INTRODUCTION

Computer is the most powerful device that man has ever made. It has made a great impact on our
everyday life. Consider this statement Everything is in computer. Does it sound like an
overstatement? No. This statement is true. Nowadays, everything is in computer means any
information you can get easily with the help of computer and its technologies. Thats why
Everything is in computer and as a result computers are everywhere.
In the past three decades, technology has been transferred from developed countries (Britain, USA)
to developing countries like Nepal as well. As a result, most of the citizens of Nepal have been using
the computer these days. We use computer because of its influence in professional endeavors in
daily life. With the invent of computer, all sciences, accounting, financial, cultural, art, historical,
medical, engineering and current other disciplines are required to change with the base of computer
or computing environment. No disciplines shall survive for long time until they base their studies
through computer. We used to say Mathematics is a god of science. In the same context,
computing has been recognized as brain for all kinds of operational area.
Six decades ago, our past generation was referred as illiterate as they were not capable of writing a
letter to their children and their dears. In addition to this, these days the people would be treated as
illiterate because of incapability to send message through e-mail. Nowadays, computing
environment is really very interactive and has also reduced distance a lot. Now, the world has
turned into a global village due to computer and information technology. So, we can get
information easily at any part of the earth within a second.

CONCEPT OF COMPUTER
The development of computer is not a one days invention. In fact, it began with the civilization and
computing instructions on devices. The word computer comes from Latin word computare
(compute in English), which means to calculate. The word calculate mean to find out the result of
some operation on numeric and non-numeric values. So, a computer is normally considered to be a
calculating device at high speed. Moreover, computer is defined in the oxford dictionary as An
automatic electronic apparatus of making calculations or controlling operations that are
expressible in numerical or logical terms.

Definition
A computer can be defined as a multipurpose, programmable, electronic data processing device
that is capable of accepting input (data), processing it and producing a refined data (information) as
output at enormous speed.
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A computer may be defined as a machine that can solve problems by accepting data, performing
certain operations and presenting results of those operations in sequential instructions. Such a set of
sequenced instructions, which cause a computer program to perform particular operations, is called
a program.
A computer can be defined as a programmable digital automatic machine, which takes input from
the user, processes it, and gives output (information) in the desired form to the user and stores it if
necessary.
A computer is an electronic device, which can perform computation as well as logical action at
enormous speed.

Figure 1.1: IO Process

Input
Input(data)
(data) Processing
Processing Output
Output (information)
(information)

CHARACTERISTICS (FEATURES OR
CAPABILITIES) OF COMPUTER
Some factors that might lead people to use a computer are speed, accuracy, word length, automation,
diligence, reliability, versatility, and storage capacity.
1. Speed: The speed of electronic computer is very fast because the signals can pass at the speed of
electricity which is near to that of speed of light i.e. 2.997 x 108 m/sec. Thus millions of calculations
can be done in a second. Such speeds are beyond the comprehension of the human brain.
The processing speed of a microprocessor is usually measured in Millions of Instructions Per
Second (MIPS or throughput is also used in computer literature for number of instructions per
second.)
Note : CPU executes one instruction per second is one cycle per second that is one hertz (Hz).Similarly 1Mega
Hertz (MHz) is equal to 10 6 instructions per second that is the measuring unit of processing speed of the computer
although Hertz is measuring unit of frequency.
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Its formula is:
Frequency (Hz) =
For Computer processing,
Frequency (MHz) =

Table 1.1: Measuring units for processing speed in terms of frequency and time

Measuring Units in Frequency Measuring Units in Time

1 Hz (Hertz or 1 100 Hz ) 1 Second (1 100 sec)
1 KHz (Kilo Hertz or 1103 Hz) 1 milli second (1 10-3 sec)
6
1 MHz (Mega Hertz or 1 10 Hz) 1 micro second (1 10-6 sec)
1 GHz (Giga Hertz or 1 109 Hz) 1 nano second (110-9 sec)
12
1 THz (Tera Hertz or 110 Hz) 1 pico second (1 10-12 sec)
15
1 PHz (Peta Hertz or 1 10 Hz) 1 femto second (1 10-15 sec)
1 EHz (Exa Hertz or 11018 Hz) 1 atto second (1 10-18 sec)
1 ZHz (Zeta Hertz or 11021 Hz)

