or voltage, field reversal
for braking and change of direction, current rate, acceleration rate,
voltage drop and current and active and reactive power limitation. DC
propulsion motors employed in these systems are usually shunt wound and
are limited to about 4,500 kW output as standard design and production
models. Higher power requirements can be met by mechanically coupling
smaller standard motors in tandem on the propulsion shaft, using
dedicated groups of six-pulse SCR bridges for each motor. At
considerably greater expense, high output motors employing 12 pulse pwer
converters and phase-shifting transformers can be utilized, Because of
the power bus spikes, dips and harmonics associated with this type of
drive, AC generators and DC propulsion otors ust be specifically
designed for tbe service, while attention must be paid to the quality of
ships service power supply. Depending on the nature of the non-
propulsion loads, clean ships service power cm be provided by motor-
generator acts, electric line conditioners or isolatora and/or
uninterruptible power supplies.

-15-
4.4 Engine selection

Normally, an engine will be selected so that the power absorbed i driving the
propeller, including transmission and shafting losses and any attached
auxilisry losds, will be between 80 and 90 percent of the engines rated
power, at rated RPM, in the trial condition of hull and propeller, atloaded
draft and trim (see Figure 4-2), This will generally result in sdequste
engine margins, ses argins and propeller msrgins. For special applications,
such ss towing and icebreaking, other rules apply,

The power absorbed under the conditions cited above may be limited to the
lower portion of the 80 to 90 percent range, or to an even lower level, if:

- the ship must operate at constant speed

- the long-term effects hull and propeller roughness increase not

recoverable in normal drydockings are to be taken into account

- it is anticipated that the ship will be drydocked infrequently

- a large allowance for adverse weather conditlOns is lncOrpOrated

- the intended trade will take the ship into warm weather ports for
extended stays

The power absorbed under the conditions cited above ay be ln the uPPer
portion of the range if:

- operation at ever diminishing ship speeds during an interval before

hull and propeller reconditioning ia tolerable

- sophisticated hull coatings are to be applied

- the ship will operate only in fresh water

-16-
5.0 ENGINE ST.4NDARDPRACTICES

5.1 Effect of ambient conditions

Most manufacturers state fuel consumption at low temperatures, most often the
1S0 conditions cited in 3.1. Most engines will be subject to different
ambient conditions in service however, and the operating par~etera must be
corrected for this change, preferably using correction methods recommended for
the particular engine by the manufacturer.

In most marine applications (i.e.; typical merchant ships operated at sea

level) the ambient conditions most affecting engine performance are intake air
and, for engines with turbocharging and aftercooling, charge air cooling water
temperatures. Only if the manufacturers data are unavailable should the
guidelines cited below be used.

A rise in intake air temperature at constant power output will:

increase fuel consumption by O.2 to about 1.0 percent for every 10C
rise in air temperature

decrease air ~d exhaust gas ass flow rate, approximately i direct

proportion to the ratio of absolute air temperatures

increase exhaust gas temperatures by about 1.5C to 2.OC for every

degree of air temperature increase

A rise in charge air cooler cooling water temperature at constant power

output will:

increase fuel consumption by 0.2 to 0,6 percent for every 10C rise in
water temperature

decrease air and exhaust gas mass flow rate by O.5 to 2 percent for
every 10C rise in water temperature

increase exhaust gaa temperatures by about 3C to 6C for every 10C

rise in water temperature

It is usually not necessary to correct engine output for service conditions as

most engines are designed to achieve their rated output at elevated ~bient
conditions, ost often cited as am intake air temperature of 45C md a charge
air cooling water temperature of 32C.

Depressed intake air pressure (below normal barometric pressure at sea level)
and elevated exhaust back pressure each increaae fuel consumption and increase
exhaust temperatures, but as long as the deviations are not severe, the
effecta are less significant than those of the air and water temperature
changes. If the intake depression exceeds about 0.01 bar, or the exhaust back
pressure exceeds about 0.03 bar, performance characteristics, including the
engine output, ay require correction.

The effect of humidity is not usually significant, especially for turbocharged

engines.

-17-
5.2 Fuel consumption

The specific fuel consumption (SFC) is the amount of fuel consumed over a
ided by the power output of the engine, It is ost often
period of time, di~,
quoted as kilograms or pounds of fuel per hour, per brake kilowatt or brake
horsepower. The quoted value will usually have been derived from test bed
measurements, on distillate fuel and under controlled conditions, in
accordance with an established power test code. In using the quoted values,
the points listed below must be considered, and appropriate adjustments made.

The units must be clear: in particular, an SFC quoted per metric

horsepower will be numerically lower than if quoted per British
horsepower.

The SFC will vary with engine output md RPM, generally being lowest at
about 75 to 85 percent MEP and about 90 percent R~. Most engine
builders will quote the SFC at rated output, while others furnish data
covering the output range. The SFC at rating ay be up to five percent
higher than the lowest value, with all other factors equal.

The SFC of a bare engine, without any attached pumps, will be lower than
thst of the engine with pumps attached. Most engine builders will
quote the SFC for their standard configuration, or for the bare engine as
well as for other configurations. Guidance values for power absorbed by
attached lubricating oil pumps, fresh water pumps or sea water pumps are
given in Section 8.3.

Differences from one power test code to another resulting from

different ambient conditions, should be normalized using correction
methods recommended for the particular engine by the manufacturer,
which are also used to permit adjustment of the SFC to expected service
conditions. Only-if the allufacturerls correction factor= are
unavailable should the factors of SectiOn 5,1 be used.

To normalize a difference in SFC arising from varistion in the heating

value of the fuel, the SFC should be ultiplied by the ratio of the
heating value of the subject fuel to that Of the specified fuel, noting
that it is the lower heating value which is used.

To determine the ,SFC of an engine capable of blended or other heavy fuel

operation, when operated on heavy fuel, the SFC should be multiplied by
the ratio of the heating value of the heavy fuel to thst of the specified
fuel, It is not usually unnecessary to apply any further margin for
poorer combustion conditions.

In cases where fuel consumption is quoted on a volumetric basis the

quoted value must be adjusted by the ratio of fuel densities,

In most cases the SFC will be quoted or ~aranteed with a tolerance of

three to five percent. Because ost engine builders can be confident of
achieving a test bed SFC within a fraction of one percent, some builders
will deduct ost of tbe tolerance from their measured data before
publishing the results. Therefore, until proven unnecessary, the
tolerance should be added to the quoted SFC.

-18-
 In general, diesel engines must be kept in reasonable repair if they are
to operate at all. The addition of a further margin to the SFC, once the
above adjustments are made, is usually unnecessary,

Most fuels, including clean distillates, will contain some water and solids as
purchased (see Table 3-1). Most of this water and sediment will be removed ln
settling, purification and filtration, together with any additional
accumulation during storage aboard the ship, This removal of impurities from
the fuel, which leads to an apparent increase in consumption, should not be
charged against the SFC of the engine, but should be counted in determining
the overall fuel consumption and storage capacity.

5.3 Lubricating oil consumption

The amount of lubricating oil consumed by a diesel engine will generally be

one-half-to-one percent of the fuel consumption, but because of the higher
unit cost of the lubricating oil, the cost of its consumption will be a much
more sigllif
icant percentage of the cost of the fuel consumed. Lubricating oil
consumption rates are generally quoted by engine anufacturers for guidance
only, and are usually derived from service experience or, for new engine
models, extrapolations of experience with similar engines. In some cases it
has been found necessary to use substantially greater rates than those
published. The rate of lubricati!]goil consumption can be varied over a wide
range, under the control of the operator, with effects which are evident only
in the long term. It has been demonstrated that increased lubricating oil
consumption frequently correlates with lower wear rates for affected
components.

Lubricating oil is consumed in diesel engines as follows:

- Crosshead engines, and some of the larger trunk-piston engines, are

fitted with separate cylinder oil systems for lubrication of tbe piston
rings. In engines in good condition the cylinder oil consumption may
range from below O.7 to about 1.4 g/bkW-h.

- In trunk-piston engines without separate cylinder oil systems, cylinder

lubrication consumes up to 1.5 g/bkW-h or ore of circulating oil.

- In crosshead engines the circulating oil rarely requires replacement in

the normal course of events. An allowance of O.5 to 1 kg/bkW-y, prorated
from the full year down to a inimum of perhaps 0,25 kg/bkW-y, but based
on the bkW at MCR, might be reasonable for preliminary estimates.

- In trunk piston engines, contamination of the oil by combustion prducts

is usually inevitable and the oil ust be renewed periodically. The
renewal interval will depend on many factors, among them the service that
the engine sees, the type of fuel used, the amount of oil in circulation,
the rate at which fresh make-up oil is added to compensate for oil
consumed in cylinder lubrication, the lubricating oil filtration mmd
purification equipment, the condition of tbe engine and the practices of
the operators. In the absence of better information, an allowance of 1
to 2 kg/bkW-y, prorated from tbe full year down to a minimum of perhaps
0.25 kg/bkW-y, but based on the bkW at MCR, ight be reasonable for

-19-
 preliminary estimates. Methods of reducing the consumption by extending
the renewal interval are discussed in Section 9.5,

5.4 Intake air requirements

I!]takeair flow rates are specified by the manufacturer, usually derived from
test bed easurements, with an engine run on distillate fuel md under
controlled conditions, in accord with an established power test code. In
using these quOted values, the following points should be noted:

- The value must be adjusted for mbient conditions as explained in Section

5.1, Some recommendations for ambient conditions likely in service are
made below.

- A volumetric flow rate can be converted to a ass flow rate by using the
density calculated from the ideal gas law (see Appendix A) at appropriate
conditions of absolute temperature ad pressure.

Wllerethe intake air is taken from the engine room (the typical case), it
should be noted that it is common practice in the design of machinery space
ventilation systems to duct fresh air to the vicinity of the engine intakes.
II>s well designed engine room intake air temperatures in service will
therefore represent an average between outside air and general engine room
temperatures. Reasonable values might be 35c and 25c, summer ad ~iter,
respectively, If there are constraints on the fresh air supplied to the
engine, intake air temperatures can exceed the 45C value for which any
engines are rated.

Where the intake air is drawn directly frOm the eather the flow rate may
require adjustment for an anticipated pressure drop in the intake ducting, as
well as a correction for ambient temperature.

Marlufacturer
s data for intake air requirements should be used, as even
superficially similar engines may require significantly different specific air
quantities. This warning must be borne in mind in using the generalized data
for air-to-fuel weight ratios (R) of Table 5-1. The data in the table are at
1S0 conditions and the highest MCR, and are derived from characteristicsof a
wide range of engines in current production. Adjustment to an air intske
temperature of 45c will alone cause these ratios to fall by seven percent or
ore. In some engine designs the ratio exhibits a flat characteristic versus
load, while in others it tends to rise as load is reduced, Engines which are
derated to lower valuea of MEP tend to have higher air-to-fuel ratios
throughout their load range than the higher-rated models of the same engines,

TABLE 5-1

Air-to-fuel weight ratios (R) for turbocharged engines

These ratios apply to engines at their highest MCR, using distillate

fuel, at 1S0 conditions.

two-stroke, low-speed, crosshead engines 40 to 50

four-stroke, medium-speed engines 30 to 43
two-stroke, edium-speed engines 33 to 39

-20-
5.5 Exhaust gss

Exhaust gas temperature and flow rate are among the data available from engine
manufacturers, and it is this source which should be used.

If the exhaust gas mass flow rate is not given, it can be obtained from the
air flow by adding the fuel flow, calculated from the adjusted SFC, unless a
charge air waste gate or dump valve is fitted.

If manufacturera data are una~,ailable,the exhaust gas mass flow rate at the
highest MCR of the engine can be estimated using the generalized air-to-fuel
ratios of Table 5-1, as follows (this method fails if a charge sir waste gate
or dump valve is fitted):

mg = (Rtl)(SFC)(bkW)
where:

ma = gas mass flow rate, kg/h

R= air-to-fuel ratio, from Table 5-1, adjusted in accord with 5.1
SFC = specific fuel consumption of distillate fuel, kg/bkW-h,
adj~]stedin accord with 5.2
bkW = engine brake output at load under consideration, in kW

The behavior of the gas mass flow rate at partial powers and fOr derated
egi],eswill essentially parallel that of the air flow, as described in,
Section 5.4.

Where manufacturers data are unavailable, an estimate of the exhaust gas

temperature at standard conditions, when run at the highest MCR snd on
distillate fuel, can be ade using one of the following relations (these
methods fail if a charge air waste gate or dump valve is fitted):

T, = TO t [(L}IV)(SFC)- 860](fla)/(sFc)(Rtl)(cP)

or: T, = T. t (LHV)(flb)/(Rtl)(cP)

where:

T, = exhaust temperature at standard conditions, degrees C

TO = j.ntaketemperature at standard conditions, degrees C
LHV = lower heating value of distillate fuel, Table 3-1, in kJ/kg
SFC = specific fuel consumption, kg/bkW-h, on distillate fuel and
at standard conditions, but otherwise adjusted in accord
with Section 5.1
fla = 0.47 to O.56, the fraction energy released by the combustion
of the fuel which is not converted to brske output, which is
carried off by the exhaust gas; for a wide range of medium-
and low-speed engines, this fraction is ss shown, but it can
be considerably lower for higher speed engines
flb = the fraction of heat released by the combustion of the fuel
which is carried off by the exhaust gas, from Fi@re 5-2
R= air-to-fuel ratio, from Table 5-1 without adjustment
CP specific heat of the exhaust gaa at ita average temperature,
estimated from Figure 5-1

-21-
 FIGURE 51
SPECIFIC HEAT OF GAS

1.20

1,15

1!10

1.05

1.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600

GAS TEMPERATURE, C
To adjust,the estimated temperature to different intake air temperatures the
guidelines of Section 5.1 can be used.

When heavy fuels are used, the exhaust gas temperature at equal output will
usually be higher, typically by 10C to 20C, than when burning distillate fuel.

The behavior of exhaust temperature at partial power output of the engine is

highly engine-specific, in some cases falling as output is reduced while
displaying a rising characteristic in other cases, It is safe to assume, for
many turbocharged engines direct-connectedor geared to fixed-pitch
propellers, that the temperature is roughly constant over the top of the load
range, from MCR down to 75 percent. For engines unloaded at constant RPM, tbe
gas temperature usually drops from MCR down to 50 percent output, typically by
5C to 15C for every 10 percent load reduction.

Engines which are derated to lower values of MEP tend to have lower final
exhaust temperatures throughout their load range than the normally-rated
models of the same engines.

j.6 Heat dissipation to cooling water and lubricating oil

The amounts o.fheat dissipated to an engines cooling water and lubricating

oil are among the data available from engine manufacturers, and it is tbi~
source which should be used.

If anufacturers data are unavailable, estimates of the amount of heat

dissipated at the various cooling circuits can be ade as follows:

Q = fz(LHV)(SFC)(bkW)
where:

Q = amount of heat dissipated to coolant (or LO), kJ/h

fz = the fraction of energy input to the engine, obtained from the
percentages of Figure 5-2, at the appropriate percentage of
rated engine output.
LHV = lower heating value of fuel used, Table 3-1, in kJ/kg
SFC = specific fuel consumption, kg/bkW-h, adjusted in accord with
Section 5.1
bkW = engine brake output at load under consideration, in kW

Figure 5-2 was derived from data for a wide range of engines in current
production, with the 100 percent rating corresponding to the highest MCR model
of each engine. Some manufacturers estimate heat radiated to surroundings,
which is not incuded in the fi~re, at up to 5 percent, but more commonly, a
value of one-to-two percent is used. Given the approximation inherent i this
generalized approach,.Figure 5-2 csn be used with intake air temperatures from
20C to 45C, cooling water from 25c to 38C at the charge air cooler inlet, when
burning distillate fuels or heavy fuels and for partial output along a
propeller characteristic or at rated RPM, even though each of these factors
has an effect on the actual heat balance. In general, when output is reduced
along a propeller characteristic the heat dissipation fractiona are higher at
~Y given Percentage output than when RPM is aintained,

-23-
 FIGURE 5-2
HEAT BAMNCE FOR TURBOCHARGED ENGINES

50

40

a
L CHARGE AIR COOLING
E
n
E
+
10 -
s
I

o
10
-.
1 LUBE OIL COOLING
WITH OIL COOLED PISTONS>
J
\
//////////////////,/,,,,,,,

_WITH
WATER COOLED PISTONS~
_

50 60 70 80 90 100

PERCENT OF RATED OUTPUT

-24-
The temperatures at which heat is dissipated to coolanta are among the data
available from engine manufacturers; and it is this source which shOld be
used. If manufacturers data are unavailable, the values belo, determined
from data for a wide range of engines, can be used.

Jacket cooling water generally leaves an engine at about 80C to 90C.

The temperature is usually maintained in this range by temperature
regulating valves at the cooler, and is therefore independent of engine
output.

At rated engine output, lubricating oil ay leave a low-speed engine at

about 50C to 60C, and a medium-speed engine at about 70C to 80C. In the
case of the LO, it is usually the engine inlet temperature which ia
maintained, generally at about 15c below the maximum engine ~tlet
temperature, yielding a LO outlet temperature which declines s engine
output is reduced.

Air leaving the turbocharger compressor and entering the air cooler will
be at a temperature which is mostly dependent upon the boost ratio of the
compressor. The boost ratio is the.ratio of compressor discharge
pressure to inlet pressure and is usually only slightly greater than the
ratio of air manifold pressure to ambient pressure, which can be used in
its place as an approximation. Figure 5-3 can be used to estimate the
temperature of the air entering the cooler, entering the figure at a
boost ratio appropriate to the engine and its percentage output, The
boost ratio declines as engine output is reduced, roughly in proportion
to the percentage of rated engine output.

-25-
 FIGURE 53
APPROXIMATE TEMPERATURE OF AIR
ENTERING CHARGE COOLER

240

230

220

210

200

190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60
1!5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4,0

BOOST RATID

-26-
6.0 AUXILIARY AND SHIPS SERVICE REQUIREMENTS

6.1 Electric load

A preliminary estimate of the electric load is required in the initial stages

of design, before a detailed electric load analysig can be performed,. For
such purposes, the following relation gives a reasonable estimate of the
average service eiectric lnad for most merchant ships:

kWe = 100 + 0.55 MCR07

where the MCR is taken in kW.

This relation asaumes that all pumps are separately driven by electric motors.
Normal propulsion, navigation, HVAC and other ships service electric loads
are included; cargo service loads (cranes, cargo refrigeration, cargo hold
ventilation, etc.) and other special loads (thrusters, for example) are not
included. Where pumps are attached, the service load can be decreased
accordingly; some guidance ia given in Section 8.3, For ships with special
cargo service requirements, see Section 6,4.

The average service electric load tan be considered constant over the upper
load range ofthe main machinery (70 to 100% MCR) , where the installation
em]?loyspredominal]tlyconstant-speed pumps. Where multi-speed pumps or
parallel pumps in sequential operation are fitted, adjustment of the average
service load may be necessary. In installations with multiple ain engines,
if o]]eengine is sl]utdo~n in some modes of operation, the service load in
these modes may be reduced to reflect any auxiliaries which can then be shut
down.

\lariationsin the electric load over the course of a day, and ~ariations
imposed by changing ambient conditi~s, may be in the range of +/- 10% for
modern merchant ships, excl[]siveof variations imposed by special machinery.

Electrical generating plants are further discussed in Section 9.2.

6.2 Fresh water requirements

Freshwater requirements may be affected by tbe following factors:

ship type and operating profile

crew and passenger complement and nationality
type of sanitary system
machinery type and configuration
cargo service requirements

The allowances below are recommended for use in preliminary design

determinations of anticipated daily freshwater consumption, in metric tons per
day (MTPD). If actual rates are known, or if estimates can be based on
experience with similar ships or equipment, these should be used instead. Any
significant freshwater requirement resulting from cargo service demands must
be separately determined and added to the consumption calculated from these
allowances.

-27-
 Propulsion plant

without a central freshwater cooling system 0.25 MTPD/1000 bkW (1)

with a central freshwater cooling system 0.5 MTPD/1000 bkW

Steam, feed and drain systems

system losses (leakage, blowdon, etc.) 0.12 MTPD/WrH (2 )

steam soot blower losses (if fitted) O.12 MTPD/MTH
steam atomizing losses (if fitted) 0.06 MTPD/MTH

Hotel consumption

all ship types but passenger ships fitted

with seawater or vacuum type sanitary systems O.2j MTPD/person (3)

all ship types but passenger ships fitted

with freshwater sanitary systems 0.40 MTPD/person

passenger ships O.4j MTPD/person

Notes: (1) The bkW at installed rating should be used.

(2) MTH is the combined, rated boiler evaporation rate, in metric
tons per hour.
(3) The number of people to be used is tbe largest number
realistically expected to be on board at sea. Traveling work
squads, families of working crew, relief officers, observers and
passengers are some people outside the ships complement who
should reasonably be counted in assessing consumption.

Means of meeting fresh water requirements are discussed in Paragraph 9.6.

6.3 Heating steam or thermal fluid demands

Reference will be made to values of specific heat. For convenience, some

values, approximately correct in the range of temperatures and pressures
usually encountered, are listed in Table 6-1.

TABLE 6-1

Approximate values of specific beat

fluid Cp, kJ/kg-C

fresh water 4.2

sea water 3.9
distillate fuel oil 2.1
heavy fuel oil 1.9
lubricating oil 1.7
air 1.0

-28-
6.3.1 Fuel heating requirements

Distillate fuels are normally used without heating, but heavy fuels ust be
heated in the tanks, pipelines, at the purifier and at the engine. Guideline
temperatures at various points in a IIeavyfuel oil system for use in
preliminary estimates are:

idle storage tanks 10C above pour point, or the surrounding

sea water temperature
ready storage tanks 40C
settling and day tanks 40C to 60C
purifier heater 98C

The temperature required at the engine is determined from a viscosity diagram

such as Figure 6-1. It can be see; that the heaviest fuels require heating to
150C to 160C.

The heat required for fuel heating can be estimated from the following
relationship:

Q = f3(mf)(Cp<)(Th-T.)
where:

Q = heat required, kJ/h

f3 = a factor to account for losses from tanks and piping to
surroundings; see discussion below
mf = the mass flow rate of fuel to be heated, kg/h
Cpf = specific beat of the fuel oil, kJ/kg-C (see Table 6-I)
Th = the temperature to which the fuel is to be heated, degrees C
T, = the temperature from which the fuel is to be heated, degrees C

In estimating the total amount of heat required for fuel heating:

The factor f3 will have to be assumed. Until better data are available,
a value of 1.25 to 1.5 may be appropriate. When the surrounding sea
water temperature is less than 10C above,the pour point and idle storage
tank heating is necessary, values of 1.5 to two may be used. The higher
values should be used in cases where there is substantial heavy fuel oil
storage in tanks with high surface-to-volume ratios, such as dOble
bottom tanks.

T. should be taken as equal to the ambient sea water temperature for the
conditions under consideration, i.e.: in winter conditions, conceivably
as low as -2C in icy sea water,

mf should include all the fuel to be heated, fOr axiliary engines and
oil-fired boilers as well as main engines if appropriate, with each at
the output appropriate to the conditions under consideration.

To determine the ass flow rate of steam or thermal fluid required, the
following relations apply:

Q Q
where: ==m= C*AT

-29-
 T
87,7-7 [ 1 I ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! I ! { ! ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! 1 1 I ! I 1 1 1 1 I 11
0 mnxw%wmww mmmw.ommtmrnw ~2mz40mmow 3203.0
T

Exan]ple:
TO obtain
therecommendedviscosity
beforefuelinjec[ion
pumps a fueloilof 150mmzls(cS()
a[50C
mustbe Ilea[ed
10 108[o 120SC.

I DePt.0756 87.7037 I

-30-
 m, = the mass flow rate of steam (or thermal liquid), kg/h
Ah = the available enthalpy drop of the steam, or for saturated
steam, the latent heat of condensation, kJ/kg; until better
data are available this can be taken aa 2100 kJ/kg for
saturated steam at pressures ranging from 3 to 8 bars
CP = the specific heat of the thermal fluid, kJ/kg-C; where
pressurized fresh water is used as the thermal fluid, use
4.2 kJ/kg-C
AT = the available temperature drop of the thermal fluid,
degrees C

As a rule, steam used for final heating of heavy fuel oils will have to be at
about 7 to 8 bars to ensure that the heaviest fuels can be sufficiently heated
prior to injection, (In general, it is the saturation temperature of the
steam, and therefore its pressure, which is important in achieving required
fuel temperatures.) If only lighter blends are to be considered, the steam
pressure can be reduced accordingly. Steam for fuel oil heating in tanks and
piping can be at lower pressure, in the range of 3 to 5 bars or less.

6.3,2 Lubricati.
ng oil heating requirements

Lubricating oil for the main engine is normally heated for purification on a
continuous basis. When auxiliary engines are arranged tO burn heavy fuel,
tl~eirlubricating oil sumps should be continuously purified as well.

The heat required for lubricating oil heating can be estimated from the
following relationship:

Q = f,mticptiA
T
where:

Q = heat required, kJ/h

f4 = a factor to account for losses to surroundings; as long as the
exposed surface is limited and well insulated, or the
temperatures are oderate, a value of 1.01 is sufficient.
M1o = mass flow rate of oil to be heated, kg/hr (See Section g.5 )
cpl. = specific heat of the oil, kJ/kg-C (see Table 6-1)
AT = the required temperature rise of the oil, degrees C, from the
preValliug temperature in the engine sump (See Section 5,6)
to about 85c,

To determine the mass flow rate of steam or thermal fluid required, the
following relations apply:
Q_Q
m== -
Ah Cp AT
where the terms are defined in Section 6.3.1 above.
Steam used for lubricating oil heating is usually at a pressure in the range
of 3 to 5 bars.

-31-
6.3.3 Hotel services

For hotel services, the following parameters may be used:

low-pressure stea thermal fluid

for hot water heating 0.4 kg/h-person 850 kJ/h-person

for galley services 0.2 kg/h-person 475 kJ/h-person

Total for hotel services 0.6 kg/h-person 1300 kJ/h-person

Generally, quarters heating in cold climates, and air conditioning reheating

in warm climatea, will be pro~,
ided by steam or electric heaters, via a central
HVAC system, If steam is used for quarters heating an additional allowance
must be made. Two alternative formulations are suggested belOw for typical
merchant ships; for passenger ships the parameters in the table can be halved.

gross interior deck

area of accommodation per person

!{interquarters heating 0.15 to 0.3 kg/h-m2 5 to 10 kg/h-person

summer air conditio]]ing 0,08 to O.15 kg/h-m2 3 to j kg/h-person

In using these parameters, the number of people to be used is the largest

nl!mberrealistically expected to be be on board at sea. Traveling work
squads, families of working crew, relief officers, observers and passe~ers
are some people outside the ships complement who might reasonably be counted
illassessing consumption.

Steam used for hotel ser!,

ices is typically at a pressure in the range of 3 to
5 bars or less.

6,3.4 Heating of water and other fluids

Situations other than thOse cited, in which a fluid requires heating are
frequently encountered. TWO examples are feedwater heating in drain-
collecting tanks or feed heaters, a[ldsea water heating for a distilling
plant. Similar relations apply:

Q= f5m1cp1A TI
where:

Q = heat required, kJ/h

f5 = a factor to account for losses to surroundings; as long as the
exposed surface is limited and well insulated, or the
temperatures are moderate, a value of 1.01 is sufficient.
ml = the ass flow rate of the fluid to be heated, kg/h
Cp1 specific heat of the fluid, kJ/kg-C (see Table 6-1)
ATl = the required temperature riseof the fluid, degrees c

TO determine the mass flow rate of steam or thermal fluid required, the
following relations apply, where the terms are defined in Section 6.3.1 above.
Q-Q
m== -
Ah Cp AT

-32-
6.4 Trade support service requirements

Except where cited, the allowances of the preceding sections will enable
reasonable estimates to be made for electrical load, fresh water and heatlg
needs of ships without high requirements for services in support of their
trade, i.e.: for servicing cargo or passengers. The paragraphs which follow
are intended to identify some of the more common situations where these
allowances may require adjustment as a result. It should be noted that
additional equipment will generally require additional maintenance, which ay
in turn affect manning levels,

6.4.1 Thrusters

Ships of any type may be fitted with bow thrusters, or bw and stern
thrusters. Thrusters generally have high power requirements which can be met
by electric motors, hydraulic motors or independent diesel engines, Because
the thrusters are used while maneuvering, even when the thrusters impose
additional electrical demands, it is not the at-aea electrical load that will
be affected. If the thruster is accepted as a non-vital load, and the standby
generating capacity is adequate for the thruster load, then additional
generating capacity will be unnecessary.

6.4.2 Tankers

Tankers, and combination carriers such as OBOS, may require the following
cargo services:

cargo heating
cargo and ballaat pumping
inert gas
tank cleaning
additional fire exting!]ishing

Cargo heating is generally restricted to crude carriers in certain trsdes and

heavy products carriers, The cst common method of cargo heating is by steam,
and in a large vessel the boiler plant can be substantial and sophisticated,
with one or two large, HFO-fired boilers, often of the double-circuit type
(see Section 9.9). The availability of large quantities of steam in these
tankers makes steam turbines the obvious choice for cargo and ballast pumping.
In the typical case the pumps are located in a single pump room forward of the
engine room at the lowest level, with the turbines in the engine room, driving
the pumps through shafts penetrating the bulkhead.

Tankers not required to heat their cargo may nevertheless have steam-driven
cargo and ballast pumps, or they ay have pumps driven by electric or
hydraulic otors or by ~0 from the ain or auxiliary engines. The pumps ay
be located in a pump room as described above, or they may be distributed: in
one frequently used arrangement a pump is located in each tank. Steam pumps
will require a boiler plsnt. Electric otor-driven pumps or hydraulic power
packs may dictate larger or additional SSDGS.

Large tankers carrying volatile products are required to inert the cargo
tanks, For crude carriers and most petroleum products carriers fitted with
boilers, exhaust gas from the boilers will be sufficiently low in oxygen to

-33-
enable its use as inert gas, after scrubbing to remove sulfur compounds.
Where cleaner inert gas is required, or where large boilers are not fitted, or
to enable tanks to be topped-up with gas without firing the boilers, an
independer,
t inert gas generator may be fitted,

Tank cleaning systems vary with tanker type, but ay involve a dedicated tank
cleaning pump and steam heater, Crude carriers tend to be outfitted for crude
oil washing (COW) during discharge, with a dedicated COW pump, Chemical and
clean petrolel]mproduct carriers may require substantial fresh water
generating capacity for flushing of tanks and lines, depending on the nature
of the trade.

Tankers carrying flammable cargoes are generally required to be fitted with a

fixed foam fire extinguishing system on deck, supplied with sea water via the
fire main. Tankers with pump rooms may require additional fixed C02 or Halon
storage.

6.4.3 Dry b~]lkcarriers, break-bulk cargo ships and container ships

The simplest examples of dry bulk carriers (including colliers and ore
carriers), break-bulk cargo ships and container ships have few cargo service
requirements beyond the following:

ballast pumping
cargo hold bilge pumping
cargo hold ventilation
cargo hold fire extinguishing
hatch cover operation
cranes or other cargo-handling gear

Because these services are required intermittently or in port they are not
likely to affect estimates of at-sea ships service loads.

Ballast pumps are usl!allymotor-driven and located in the engine room, Often
the ballast pumps can be identical to tbe main aea water circulating pumps,
albeit operating in a lower discharge pressure/higher flow rate region of the
performance curve, and at less-than-optimum efficiency. In this case one
ballaat pump can be piped as a standby ain circulator, thereby eliminating
one pump and easing tbe spare parts inventory.

Some dry bulk carriers are fitted with self-unloading systems. Most such
systems affect the basic internal configuration of the ship and msy also
affect engine room arrangement and even basic machinery selection, but will
not increase the at-sea electrical load.

Containerships are permitted to carry certain classes of dangerous and

hazardous cargo below in compliance with SOLAS regulations, but must be fitted
for mechanical ventilation of the designated holds.

For break-bulk cargo ships ~d containerships with refrigerated cargo space or

liquid cargo capacity, see the appropriate paragraphs.

-34-
6.4.4 Roll On-Roll Off (RO-RO) Ships

Generally, RO-RO ships and ferries require high volume cargo hold ventilation
systems for the removal of fuel vapors and/or exhaust fumes and heat resulting
from the stowage and movement of internal combustion engine-powered vehicles
during transit and loading and discharging cycles, respectively. It should
also be noted that some current regulation require RO-RO ship cargo hold
ventilation systems to be operated continuously at sea and in port when
vehicles are stowed aboard ship, below the weather deck.

The safety aspects associated with vehicular stowage and operation aboard
ship, especially for gasoline-fueled automobiles and trucks, also require
significant additional engine exhaust gas (carbon monoxide) onitoring and
smoke and fire detection system capability as well as increased fire-fighting
system capacity. In addition to an expanded sea water fire-fighting system,
RO-RO ships and ferries are usually also fitted with temperature-activated
sprinkler systems or fixed chemical fire-fighting systems installed throughout
the cargo hold/vehicle deck areas,

The ships ser~,

ice compressed air and fresh water systems may be extended
throughout the vessels stowage areas to service vehicle maintenance needs
(e.g., flat tires, battery water, etc. ).

UIIramp configuration and cargo hold separation and penetration

Depe]]dil)g
through watertight doors, a RO-RO ship ay also require an increased hydraulic
system capability and capacity. If the ship is to call regularly in colder
regions, provisions are usually made to prevent ice and snow accumulation on
exposed cargo hold access ramps through the use of electric resistance, heated
glycol or other thermal fluid type ramp de-icing systems.

RO-RO ship cargo service requirements will increase the ships electrical
service load. 1f cargo hold ventilation ust be aintained at sea, the at-sea
ships service load and generating plant size Iiillbe affected.

6.4.5 Refrigerated cargo ships

Refrigerated cargo (Reefer) ships may be break-bulk or container ships, or a

combination of these, and may have RO-RO features, The effect will be
increased electrical generating capacity to meet the demands of the cargo
refrigeration equipment and, often, extensive cargo hold ventilation
requirements. The electrical demand will be a function of not only the cargo
capacity and stowage, but alao of cargo type (frozen goods, bananas, citrus or
deciduous fruit, meat or dairy products) and the ambient conditions for cool
down and maintenance. The cargo refrigeration control system may be
extensive, especially when carrying different cargoes requiring different
refrigeration zones.

The most common type of refrigerated container has its own refrigeration unit
and requires an electrical supply from the ship. Reefer containers stowed
below deck will require hold ventilation.

Reefer ships may carry their own fork-lift trucks to stow palletized cargo
below deck. Some reefer ships are fitted with cranes for working cargo, which
may further increase the in-port burden on the electrical plant.

-35-
If tilepeak electrical load is incurred in port and can be met with the total
ge]leratorcapacity available in port, then sufficient at-sea standby capacity
is likely to exist and additional generating capacity will be unnecessary, In
selecting generators for reefer ships, consideration ust be gi~,ento meeting
the low electrical load which will occur when the refrigeration plant is
secured (see Section 9.2).

6.4.6 Passenger Ships

Paasenger ships, including cruise ships and ferries (refer to Paragraph 6.4.4
for the requirements of vehicular ferries) will have considerable additional
auxiliary system loads associated with providing adequate passenger safety and
comfort. Typically, these services include the availability of unlimited
potable water for bathing, drinking, swimming pool ake-up, etc., and steam
and fresh water for laundry operation, deck wash down and bar, restaurant and
galley services. A large air-conditioningdemand, a large provision
refrigeration plant and multiple elevator installation can increase required
electrical service loads significantly. The size, arrangement and passenger
safety requirements for passenger vessels also result in ore extensive fire
and smoke detection systems, fixed fire-figbting systems and numerous
hydraulically-actuatedwatertight door installations.

6.4.7 Gas Carriers

Liquefied gases are normally transported as saturated liquid at the

temperature and pressure appropriate to the gas. Small quantities of less
volatile gases are generally carried at ambient temperature in pressure
vessels. Large quantities of gas, and very volatile gases such as methane and
ethane, are generallY carried at reduced temperature in low pressure tanks.

The larger LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) ships generally maintain the
temperature and pressure of the cargo in insulated tanks by echanical
refrigeration. The common LPGs are propane, butane and ammonia. The
refrigeration system may be direct, in which the cargo is used as the
refrigerant, or indirect, in which a refrigerant is expanded into coils within
the cargo tanks. LPG vapors evolving as a result of heat ingress are
reliquefied by refrigeration and returned to the tanks.

Methane ia normally mixed with inor percentages of heavier gases and referred
to as LNG (liquefied natural gas). Because the critical temperature of
methane is well below ambient temperature, it can only exist as a liquid at
reduced temperatures. Cargo tanks are designed for ullage pressures only
slightly above atmospheric and are heavily insulated to control heat ingress
and, therefore, the rate of boil-off. It is possible to reliquefy the boil-
off vapors, but becauae of the low saturation temperatures of the LNG it is
usually more economical to use the boil-off gas as fuel. If fuel requirements
are below the boil-off rate, alternative eans ust be provided to dispose of
the boil-off gas.

Cargo pumps are normally inside the tanks to eliminate tank boundary
penetrations below the liquid level. LNG pumps are generally of the submerged
motor-driven type, while ammonia pumps are of the deep-well type because of
the corrosive effect of ammonia on copper. LPG pumps of both types are

-36-
common. Provision must be made for tank level easurement while loading and
discharging as well as in transit. During loading and discharge provision
ml]stbe made to control the cargo vapor pressure, often by exchanging cargo
vapor with shore.

Thermal stress and pressure rise considerations may limit the rate of liquid
loading into a warm tank, or they ay require that the tank be cooled down by
spraying liquid into the tank before loading commences. Common practice with
LNG is to aintain tank temperature during the ballast voyage by retaining a
quantity of the cargo, which is circulated through spray nozzles by spray
pumps. The resulting boil-off m~y be used for propulsion.

Prior to loading the first cargoor after a tank has been gas-freed, the tank
atmosphere will be completely changed to the cargo vapor or to an inert gas,
usually nitrogen, at ambient temperature, before the introductionof liquid
into the tank, Provision must also be made to warm the tanks and cb~nge the
atmosphere back to air prior to entering the tanks.

The equipment required to change tank atmospheres may include high-capacity

compressors, inert gas sources, cargo vaporizers, warm-up heaters and special
venting arrangements. This equipment ay be installed aboard the ship or be
shore-based. Other cargo service machinery installed abOard a gas ~arrier
incltidespumps and compressors, and will ost likely be driven by electric
motors, although other prime movers may suit particular applications. The
likely effects of cargo service reqlrements of a gas carrier therefore
include an increased electrical load. In addition, reliquefaction condensers
will require increased sea water pumping capability, while boil-off gas
heaters require steam,

6.5 Oil-fired boiler fuel consumption

Oil-fired boiler use aboard motorships ranges from low output units in dry
cargo carriers, fired intermittently to supplement waste heat boilers in the
coldest weather and to provide heat in port, to larger, more heavily utilized
boilers found on tankers and passenger ships, where they may be required tO
provide cargo and passenger services (see Section 6.4). In considerateion of
the generally low utilization of these boilers, ad the low Output relative tO
propulsion requirements, it is usually the case that compact dimensions,
simplicity of operation and low maintenance requirements take higher priority
than fuel-efficiency.