Some other related units for processing speed of computer are:

MIPS: Millions of instructions per second are used for integer computation.
MFLOPS: Millions of floating a point instruction per second is used for floating point
computation.
TPS: Transaction per second is used for online-processing application of computation.
KLIPS: Kilo logical inferences per second, is used for knowledge based computation of 5th
generation of computer.
2. Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer is consistently high, and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy i.e. almost 100% accurate results are always same as per design. The
degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its deign.
Accordingly software needs to be designed properly, and proper checks and controls are
necessary in the program and data. Errors can occur in a computer system due to inaccurate
data or instructions fed by human or end users.
3. Word length: Digital computer operates on binary digits (bit), combination of 1 (one or high)
and 0 (zero or low), which means all data or information are kept in computer or its memory in
terms of 0s and 1s. 8 bits is equal to one byte. The number of bits that a computer can process
at a time in parallel is called its word length. Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32, or 64
bits and in super computer 128 bits is used. So longer the word length, the faster the computer is.
4. Automation: Computer is an automatic machine, capable of functioning automatically, once the
appropriate set of instructions (program) and data are provided to the computer.
5. Diligence: Computer can perform repetitive task without being bore. Diligence means being
constant and earnest in effort and application. It can continuously work for several hours or
days after the data and programs are fed in it. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from
tiredness, weakness, lack of concentration and monotony. If one work is repeated many times,
human being suffers from physical and mental tiredness, but computer can perform the
repeated task with the same speed and accuracy. Because of this reason, human beings are
getting high level of benefit.
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6. Reliability: Computer system is particularly adept a lot of work without any mistakes and
tiredness. Thats why, they are widely used every where because of their reliability.
7. Versatility: Computer can perform different tasks depending upon the different program fed to
it, is known as versatility. It has a wide range of application areas i.e. it can do many types of
jobs. It can perform operations ranging from simple mathematical calculations to highly
complex and logical manipulations. Some of the applications areas of computers are in
education, business, office-automation, bank, medical diagnosis, science and technology,
communications, and astronomy, so it is versatile in nature.
8. Storage capacity: A computer can store a great amount of data. It has data storage area, called
memory. Any data stored in the memory can be retrieved at any time and at very fast speed.
The memory can be divided into primary memory and secondary storage. Primary memory is the
working memory of the computer, and is capable of sending and retrieving data at very high
speed, where as secondary storage is long-term memory and operates more slowly but capable
of storing large amount of data. Example: floppy disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, magnetic disks,
optical disk.
The storing capacity of a computer is measured in terms of byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte,
terabyte etc. A binary number either 0 or 1 is called bit (binary digit). 4 bits is equal to 1 nibble
and 8 bits is equal to 1 byte or a character. One Kilo byte is equal to 210(2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 = 1024) bytes, which is equal to 1024 bytes.
Remaining conversions are as follow according to table.

Table 1.2: Storage unit conversion table

Unit Abbreviation In Unit
1 Byte B 8 bits
1 Kilo byte KB 1024 bytes
1 Mega byte MB 1024 KB
1 Giga byte GB 1024 MB
1 Tera byte TB 1024 GB
1 Peta byte PB 1024 TB
1 Exa byte EB 1024 PB
1 Zeta byte ZB 1024 EB

APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer is the most powerful instrument man has ever produced. It has great impact on every aspect of
mankind and plays an important role in our society. Earlier, computer was massive, special-purpose
instrument/device that only huge institution could afford for complex scientific calculations. They
used for lunching the precise orbit of Ballistic Missile or space craft and processing statistics for the
Bureau of the Census and other engineering purposes
Nowadays, computer is used in education; to teach students through multimedia, in business; to perform
accounting and financial work, tabulation of results, in office; office automation to accurate reschedule
secretarial job, managerial job, make decision, business plan activities and organization activities into
specific tasks, in communication; to communicate people to receive, and send, information, process their
message in accurate given format of time, in bank work; analyze transaction of cash of several sub
branches, analyze them for future use to maintain and sort the records of clients, in hospitals; do medical
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diagnosis, to diagnose diseases and prescribe medicines, to perform clinical tests, in factory; to make
automatic control of devices, counting mechanism, and its process, in military; to control of military
equipment and search certain areas, to help police in crime investigation, in airways; make the route of
aircraft landing and departure guidelines, air traffic control and air ticket issue and reservation system,
in robotics; to control robots and its simulation that is use for science and technology and so on. In this
chapter these important applications of computers are discussed below:

1. Computer in Education
In education, most good schools in the world (including Nepal) have computers available for use in
the institution. It has been proved that learning with computers has been more successful and this is
why numerous forms of new teaching methods have been introduced. This enhances the knowledge
of the student at computers in our daily lives - whether we are at the cinema, the school, or the
public library. The beginning of computer literacy is already apparent.
In educational institutions, computer is used as teaching aids, information resources and computing
and research means or tools. When computer is used as a teaching tool, it is referred to as computer-added
(assisted) instruction (CAI). The CAI programs can be prepared in a variety of modes, such as tutorial,
discovery, problem solving, modeling, and drill and practice mode.

2. Computer in Business
In business sector, a Point of Sale (POS) -terminal is mostly used in department Mall, shops and
other retail centers to process sale transaction. Usually an optical bar reader is provided with a POS.
Bar code reader is marked on most packets to be soled by merchants to identify them. The POS is
connected to a computer for processing sales and sold packets are passed through a scanning
window of optical bar reader. The optical bar reader reads the bar code of that item to identify it. The
computer stores its price and other details. The computer prints name of the item, rate, price
validated date and other details on the receipt and issues the receipt to the customer, then total
amount to be paid. Most notable thing is that it also updates sale records and inventory control of that
department Mall.

3. Computer in Office
In office, Computer is used in preparing report, memorandum, copy of advertisement, letter,
publicity, contract, form, note, and notice that is the basic works of an office. It helps user in
preparing, storing, retrieving and displaying text. In office accounting, billing preparation of
payrolls, data analysis, auditing, investment, inventory control, preparation of budgets, sales
analysis is also performed. In most of the computerized office, word processing and spread
applications are used.
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The term electronic office is used, when all work of the office is done using computers. The term office
automation is used, when computers are extensively used for office work.

4. Computer in Communication
Computer is massively used in communication. Communication is done by emails, chat, online
conferencing (computer conferencing, teleconferencing or audio or video conferencing), e-fax throughout a
computer network that connects a number of computers or workstations with the help of Internet. In
communications, computers are used to view and post news on computer Bulletin Board System
(BBS), for electronic shopping, banking and brokerage and to get information services.
Most of all, computers are the backbone of all the telecommunication companys and
telecommunication means.
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5. Computer in Bank
Banks use computer for general-purpose computations, to
handle transaction, to maintain ledger, to issue fixed deposit
receipts, to make withdrawals and deposits to customers, to
provide online service to customers who want to perform bank
transactions from terminals and to answer customers regarding
their balance. Even through, handling the cash, banks use
cash dispensing machines, this is mainly a microprocessor-
based device. The large volumes of cheque received everyday
in banks are processed by computers. To handle this task
magnetic-ink character reader is employed with computers.
With the use of a computer, electronic transfer of funds
from one
account to another has become possible. The customers from their prefer places (home, office or
store) can insert their identification number and type the transaction details on the terminals
keyboard. Immediately the amount they specify will move out of their account and enter another's
account.
These days, banks provide 24 hours ATM service, where user can withdraw their money anytime
from ATM machine by using the ATM card.

6. Computer in Health and Medical Field

Computer is widely used in hospitals to help doctors in diagnosis, getting information on patients
diseases, required treatments, keeping patients record. It is also used in administration for keeping
patient records. Doctors can get information from distant data banks and expert systems. They can discuss
with colleagues using teleconferencing.
Many medical databases are being developed. They contain information on diseases and their
treatment. Doctors are taking help of expert systems in the diagnosis and treatment of a patient. An expert
system is a program based on the expert knowledge of specialists. It is a diagnostic tool for doctors. The
doctors have to supply the detailed information such as symptoms, medical history, and test results to get
the information from the expert system.
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One of the most important things is that, the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), CT scan machine,
eye testing machines, ultrasonic machine are attached or built within the computers.