In config~lration,commercially available designs range from fire-tube types to

two-drum, watertube types. Economizers are not normally fitted to these
boilers. For tankera, standard desi~s include double-circuit boilers, i.e.,
those with an integral low-pressure steam generator supplied by the primary,
oil-fired high-pressure circuit which operates in a closed loop. Moat boilers
are needed for saturated stem supply, but where superheated steam ia
preferred (as it often is for tanker cargo pump turbines), an interdeck or
superposed superheater will be fitted. While some boilers are designed for
distillate fuel use, most are suitable for pre-heated heavy fuels when
suitably equipped. .

Boiler efficiency is normally referenced to the lower heating value of the

fuel, in contrast to typical steam plant practice. Efficiencies referenced tO

-37-
the higher heating val(lewill be approximately five percentage points lower,
For a wide range of currently available boilers, efficiencies based on the
lower heating },alueof the fuel range from about 7j to 82% at 20% evaporation
rate, 80 to 8j% at 50% and 78 to 83% at rating, the peaking characteristic
resulting from the absence of an economizer. The efficiency is related more
to the details of the particular design than to the size or evaporation rate.

Boiler fuel consumption callhe estimated from the following relation:

mf = m. (h. -hfd)
wkere: n (m

mf = fuel consumption, kg/h

m, = evaporation rate, i.e.: steam output, kg/h
1)s = enthnlpy of steam, kJ/kg
hfd = enthalpy of feedwater, kJ/kg, at conditions actually
anticipated
n= boiler efficiency, based on LHV of fuel (see above)
LHV = lower heating value of fuel used, Section 3,2, kJ/kg

Where an efficiency based on the HHV is used, the same relation appliea with
the HHV.stibstitutedfor the LHV, Enthalpies for steam are determined from
steum tables or a Mollier diagram (a Mollier diagram is included as Appendix
D). Enthal.piesof water in units of kcal/kg are approximately equal to the
temperature in degrees C at the temperatures and pressures of likelyinterest.
Tl]ereare 4.189 kJ/kcal.

Excess air use will range from less than 10% to over 40%, and like the
efficiency, is related more to the details of the particular design than to
the size of the boiler or its evaporation rate. Khere the flue gas will be
used for inerting cargo tanks, the excess air must be restricted to five-to-
te]lpercent.

-38-
7.0 WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION

7.1 Sources and uses of waste heat

The points of heat rejecti~n from diesel engines which are normally considered
to have practical potential for waste heat recovery are the exhaust, the
charge air cooler and the jacket coolant.

Heat is usually recovered from the exhaust gas of a ain propulsion engine to
generate steam for fuel and LO heating and hotel services. Excess steam ca
contribute to cargo heating or other cargo service needs where this is
appropriate. In some cases a proprietary fluid is used instead of steam.

Where the diesel plant is large enough and the electrical needs sufficiently
limited, enough steam can be generated by the exhaust gases to eet the
electrical load with a waste heat turbogenerator (WHTG), Where a WHTG can
meet only part of the demand with steam from the waste heat boiler, it may
still be economically justified, with the balance of the electrical demand et
by supplemental steam from oil-fired boilers, from an attached generator or
from SSDGS.

Heat recox,eredfrom the charge air cooler of a main engine is most often
considered for pre-heating of feedwater for an exhaust gas boiler, for fuel
tank heating, for LO purifier heating, for absorption refrigeration systems,
for quarters heating or for hot water heating.

Heat is most often recovered from the jacket water of a main engine for use in
fresh water generating plants.

The practicality of waste heat recovery from auxiliary engines depends on

their size and utilization. Passenger ships, with their large electrical
plants and a high demand for heat for fresh water generation, are likely
candidates for auxiliary engine waste heat recovery.

Increased use of waste heat, beyond eeting the basic needs for fuel and LO
heating and hotel services, will require a recovery plant of increased
complexity, size, weight and cost. The extent to which this is justified is a
matter which must be resolved from an examination of the trade-offs involved,
which may be largely economic in nature,

The aximum temperature of the medium used to recover heat will always be less
than the temperature of the source, a difference called the terminal
temperature difference (TTD), which will be determined largely by the size of
the heat exchanger involved. Guideline inimum values for preliminary work
are given in Table 7-1.

TABLE 7-1

GUIDELINE TERMINAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES

gas or air tO/frOm water 10C

gas or air tO/frOm steam 20C
water tO water 5C
oil tO/frOm water 10C

-39-
7,2 Exhaust gas heat recovery for basic ships services

In examining the potential for exhaust heat recovery, it is usually best to

first determine if sufficiel]theat will normally be available to meet the
basic needs of the ship, and only then consider the feasibility of recovering
any excess. The following procedure is applicable to typical waste heat steam
generation plants, and can be used as a foundation for evaluating more
elaborate steam plants and those which use thermal fluids. Further examples
appear in Appendix B.

More detailed information on waste heat bilers than that presented here can
be found in SNAME T&R Bulletin 3-38.

Exhaust heat quantity and temperature and steam demand vary with ambient
conditions and with engine output, and it will usually be useful to ake
separate estimates for winter and summer conditions, and over a range of
engine outputs, Table 7-2 shows, by example, one way to achieve this; the
notes which follow are keyed to the table.

1. Summer and winter characterize two extreme sets of ambient conditions to

be examined. The table can be expanded to enable other conditions to be
examined.

2, Several main engine output levels should be considered, with 70 to 75%,

80 to 90% and 100% of MCR being ,typicalranges of interest. The 100%
level is for reference, aa it usually does not represent a critical level
for waste heat recovery.

3! Steam demands for lube oil heating and for the hotel load are usually
independent of engine output. Means of estimating these quantities are
provided in Sections 6.3,2 and 6.3.3.

+. Steam demand for fuel heating can be estimated using the procedure of
Section 6.3.1, At either extreme of ambient conditions, this quantity
will vary with engine output, and as a rough approximation can be taken
as directly proportional to main engine output.

5. Steam pressure must be high enough to ensure that the heaviest fuels can
be adequately heated. Saturated steam generated at 8 bars will reach the
fuel oil heaters at about 170C, which should ensure this, Temperatures
and enthalpiea for steam are determined from steam tables or a Mollier
diagram (a Mollier diagram is included as Appendix D),

6. The simplest heat recovery cycles usually feed the boiler directly from
an atmospheric drain tank. Typically in these simple cycles, the average
temperature of the returning drains is above 100C, maintaining the drain
tank at saturation, which provides a easure of deaeration, If
additional feed heating is provided the temperature and enthalpy of the
feed will be higher. Enthalpies of water in units of kcal/kg are
approximately equal to the temperature in degrees C at the temperatures
and pressures of likely interest. There are 4.187 kJ/kcal,

7. The product of the steam demand and the enthalpy difference at each
condition yields the amount of heat required for steam generation, in

-40-
 this case in thousa]]dsof kJ/h.

8. COnservati\,
e practice requires that the heat requirement reflect losses
to surroundings, An allowance of l,j percent is usually considered
adequate. The adjusted quantity is the amount of heat which must be
extracted from the exhaust gas.

9. The quantity of exhaust gas at each condition and its temperature are
best obtained from an engine specification, Where these data are Ot
available the guidelines of 5.5 can be applied. Most manufacturers warn
of a tolerance on gas flOw rates of +/- 5%. If the gas flow rate is
5% higher than the specified flow, the gas temperature will be lower by
10 to 15C. Conser\rativepractice calls for these estimates to be based
on the worst case, which is usually with flow increased by 5% and gas
temperature reduced by ljC,

10. The drop in gas temperature in the waste heat boiler can be estimated
from the following relation:

where:

AT = the gas temperature drop, C

H=ew = the adjusted heat requirement, kJ/h
mg = the mass flow rate of the gas, kg/h
CP = the specific heat of the gas at the avera%e temperature in the
boiler, from Figure 5-1.

11. The waste heat boiler contains water and steam at the saturation
temperature corresponding to the steam pressure, so that heat Can be
reco~,
ered only up to the point that the exit gas temperature is reduced
to the saturation temperatllreof the steam plus the terminal temperature
difference, The saturation temperature at 8 bars is 170C, so that in the
example of Table 7-2, using the guideline temperature difference of 10C
from Table 7-1, the lowest achievable gas temperature would be abOut
180c. As long as the calculated gas temperature at the boiler exit
exceeds this value, sufficient heat can be recovered to meet the
specified demand,

When lower generating pressures are used or for bilers fitted with
ycOnOmizers (see below), lower gas exit temperatures are possible, In anY
e~.
ent, however, the gas exit temperature should not be permitted to fall below
about 160C because of the danger of acid attack when sulfur-bearing fuels are
used. It should be noted that even distillate fuels can contain sulfur (see
Table 3-l).

Usually, the results of the preliminary investigation will indicate that

sufficient heat can be recovered for basic ships services at most or all
expected operating conditions, Thisalone may be an adequate preliminary
conclusion. Alternatively:

- If the gas temperature is well above the minimum for ost of the
conditions, the Potential of further recovery may be considered, with the

-41-
 TRBLE 7-2

PRELIMINARY EXHfiUSTG6S HERT BALANCE

main engine: !O,000 bkW 10U speed diesel

ambient condition: winter (1)

main engine output, %MCR 70 85 I00 (2)

steam for LO and hotel needs, kg/h 80 80 80 (3)

steam for fuel oil heating, kg/h 360 440 510 (4)
total steam demand, kg/h 440 520 590

steam pressure, bars absolute B

steam enthalpy, kJ/kg 2769 (5)
feeduater enthalpy, k.
J/kg 419 (G)
enthalpy increase in boiler, kJ/kg 2350

heat for steam generation, 1000 kJ;h 10j4 I3a7 (7)

adJusted heat requirement, 1000 k.
J/h 1050 1407 (8)

adjusted e.haust gas flow, mg, kg/h 61000 74000 a7000 (9)
adJusted e>:haustgas temperature, C 255 25s 255 (9)
specific heat of gas, k:
J/k.
g-C 1.0s

e..hau5tgas temperature drop, C 16 16 i5 (10)

esiimated ga5 temper~ture ?.iboiler s..:it

,C 233 240 (11)

-42-
 additional steam ost likely used for cargo services or for a waste heat
turbogenerator. A detailed exploration of this potential might be
premature if the data used in the preliminary analysis are too general.

- If it appears that sufficient heat can be recovered for basic aervicea

for some conditions but is arginal for others, and the extent to which
the data used are general or approximate has been taken into account,
then modest sophistication of the recovery cycle ight be justified,
along the lines laid out in Section 7.3, If the arginal condition would
only occasionally be encountered, for example, only in the coldest
environment, the likelihood of encountering tbe aasumed conditions and
the potential use of an oil-fired boiler to supplement the steam supply
should be considered,

7.3 Enhanced heat recovery

7.3.1 Economizers

A basic waste heat recovery steam system is shown in Figure 9.9-1, Where a
boiler containa only water at the saturation temperature corresponding to the
steam presstlre,heat can be recovered only up to the point that the exit gas
temperature is reduced to tbe saturation temperature of the steam plus the
terminal temperature difference. If the steam pressure is high enough so that
the hea~,
iest fuels can be heated, then the lowest gas temperature will still
be in excess of the lower limit of about 160C cited above. This is
illustrated in the temperature diagram of Figure 7-1, at the pinch point,
Fitting an economizer in the gas path enables this residue of heat to be
removed from the gas by the feedwater. h economizer ia shown in the waste
heat boiler of Figure 9.9-2.

When an ecorlomizeris fitted, with feedwater entering the economizer at drain

tank temperature (or even up to about 140C), the outside surface of the
economizer tubes Kill be below the acid dew point temperature even though the
bulk temperature in the gas stream is above it, thereby inviting acid
condensation and attack. One means of avoiding this problem is by economizer
recirculation: in the form shown in Figure 9.9-2, water from the discharge of
the circulating pump is injected into the feedwater stream at the economizer
inlet. The addition of feedwater heaters to the cycle (see below) will also
avoid this problem.

7.3.2 Feedwater heaters

The amount of steam produced by a waste heat boiler can often be increased bs
preheating the feedwater. It should be noted that if the feedwater ia
preheated above a temperature of about.150C, it cannot be used to reduce the
gas exit temperature leaving an economizer to the lower limit of about 160C so
that, in terms of efficiency, nothing would be gained, although the problem of
acid condensation would be avoided.

With reference to Section 7.2, note 6, while simple steam cycles supplying
heating needs enjoy a drain tank temperature at or near 100C, drain tanka of
cycles incorporating a turbogenerator with a vacuum condenser will run at
considerably lower temperatures. In these cycles, the problem of cold
feedwater is more acute and therefore a feed beater ay be even more

-43-
 FIGURE 7-1
TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM FOR SINGLE PRESSURE
SATURATED STEAM BOILER, WITH ECONOMIZER

L ENGINE EXHAUST TEMP I I

zw SATURATION TEMP
n GAS EXIT TEMPERATURE
z WITH ECONOMIZER
w WATER/STEAM *
+ .TEMP 1 q
FEED TEMP

GENERATING BANK ECONOMIZER

- ~-

FIGURE 7-2
TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM FOR DUAL PRESSURE
WASTE HEAT BOILER WITH SUPERHEATER

- ENGINE EXHAUST TEMP

PINCH
U POINT
u
3 -SHTR
+
a OUTLET
w \ l/GAs TEMP p;:?
u TEMP
L
x
u -
+ HP SATURATION TEMP
S[:D 4% ~- GAS EXIT
STEAM LP SATD _ LP SATURATION TEMP TEMPERATORE
STEAM II
FEED TEMP

SUPER HIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE *

HEATER GENERATING BANK GENERATING BANK

-44-
berleficial. Fitti]]ga deaerating feed heater in these cycles will also
address the fact that the drain tank temperature ia depressed below
saturation, eliminating any possibility of deaeration 1 the tank,

7.3,3 Iiulti-pressureboilers

The qual)tityof steam produced from exhaust gas can be enhanced if it is

recognized that, while there is a need for steam at a sufficiently high
presst]reto ensure adequate fuel heating, other services can utilize steam
generated at lower pressures, Figure 7-2 ia a temperature diagram for a dual
pressure boiler fitted with a superheater, shown schematically in Figure
9.9-3. In this example, feedwater is supplied to both steam drums directly
from feed heaters, already at 150c, With careful selection of parameters and
the use of charge air feed heating, a dual pressure boiler ight produce 20 to
30 percent more steam than a single pressure boiler constrained to the higher
pressure, for the same application.

7,4 Heat recovery at the charge air coolers

The temperature at which air enters the coolers of a turbocharged engine at

high output may make it an attractive source for heat recovery. Most engines
are designed for air manifold temperatures of 45 to 50C, although higher
temperatures may be encountered in engines usi]lgoutput-dependent cooling
systems when operated at reduced output. Because only a portion of the heat
can be usefully recovered, a heat recovery cooler is built with its cooling
side divided into sections, with the final section in tbe direction of air
flow reserved for e]>ginecooling water. The heat recovery sections may be
arra]~gedin series, xith the highest temperature section at the inlet, These
sections may be circulated with the fluid being heated (feedwater, for a feed
heater) or with an intermediate thermal fluid, which might be pressurized
xater or a prol]rietaryfluid.

IIIi!~vestigati]~g
tilefeasibility of heat reco~ery at the air coolers, the
following procedure ight be followed:

1. Estimate the quantity of Ileatrequired for each of the uses under study,
and at each output of the engine under consideration, For some uses, and
in the absence of more specific data, Section 6.3 can provide guidance.

2. Determine the temperature at which the heat must be available, bearing in

ind the temperature difference between the air and the medium being
heated, using Table 7-1 for guidance. Section 5.6 and Figure 5-3 provide
guidance on air temperature to expect at the charge air cooler inlet.
Bear in mind the effects of partial engine output. When several uses
are contemplated, consider the use requiring the highest temperature
first.

3. Calculate the temperature drop of the charge air which will result from
the heat extraction, using the following relation:

AT=+
*P
where:

-45-
 AT = tileair tempepatredrop, c
Q= the adjusted heat requirement, kJ/h
ma = the mass flow rate of the air, kg/h; manufacturers data
should be used in preference to the approximations of
Section 5,5; the mass flow must reflect the engine output
under consideration
CP = the specific heat of the air at the average temperature over
the range under considerateOn (hi~h nay require ~
reiteration), from Figure 5-1

Subtracting this temperature drop from the temperature of the air

entering the cooler will yield the temperature at which the air is
available fOr t],
e next use.

4. Repeat step 3 for successive uses,

As long as the temperature of the air calculated in step 3 above is in excess

of the design air manifold temperature at the engine output under
consideration, the contemplated use is at least initially feasible.

i,5 Waste heat turbogeneratOr (wHTG) cycles

ihe polferlevel at which sl)fficientwaste heat can be re~~ver~d to meet the

electrical load is highly plant-specific,depending on exhaust gas quantity
and temperature, on steam conditions, on competing needs for heating Steam, on
the actllalconfigtlrationof the heat reco~,eryplant and on the efficiency of
the turbogenerator, as well as on the ships electrical requirements,
Generally a WHTG cannot supply even the basic electrical needs of ships with
less than about 20,000 bkW at MCR under all reasonable ambient conditions
unless regularly supplemented, perhaps by eans suggested in Section 9.2.
Fig~lre7-3 is offered as a example. For a particular range of low speed
engi]leswith dual presst]reboilers, using heat recovery at the engine air
cooler aod operated at 85% of MCR, the available turbogenerator output under
the most favorable ambient conditions (summer) matches the minimum average
service load with a main engine output of some 8000 bkW (i.e., from an engine
xith a rating of abolltg500 bkw: point A in the figure). The power level at
which the electrical 10ad 1s completely cOvered under all rea~OIlable
conditions and with sufficient margin to meet normal peak load peaks, is about
liOOO bkW (from an engine rated at almost 20000 bkW, point D in the figure).

These crossover points will be considerably higher with simpler cycles or

higher electrical load, but can be lowered by further sophistication of the
waste heat cycle or by reducing the electrical load by increased use Of poer
take-off for auxiliaries.

Schematic diagrams of WHTG plants appear as Figures 9.9-2 and 9.9-3. Guidance
in the selection of steam and exhaust conditions and ethods of assessing ~TG
performance and the output of these plants is presented in Appendices B and c,

7,6 Exhaust gas tllrbines

High efficiency turbochargers are Ofte able to SUDDIY

.== sufficient combustion
air without using all of the exhaust gas flow. In these csses there is
the potential for excess exhaust gas to be sed in an exhaust gas turbine

-46-
 FIGURE 7.3
OUTPUT OF WASTE HEAT TURBOGENERATOR WITH
DUALPRESSURE WASTE HEAT BOILER
SUMMER AND WINTER; 85% MCR

1100
AVAILABLE DUTPUT
(SUMMER)

900 1 /
AVAILABLE DUTPUT
(WINTER)
PEAK SERVICE LOAD
700 -
B AVERAGE SERVICE LOAD

500 -A

1
300 I I I I I I i
8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 22000

MAIN ENGINE bkw AT MCR

driving a echanical load. Three of the any possible configurations are:

(a) .Anexhaust gas turbine-driven generator

(b) An exhaust gas turbine geared to the engine output shaft forming, in
effect, a combined cycle or turbo-comuound arrangement. The Dower
r.. -

contributed by the turbine can be up ~o 5% of the total.

(c) A combination of these, in which the exhaust gas turbine is connected

at the power take-off gear of an engine fitted with a shaft-driven
generator.

8.0 POWER TAKE-OFF UTILIZATION

8.1 Power take-offs

Power take-offs (PTOS) ake use of the ain engine to drive auxiliary
machinery. This allows the utilization of the-high thermal efficiency of the
main engine for these services, as well as its ability to burn low-quality
fuel.

The use of gears in PTOS allows a near optimum speed to be selected for the
driven unit. The mechanical efficiency of a geared PTO is in the range of 96
to 98%. There is flexibility in the location of the driven unit because the
location of power take-off and the layout of the gears can be varied. PTOS
using V-belts provide similar advantages, albeit at lower efficiency, and have
been fitted in low power applications.

8.2 Electrical generation from power take-offs

If the ain engine is used to produce all of the at-sea electrical load
through a PTO, the auxiliary diesels can be secured at sea. An engine-driven
generator can be built onto a length of line shafting, or may be driven
through step-up gearing to obtain a more economical speed. See Section 6.1
for the estimation of electric load.

If the ship is fitted with a controllable-pitch propeller, the speed of the

main engine is normally constant at sea. Constant generator speed and
frequency can then be provided by a geared PTO. The efficiency of this system
to the generator coupling is approximately 94%. (It should be noted however,
that tbe efficiency of the controllable-pitch propeller can be expected to be
less than an equivalent fixed-pitch propeller,)

On ships with fixed-pitch propellers, where the speed of the ain engine
varies, a method is needed to supply a constmt frequency. A variety of
systems have been used to solve this problem, including the following:

1. DC generator-DC motor-AC generator system. The efficiency is

approximately 80 to 85x to the AC generator coupling.

2. AC generator-DC rectifier-speedcontrolled DC motor-AC generator system.

The efficiency is approximately 80 to 85% to the final AC generator
coupling.

-48-
 3. Thyristor frequency converter (AC generator-DC rectifier-DC to AC
inverter). The efficiency is approximately 80 to 90% at the inverter
terminals.

4. Varying frequency of ships service electrical supply. A variation in

frequency from approximately 50 HZ to 60 Hz, corresponding to the
ul]correctedvariation in main engine speed over its normal range of
operation, is acceptable if pump characteristics and margins are
suitable.

5. Controlled-speed gear for constant-speed AC generator. Various forms of

this system use an epicyclic step-up geara in series with hydraulic speed
adjustment to provide a continuously varying ratio so that constant
output speed for the AC generator is obtained with varying input speed.
These units are normally matched to operate with an input speed of 70 to
100% of the main engine RPM, The efficiency is approximately 87 to 95%
to the AC generator coupling, with peak efficiency obtained at input
speeds requiring the least correction.

8.3 Pumps driven from power take-offs

Most low-speed engines are fitted with independent motor-driven LO, Fo, jacket
water and sea water pumps, Many medium-speed engines and most high-speed
engines are fitted with engine-driven pumps, although most anufacturers will
supply their engines with or without attsched pumps,

When the auxiliary pumps are motor-driven, the power required to drive the
pumps is not included in the engine power but must be supplied by the
generators. The quoted power output is then the power available at the shaft
and the quoted fuel consumption is for the hare engine. For engines with
engine-driven auxilisry pumps tbe power required to drive the pumps 1s
Ilornallysubtracted from the engine power and the quoted power output of the
engine is usually what is available at the flywheel. Because tbe practice
varies however, even for a single engine model, performance data qOted by an
engine anufacturer must be checked to verify that it reflects the specific
configuration under consideration.

The power required to drive the auxiliary pumps varies with the engine
anufacturer and the size of the engine, Substantial variations in power to
drive auxiliary pumps can occur in the same engine depending on the cooling
system option chosen. The power required to drive the auxiliary pumps on a
typical diesel engine can be estimated as 1.5 to 3.5 % of the maximum rating
of the engine. The engine anufacturer should be consulted to determine the
specific pump performance requirements for the engine being considered.

The figures above, while generally applicable to medium and high speed
engines, do not include any allowance for reduction gear LO and cooling water
pumps. If reduction geara are fitted, separate allowance should be made for
these pumps,

-49-
9.0 SUPWRT SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

9.1 Automation and control

Marine diesel plants are generally designed with centralized and automatic
control and onitoring of functions and systems. Bridge control of the ain
engine is normal. Most merchant ships are certified for operation under
normal conditions with machinery spaces unattended. Details of these systems
are considered beyond the scope of this bulletin: the user is referred to
SNAME T&R Bulletin 3-46.

9.2 Electric generating plant

Regulatory body requirements generally demand a minimum of two ships service

generator sets, each of sufficient capacity to carry the essential sea load.
Conservative practice will usually increase the number of ships service
generators to at least three. These ships service sets are in addition to
the emergency electric power source (usually another generator) which is
required to be independent and separately located.

While the obvious prime mover for a ships service generator will be a diesel
engine, alternati~,esinclude the following, also summarized in Table 9-1:

Ships service diesel generators (SSDGS) may be intended for operation

on distillate fuel, blended or other heavy fuel. Where the SSDGS are to
be the normal source, there is an economic incentive to fit diesel
engines suitable for heavy fuel, with the associated support systems.
Support systems for HFO-burning SSDGS may include HFO tanks, purifiers,
blenders and heaters, as well as a 00 system, all often in addition to
main engine systems. If the SSDGS can be operated on the same grade of
heavy fuel as the main engine, fuel systems can be combined. It should
be noted that there may then be increases in acquisition and maintenance
costs and in plant wei<ht and ~rolllme.

Where the ain engine output is large enough and the electrical needs
sufficiently limited, enough steam can be generated by the main engine
exhaust gases to meet the essential sea load with a waste heat
turbogenerator (see Section 7.5). In this case the waste heat
turbogenerator (WHTG) may serve as one of the ships service generators.
Even where a WHTG can meet only part of the demand with steam from the
waste heat boiler, it ay still be economically justified, with the
balance of the electrical demand et by supplemental steam from oil-fired
boilers, from an attached generator or from SSDGS. In addition to the
reduced fuel use, a properly designed and attended waste heat steam plant
can have lower maintenance costs than a continuously run diesel
generator. Increases in acquisition cost, plant complexity, weight
(especially the topside weight of the boiler) and volume are likely to be
significant.

Attached generators driven through power take-off (~0) gear (see SectiOn
,8.0) from the ain engine, reduction gear or line shaft offer an
attractive alternative for one or more of the SSDGS, applicable to plats
of any size. A key consideration is usually a means to aintain constant
frequency electrical supply, although floating frequency systems are

-50-
 h iqhest 10I.J
t,,hi gh

101., ma,y be lowest 1O&!

IOtl may be 1oI,Jest

1OLI 10LIto high

1Ow

use SSDG

CFP, speed or
frequencg
correct iC,I1
 occasionally considered. Increases in acquisition cost and plant weight
will be significant if main engine rating must be higher to accommodate
the attached generator, and especially if frequency or speed correction
is necessary. Maintenance and fuel costs of an attached generator are
likely to be lower than those of a continuously run diesel generator.

There is the possibility of combining prime movers for a single ship~s ~ervice
generator. An example is an attached generator driven through a constant
output speed transmission by the main engine, which also accommodates input
from a waste heat steam turbine and perhaps from a waste heat gas turbine.
While such systems can minimize fuel consumption by combining the positive
features of the constituent prime movers, some of their negative features will
also be present, and perhaps compounded.

In the simplest case, all ships service generators will be of equal rated
output to simplify aintenance and provide flexibility in operation, In this
case one generator is normally in service, with at least one SSDG on automatic
standby. During maneuvering periods two SSDGS may be run in parallel, Short-
term peak loads encountered, for example while running a bow thruster or
{$orkingcargo, might best be met by operating two or more generator either in
parallel or with a split bus, As a rule of thumb, diesel generators should
not be loaded to less than about 35% of their rated output in sustained
operation.

Where there is a disparity between loads at aea and in port, or between loads
on one leg of a \,oyageand another, differently rated units may be installed
to meet the differing demands, or units might be operated in parallel
routinely during periods of high demand,

The a~,eragesea load can be estimated from the guidelines of Section 6.1. The
corresponding rated output of a generator to meet this load can be taken as a
round number, 20 to 25% greater than the avera%e load, allowing for
fluctuate.
ons in the load and to provide a mar~in for limited future growth,

SSDG fuel consumption can be estimated from one of the following relations:
Mf = SFC kWe
n ga
m, = (SFC,,t)(kWe)

where:

mf = fuel consumption, kg/h

SFC = brake specific fuel consumption of the engine, kg/kW-h,
adjusted in accord with Sections 5.1 snd 5,2
SFCset = specific fuel consumption of the generator set, kg/kWe-h,
adjusted in accord with Sections 5.1 and 5,2
kWe = average electrical load carried by the SSDG, kWe
nga = generator efficiency; unless better data are available,
valuea can be taken from Figures 9.2-1 snd 9.2-2

Because of the high noise level of diesel generators, and because one or more
will be running in port even when the main plant is available for maintenance,
there is an incentive to locate the SSDGS together, behind an acoustic

-52-
 FIGURE 9.2-1
AC GENERATOR EFFICIENCY

)0 1500 2( )0 2500 3000

RATED GENERATOR LOAD, kWe

 FIGURE 9.2-2
AC GENERATOR LOAD CORRECTION FACTOR

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

PERCENT OF RATED LOAD

partition. The same purpose ay be served f the SSDGS are placed low in the
engine rOOm,

For ships fitted with diesel-electric propu.sion, consideration should be

given to integration of the ships service requirements with the propulsion
plant. See Section 4.3.5.

9.3 Fuel systems

A typical fuel system must be capable of handling blended and other heavy fuel
oil (HFO) as well as distillate fuel oil (M) and can be subdivided into
separate filling and tranafer systems, treatment systems and a fuel oil
forwarding (or service) system.

9.3.1 Fi11ing and transfer systems

The filling and transfer system enables all bunker tanka to be filled from
pumps aahore or aboard a bunker barge. The arrangement of the system should
enable fresh fuel to be bunkered with minimal mixing with fuel already on
board. There should be the ability to transfer fuel from bunker tanks back
aahoreor to a barge alongside.

The DO filling and transfer system is a simplified version of the HFO system,
with fewer tanks and no need for heat tracing or isulatlon.

g.3,~ Fuel-treatment systems

Fuel treatment systems (Figure 9.3-1) include the settling tanks and purifiers
which enable oat of the water and solids in the fuels to be removed. While
clean distillate fuels are sometimes considered suitable for cOmbuatiOn in
diesel engines without any treatment other than settling and filtration, given
current refining practices it is advisable to centrifuge even the distillate
fuel. In normal operation fuel is transferred directly into the settling
tanks from the bunker tanks, but passes to the day tanks only via the
purifiers.

Where space permits, two HFO settlers should be fitted, each of 24 hour
capacity, so that fuel can settle undisturbed for an extended period. This
will reduce the burden on the purifiers. To avoid drawing settled water and
sediment into the purifier, settling tanka should have sloped bottoms, with
the suction connection at the upper end, rising about 50 mm into the tank,

At least two purifiers should be provided, intended for full time operation in
either series or parallel. The rated capacity of each purifier should at
least meet the ain engine consumption at MCR with at least a 10% margin to
allow for cleaning and other maintenance. It should be noted that, at their
rated throughput, some purifiera will provide only marginally acceptable
performance, necessitating higher margins. Moat purifiers are sludge-ejecting
units which operate automatically between manual cleanings, which may occur
monthly, weekly or ore often, depending upon the quality of the fuel,
Frequently, one of the HFO purifiers ia arranged to standby for a single DO
purifier, as shown, Alternatively, a duplicate LO purifier may be be~ter
matched for standby DO service.

-55-
 FROM FILL
& TRANSFER
SYSTEMS
c
m m
m
MOISTURE
% TRAP +
T I
I + J
MIXING HFO HFO HFU DO
COLUMN DAY SETT SETT DiY SETT
,TANK TANK TANK TANK TANK

\
METER
I

I TO SS Gs
AND B[ LER
4 I

SUCTION FILTERS
STRAINER BOOSTER HEATERS
PUMPS w

FIGURE 9.3-1
TYPICAL FUEL TREATMENT AND FORWARDING SYSTEM
Purifier feed PUMPS ay be attached, positive displacement units, with
throughput controlled by dumping back to tbe suction, or they may be
independent, motor-driven, variable displacement units. In most
installations, oil leaves the purifiers under sufficient head to reach the day
tanks but where this is not the case discharge pumps ust be fitted. If the
day tank is fitted with overflow lines to the settlers, the purifiers can run
continuously, independent of main engine consumption.

HFO must be heated close to the boiling point of water to facilitate

purification and this hot oil input to the day tank can alone force the day
tank temperature above the flash point. Consequently, some installation are
fitted with a fuel cooler in the HFO purifier discharge line.

9.3.3 Fuel forwarding system

The fuel forwarding system (Figure 9.3-1) supplies fuel to tbe engine at the
correct viscosity, To limit tbe cooling of HFO between the heaters and the
engine, and to ensure constant pressure at tbe injection pumps, a flow rate
equal to two or three times engine consumption at MCR ia maintained, with the
unconsumed excess recirculated.

Recirculated fuel usually returns to a ixing tank to join fuel from the day
tank. The mixil]gtank helps to avoid overheating of the day tank, ia intended
to enable the change over from hot HFO to cold DO to occur gradually and to
permit vaporized lighter fractions in recirculated HFO to vent. In some
plants there is no mixing tank and recirculated fuel returns directly to the
day tank. In the arrangement of Figure 9.3-1, the ixing tank is supplied by
gravity from the day tank and ita bottom must therefore be lower than the
bottom of the day tank, while the top must be higher than the top of the day
tank. gevertheleaa, to faci1itate a reasonably rapid changeover from one fuel
to the other, the volume of the mixing tank must be limited, and consequently
the mixing tank is ost often configured as a pipe column.

Because of the high temperatures to which the heavieat fuels ust be heated
and the increased amount of gas formation which would occur at atmospheric
pressures, some engine anufacturers recommend that the hot circuit of the
forwarding system be designed as a closed and pressurized loop. This requires
an additional set of low pressure booster pumps to feed the mixing tank from
the day tank, but the mixing tank can then be ore conveniently proportioned
and located. Venting of gas which forms in the pressurized loop ust be
through a relief valve.

Booster pumps are fitted in duplicate and are usually of the positive
displacement, rotary type. While the booster pumps will normally handle
partly preheated oil, they must also be capable of handling DO on occaaion, as
well as cold HFO being recirculated while the system is brought up to
operating conditions.

At least two fuel heaters should be fitted, each with sufficient capacity to
heat the heaviest fuels likely to be encountered, and each conservatively
rated in regard to fouling margins. The steam supply to the heaters is
controlled by the viscosimeter, which must be sited in close proximity to the
injection pumps.

-57-
Fhen a ships auxiliary engines are fitted for operatiO on HFO, the
forwarding system ay be duplicated on an appropriate scale, and may
incorporate an on-line blending unit. If the auxiliary engines are to be
operated on HFO when steam is unavailable, an electric fuel heater must be
pro~,
ided in parallel with the steam heaters,

A final fuel filter is fitted after the heatera so that filtration is

facilitated by the reduced viscosity. This filter serves principally as a
backup to the purifiers. It may be a fine esh, self-cleaning unit as shown,
or a disposable-element type of even finer esh.

All of the HFO piping in the forwarding system, sometimes including the
filters and pumps, is likely to be steam (or electric) traced and insulatea,

9.4 Compressed air systems

A typical compressed air system is shown in Figure 9.4-1. The system can be
di~ridedinto three segments providing air for main and auxiliary engine
starting, air for instrumentation and control and ,air for miscellaneous ships
services. The miscellaneous services include:

- service air for hand tools, blowing down and cleaning

- blowing out sea chests
- pressl~rizingfresh and potable water tanks
- OPerating air for quick closing valves

Because the maneuverability of a ship is tied to the availability of starting

air, the mi!]imumnumber and size of the starting air receivers ust comply
with requirements of the regiatory bOdy. Typically, sufficient air ust be
a~,
ailable to enable at least six consecutive starts of a non-reversing engine,
or twelve of a direct reversing engit)e. This volume of air must be available
without recharging in at least two receivers. The main air receivers are
tlormallyhigh pressure, up to 30 bars, in order to reduce the size of the
receivers. The ain air receivers will normally be filled by two large air
compressors. Make LIPdue to normal usage is usually done by a smaller topping
up air compressor. If normal ships service consumption is limited, this air
may be supplied from the main air receivers. If the ships service usage is
expected to be large, a separate low pressure air compressor may be pro~,
ided.

A separate, small auxiliary air receiver is usually provided for starting the
auxiliary engines, normally supplied from the starting main air through a stop
check valve. For cold ship start up the auxiliary air receiver may be
supplied by a emergency air compressor which may be driven by, for e~~ple, ~
hand-started diesel engine or a motor supplied from the emergency switchboard.

Other services are usually supplied at a lower pressure via a pressure

reducing valve. The control air system is most often supplied from an
independent, oil-free control air compressor end a separate receiver, via a
drier. Standby service may be through a cross-connection from the ships
service system or, through a reducing valve, from the starting air system.

9.5 Lubrication Systems

Motorship lubricating oil (LO) systems are complex because of the number of

-58-
 .A

SAR = STARTING AIR RECEIVER

SAC = STARTING AIR COMPRESSOR
TAC = TOPPING AIR COMPRESSOR

E
EAR = EMERGENCY AIR RECEIVER
EAC = EMERGENCY AIR CDMPRESSUR SAR
SSAR = SHIPS SERVICE AIR RECEIVER 1
SSAC = SHIPS SERVICE AIR COMPRESSOR
CAR = CDNTROL AIR RECEIVER
CAC = CONTROL AIR COMPRESSOR

SEPARATOR

MAIN ENGINE
M TO DISTRIBUTOR PILUT VALVES

TO STARTING AIR VALVES

*

, f m
VA
GENERATUR .-
I

SHIP,S - ~ AA
SERVICES

CONTROL
AIR 4 ~{

FIGURE 9.4-1
TYPICAL COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
-59-
:rades of oil required. A geared, medium speed diesel plant may require
different grades of oil for the main and auxilisry engines, and other grades
for gearing and iscellaneous uses. A LO system for a low speed diesel plant
may invol~reat least two grades of oil for the main engine (one for the
circulating system and the other for the cylinders) and another for the
auxiliary engines.

9.5.1 Main engine LO circulating system

.4typical circulating oil system appears in Figure 9.5-1. Oil draining from
bearings and cooling passages to the bottom of the crankcase passes into an ,
independent sllmpbuilt into the double bottom below the engine, from which it
is drawn by the LO circulating pump for redistribution via a cooler and
filter. The suction bellmouths clear the bottom by about 100 mm to avoid
ingesting water or sediment. In smaller engines the additional cost and
complexity of a drain tank is often eliminated in favor of a wet sump formed
by the crankcase bottom. The drain tank or wet sump must be so designed that
suction will be maintained at the most extreme conditions of list, trim and
sloshing.

For a wide range of low speed engines and large medium speed engines,
independent drain tanks will contain O.5-to-l.5 kg/bkW, with the bkW taken at
the highest p~]blisbedrating of the engine.

The LO circulating pumps are most often positive displacement rotary pumps,
and in larger plants are fitted in duplicate. Both pumps are motor-driven in
installations with low speed diesels, but higher speed engines are often
fitted with an engine driven pump, relying on the motor-driven pump for
standby service. With very large engines, three motor-driven pumps may be
~]sed,with two rllnningand one on standby, to ease the starting load. Each
pump will have a coarse suction strainer for its own protection. Providing
each pump with its own suction line is an advisable precaution. As an
~~ternative to the positive displacement pumps, deep well centrifugal PumPs
may be ~lsed.

A full flow filter is provided in the PUMP discharge line. It may be of the
duplex, basket type but better filtration will be provided by a disposable-
element or self-cleaning simplex unit, with a standby filter in a bypass.
Filtered oil is distributed to engine bearings, for governing and control
service, to valve gear and, on trunk piston engines as well as some crosshead
engines, for piston cooling. Some of these services may require higher
pressure oil, which can be obtained by fitting booster pumps in the line orby
providing a second, higher pressure circulating system.