7. Computer in Industry
In industry, computer is extensively used for automatic control of machines, process, measurement
and display of electrical and physical quantities. For example, automatic control of temperature of a
heating system, speed of a motor, voltage of generator, pressure of boiler, testing of products, all are
microprocessor based computer system.
A microprocessor-based (computer) system can monitor, measure, control and displays any part of
physical and electrical quantities like pressure of boilers, temperature of heating system,
displacement of devices, deflection of object, force, strain, voltage, current, power, frequency output
of generators, and water level.
If any fault occurs on any part or the system, it immediately alarm and disconnect the faulty part
from the healthy part of the system.

8. Computer in Military
Computer is widely used in defense purposes. At present, sophisticated weapons are being widely
used in military operations with refined microprocessor-based control systems. These are Modern tanks,
missiles, fighter planes.
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In guided missiles, tanks, fighter planes or even arms use internal computer for their control. Com-
puter's memory holds the detailed map of the target area. Photographs of the target area are taken and
compared with stored map before it hits the target. These computer guided missiles or fighter planes are
flying faster and turn more quickly as compared to manned aircraft. They can fly into dangerous zones without
the risk of pilot's life. In this way, computer plays vital role in military system.

9. Computer in Aviation
In Aviation, computer stores all necessary information regarding ticket reservation, such as flight
number, flight route, flight distance, number of seats available for each flight in each class, ticket
fare. It also stores information regarding persons who has already reserved. The person sitting at the
counter gets information immediately whether seat on a particular date, in a particular flight is
available or not. If seat are available, computer prints and issues ticket and the details of the person
getting reservation are recorded. The computer also prints reservation charts. It also gives
information regarding flight departure and arrival time to customer and aviation department.
It is also used in air traffic control system to control landing and takeoff of airplanes to minimize any
accidental risk and to increase the number of flight in an airport. Computer is used to control
RADAR system and other communication devices.

10. Computer in Robotics

In robotics, robot is computer-controlled programmable machines composed of mechanical body,
and optical sensors to provide eye-vision. A robot contains one or more microprocessors to control
its actions. It is designed to move parts or bodies, or equipment, to perform certain specialized works. In
robotics, it is used to perform works such as dancing mankind device, walking, moving, placing devices in
right places, spray painting, welding, packing and placing huge amount of cartons. Now a day, robot is used
in hospitals to perform many works that are presently survived by nurses.
Robot can be used in hazardous places, where man can not work. Robot may be provided with artificial
intelligence along with sensory capabilities such as hearing, smelling, sense of touch and vision system.

Figure 1.11: Computer in Robotics

11. Computer in Graphics

Computer is being used to draw drawings, graphics and pictures. One need not depend on
draftsman or artist for these purposes and available graphic software packages like Adobe
Photoshop, Corel Draw. Computer can draw sophisticated drawings in multi-color in minutes.
Graphics package is also used to recognize picture, process images, draw picture and finally it can
also be modified.

Figure 1.12: Computer in Graphics

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12. Computer in Design and Research Work

Scientific and engineering design and research work involve complex and massive computations. In
many cases simulation is also required. Design of bridges, towers, buildings, generators, motors,
electrical transmission network, statistical analysis of molecular structure of complex proteins needs
complex computations. In some cases massive data are to be processed particularly in statistical
analysis. Computer is suitable for both complex computations as well as processing of massive
amount of data. Research work in science and engineering field also requires complex computation.
Such complex computation may not be possible by hand or calculator. Nowadays, computer is must
for this type of work.

Figure 1.13: Computer in Design and Research Work

13. Computer in CAM (C o mp u t e r Ai d e d M a n u fa c t u re ) / CAD ( Co m p u t e r A id e d D e s i g n )

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Computer is also used to control production of certain engineering and chemical products. In
mechanical industry, designers use CAD and prepare the design of machines and machinery parts.
Integrated approach of CAM and CAD is also used. In integrated system there is a database which
stores all data regarding design, drawings and specifications.