Usually LO ia silppliedto turbocharger bearings from the circulating oil

system, but some turbochargers are provided with their own, self-contained LO
system, permitting the use of differently formulated oil. In either case the
turbochargers must be providedwith an emergency supply of LO, as they will
continue to spin at high speed following a LO failure. The system shown
includes a gravity tank for this purpose.

In crosshead engines, the crmkcase and the circulating oil are isolated by
the piston rod packing from contamination by combustion products blowing by
the piston rings, whereas this kind of contamination in trunk piston engines

-60-
 FROM
DECK FILL
I I CnNNFCTIDh
--, ----- . . I

D CYL
OIL
STG
TANK

A
I
I

MEASURING
TANK
CYL
OIL
STG
TANK

I
I .~
P
DRAIN
TO SUMP

LO COOLER
TO<j-~
CYLINDER
OIL INJECTORS

CRANKCASE

4
VENT TO GOVERNRR
AND
CONTROL CIRCUITS
\

/ TANK TOP
~~

SUMP /
/ STRAINERS
CIRCULATING
PUMPS

- COFFERDAM

FIGURE 9.5-1
TYPICAL MAIN ENGINE LUBE OIL SYSTEM
-61-
is usually inevitable. Consequently, while a straight mineral oil with
corrosion and oxidation inhibitors is usually recommended for the circulating
oil of most crosshead engines regardless of the fuel in use, for trunk piston
engines it is a detergent oil with alkaline additives (measured as total base
number or TBN) atched to the likely sulfur content of the fuel to be burned, -
which is usually recommended. While the circulating oil in a crosshead
engine rarely requires replacement in the normal course of events, this is not
usually the case with trunk piston engines, where, in most cases, the LO must
be renewed periodically. The life of trunk piston engine LO, already extended
by the regular addition of fresh make-up oil to compensate for oil burned in
cylinder lubrication, can be further extended by taking such extra measurea as
the fitting of additional, extra-fine filtration loops and, if necessary, the
occasional addition of chemical additive packages to the oil.

9.5.2 Main engine cylinder oil system

Crosshead engines, and some trunk-piston engines, are fitted with independent
cylinder oil systems for lubrication Of the pistO rings. A typical system ia
shown in the Figure 9,5-1, The cylinder oil is stored in one or, preferably,
two tanks and is transferred daily to a small capacity measuring tank, from
which it passes by gravity to the cylinder lubricators on the engine. A
separate tank, sized to meet the running-in requirements of one or two
cylinders, ay also be pro}!
ided. The lubricator are precisely calibrated
injectors mechanically dri~,
en by the engine, timed to inject a metered
qua]]tityof the oil into the cylinder as the piston ring pack rises paat the
injection points. The oil is ultimately consumed. Because the quantities of
oil in,jectedper stroke are small, the easuring tank enables consumption to
be determined accurately as a drop in level over an elapsed time period.

Cylinder oil is a high viscosity mineral oil, with a TBN atched to the
anticipated stllfurcontent of the fuel. Two cylinder oil storage tanks
pro\,
ide flexibility in this regard by enabling cylinder oil of different TBN
t~ be carried, Cyli[lderoil storage tanks are often filled from deck by
gravity, a fact which may preclude filling the measuring tank from the storage
ta]]ksby gravity as well, necessitating a small hand or motor-driven transfer
pump.

In most trunk piston engines, cylinder lubrication is accomplished with

circulating oil, which usually reaches the ring pack and cylinder liner walls
by a controlled leakage from the wrist pin bearing. In some trunk-piston
engines, oil is injected for cylinder lubrication in the same msnner as
c~,lillder
oil in low speed engines, in most cases using oil taken from the
circulating system, although some engines have independent cylinder oil
supplies.

9.5.3 LO storage, transfer and purification system

Smaller high speed engines ay rely solely on filtration and occasional oil
changes to maintain the quality of the circulating oil, but most larger
engines are arranged for continuous bypass purification.using centrifugal
purifiers, aa shown in Figure 9.5-2, ~rifiers are usually sized to circulate
the entire contents of the drain tank three or four times per day.

-62-
 FROM DECK FILL

1
*

TO
MISC
H MAIN ENG.
SET+!ING
TANK
I
I MAIN ENG.
ST::AGE
TANK

1
SERVICES

TO DECK

oo
t

LUBE LUBE
OIL OIL
SEPARATOR SEPARATDR

L.D.
RANSFE
PUMP P

~
i TO /
FROM
ME SUMP

L L
USZD LO TANK

FIGURE 9.5-2
TYPICAL LUBE OIL STORAGE AND TREATMENT SYSTEM

-63-
Two purifiers are shown but one is a standby unit. It may be possible, by
means of blanked cross connections or shared components, tO rely on a reserve
FO purifier for standby. Normally, tbe purifier draws from a bellmouth in the
suction well of the drain tank or sump, returning the oil to the forward end
of the same tank to avoid short circitig, The purifier suction will
generally be located aft of the circulating pump suction, and lower, about 50
mm above the tsnk bottom, to draw water before it reaches the Circlatlng pump
suctions. The suction line size ust small enough to produce a velocity
sufficient to carry water and sediment to the purifier.

The main LO storage tank, with a capacity at least equal to one charge for
each engine it serves, plus sufficient margin to meet miscellaneous needs, is
filled from deck by gravity, while the settling tank is normally empty. Should
an engines circulating oil be massively contaminated, for example by water,
it can be transferred to the settler using the transfer pump, and fresh oil
brought down from the storage tank. If the oi1 cannot then be redeemed by a
combination of settling and purification, it can be discharged ashore or to a
barge for reclamation,

Modern purifiers tend to be self-cleaning and fully automated, Generally

purifier feed pumps are attached, positive displacement units, requiring the
LO purifiers to be located on the floor plates to inimize the suction lift
required from the main engine drain tank, An alternative arrangement would
place a motor:-drivenpurifier feed pump on the floor plates, to provide ore
flexibility illpurifier location. In moat installations, oil leaves the
purifiers under sufficient head to reach the settling tank but where thisis
not the case! a discharge pump must be fitted. Each purifier is normally
sized to circulate the main engine drain tank three to five times per day.

Purifier connections can be provided for batch purification of auxiliary

engine LO but are unlikely to be used, given the relati~,elysmall quantities
i]]~rolved,
the fact that the alkaline-additive, detergent oil will require
rene~al at intervals in any eve~]t,and the risk potential for contamination of
the main engine oil. When auxiliary engines of substantial size are involved,
however, a separate purifier may be justified, The fixed piping shown fOr
filling and draining tbe auxiliary engine sumps may not be provided for
smaller installations.

AIIanalogous problem exists in medium speed diesel plants, where the reduction
gear contains a straight mineral oil which is subject to water cotamlnatiO
from condensation within the gear case, but which would otherwise last
indefinitely. Again because of the danger of contamination, in this case of
the gear oil by the alkaline main engine oil, even when purifier connections
are fitted they are unlikely to be used. Some operators fit water-absorbing
filters in the gear lubrication system, others rely on occasional batch
purification using a portable purifier or filter.

9.6 Fresh water generating plant

A shipboard fresh water production capability can be considered andatory

for oceangoing ships. Tbe selection and design of the fresh water generating
plant and associated storage and distribution systems will be influenced by
the required production rate, necessary water quality, ship tvpe and operating
profile, the availability of a otive heat source, reliability and acquisition

-64-
and operating costs. It should be noted that low pressure evaporators wil]
not heat water sufficiently to kill bacteria, so that the distillate will
require chlorination or other treatment to be potable,

9.6.1 Evaporator

The most frequently utilized fresh water generating plants are flash and
submerged-surface low pressure evaporators. These units generally are
operated with diesel engine jacket water aa motive heat sources and can be
obtained in single, two or three-stage configurations. Single stage units are
most common in otor ships becauae of their lower first coat, weight and
volume, and the facts that engine jacket water is available aa a otive heat
source while water quality requirements may not be particularly atrin<ent.
Multi-stage evaporntora permit higher rates of production from a given amount
of motive heat, and higher distillate quality at the expense of acquisition
cost, weight, volume and complexity.

Gel]erally,jacket water-heated evaporator are fitted with standby steam

heating use in port at anchorages.

The daily service load in etric tons per day of fresh water generating plant
production cu be estimated using the allowances in Section 6.2, To ensure
that an adequate capacity will exist after the ship enters service, taking
into consideration service load grol~th,peak demand periods and the effects of
foulinq, aging, seawater temperature \rariations,etc., generating plant rated
capacity should be calculated by multiplying the estimated requirement by
1.25. Tkis rated capacity ia based on the installation of two units each of
which haa the output to meet the requirements. If a single unit, only, is to
be installed, the above rating should be increased again by a factor of 1.25.

For many ships with small complements and otherwise limited fresh water
demand, the generating plant may be sized more to match the available heat
tha!lthe act~laldemaild.

The following information may be used in making preliminary estimates of steam

consumption and/or engine jacket water flow requirements for flaah or
submerged surface evaporator operation, baaed on service load and rated
capacity estimatea. However, where possible and when available,
manufacturers data should be utilized to determine actual requirements.

TABLE 9.6-1

MOTIVE HEAT REQUIREMENTS FOR EVAPORATORS

fD, MJ per kg of distillate produced

number of stages submerged tube flaah

1 2.8 3.3
2 1.5 1.8
3 1.1 1.4

-65-
Using a factor from the Table 9.6-1 or the equivalent anufacturers data,
,jacketwater flow or hourly steam consumption required can be estimated from
tilerelatio]lsbelow,
1000 WPD f~
rn3/h =
24 CP (Ti-TO)

~PD f~ 106
ma =
where 24 hi

M3 /}, = Required jacket water flow

m, = hourly steam consumption rate, kg/h
MTPD = evaporato~ output, metric tons per day
fD = heat required from Table 9.6-1
CP = specific heat of fresh water, 4,2 kJ/kg-C
Ti,To ,jacketwater temperature at evaporator inlet and outlet, C
hi = inlet enthalpy of heating steam, kJ/kg

Most evaporators will be fitted with motor driven vacuum pumps or sea water-
driven edllctorsin lieu of steam jet sir ejectOr~. NO further addltlon to tne
electric load estimate of Section 6.1 is necessary for this purpose. If steam
jet air ejectorsare fitted an additional allowance ust be made for air
ejector stea-m,

9.6,2 Other types of desalinization plants

Other types of desalinization systems than evaporators may be emplOyed in

motor \,esselsbecause of limitations impOsed by such fa~tor~ as installed
engine output and operating profile (which affect waste heat availability),
minimal or no steam heating plant capacity or because of large potable water
requirements. In these situations! vapor compression and reverse ~~mosl~
Units might be fitted, These (!nitsare generally dri~en by electricity, and
this additio!]zlelectrical ioad mist be added to the electric load estimate of
Section 6.1, Figure 9,6-1 has beerlincluded to provide a preliminary estimate
of total electrical power consumption for all pumps, compressors, etc. When
available, manufacturer!s data shOuld be sed,

9.7 Fresh Water Cooling Systems

Figure g.7-1 illustrates t~~ical fresh water cOOling systems for a plant with
a crosshead engine with water-cOOledpistons, and three diesel generators.
The systems can be divided into separate systems for cooling main engine
cylil]derjackets, main engine pistons, main engine injectors and the generator
engines.

There is trend toward increased use Of fresh water COO1ing for equipment
previously cooled by aea water, with the lo,gicalextrapolation being a
complete central fresh water cooling system in which fresh water is circulated
from sea water cooled central heat exchangers to main engine and auxiliary
machinery coolers. The central system may be divided into separate high and
low temperature subsystems. The benefit of a central fresh water cooling
system is in reduced maintenance, since only the central coolers are exposed
to sea water. The added acquisition cost of a central cooling system may be
partly offset by the reduced use of high cost materials.

-66-
 FIGURE 9.6-1
POWER CONSUMPTION FOR VAPOR COMPRESSION
AND REVERSE OSMOSIS DISTILLERS

300

250

200

I
:
1 150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

DISTILLER OUTPUT, METRICTONS PER DAY

 MAKE-UP
SSDG COOLING ~,,,-,p INJECTOR
SYSTEM FEED
CUOLING MAKE-UP
EXPN ~
FEED

1 EXPN
TANK TANK
SYSTEM EXPN
TANK

~~ P
41
b INJECTUR
WATER
CIRC PUMPS ,11
w
/ II
II
TURBO-
CHARGER II
II

PISTON
@
PISTUN
CDDLER

PISTON
.
L JACKET
COOLING
;~R COOLING SYSTEM SYSTEM
JACKET
PUMPS WTR CIRC
PUMPS
EVAP

WATER DRAIN TANK *

FIGURE 9.7-1
TYPICAL FRESH WATER COOLING SYSTEM
9.7.1 Jacket water cooling system

The ,jacketcooling system shown is independent of the LO cooler and charge air
cooler, which are, in this case, directly cooled by sea water. In other
arrangements the jacket water ay be the coolant for the LO cooler and charge
air cooler.

An elevated expansion tank maintains a static head on the auction side of the
system, and provides a convenient point for collecting vents, adding make up
feed and adding chemicala for corrosion and scale inhibition.

The turbocharger supply and return 1ines are shown, since even turbochargers
with uncooled casings usually require cooling water for the turbine-end
bearing. In either event, water flow ust be forced by an orifice in the
bypass line, as shown.

The jacket water circulating pumps ay be arranged upstream or downstream of

the cooler. They are usually centrifugal pumps, and in larger plants are
fitted in duplicate. %th pumps are motor-driven in installations with low
speed diesels, but medium and high speed engines are often fitted with an
engine driven pump, with a motor-driven pump for standby service.

Most seagoing ships recover heat from the main engine jacket water for fresh
water generation (see Section 9.6). rhefresh water generator is usually
located ahead of the jacket cooler, and ay be fitted with supplemental steam
or hot writerIleatingcoil for use when insufficient jacket water heat is
available.

A jacket water heater is used when the engine is idle. Maintaining the engine
in a warm condition assists in minimizing corrosion and facilitates starting.

9.i,2 Piston cooling water system

Khile all trunk piston engines, as well as some crosshead engines, use oil to
cool the pistons, a number of crosshead engines use a cooling water system
separate from the jacket water system, The water reaches and leaves the
I)istonsthrough telescoping tubes enclosed within compartments inside the
crankcase in order to avoid contamination of the LO should a gland fail.

Because of the high water temperature draining from the pistons and the
resulting potential for flashing at the pump auction, some manufacturers
recommend that deep well pumps immersed in the tank be used. Both pumps will
be motor-driven.

9.7.3 Injector cooling system

Some engines are fitted with fuel injector cooling systems and others are not.
In some cases injectors are cooled only through conduction to the hesds: in
other cases they are circulated with water as part of the jacket cooling
system, and sometimes they are circulated with diesel oil in a closed loop.
When a separate injector water circuit is fitted, it is a scaled-down version
of the jacket cooling system, often without a cooler, and with a steam coil in
the expansion tank to maintain temperature at low engine output when use of
HFO is intended.

-69-
9.7.4 Di,eselgenerator cooling system

Allxiliaryengines tend to have self-contained cooling circuits, with charge

air cooler, cylinder jackets and LO cooler circulated by a single cooling
pump on each engine. The system shown in Figure 9.7-1 combines these circuits
into a common system with a central generator engine cooler and expansion
tank, with a otor-driven pump for each engine. This offers the advantage Of
circulating the idle generator engines with warm cooling water as protection
against corrosion, and enables the standby engine to start and pick up load
ore rapidly. Other means of achieving this goal exist. For reasons of
reliability, many operators prefer that the auxiliary engines have separate
cooling systems,

9.8 Sea water systems

Sea water systems include cooling services in tbe engine room and such ship
service systems as ballast and fire main. Figure 9.8-1 is a typical example

Water enters the system through high a]]dlow sea chests on opposite sides of
the ship. The low sea suction is used at sea where it is more likely to
remain immersed aa tileship rolis and pitches. The sea chests are connected
by a large diameter cross connection, in this case with a valve on the
center line. Suction strainers are installed adjacent to each of the sea
chests. Sea water pumps take suction from the cross connection. When
duplicate pumps for the same service are fitted, they will take ~uctlon from
Opposite sides of the center line valve.

Each sea chest is fitted with sea valves, vents, valves for steam/air blow-out
and grati]lgsmounted flush with the hull. On tankers the high sea suction
should be on the opposite side of the ship from the pump room ballast
discharge, since both are likely to be t]sedin port, Where operation i
freezing water is freyuent, the sea chests may be fitted with piped
connections to introduce hot water from the overboard discharge or from
separate steam heaters.

Sea water pumps illsalt water service tend tO be high maintenance items ~d
a desirable design goal would call for pumps of similar capacity to be
identical, simplifying spare parts requirements in service.

The main sea water cooling system will normally co~ist of two full-size
supply pumps and distribution piping. The system may supply water to the
following services:

- main engine LO coolers

- main engine fresh water coolers
- main engine air coolers

In the system of Figure 9,8-1, the ballast pump requirement was sufficiently
close to that of the main engine cooling pump to enable,three identical pumps
to be fitted, with one ballast pump as standby for the main engine cooling
pump. On tankers, the main sea water cooling system may also serve a
condenser for tbe cargo and ballast pump turbines, or a separate circulating
system ay be fitted.

-70-
 TO
AFT PEAK SSDG FW CLR
TANK
<
i I I
STARTING
AIR COMPRESSOR

STARTING
AIR COMPRESSOR

1 TOPPING
AIR COMPRESSOR

LINE SHAFT
[ BEARING

I AIR CnND
-
LO COOLER
1

REFRIGERATION
JACKET
COOLER
PISTON COOLER
AIRI
STM

t v
T

r
SYSTEM
-

d 6
FROM t
AFT PEAK AUX
TANK CLG
P P PUMPS
AIRI
STM
-- -., -- I

GEN;L SERVICE-
SANITARY, - AIR STM
I I 1~< I I I v
r
EMERGENCY BILGE SUCTION
\ /

FIGURE 9.8-1
TYPICAL SEA WATER SYSTEM
-71-
The auxiliary sea water cooling system will normally consist of two full-size
supply pumps and distribution piping. The system may supply water to the
following services:

- SSDG coolers
- atmospheric condenser and drain cooler
- air compressor fresh water coOler
- stern tube LO cooler
- shaft bearings
- provision refrigeration achines
- air conditioning refrigeration machines
- deck machinery LO coolers

The heated sea water leaving most of the auxiliaries is usually combined with
sea water leaving the main engine coolers upstream of a thermostatically-
controlled three-way recirculating valve which can return Some of the heated
water to the suction cross connection, discharging the rest overboard. This
recirculation enables the sea water used for cooling to be maintained above 20
C, even in very cold ambient conditions. For the system to operate in port
with the main engine secured, the thermostat should sense tbe sea water
temperature in the auxiliary cooling system.

Connections to and from the aft peak tarlkay be provided from the auxiliary
cooling water system to enable limited cooling services to be aintained while
in dry dock, Alternatively, hose connections may be provided in the piping to
utilize k,aterfrom shore.

Cooling water for refrigeration machinery, often on a higher flat in the

engine room, may be supplied from separate PIIMPSto avoid imposing the higher
discharge head requirement on the rest of the system. Other services for
which separate pllmpsare often fitted include the following:

- ehraporatorfeed, cooling and eductors

- marine growth preventio]lsystem
- inert gas system scrubber and deck seal

.iseries of cross connections between the various sea water pumps is fitted to
allow continuous operation in emergency conditions.

Corrosion of aterials is a problem in sea water systems. Piping is normally

of copper-nickel, galvanized steel or steel internally coated with an inert
material such as polyethylene.