Figure 1.14: Computer in CAM / CAD

CAD is a software package which helps design engineers and architects to design and prepare
drawings. CAD is widely used to prepare machine drawings, building drawings, presentation of
solid model (3-D views) of machine parts on the screen. It also shows dimensions. The output of
CAD helps other engineers in manufacturing the machines and erecting buildings. CAD is also used
to draw electric and electronic circuit diagrams, to design printed circuit board layouts, LSI/VLSI
chips, aircraft structure, bridge, tower structures, chemical plants piping layout. AutoCAD is a
popular CAD package used for preparing drawings.

14. Computer in Desktop Publishing System

A desktop publishing package is more powerful than word processor package. The desktop
publishing system includes computer and a number of peripherals with powerful software that can
produce complete page layouts with pictures and text printed in a variety of attractive ways. Such
pages are used in book design, manuals, bulletins, newsletters.

Figure 1.15: Computer in Desktop Publishing System

15. Computers in Some Other Places

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Some general applications of computers which have not been discussed earlier are mentioned here.
A microprocessor based system is used to control efficient burning of fuel in a car, bus, truck. Smart
cars are also on market. Microprocessor controls engine operations such as air-fuel mixture, ignition
timing. They control door locks, air conditioning, braking, skidding and speed of the car. Other
functions are vehicle diagnosis, collision avoidance, maintenance analysis, and vehicle performance
analysis.
During these days, personal computers are being used in home for a variety of tasks such as, to surf
Internet, computer aided education, home management, accounting, playing games.

Figure 1.16: Computer in Some Other Places

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Figure 1.17: Why computer education is important? - A pictorial representation

CAPABILITY AND LIMITATION OF COMPUTER

Capability
Computer produces 100% accurate outputs, if correct data and instructions are provided.
It is faster in calculations than human.
It can perform complicated and difficult work at a high speed.
It is capable of permanently storing data and retrieving it whenever required.
It can perform repeated task with the same speed and accuracy.

Limitation
Computer is the non- intelligent machine (dull machine). It cannot think and give the right
decisions as human being.
It cannot operate without battery or electricity.
Failure in devices and wrong information by users makes it unreliable.
It cannot memorize and recall as needed only store data in secondary memory.
It requires instructions to perform a task.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER

Advantage
Computer is faster than human being and any other devices ever invented.
It is always accurate and reliable than human.
It is versatile i.e. master in all types of work and fields like education, hospital, banks etc.
It can be used for communication among many users.
It never feels exhausted and tired like human being.

Disadvantage
Computer can be used for computer crimes like hacking, creating and sending viruses, etc.
It has increased dependency on machine.
It is still expensive so each and every people cannot afford the computer.
Repair and maintenance is required frequently.
Skilled manpower is required to work in the computer.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER
"Necessity is the mother of invention". The saying holds true for computers also because computers
were invented as a result of mans search for fast, accurate and comfort calculating devices.
Evolution of computer is a study of past development of computer, whereas generations of computers may be
defined as an average period of time in which old computer technology may be replaced by newer technology.
Ancient people lived on the earth for centuries without counting. Then they started to count with
their ten fingers. It became so difficult to live and to remember them more and more facts using their
ten fingers. These phenomena were gradually replaced by the use of stones, sticks, counting notches
(V-shaped cut in or on something).

The Mechanical Era (Zeroth Generation)

Abacus
Historians started the history of calculation with the first mechanical tool Abacus, also known as
Suan Pan ('counting board ' in Chinese language) or Soroban in Japanese and appeared in between
3000 years to 6000 years ago.
It had its origin in ancient-china, Greece (Roman), Egypt and Great silky road (located in former
USSR and centre Asia). It was used for performing simple calculations like counting, addition,
subtraction and multiplication of numbers.
An abacus consists of a rectangular frame carrying a number of wooden rods. Mid-bar divides each
of these rods into unequal - upper and lower parts. The upper part is called heaven, whereas lower
part is called earth. The heaven consists of two beads, whereas the earth part consists of five beads to
each rod. The value of bead on heaven part is five and earth is one. Each abacus consists of nine or
eleven or thirteen rods.
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Figure 1.18: Abacus