9.9 Steam systems

Figure 9.9-1 illustrates a simple steam system, frequently used on ships where
steam requirements are limited, in which the oil-fired package boiler serves
as the steam drum for a forced-circulationwater tube waste heat boiler, This
type of system is easily automated: excess steam produced is dumped tbrOugh a
pressure regulating valve to the sea water circulated condenser, while a
shortage of steam will trigger a pressure switch to supplementally fire the
oil-fired boiler. The fact that the oil fired boiler is filled with saturated
steam and water at all times results in a rapid response. Sometimes gas

-72-
 - ------ --- ------ -. . .
s IL8M t UK 3UU I BLUWING

FU FINAL HTRS
PRESSURE
REDUCING VALVE
1
FO PURIFIER
HEATERS

F
UPTAKE LO TANKS

LO PURIFIER
HEATERS ~
ME JACKET ,
HEATER

DRAIN TANK
HTG COIL

HOT WATER
HEATER
/ \

EXCESS STEAM

ENGINE
EXHAUST /w
GAS WASTE HEAT *
BOILER
t

T- 1

BOILER MAKE-UP
FEED PUMP d FEED
DRAIN TANK

FIGURE 9.9-1
BASIC WASTE HEAT RECOVERY STEAM SYSTEM

-73-
bypasses are fitted to the waste heat boiler to enable control of steam
production.

Some ships are fitted with waate heat boilers of the gas-tube type in which
steam production can be controlled by varying the water level. The oil-fired
boiler would not necessarily be in the circuit, but it can be kept warm by a
steam heating coil. Where the steam demand is in the range of about 2000 kg/h
or less (the usual case on dry cargo vessels), the oil-fired boiler is ost
often of the fire tube type.

The design pressure of a ships steam system may be dependent on its use for
fuel heating: the heaviest fuels require heating to about 170C, in turn
requiring saturated steam generation at about eight bar,s. Because of the
danger of sulfuric acid attack on cold economizer tubes, the systems of Figure
9.9-2 incorporates an economizer recirculation valve which passes water from
the saturated circuit into the feed upstream of the economizer, thereby
e]lablingthe feed temperature to be maintained even at low engine output.

Where sufficient waste beat is available for a turbogenerator to be fitted,

the system can be as simple as in Figure 9.9-2 or more complex, as in Figure
9.9-3. These systems are discussed at length in Section 7 and Appendix B.

A heating coil is fitted to the drain tank to maintain its temperature close
to 100C to encourage a measure of deaeration.

Figt]re9.9-4 i.sa typical tanker steam plant, supplying steam for cargo
heating, cargo and ballast pumping and for tank cleaning. Two oil-fired
boilers supply steam at a pressure sufficient for cargo and ballast pump
turbines, and also serve to supplement the output of the waste heat boiler.
Because the waste heat boiler is operating at lower pressure it is provided
with its own steam drum, and the oil-fired boilers are fitted with beating
coils. ~heoil-fired .boilerain this example are of the double circuit type:
al]oil-fired, closed primary steam circuit generates steam in an attached
secondary drum, precluding contamination of the primary circuit via a leaking
cargo heating coil. The same results can be achieved using a contaminated
evaporator (low pressure steam Eenerator) to supply cargo heating steam.

9.10 Bilge systems

Bilge systems serve to remove accumulated liquids, usually water, from

compartments not otherwise served by a suction or drain, including machinery
spaces, dry cargo holds, cofferdams and similar void spaces. Aft ballast
tanks may be served by the bilge system and on ships other than oil tankers,
the bilge and ballast systems are usually inter-connected. Spaces remote from
tbe bilge system,,typically far forward in the ship, may be independently
served, often by eductors driven from the fire ain, Cargo pump room bilges
on oil tankers and similar veasela must be served by an independent bilge
system. For vessels carrying hazardous liquid cargoes, cargo pump room bilge
wells are discharged to a dedicated holding tank for ultimate disposal aahore.
Accumulated water may have come from rain, run-off from cargoes such as coal
or ore, leaking hatch covers, condensation, wash down, leakage or routine
discharges from systems or as a result of damage to the ship. Regulatory
requirements specify conditions under which the bilge system must be capable
of operation, including sufficient pumping capability and extreme conditions

-74-
 I ,c

_
SOOTBLDWING

FO FINAL HTRS y

EG-
PRESS FD PRE-HTG+
RED.
VLV LO HTG_
DRAIN TK+
HOT WTR HTR+
+
b MISC -

ENGINE
:XHAUST GAS 1 GEN
WASTE

v&
A
,,,

EAT
BOILER

w I I
BOILER
FEED PUMP

FIGURE 9.9-2
WASTE HEAT STEAM PUNT WITH
TURBOGENERATOR AND SINGLEPRESSURE
BOILER WITH ECONOMIZER RECIRCUUTION

-75-
 LP STEAM TO
WASTE FO PREHEATING,ETC
HEAT
BDILER

0
\

HP STEAM TO
FO FINAL HEATERS
SDOTBLOWERS

HP
FEED
IULATOR
r E
1 RETURNS

AIR
FROM
TURBOCHARGER ENGINE
EXHAUST
GAS COND

FEED HEATING
I SECTION FEED PUMP

PRESSURIZED HOT WATER OR

AIR THERMAL FLUID LOUPI
LO HEATING
COOLER HW HEATING
DRAIN TANK HEATING
SW COOLING SECTION

AIR
F
EN~!NE

FIGURE 9.9-3
WASTE HEAT STEAM PLANT WITH MIXEDPRESSURE TG,
DOUBLE-PRESSURE BOILER; HEAT RECOVERY AT AIR COOLER
FOR FEED HEATING AND LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICES
-76-
 -. .. ---- --..
IW PRESSURE HIbH FRESSURE CARGO PUMPS
SDOT BLOWERS ~ STEAM STEAM
MAIN Q MAIN

r STM TRACING<

r
+
OFB PRIMARY+
CKT HTG COILS
L.0, TANKS<I /
MAIN ENGINE

F w
~z
~L.,. PuRIFIERs-I EXHAUST GAS
ME JKT HTR MAKE-UP- PRIMARY
FEED CIRCUIT
DRN TK HTG COIL
MUF PUMP

v
HOT WATER HTR

CARGO HEATING
PRV
SLOP TANK HTG
CARGO
TANK CLG HEATER PRV PUMP

1
CDNDSR
STRIPPING
PUMP

WASTE HEAT WASTE HEAT IL-FIRED

BOILER EXCESS BOILER FEED BOILER FEED
CONDENSATE
STEAM DUMP \ PUMP
PUMP p

I ?Pup ? ?
I
TANK~
RAIN PRV=PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
FWR=FEED WATER REGULATOR

FIGURE 9.94
TYPICAL TANKER STEAM SYSTEM WITH DUAL
PRESSURE OILFIRED BOILERS
of trim and list. An attempt should be ade to run the bilge piping where it
is protected from grounding or collision damage.

Bilge manifolds and bilge pumps (other than oil tanker cargo pump room bilge
pumps) are usually located in the machinery space. Between the bilge manifold
and the bilge pumps, easily-cleaned strainera are fitted. Rules generally
require at least two bilge pumps, a requirement usually met with one dedicated
bilge pump, with standby provided by a general service pump. Positive
displacement pumps may be used, or they may be centrifugal pumps fitted with
self-priming equipment or connected to a central priming system. Ships with
demanding damage control requirements, such as passenger ships, may have three
or four bilge pumps. In addition, the ballast pumps are usually capable of
taking suction through the bilge system in emergencies.

Machinery space bilge wells are required to have an independent bilge system
a]ldare sometimes fitted with independent, flost-operated sump pmps. I
addition, most regulations require that the largest capacity pump in the
machinery space be fitted with a direct emergency suction from the machinery
space bilge. Throughout the machinery space, attention should be paid to
maintaining clean bilges, with drains led to dedicated tanks or bilge wells.
Equipment subject to minor leaks should be enclosed by a coaming and served by
a drair]. Drains likely to be oily, such as those from cosmings and drip pans
at oil filters and pumps, should be led directly to an oily drain tank.

To prex,ent the overboard discharge of oily water, a separator is required.

Most bilge oil and water separators are of the coalescing type. Generally,
the o~,erboarddischarge of the bilge pumps can be led to a bilge holding tank,
usually in the machinery space double bottom. Space permitting, duplicate
holding tanks may be fitted to permit more effective settling. A dedicated,
positive-displacementpump draws from the holding tank to feed the separator,
to which it is matched illcapacity. Separated water is discharged overboard
via an oil conterltonitor arranged to stop the discharge if the oil content
exceeds the set level, Separated oil is passed to a waste oil collecting tank
pending discharge to a shore facility or to a waste oil burner in an
incinerator or auxiliary boiler,

9.11 Engine room \,entilationsystems

The engine room ventilation system supplies fresh outside air to the engine
room for environmental control and combustion in the engines and boilers.

Air for environmental control is distributed throughout the engine rOom by

ducts with outlets located adjacent to operating stations md near heat
producing equipment. Dampers are provided at duct outlets to allow for flow
adjustment. Combustion air for engines and boilers is normally ducted to the
vicinity of the intakes. See Sections 5.5 and 6.5 to estimate the amount of
combustion air required.

Ducts are normally made of galvanized steel, stiffened as necessary. Adequate

flanged joints are fitted in the ducts for aintenance. The ducts may be
coated internally.

-7a-
Normally four engine room ventilation fans are supplied. One or two of the
fans may be reversible to allow flexibility in ventilateO. Generally the
fans are not interconnected on tbe discharge side, The exhaust air from the
engine room not drawn out by exhaust fans will normally rise and exit, often
through an opening in the aft side of the funnel or . Total fan capacity
(including the reversible fans) ay be determined on the assumption of fifteen
changes per hour. (Section 12.3 provides a means of estimating machinery
space volume.) Alternatively, total fan capacity ay be estimated as double-
to-triple the total maximum combustion air requirements of main and auxiliary
engines and oil-fired boilers (see Section 5.4 and 6.5),

The engine control room will normally be air conditioned by packaged units.
workst]opsand electrical store rooms ay also be air conditioned by packaged
units.

Where a separate purifier room is provided, it will normally be fitted with an

exhaust fan which exhausts to the weather through independent ducting.

9.12 Refrigerated stores

Space is pro~,
ided in the vicinity of the galley for the storage of dry and
refrigerated provisions. The size of the spaces assigned for this purpose
will depend upon the size of the crew and the anticipated trade route.

Normally two refrigerating units of the vapor-compression type are provided,

each comprising compressor, condenser and receiver. The condensers ay be
circulated with sea water or fresh water. Generally, each unit will be sized
to maintain the specified temperatures while running 12 to 18 hours per day,
with the other unit as a standby. Both units may be used during initial
temperature pull-down or when loading provisions. Alternatively, the units
may be sized so that one unit can achieve initial pull-dOwn in 24 hours.

9.13 HI;ACsystems

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HV,AC)systems provide air

conditioned spaces with treated air and other spaces with fresh air.

Air conditioning involves temperature control, humidity control and fresh air
exchange. Relative humidity levels of 40 to jO percent may be aintained in
cold weather, and 50 to 60 percent in hot weather. Air removed from the
controlled spaces is recil.culated,but with at least 25 percent fresh air
make-up, admitted before the cooling coils in warm climates and before the
heating coils in cold climates. Excess air is discharged to the weather
through exhaust ducts,

When the refrigeration machinery is located in the engine room, at a distance

from the air conditioned spaces, an indirect air conditioning system (Figure
9.13-1) may be used. A secondary fluid, often water, is then circulated to
air handling units located in fan rooms near the air conditioned areas, where
it absorbs the heat contained in the air removed from the conditioned spaces,
In colder climates the same circulating system can be utilized to provide heat
for these spaces. In this instance the refrigeration equipment is secured and
the circulating fluid is heated by steam or electrically. As so alternative
to the indirect system, the direct expansion refrigeration machinery may be

-79-
A

FIGURE 9.13-1
TYPICAL HVAC SYSTEM ARRANGEMENT
located in an air handling room in the proximity of the air conditioned
spaces.

The refrigeration equipment normally consists of a compressor, condenser,

receiver, evaporator, expansion valve, chiller and controls.

When smaller spaces are to be air conditioned, self-contained, direct-

expansion units ay be employed, installed in or near the spaces.

Spaces whicl~are not air conditioned (i.e., storage areas, shops, lockers,
etc.), require fresh air for ventilation. One supply fan may provide
ventilation to several spaces thrOugh distribution ducting and dampers.
Exhaust from these spaces can be accomplished through a similarly confi~ured
ventilation exhaust ducting and fan system or through exhaust dampers placed
in external bulkheads within the spacea. Heating of the flow of fresh outside
air for \,elltilation
of such spaces, when required, is usually accomplished
with steam unit space heaters or electric resistance type strip heaters
located within the space being ventilated.

9.14 Access and overhauling gear

D\lringthe life of a ship it is likely that almost every component on board

will hax,
e be repaired or replaced, Adequate lifting gear, designated landing
and storage areas and stlfficientroom for access ust be allotted in the early
design stages, and will most likely be repaid by ease of repair or replacement
in service.

Normally a single o>,erheadgantry crane is installed over the main engine for
main engine maintenance. By extending the longitudinal and transverse runs of
the crane and providing sufficient wire to allow the hook to reach down to the
floor plates, the crane will be useful for other purposes as well, A second
carriage on the crane will facilitate maintenance by permitting simultaneous
lifts. The lifting capacity of the crane must be matched to the heaviest
component it might be used to lift.

Removal of the intermediate and tail shafting ia best done by a geared trolley
on the center line over tbe intermediate shaft in conjunction ith
strategically placed pad eyes. While it ay be feasible to work out a removal
route through existing hatches, most often shafting is removed from the ship
through a temporary hole in the shell. Tbe location of the hole should be
marked permanently on the shell. Piping, cables and equipment should be
installed so that minimal removals are required during the shaft withdrawal or
its removal from the ship.

Trolleys, lifting hems or pad eyes should be located over the diesel
generators and other large auxiliaries to facilitate their aintenance.
Pad eyes should be placed over each piece of equipment that cannot easily be
moved by hand. Heat exchanger tube bundle removal normally requires ultiple
pad eyes as well aa space to perform this operation without removing my other
equipment or structure. Deck plating in designated lmding areas must
suitably reinforced.

At least one of the ships provision cranes should be arranged to allow direct
transfer of parts and stores to the storeroom level of the engine room, often

-81-
through a hatch on deck and a vertical trunk. A trolley in the engine room
can be provided to transfer these parts and stores to the engineers
storeroom, or the main engine gantry crane may serve this purpose, To allow
flexibility of use, sufficient wire should be installed on the drum of the
provision crane to allow tbe hook to reach down to the lowest ~nglne room flat
which it plumbs,

-82-
10.0 TYPICAL MACHINERY LISTS

Machinery lists for two typical diesel plants are ln~lded below for
~;~:ynce only. Steering gear and deck machinery sre nOt i~lded in these
The content of a machinery list for sny specific application may
deviate significantly from these samples, reflecting such factors as shipa
service, trade route and operating profile, the engine design and output, the
degree and level of sophisticalion of waste heat recovery, attached
auxiliaries, automation and arming, the cargo services required, and the
owners philosophy concerning equipment rellabllity and redundancy.

10.1 LOW-SPEED DIESEL ENGINE PROPULSION PLANT WCHINERY LIST

The following machinery list ia for a container ship with a single, low-speed
diesel, an attached generator, central cooling system and limited exhaust gaa
heat recovery.

main propulsion engine

shafting
thrust bearing
line shaft bearings
stern tube, seals and bearings
propeller
exhaust gas boiler (silencer/spark arrestor)
oil-fired boiler
machinery control console
switchboards and distribution panels
main engine attached generator
ships service diesel generator sets
emergency diesel generator
fuel oil heaters
fuel oil purifier heaters
main li]beoil cooler
camshaft lube oil coolers
lube oil purifier heaters
central cooling system SW/FW heat exchanger
ain engine jacket water heater
ships service fresh water heater
drain cooler
distillers
fuel oil purifiers
diesel oil purifier
lube oil purifiers
starting sir compressors
starting air receivers
ships service air compressors
ship service air receivers
control air compressor
control air receiver
control air drier
provision refrigeration compressors, condensers and receivers
air conditioning compressors, condensers and receivers
achinery space ventilation supplyand exhaust fans
fuel oi1 service pumps

-83-
fuel oil tranafer pump
diesel oil tranafer pump
main lube oil pumps
camahaft lube oil pumps
crosshead lube oil pumps
ain fresh water cooling pumps
auxiliary fresh water cooling pumps
main jacket water pumps
piston cooling water pumps
main sea water circulating pumps
auxiliary aea water circulating pump
ballast pumps
fire pumps
general service pumps
sanitary pumps
boiler feedwater pumps
exhaust gaa boiler circulating pump
potable water pumps
sludge transfer pump
fresh water transfer pump
machinery apace bilge pumps
HFO storage tanka
HFO settling tanks
HFO service tank
DO storage tanks
DO settling tank
DO aervice tank
main engine LO sump tank
LO storage tanks
LO settling tank
cylinder oil storage tanks
cylinder oil easuring tank
stern tube head tank
waate oi1 storage tank
central cooling system fresh water expansion tank
main en<ine jacket cooling water expansion tank
generator engine jacket cooling water expanaion tank
atmospheric drain collecting and inspection tank
potable water storage tanks
reserve feed storage tanks
purifier FW shot tanks
purifier sludge tank
potable water hydropneumatic tank
sanitary system hydropneumatic tank
fuel oil strainers/filters
diesel oil strainers/filters
lubricating oil strainers/filters
main engine jacket water deaerator
gantry crane, lifting beams and trolleys
elevator
oil and water separator
sewage treatment plant
trash/waate oil incinerator
central hydraulic power packa

-84-
10.2 MEDIUM-SPEED DIESEL ENGINE PROPULSION PLANT MACHINERY LIST

The following achinery list is for a single-screw, dry bulk carrier with two
medium-speed diesel engines and limited exhaust gas heat recovery.

main propulsion engines

reduction gear
clutches
shafting
shaft brake
thrust bearing
line shaft bearings
stern tube, seals and bearings
propeller
exhaust gas boilers (silencer/spark arrestors)
oil-fired boiler
machinery control console
switchboards and distribution panels
ships service diesel generator sets
emergency diesel generator
fuel oil heaters
fuel oil purifier heaters
main lube oil coolers
reduction gear lube oil cooler
lube oil purifier heaters
main engine jacket water coolers
main engine jacket water heaters
ships service fresh water heater
drain cooler
distillers
fuel oil purifiers
diesel oil purifier
lube oil purifiers
starting air compressors
starting air receivers
ships service air compressors
ship service air receivers
control air compressor
control air receiver
control air drier
provision refrigerant ion compressors, condensers and receivers
air conditioning compressors, condensers md receivers
machinery space ventilation supply and exhaust fans
fuel oil transfer pump
fuel oil service pumps
diesel oil transfer pump
main lube oil pumps
reduction gear lube oi1 pump
ain jacket water pumps
main engine injector cooling water circulating pumps
auxiliary fresh water cooling pumps
main sea water circulating pumps
auxiliary sea water circulating pump
ballast pumps

-85-
fire pumps
general service pumps
sanitary pumps
boiler feedwater pumps
exhaust gas boiler circulating pumps
potable water pumps
sludge transfer pump
fresh water transfer pump
machinery apace bilge pumps
HFO storage tanks
HFO settling tanka
HFO service tank
DO settling tank
DO storage tanka
DO service tank
LO storage tanka
reduction gear lube oi1 gravity tank
stern tube head tank
waate oil storage tank
ain engine jacket cooling water expansion tank
main engine injector cooling water expansion tanks
generator engine jacket cooling water expansion tank
atmospheric drain collecting and inspection tank
potable water storage tanka
reserve feed storage tanks
purifier FW shot tanks
purifier sl,udgetank
potable water hydropneumatic tank
sanitary system hydropneumatic tank
fuel oil strainers/filters
diesel oil strainers/filters
lubricating oil strainera/filters
main engine jacket water deaeratOra
gantry crane, lifting beams and trolleys
elevator
oil and water separator
sewage treatment plant
trash/waste oil incinerator
central hydraulic power packs

-86-
11.0 OVER.ALLPLANT FUEL AND LUBRICATING 01 L CONSUMPTION

Fuel and lube oil consumption calculations for twO example cases are included
in this section to illustrate the use of relevant material in this bulletin.
It should be noted that the fuel and lube oil costs derived from these
consumption calculations are only two of many constituent components which
must be quantified in order to enable overall operating costs to be
established. A list of cost components to consider in an economic analysis or
feasibility study ight include the following:

amortized acquisition cost

fuel cost
lube oil cost
machinery maintenance cost, including non-crew labor and parts
hull aintenance cost
crew wages, benefits, transportation and subsistence costs
port and canal charges
administration and overhead costs
insurance premiums

11.1 Fuel and lube oil consumption of a typical low-speed diesel plant

il.l.l Calculation of fuel consumption

As an example, consider a large single-screw container ship to be fitted with

a low-speed diesel, intended for a trade which will keep the ship at sea at
service speed 280 days per year. For the purposes of this example, there are
no large cargo service loads such as those associated with refrigerated
containers. What is usually sought is the average fuel consumed at sea, in
etric tons per day (t/d or TPD), separately for each grade of fuel.