Value stored in 0 5 5 4 7 9 0 8 6
rod

Upper
Wooden deck
frame (Heaven)

Mid bar
Rod

Lower
Beads deck
(Earth)

Power of 10 108 107 106 105 104 103 102=100 101=10 100=1

Total = (0x108 + 5x107 + 5x106 + 4x105 + 7x104 + 9x103 + 0x102 + 8x101 +

6x100 )10 = 55479086

John Napier (1550-1617 AD)

THE SCOTTISH mathematician John Napier first published the table of logarithms in 1614 AD. It
was very useful in simplifying the multiplication of large numbers.
In 1617 AD, he invented some bone rods, uses bones to demonstrate division by subtraction and
multiplication by addition, according to principle of logarithms. These rods were made up of strips
of bones on which numbers were carved and painted, that device was called Napier bone.

Figure 1.19: John Napier and Napier Bone

William Oughtred (1575-1660 AD)

THE ENGLISH MAN William Oughtred invented a rectangular device-slide-rule in 1620 AD. It was
a calculating device, based on the principles of logarithm. A slide rule consists of two graduated
scales, one of which slips upon the other. The scales are devised in such a manner that suitable
alignment of one scale against the other makes it possible to find products and Quotient of any
numbers.

Figure 1.20: William Oughtred and Slide-rule

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Blaise Pascal (1623-1662 AD)

THE FRENCH MAN Blaise Pascal was a brilliant mathematician and religious thinker. He was the
founder of the modern theory of probability. Following work on barometers by Italian scientists
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), Pascal made a mercury barometer
and measured atmospheric pressure. He formulated Pascal's principle: in a liquid and gas; pressure
applied to one point is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid. To assist his father in his
accounting work, Pascal invented a mechanical calculating machine.

Figure 1.21: Blaise Pascal and mechanical calculating machine

In this machine, numbers were entered by dialing a series of numbered wheels each wheel having
numbers from 0 to 9. A complete turning of first wheel causes the 2 nd wheel to move the next
number. Another series of toothed wheels transferred the movements to a dial, which showed the
result. For addition the wheel was moved into forward direction and for subtraction into the
reverse direction. It could perform addition and subtraction up to 8 digits i.e. 99,999,999 that was a
great achievement at that time. This mechanical calculator was called Pascaline. Pascal programming
language is named on his name.
Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz (1646-1716 AD)
THE GERMAN mathematician and philosopher Baron Gottfried Wilhelm
Von Leibniz (in short Leibniz) was an outstanding thinker who developed a
method of computation called calculus. Both Leibniz and the English
scientist Isaac Newton (1642-1727) claimed to be First with the theory of
calculus. In fact they developed it simultaneously and independently.
Leibniz's knowledge was vast and diverse, covering all the intellectual
disciplines of his day.
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In 1671 AD, Leibniz modified the Pascaline machine and invented a first calculator Stepped
Reckoner, which was able to perform automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
could find out square root. Leibnizs machine used stepped cylinder each with nine teeth of varying
lengths instead of wheels It was called LeibnizCalculator or Stepped Reckoner.

Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834 AD)

THE FRENCH MAN Joseph Marie Jacquard was a textile manufacturer invented a mechanism for
automated weaving cloths for the textile industry at Lyon in 1802 AD. This machine was used to
automatically control weaving looms to facilitate the production of weaving cloth with complex patterns.
This machine was controlled by punch-cards i.e. principle of present and absence of holes.

Figure 1.22: Joseph Marie Jacquard and Automated Cloths Weaving Machine

Charles Babbage (1791-1871 AD)

THE ENGLISH professor and mathematician Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine at
Cambridge University in 1822 AD. Theoretically, it can solve differential equations and calculate various
mathematical function, logarithmic tables, polynomial and trigonometric functions. Difference
machine was intended to be steam powered, fully automatic, even to the printing of the resulting
tables and commanded by a fixed instruction program. The project could not be completed due to
lack of funds. Babbage continued working on his difference Engine for a full ten years, but he had a
better idea. His new idea was the construction of a general purpose, fully programmable automatic
mechanical counting machine. Babbage called his machine an Analytical Engine in 1833 AD.
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Figure 1.23: Charles Babbage with his Difference and Analytical Engine
 19
The idea of Analytical Engine was considered as a most significant step in the history of computers,
because of his idea only, the dream of modern computer has came true. In other words, we can say
that he developed a prototype computer. This machine was capable of calculating up to 20 decimal at about
60 additions per minute, could store information, making decisions, and carry out instructions on its
decisions.
Analytical Engine had four major units.
1. The Store: A mechanical memory unit consisting of sets of counters wheels, which could store
data and intermediate result in punched cards like on Jacquard loom.
2. The Mill: An arithmetic unit, which was capable of performing four basic arithmetic
operations; addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
3. Control Unit: His machine had mechanism having gears and shafts by which data and results were
transferred between the store and Mill, which is similar to the control unit of todays computer.
4. Cards (Input / output devices):
Input: There are basically two types of cards:
a. Operation Cards: Selects one of four arithmetic operations by activating the mill to
perform the selected function.
b. Variable Cards: Select the memory locations to be used by the mill for a particular
operation (i.e. the source of the operands and the destination of the results)
Output: Output could be directed to a printer or punch card device or got in a copper plate.
His efforts guided a number of principles which have been shown to be fundamental to the design of
today's digital computers. That's why he was considered as the Father of modern day's computer".
Unfortunately, his work could not be completed. But as a tribute to Charles Babbage his Analytical Engine was
completed in the last two decade and is now on display at the Science Museum at London.

Lady Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace (1815-1852 AD)

THE ENGLISH intelligent and independent-minded woman - Lady
Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace, (in short lady Ada) was daughter of English
poet Lord Byron and a very great follower, assistant of Charles Babbage.
She described the Analytical Engine as weaving algebraic patterns just as
the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves. Once of the few people who
understood the Analytical Engines design as well as Babbage, she helped
revise plans, secure funding from the British Government, and
communicate the specifics of the Analytical Engine to the public. Lady
Adas fine understanding of the machine allowed her to create the
instruction routines to be fed into the computer and she suggested to
Babbage writing a plan for how the engine might calculate using Bernoulli
numbers. This plan is now regarded as the first computer program. That's why,
she was considered the first computer programmer and, a software language
developed by the US Defense Department was named Ada in her honor in 1979
AD.
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George Boole (1815 - 1864 AD)

THE SELF-TAUGHT IRISH mathematician George Boole produced
important work in many areas of the discipline, including calculus
and the theory of probability. However, he is chiefly remembered as
a pioneer of formal logic. Boole developed a method of reducing
statements in logic to algebraic statements, using a simple set of
symbols. Although logicians have since streamlined the set of
symbols, Boole's basic system survives. An interpretation of Boolean
algebra in terms of truth values, called the propositional calculus,
forms the basis of the digital processes in modern computers.

Herman Hollerith (1860-1929 AD)

AN AMERICAN inventor Herman Hollerith also applied the
Jacquard loom concept in computing and applies for patents for
automatic punch-card tabulating machine in 1884.He invented a machine
known as Tabulating Machine (TM) in 1886 AD
Holleriths method used cards to store data which he fed into a
machine that compiled the results mechanically. Each punch on a
card represented one number, and combinations of punches
represented a letter. As many as 80 variables could be stored on a
single card. This device could process on the punch cards and perform
census calculating faster than ever before.
His first task was to find a faster way to compute the U.S. census. The previous census in 1880 had
taken nearly seven years to count and with an expanding population, the bureau feared it would
take 10 years to count the latest census. Instead of 10years, census takes compiled their results in just
6 weeks with Holleriths machine. In addition to their speed, the punch cards served as a storage
method for data and they helped reduce computational errors. The patent is issued for Hollerith
Tabulating Machine in 1889 AD
Actually, he was a census st ati st icia n in US bureau of statistics. Hollerith brought his punch card
reader into the business world, founding Tabulating Machine Company 1896; later to become
International Business Machine (IBM).He was a first person who developed punch cards in practical.
He was founder of IBM and founded in 1924, USA. It is the largest computer manufacturing
vender/company in the world till today. Both business and government used punch cards for data
processing until the 1980s.