Performance projections indicate that with the hull clean and at a typical
ser~>icedraft, the shaft power (i.e.; including allowances for shaft bearing
losses but not for the thrust bearing) required to achieve 100% propeller RPM
will be just under 15000 kW. Applying the allowance for thrust bearing power
consumption (see Section 4.3.2), about 15000 bkW will be needed in this
condition. Since the ship will aintain a schedule, and to allow for the
ion<-term degradation of hull and propeller beyond that recoverable in normal
drydockings, then in accord with Section 4.4, a main engine capable of 20000
bkW at its installed MCR ia likely. If the ship were to be fitted with an
attached generator or other ~0 equipment, an even larger engine would be
required.

Although the engine has not yet been selected, a survey of published data for
several candidate engines indicates that, whichever engine is ultimately
selected, it is likely to have a quoted SFC in the range of 170 to 175 g/bkW-h
under 1S0 standard conditions (see Section 3.1 ), when burning distillate fuel
with a calorific content of 42,700 kJ/kg.

In service, the vessel will operate on HFO, represented as ISO-F-WG-35 (see

Table 3-1) with a calorific value of 39550 kJ/kg,

The speed required to service the trsde wili be achieved at slightly less than
100% RPM, and it is estimated that before the ship is dry-docked again for

-a7-
hull cleaning, the time-averaged engine output will have reached 85% of McR,
or 17500 bkW. With reference to Section j.2, the average SFC in service will
therefore be slightly below the value at MCR, perhaps by two or three percent.

The enqine will ost likely draw air directly from the engine room, at an
average temperature of about 35C (see Section 3,1), 10c higher than the 1~
standard. Further, in anticipation of a central cooling system (see Section
9.7.6) it is estimated that the temperature of the charge air coolant will be
30C, 5C above the ISO standard.

The actual SFC achieved in service can be estimated as follows:

(170 to 175)(42700/39550)(.97 to .98)(1.002 to 1.01)(1.001 to 1.003)(1.03)

= 184 to 193 g/bkW-h

where:

The first term is the range of likely SFCS, in g/bkW-h, as published,

for distillate fuel and under 1S0 conditions.

The second term is the ratio of calorific content of the fuels.

The third term reflects the aforementioned two or three percent reduction
in SEC at the average service output of the engine.

The fourth and fifth terms are the correction factors for ambient
conditio]ls,from Section 5.1.

The final term restores the tolerance on quoted values of SFC, assumed to
ha~,ebeen deducted, in accord with Section 5.2.

The average daily fuel consumption of the main engine at sea can then be
estimated, assuming 2% water and sediment in the fuel:

(17500bkW)(184 to 193 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(l,02)/(lo~ g/t)

= 78.8 to 82.7 t/d, or about 81 TPD

It is also necessary to calculate the fuel consumed in meeting the ships

electrical load, In the absence of a large cargo service load the relation of
Section 6.1 can be used directly,,yielding an estimate of the daily average
load of 660 kWe. Because this load ia low relative to the main engine output,
this plant should be considered as a candidate for a waste heat turbOgeneratOr
(WHTG). This possibility ia explored in Appendix B, for both simple and
sophisticated WHTG cycles.

If the WHTG option is rejected, likely alternatives (see Section 9.2) include
ships service diesel generators (SSDGS) run on distillate or blended fuel, or
an attached generator. 1f an attached generator were to be considered, the
required main engine output would be increased, and its.fuel consumption would
be correspondingly higher, For this example, consider a plant comprised of
three identical SSDGS arranged to run on a 50-50 blend of ain engine HFO and
distillate fuel, blended on hard, with a resulting calorific content of 41125
kJ/kg.

-88-
In accord with Section 9.2, to generate the daily average of 660 kke each SSDG
might be rated at 800 kWe. From Figures 9.2-1 and 9.2-2, the generator
efficiency is estimated at 0.947 at rating and O.945 at the average service
output, requirini an engine rated for 850 bkW and developing 700 bkW at the
average service load.

A survey of published data for candidate engines indicates that the engine
ultimately selected might have a quoted SFC in the range of 190 to 210 g/bkW-h
under 1S0 standard conditions (see Section 3.1), when burning distillate fuel
with a calorific content of 42,700 kJ/kg. The actual SFC achieved in service
can be estimated as follows:

(190 to 210)(42700/41125)(.97to .98)(1.002 to 1.01)(1.001 to 1.003)(1.03)

= 198 to 223 g/bkW-h

where the terms are as defined above.

The average daily fuel consumption for electrical requirements at aea can then
be estimated, assuming 1% water and sediment in tbe blended fuel:

(700 bkW)(198 to 223 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(lo01)/(106 g/t)

= 3.4 to 3.8 t/d, or about 2 TPD each, of HFO and distillate

The ship can thus be expected to consume, on the average, some 83 TPD of HFO
and some 2 TPD of distillate fuel, at sea.

If the in-port electrical load is about half the sea load, it can also be
estimated that the in-port consumption will be some 2 TPD. Whether this is of
distillate or blended fuel will depend on provisions ade for heating HFO in
port, and on the relative costs of distillate and heavy fuel. If the oil-
fired boiler is used in port, an additional allowance for boiler fuel will be
required.

11.1.2 Calculation of lubricating oil consumption

In the absence of better information, lube oil consumption can be estimated

from the data of Section 5.3. Because the quantities involved are low
relative to the fuel consumption, it is often convenient to evaluate lube oil
consumption on an annual basis.

Cylinder oi1 consumption for the low-speed ain engine can be estimated over
the course of a year as follows:

(17500 bkW)(O.7 to 1.4 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(280 d/y)/(106 g/t)

= 82 to 165 t/y
where:

The first term is the time-averaged main engine output, assumed to apply
over the course of the year under consideration,

-89-
 The second term is the range of specific cylinder oil consumption values
cited in Section 5.3.

Main engine circulating oil and miscellaneous oil use is estimated as follows:

(20000 bkW)(O.5 to 1.0 kg/bkW-y)(280d/36j)/(103 kg/t) = 8 to 15 t/y

where:

The first term is the MCR of the ain engine.

The second term is the range of values cited in Section 5.3,

The third term prorates the consumption according to engine use,

In this example, with three SSDGS installed, each oueratine about one-third of
the year, their consumption can be estimated as follows:

For cylinder lubrication:

(700 bkh)
(1.5 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(365/3 d/y)(3 engines)/ 106 g/t) = 9 t/y

where:

The first term is the average generator en~ine output from Section 11.1.

The second term is the consumption cited in Section 5.3.

The third and fourth terms reflect the fact that each engine operates
one-third of the year.

For make-up and renewal of oil:

(850 bk~)(l to 2 kg/bkW-y)(l/3 Y)(3 engines)/(103 kg/t) = 1 to 2 t/y

where:

The first term is MCR of the generator engine, from Section 11.1.

The second term is the range of consumption values cited in Section 5.3.

The third term reflects the fact that each engine operates one-third of
the year.

The total lube oil consumption of the SSDGS is therefore estimated as about
10 or 11 t/y.

-90-
11.2 Fuel and lube oil consumption of a typical medium-speed diesel plant

11.2.1 Calculation of fuel oil consumption

As a second example, consider a dry bulk carrier to be fitted with two medium-
speed diesel engines driving a single fixed-pitch propeller through reversing,
single reduction gearing, intended for a trade which will keep the ship at sea
at service speed 260 days per year. The ship will be fitted with an attached
generator. No significant trade support service loads are atlcipated (See
Section 6.4). What is sought is the average fuel consumed at sea, in metric
tons per day (t/d or TPD).

Performance projections indicate that with the hull clean, and at the drafts
expected in loaded and ballasted conditiona, the power required at the
propeller shaft to achieve 100% propeller RPM will be 9000 kW, Since the
trade will permit a flexible schedule, then in accord with Section 4.4, two
main engines capable of delivering a combined 10000 kW to the propeller shaft
at their MCR are likely. The brake power used to drive the shaft under these
conditions can be estimated as follows:

(10000)/[(.99)(.99)(.995)(.999)] 10265 bkW

~here:

The first term is the projected shaft power required.

ihe second and third terms account for the full load power cosmptiOn of
the re~,ersingreduction gear, from Table 4-1.

The fourth term accounts for the full load power consumption of the
thrust bearing, from Table 4-1,

The fifth term is the load correction factor, from Figure 4.3-1, used
hecal!sethe gearing is likely to be rated to accept the full MCR of the
main engines, with the attached generator de-clutched.

It is assumed that the attached generator will be driven by a constant-speed

transmission from a pinion on the reduction gear (ace Section 8.2). A first
estimate of the average electrical load at sea, calculated in accordance with
Section 6.1 but based on an installed MCR estimated at 11000 bkW (to include
the generator requirements), and aasuming that other auxiliaries are electric
motor-driven, is 470 kWe. From Section 9.2, the attached generator might be
rated at j75 kWe. From Fi~res 9.2-1 and 9.2-2, the generator efficiency is
estimated at 0.946 at rating and 0.942 at the average service output. From
Section 8.2, the efficiency of the constant-speed step-up gear for the
generator is estimated at 0.91. The increase in main engine power to produce
the full generator output ia calculated as follows:

(575)/[(.946)(.91)(.99)(.99)(.999)1= 685 bkW

where:

The first term ia the generator capacity at rating.

The second term is the efficiency of the generator at its rating.

-91-
 The third term is the efficiency of the constant-speed tran~mi~~ion,

The fourth and fifth terms account for the full load power ~on~mption of
the reversing reduction gear, from which the constant-speed
transmission is driven,

The sixth term is the load correction factor for the gearing, from Figure
4.3-1.

Adding the generator power requirement to the propulsion 10ad yields ~

required combined main engine output at MCR of 10950 bkW or, realistically,
11000 bkW, consistent with the first estimate. (If it were not consistent, a
reiteration would be necessary.)

(If the engines were fitted with attached Pumps the daily average generator
load might be reduced by the power required to drive the these pumps. From
Section 8.3, the estimated amount of power required to drive the pumps is
about 200 bkW. The estimated dailY average generator load is therefore
estimated as some 270 kWe and the attached generator might then be rated at
330 bkW. From Figures 9.2-1 and 9.2-2, the generator efficiency would then be
estimated at O.940 at rating and O.937 at the average service output, The
increase in main engine power to produce the full generator output is
calculated as above to be 390 bkW. When this is added to the propulsion load,
a required combined main engine output at MCR of 10655 bkW results. However,
it must be noted that this is the a~;ailable engine brake output at MCR,
reduced from tl]ecombined bare enSine rating of some 108jj bkW hy the power
u iverted to drive the attached pumps.)

Although the engines have not yet been selected, a typical engine that might
be suitable has published data that quotes a SFC of 185 g/bkW-h, plus 3
percent, for an engine with independently driven pumps, under 1S0 standard
conditiorls(see Section 3.1), when burning distillate fuel with a Calorlflc
COntefit of 42,700 kJ/kg.

In service, the \,esselwill operate on HFO, typified by IsO-F-RME-25 (see

Table 3-1) with a calorific value of 39,650 kJ/kg.

The average service speed will be achieved at slightly less than 100% RPM, and
it is estimated that before the ship is dry-docked again for hull cleaning,
the time-averaged engine output for propulsion and attached generator drive
will have reached 85% of the combined MCR, or 9350 bkW. With reference to
Section 5,2, the average SFC in service will therefore be slightly belOw the
value at MCR, perhaps by two or three percent.

If the engines draw their combustion air directly from the engine room, ita
average temperature can be taken as 35C (see Section 3.1), 10C higher thm the
1S0 standard. Further, in anticipation of a central cooling system (see
Section 9.7.6) it ia estimated that the temperature of the charge air coolant
wi11 average 30C, 5C above tbe 1S0 standard, The actual SFC achieved in
service can be estimated as follows:

(185)(42700/39650)(.97to .98)(1.002 to 1.01)(1.001 to 1.003)(1.03)

= 200 to 204 g/bkW-h

-92-
 where:

The first term is the SFC of the candidate engine in g/bkW-h for
distillate fuel snd under 1S0 conditions.

The second term is the ratio of calorific content of the fuels.

The third term reflects the aforementioned two or three percent reduction
in SFC at the average output of the engine.

The fourth and fifth terms sre the correction factors for ambient
conditions.

The finsl term adds the tolerance.on quoted values of SFC, which was
deducted from the published value (see Section 5,2).

(Note that if the engines were fitted with attached pumps, either the SFC or
the engine output would have to be ad,justedto reflect this, unless the quoted
value already took this into accollnt.

The average daily fuel consumption of the main engines at sea can then be
estimated:

(9350 bkW)(200 to 204 g/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(l.02)/(lOc g/t)

~~.7 to 46.7 t/d, or abOut 46 TpD

where:

The first term is the time-avers~ed ain engine output.

The second term is the range of specific fuel consumption values

calclllatedabove,

The fourth term is the assumed 2% ater and sediment content of the fuel

In this case tbe attached generator supplies all auxiliary needs st sea, and
the calculated main engine consumption is not normally supplemented by
additional consumption for SSDG use. An additional allowance for the in-port
use of the SSDGS will be required, however.

11.2.2 Calculation of lubricating oil consumption

The published LO consumption of the candidate engine is given as approximately

O.8 g/bkW-h, exclusive of sump changes. (In keeping with the comments of
Section 5.3, this may be an optimistic assessment of tbe rste achieved in
service.) Because the quantities of LO involved are low relative to fuel
consumption, it is often convenient to evaluate the lube oil consumption on an
annual basis, as follows:

(9350 bkW)(O.8 q/bkW-h)(24 h/d)(260 d/y)/(106 g/t) = 47 t/y

-93-
 where:

The first term is the time-averaged main engine output, ~s~med to apply
over the course of the year under consideration.

The second term is the published range specific oil consumption values for
the candidate engine.

For make-up and renewal of oil, in the absence of guidance from the candidate
engine manufacturer, the values of Section j,3 are used:

(11000 bkw)(1 to 2 kg/bkW-y)(260/365)/(10J kg/t )

= 8 to 16 t/y

where:

The first term is the combined MCR of the main engines.

The second term is the range of consumption values from Section 5.3.

The third term reflects the operating days per year.

The total lube oil consumption of the main engines is therefore estimated as
j5 to 63 tly. Additional allowances for the in-port use of the SSDGS,,and for
small quantities of LO used in the reduction gear and miscellaneous
ailxiliaries,will be required,

-94-
 12.0 MASSES, CENTERS OF GRAVITY AND VOLUMES

The l~urposeof this section is to provide a means for obtaining reliable

preliminary estimates of machinery ass, vertical and longitudinal centers of
gravity, and machinery space volume for typical merchant ships with diesel
engine propulsion.

12.1 Masses

The machinery ass is defined as the entire contents of the achinery space
plus shafting, bearings and propeller(s) and thus will typically include the
following items:

ain engines
reduction gears
power take-off(s)
propulsion shafting
boilers
propeller(s)
fuel oil systems
fresh water system
lube oil systems
compressed air system
steam system
access and overhauling gear
.- work shops
macttineryspace ventilation
machinery automation and control equipment
diesel generators
turbogenerators
machinery spares
liqllidsin achinery and piping

For the purpose of estimating mass, the total machinery mass is divided into
two parts. One part is solely the dry mass of the main propulsion engine(s),
while the other is comprised of the remaining categories listed above. Other
machinery which ay be required for trade support services is not included.

In the preliminary estimation of the machinery mass, several factors have

strong influence:

whether the engine is a low-speed crosshead engine or medium- or high-

speed trunk-piston engine

the number of propellers and shafts

the amount of electrical generating capacity required above normal

propulsion requirements

the presence of spare propeller or tail shaft

The location of the engine room, i.e.: fully aft, three quarters aft, or
amidships

-95-
Other factors, sllchas whether or not a centralized fresh water coolig system
is to be installed, have less effect.
.

12.1.1 Low-speed crosshead engines

The dry mass of two-stroke, low-speed crosshead engines is correlated as a

f~!nctionof the torque at the highest rated o~?tputOf the engine, Engine mass
is among the data available from engine anufacturers, Only in the absence of
this information shollldthe equation below be used, The equation was
det,elopedfrom a broad range of engines i which the B~lEpwas 16 to 17 bar, at
their highest NCR. The equation will yield low values for derated engines.

~k~, 0.89
engine mass = C (-M
where:

engine mass = the dry mass of each low-speed engine, t

C = 7.4 to 7.8 for stroke-to-bore ratios less than 2.8

C = 6.3 to 7.1 for stroke-to-bore ratios between 2.8 and 3.3

C = 5.3 to 6.2 for strOke-tO-bOre ratios above 3,~

bkK = brake outplltat the highest MCR Of each engine, kk

RPM = engine speed at MCR

The remaining machinery mass will vary significantly, reflecting different

philosophies of owners and operators. The following equation will prox, ide an
es~,i,natecl
val~]efor single-screw ships with direct-connected 10w-speed
c>llginc,
s , satisfactory for prelin,
illarypurpose*.

remaining machinery mass = C(bkN)07~

hfhere:

remaining machinery maas will be in metric tons, t

,
C = 0.66 to 1.06

bkW = maximum,main engine output for which auxiliary systems are

sized.

For ships with ultiple propellers, the remaining mass should be increased by
5 percent,

12.1.2 Trunk-piston engines

A preliminary estimate of the dry engine mass for trunk piston engines may be
obtained from the equations below, Engine masa is among the data available
from engine manufacturers. Only in the absence of this information should the
equations be used.

-96-
 engine mass = c (g;)

where:

engine mass = the dry mass of each enzine, t

for V engines, C = 6.6 to 9.0, and a = 0,94

for in-line engines, C = 8.? to 11.2, and a = 0.91

bkti= brake output at the highest MCR of each engine, kU

RPM = en~ine speed at MCR

remaining machinery mass, which includes reduction gears, may be estimatea

preliminary purposes as:

remaining machinery mass = c(bkk)O.70

where:

remaininq machinery mass will be in metric tons, t

c= 0.50 to 1.1 for large ships with complete machinery support

systems

c= 0.25 to 0.4 for vessels such as tugboats and workboats without

extensive machinery SUPQOrt SYSteMS

C = O.Oj to 0.1 !or small .essels with minimum machinery suppor~

systems

bkW = maximum ain engine output for which auxiliary systems are
sized.

ships =ith multiple propeller, the remaining masa sho[lldbe increaged by

i ?ercent.

12.2 Center9 of gravity

The vertical center of gravity (VCG) of the total machinery mass for typical
diesel plants can be egtimated using the relation beiow. Where ajor
components are located outside of the machinery space or in an unusual
location within the achinery epace, the estimate must be adjusted
accordingly.
0.23BD2
VCG = 0.72-=
[ 1
-97-
 where:

0= depth of hull to the main deck at the side, meters

B= beam, meters

\lcG = vertical center of gravity, eters

The longitudinal center of gravity (LCG) of the total machinery mass ay be

estimated as the LCG of the main engine, provided that eet of the machinery
mass components are located in the engine room.

12.3 Volume

A preliminary estimate of the gross achinery gpace volume ca be obtained

from the relation below. The machinery space is assumed to extend from side-
to-gide of the hull, and from the tank top to the main deck or to the deckhead
of a trunk. The volume includes any guch trunk but does not include casings
or ghaft alleya.

machinery sgace volume = 21.6 f@ f, fo(9.55~

bk~, 0.S3

where:

machinery space volume will be in cubic meters

bkW = total brake output at the highest MCR of the resinengine(s), kH

RPM is engine speed at MCR

f6 = :tO if machinery sDace is aft or three-ouartera aft: if the

machinery is-am~dshipg or otherwise in a location unaffected
by hull shape a lower value, down to 0.9, should be used

f7 = 1.0 for single-screw ships; for ships with ultiple propellers

a higher value, up to 1. lj, should be used

fg = 1.0 for machinery spaces whose dimensions are constrained only

by hull dimensions: if the machinery dimensions are so
constrained that an inefficient layout results, a higher
value, up to 1.15, should be used

Ships that have additional auxiliary, for ex=ple for trade support gervicea,
will require additional space. Large, aiow ghips over 60,000 tons deadweight
often have machinery spacee that exceed the volume estimated from the
relation,

-98-
APPENDIX ~
A. The Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law, ore correctly called the ideal gas equation of state,
provides a good approximateion of the relation between pressure, temperature
and density for any gases at low-to-moderatepressures and temperatures. It
may be stated as follows:

W=RT

where:

P = absolute pressure, in N/m2

v = specific volume, the inverse of the density, in 3/kg
R = the Gas Constant, a property of the gas equal to the universal gas
constant, a.3144 N-m/mole-K divided by the molecular weight,
yielding units of N-m/kg-K
T = absolute temperature, in degrees K

In applying the relation:

- Convert the absolute pressure from bars to N/m2 by multiplying by 10-5.

- For air, with a molecular weight of 28.97 kg/mole, R is 0.287 N-m/kg-K.

The same value can be used for diesel engine exhaust gas with negligible
error.

- The absolute temperature in degrees K is obtained by adding 273 to a

temperature in degrees C.

A-1
APPENDIX ~
B. tiHrGPlants: Procedure for Heat Recovery Estiaate~

A typical steam plant incorporating a waste heat turbogenerator (WHTG) and a

single pressure boiler ia shown schematically in Figure 9.8-2 and is examined
in Table B-1. A more sophisticated plant, incorporating a dual pressure
boiler and a mixed-pressure turbine, as well as a heat recovery at the charge
air cooler, is shown in Figure 9.8-3 and is the subject of Table B-2. The
notes below are keyed to both tables,

It should be noted that the results of these analyses are very sensitive to
all of the \,ariablesinvolved and that the use of generalized data may be very
misleading.

1. Summer and winter characterize two extreme sets of ambient conditions to

be examined. The engine is assumed to draw its air from a well
ventilated engine room and air temperatures are taken in accord with the
suggestions of 5.5.

2. A range of engine output levels should be considered, with 70 to 75% and

80 to 90% of MCR typically being of interest,

3. Heat requirements for lube oil heating and for the hotel load are usually
independent of engine output. Means of estimating these quantities are
provided in 6.3.? and 6.3.3, 1]1the dual pressure plant these needs are
met using pressurized fresh water or a proprietary heating fluid,
circulated in a closed loop through the middle stages of the charge air
cooler.

4. Steam demand for f~lelheating can be estimated using the procedure of

6.3.1. At either extreme of ambient conditions, this quantity will vary
with engine output, and as a rough approximation can be taken as directly
proportional to main engine output. In the dual pressure plant, the
dema,d for fi]lalheating, from the sertice tank (assumed to be at 55C) to
the ellgit]e,
has been separated, to be supplied by the high pressure
saturated steam.

j. In both cycles, while heatil>greturns to the drain tank at about IOOC,

condensate wi11 be at a lower temperature, at or slightly below the
saturation temperature of the condenser. To maintain the drain tank at
100C to encourage deaeration, heating is necessary, in proportion to the
co!ldensateflow rate, In the simple cycle this heat is supplied by
steam, as noted in Table B-1, In the dual pressure plant this need is
met using pressurized fresh water or a proprietary heating liquid,
circulated in a closed loop through the middle stagea of the charge
cooler, The quantity of steam or heating liquid required can be
estimated using the ethod of 6.3.4.

6. Saturated steam conditions for the simple cycle, and for the HP section
of the dual pressure cycle, are selected to ensure adequate heating of
the hea~,iest fuel oil under consideration. Steam conditions for the LP
section of the dual pressure boiler were selected with minimum
recommended gas temperatures in mind. Pressure, temperature and enthalpy
of the steam are obtained from steam tables or a Mollier diagram (see
Appendix D).

B-1
 TfiBLE 9-1

FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR 8 sIMPLE W6STE HEfi T TURBOGENERATOR PLflNT

main engine: low speed diesel ; bkW @ MCR 20000

estimated average electrical load, kWe: 660

ambient condition: winter summer (1)

main engine output, %MCR 70 85 70 85 (2)

steam for LO and hotel needs , kg/h 140 140 140 140 (3)
steam for fuel oil heating, kg/h 7z0 B80 S9Q 710 (4)
steam for drain tank heating, kg/h 400 490 470 570 (5)
saturated steam demand, kg/h 1260 1510 1200 ]4~0

steam pressure, bar5 absolute 8 (6)

saturation temperature, C I 70
minimum <del;~T at pinch point, C 10 (7).
gas t=mp at generating bank e;.:lt , C I 80

feedwater temp , at reclrcule, tlng valve, C I 00 (8)

feedwater temp , at economizer Inlet , C I 40 iiQ)
saturation temperature, C 170
est feed temp, at economizer outlet , C 160 (9)

feedwater enthalp:, atrecirc valve, kJ/l:g 420

feedwater enthalpy a?economizer inlet , iJ/k. g 590
saturated liquid enthaloy, kjf}..g 719
feed enthalpy at economizer outlet, kJ/k, g 676
eccn~mi:er rezlrculat ion ratio I.j?
saturated steam enthalpy, kJ;l,g ?769

ad Ju5 ted gas flow, l.g:h 122000 !43000 I lEQOQ 143000 (Ii)
adjusted gas temp at boiler Inlet, C 255 255 275 275
<del>T at superheater gas Inlet, C ?0 (1?)
superheater cutlet steam ter,? , C 2;5 235 255 :55
Suuh, tr outlet steam ~~essre, bar 7.75 (13)
s{jphtr outlet steam enthalpy, l, J/kg 2918 291a ?961 2961

dll Ouance for 1055, % 1.5 (lb)

suphtd steam flow, kg/h 2970 3620 3910 4770 (16)

feedwater flow, kg/h 4230 5130 5110 6190 (17)

recirculation flow, kg/h 5574 6760 67j4 8157
temp drop of gas in economizer, C 6 6 8 8
ga5 temp at economizer e:.. it , C 174 I74 172 I 72

WHTG steam rate , kg/k We-h 8.5 8.0 a.0 7.7 (18)
estimated output of WHTG, kWe j50 450 490 6~0

B-2
 TABLE B-2

FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR h WASTE HEAT TuREOGENERATOR PLANT

WITH A OUAL PRESSURE BOILER
8ND HEhT RECOVERY fiT THE CHARGE AIR COOLER

main engine: low speed diesel : bkW @ MCR 20000

estimated average electrical load, k.We 660

ambient condition: uinter summer (1)

main engine output, XMCR 70 85 70 85 (2)

LP steam for HFO pre-heating, kg/h 410 490 260 320 (4)
HP steam for HFO final heating, kg/h j20 380 320 390

LP steam pressure, bars absolute 4.8 (6)

LP steam saturation temperature C 150
minimum <del>T at pinch point , C 10 (7)
gas tem~ at LP gen bank e>, it , C 160

HP steam pressure, bars absolute 8 (6)

HP ~tesm saturation temperature, C 170
mlnlmum <del>T at pinch point, C 10 (7)
Qa5 temp at HP gen bank. exit, C 180

feeduater enthalpy, k.J/kg 632 (8)

LF steam enthalpy, kJikg 2747
HP saturated steam enthalpy, k,J/l,g 2769

ad Justed gas flow, kg/h 12200Q 146000 11 800@ 14300@ iii)

ad Ju5 ted qas temp at boiler inlet, C 255 255 275 275

:.del>T at superheater gas inlet , C 20 (12)

supe.-heater outlet steam temp, C 235 235 255 255
suphi~ cutlet steam pres~ure, bar 7.75 (13)
suphtr outlet steam enthalpy, l,J/}:g 29!8 2916 2961 2961

allowan:e fcr 105s, Z 1.5 (14)

LP steam flow to WHTG, kgih 790 970 900 1090 (15j

suphtd steam flou, kg/h 3930 4770 4810 5820 (16)
UHTG steam rate , LP steam , 1:.g/k. We-h 9.3 9.0 9.G 9.3 (l~j
WHTG steam rate, HP steam, kg/k We-h 7.6 7.3 7.5 7.j
estimated output of WHTG, kWe GOO 760 730 910

B-3
7. (iastemperatllresleaving each generating bank will be limited by the
lowest reasonable pinch point (see Figures 7,1 and and 7,2, ad the
discussion at 7.3.1). The temperature difference at this point is taken
at the g~lidelineval,leOf in Table 7-1.

8. The feedwntertemperature to the ecot~omizerof the simple cycle (ahead of

the recirculation connection) reflects direct feeding from the drain tank
without any feed heaters (see note 5 abo~,
e). For the dual pressure
boiler, the feedwater temperature ia higher as a result of the feedwater
heater at the charge air cooler.

9. Tbe feedwater temperatllreat the economizer outlet of the simple cycle

can be ade to approach the saturation temperature if the economizer is
made sufficiently large. In this table it is asaumed to be heated within
10C of the saturation temperature.

10. To keep the economizer of the simple cycle above the acid dew point,
water is recirculated from the discharge of the boiler circulating pump.
The ratio of ,recirculatedwater to feedwater is determined by the
enthalpy rise needed to achieve the selected \,altle
at the economizer
il)let,140C in this case:
h - h~d
r recirculation ratio =
h; - hb

where:

hf = enthalpy of the saturated liquid, kJ/kg

hfd = enthalpy of the feed before mixing, kJ/kg
hin = enthalpy of the mixed stream at the economizer inlet,kJ/kg

11. The quantity and temperature of exhauat gas at each condition ar? best
~rie!,<inespeci[lcatiol]. Khere these data are ,10[
obtained flonb
a~ailable the guidelines of 5.5 can be applied, but note should again be
made of the misleading results likely to be obtained when slng
generalized data. Most engine manufacturer varn of a tolerance on gas
flow rates of +/-5%. If the gas flow rate is higher at any Coaition
than specified, the gas temperature will be lower by Up to ljc.
Conservative practice calls for these estimates to be based on the worst
case, with gas flow increased by 5% and gas temperature reduced by 15C.

12. The,maximum achievable superheated steam temperature is governed by the

gas temperature at the last paas of the superheater bank. If the
superheater is counter flow, then the last pass is exposed to the highest
gas temperature, The temperature difference at this point ia taken at
the guideline value indicated in Table 7-1.

13,. Steam pressure at the superheater outlet will be slightly lower than the
saturated steam outlet. The enthalpy at the superheater outlet is
obtained from steam tablea or a Mollier diagram (see Appendix D).

14. Conservative practice requires that the heat available from the exhaat
gas reflect losses to surroundings. An allowance of 1.5 percent is
usually considered adequate.

B-4
15. In the dual pressure cycle, the LP steam flow available for use in the
WHTG ca be determjt, ed by calct,latin~ the total Lp steam production and
subtracting the amot]nt requirti S~r heating services. The total LP steam
production is:
.985mqcpAT
mlp, total = AhBa,
where:

ME = gas mass flow rate, kglh

CP = specific heat of the gas, from Figure 5-1, kJ/h-C
ATg = gas temperature drop across LP generating bank, C
Ahnac = enthalpy
.,.
rise of steam in the generating bank, from
. .
Ieeawacer inlet to saturated steam outlet, kJ/kq

16. The superheated steam flow can be estimated by deducting, from the heat
available in the exkaust gas, the heat required to meet the saturated
steam demand, then dividing the balance by the heat required to generate
each kilogram of superheated steam, In the single pressure boiler, the
heat used to raise the feedwater temperature at the economizer inlet ust
also be accounted for. The following relations accomplish this:

For the single pressure cycle:

. 985 MgC#T% - m.., [hg+rhf - (r+l) ho,]

M,up = hdup+rhr - (r+l)hout

For the dual pressure cycle:

.985mgC ATg - m~atAh,,C

m sup =
Ah=up

where:

msp = superheated steam flow rate, in kg/h

m8 = mass flow rate, kg/h
CP = specific heat of the gas, from Figure j-l, kJ/h-C
ATg = temperature drop of the gas froa boiler inlet to the
(HP) generatirigbank exit, C
msat = saturated steam flow rate, kg/h; see the note below
r= recirculation ratio, Note 10 above
hg, hf = enthalpies for the saturated vapor and liquid, kJ/kg
bout = enthalpy of the mixed stream at the ecot]omizeroutlet.
kJ/kg
Ah,ac = enthalpy rise of steam in the (HP) generating bank, from
feedwater inlet to saturated steam outlet, kJ/kg
Ahaw = enthalpy rise of superheated steam, from feedwater inlet
to superheater outlet, kJ/kg

Note: In the case of the single pressure boiler, the saturated steam flow
of interest is that required to eet the demand. In the dual pressure
boiler however, it is the HP saturated steam flow for final fuel heating

B-5
 whic,his to be used,

17. The feetiwaterflos rate is equal to the sum of the superheater OtPt ad
the saturated steam demand, This was used to calculate the temperature
drop of the gas across the economizer of the simPle cycle, ~Tg :

(mfd)( AT
AT. = ------__ --!f__!!!~!_!!! !!1!!
.
.985( mg)(cp)
where:

Mfd = feedwater flow rate, kglh

ATfd = feedwater temperature rise in the economizer, C
s = mass flow rate, kg/h
CD specific heat of the gas, from Figure j-l, kJ/h-C

18. The steam rate of the turbogenerator was estimated by the methods of
Appendix C. This approach yields an all-inclusive steam rate, per
kiloxatt Of electrical output at the generator terminals, Which includes
gear and generator 10 SSe S. The steam rate under summer conditions is
adjusted to reflect the lower condenser \,acuumcauaed by the blgh Sea
water temperature,

Although the intent of this appe]]dixwas to illustrate a procedure, a number

of observations are warranted:

The final gas temperature at the economizer exit of the simple cycle is
well above the lower limiting value of 160c, confirming that heat
recovery is limited by the saturation temperature of the steam despite
the presence of the economizer.

If a feed~ater Ijeateris incol.poratedin the cycle, as in the dual

pressure cycle, the feedwater may reach the boiier close el>oughto
saturated temperature to render an economizer redundant.

When the available generator output is compared to the average electrical

load (estiolatedfrom 6.1), it should be borne in mind that assumptions
have been made and margins have been applied which may turn out to be
excessive as more accurate information becomes available,
AP PE N D I X
c. Procedure for WHTG Performance Estimates

This procedure enables conservative estimates to be made of the efficiency and

steam rate of multi-stage, condensing turbogenerators of conventional design.
Commercially available units, optimized for the apPlicatiO, can have somehat
better performance than these estimates indicate.

The procedure requires the availability of steam tables or a Mollier diagram

(a diagram is included as Appendix D).

The steam rate of a turbine is the steam flow necessary, at the given supply
and exhaust conditions, to produce the desired output, As used here it has
units of kilogram of steam per hour, per kllOwatt Of electricity delivered to
the generator terminals, i.e.; it includes allowances for Ot only trblne
losses, including gland sealing and leaving losses, but also for losses i
gearing and in the generator. A low steam rate for any Kiven set of
conditions reflects a high unit efficiency.

1. Steam pressure and temperature at the throttle must be known, assumed or

estimated. If the boiler conditions are already established (see Section
7.3 and Appendix B) and in the absence of better data, tbe following
assumptions of pressure and temperature drops to the throttle ay be
reasonable:

a Pressure drop of 2.5%

for superheated steam, a temperature drop of 5C
for saturated steam, a drop to the saturation temperature at the
reduced pressure

2< The exhaust or back pressure must also be known. Unless there is a long
or convoluted exhaust duct (,notlikely in WHTGS, which tend to be
compact) the back pressure can be assumed equal to the condenser
pressure. Typical condex]ser pressure when sing cooiing water of p to
about 2jC is 0.050 bars absolute. With cooling water at 32C, 0.075 bars
absolute is likely to be the lowest achievable. Higher exhaust pressures
are not uncommon, but lead to higher steam rates,

3. The energy ideally available ,from each kilogram of steam is determined as

follows, using steam tables or a Mollier diagram (refer also to Figure
c-l!:

determine the enthalpy and entropy at the throttle conditions

at the same entropy (i.e.; downward along a vertical line on the

Mollier diagram) and at the exhaust pressure, determine the ideal
exhaust enthalpy

The difference between the two enthalpies ia the energy ideally available
per kilogram of steam, A~~ .

4. The basic efficiency, Eb, of the turbogenerator is read from Fi~re C-2,
entering the curve appropriate to the throttle pressure at the
turbogenerator rated output. Unless better information is available, the
rated output may be taken as a round number, 20 tO 25% greater than the

c-1
 FIGURE C-1
USE OF MOLLIER DIAGRAM TO FIND
ENERGY IDEALLY AVAILABLE FOR A TURBINE

THROTTLE
. PRESSURE
L
3
z
;
J

/ THROTTLE TEMPERATURE
~ THROTTLE ENTHALPY

EXHAUST PRESSURE

ENCRGY
IDEALLY
AVAILABLE

L /

/
IDEAL EXHAUST
ENTHALPY

ENTROPY

c-2
 FIGURE C-2
AC TURBOGENERATOR EFFICIENCY

,73

,68

.63

.58

0 2s0 Soo 7s0 1000 1250 1s00 17s0 2000

RATED GENERTOR LOAD, kWe

 average service load calculated i 6.I.

j. The temperature correction factor, ft, is read from Figure C-3, entering
at the curve appropriate to the throttle pressure at the throttle
temperature.

6. The back pressure correction factor is taken from Table C-1.

TABLE C-1

back pressure, bars absolute

throttle pressure
bars absolute 0.050 0.075 or higher

4.5 0.984 1.00

7.5 0.987 1.00
lj.O 0.989 1.00

7. Tl]eload correction factor, fl, is read from Figure c-4, entering the
curve appropriate to the generator rating at the percent of rated output
under consideration.

8. The steam rate, in units of kg/kWe-h, inclusive of all losses to the

generator terminals, is calculated as follows:

3600
Steam Rate = -------------------------
(Eb)(ft)(fb)(fl)( Ah~ )

where the terms are defined above. The constant, 3600 kJ/kW-h, applies
if the enthalpies are in kJ/kg.

c-4
 ------- - -
k IGUKL C-5
TURBOGENERATOR EFFICIENCY
STEAM TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FACTOR
1.04

1.03

1.02

1,01

1!00

,99

.98

.97

.96

,95

.94
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400

TEMPERATURE, C
 FIGURE C4
TURBOGENERATOR LOAD CORRECTION FACTOR

1!00

,95

.90

,85

,80

,75
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

PERCENT DF RATED LOAD

AP PEN D I X ~
NTROPY, JOULE PER QRAM DEGREE KELvIN

ENTROPY, JOUM PER GRAM DEGREE KELVIN

D-1