The Electro-Mechanical Era

Successful general purpose mechanical computers were built in 1930s. Konard Zuse developed a
mechanical computer, the Z1, in 1938 in Germany. The Zl used binary number system instead of
decimal system. Konard Zuse built several mechanical computers and the Z3 was completed in 1941.
It is believed to be the first operational general purpose computer. The Z3 employed relays
(electromechanical binary switches) to construct arithmetic unit.
 21

Mark I
A Professor of Physics Howard H. Aiken designed a
Figure 1.24: Mark- I
general purpose mechanical computer at Harvard
University and IBM, while working on his doctorate
in physics, in the year 1937. The machine was called
IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator
(IBM ASCC) and later as Harvard Mark I. It was
constructed in IBM, leading manufacturer of office
equipment at that time. Mark I is completed in 1944
AD. It was relay-based computer on the based on the
concept of Charles Babbages Analytical engine
principle. Later, Mark II was built by Aiken and his
colleagues that were working electromechanical
relays for its operation. Mark-II used 19000 valves.
Many computers using electromechanical relays were built in the 1940s. But they were quickly
outmoded by faster and more reliable electronic computers.
Features of Mark I:
It used about 18 thousand vacuum tubes (valves) as main memory device with 7 lakes 50
thousands parts
Its about 51 feet long, 8 feet height and 3 feet wide i.e. bulky in size.
Technically it was very complicated machine, consumed huge amount of power and generated
lot of heat during the operation.
The time taken for average multiplication and division was about four and eleven seconds
respectively.
The results were printed at the rate of one result per five seconds.

ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer)

In 1938, John J. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry designed ABC for solving systems of simultaneous
equation. It used 18000 valves and other 45 valves for internal logic and capacitors for storage of
electrical charges. It used punched cards as secondary storage.

John Von Neumann (1903 - 1957 AD)

THE HUNGARIAN mathematician, Jon von Neumann gave the idea of stored program computer in
the sense that program is stored internally in the main memory of the computer along with its
associated data in 1945. So he is called the Father of Stored program. Before that, program required
for the computer were integrated and written permanently in chips, so modification of program was
not possible. But after Neumann, such programs were stored inside computer in some storage
media, so modification was easy and flexible. The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic computer
(EDVAC) was designed on stored program concept. John Von Neumann has also got a share of the
credit for introducing the idea of storing both instructions and data in the binary form (0, 1) to
represent all characters instead of the decimal numbers and characters. EDVAC was developed by J.
P. Ecker & J. Mauchly in 1952 AD.

Figure 1.25: John Von Neumann and EDVAC

22

Figure 1.26: The basic architecture of John Von Neumann computer

Communication
[Processor] Program + Data [Memory]
Channel

It consists of a processor & a communication channel. The main job of the processor is to execute
programs & operations stored in computer.

The Electronic Computers Era

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)
In 1946, John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert developed ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrated
And Calculator), at Pennsylvania, USA. ENIAC was the first-popular general purpose electronic
digital computer. John Von Neumann was the consultant of the ENIAC project. It was a very large
machine weighing about 30 tons and containing about 17468 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, 5
million soldered joins and it consumed 160 kilowatts. It took 200 microseconds for addition and 3
milliseconds to perform a 10 digit multiplication. It was so huge and generated so much heat that is
needed to be water cooled. It was first and last computer, which used decimal number system
instead of binary system.

EDSAC
SDSAC (Electronic delay storage automatic computer) was invented by Maurice Wilkes in 1949. It also
used vacuum tubes. Although started after EDVAC, it was completed before EDVAC. So, it became the
first stored program computer.

EDVAC
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was developed by J.P Eckert and J.
Mauchly in 1952 (between 1947 to 1950-2) & used for more school personnel and the Ballistics
Research Laboratory of the USA Army, built a computer named EDVAC, which was based on John
Von Neumanns ideas. Neumann was the first to introduce the stored program concept in a
computer. It also used vacuum tubes and some internal storage.
 23
UNIVAC
UNIVAC (Universal automatic computer) was developed by J.P. Eckert and J. Mauchly in 1961. It
was the first computer manufactured for commercial use and general purpose digital computer.
Before this, all the computers were either used for defense or census.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer generations classification is mainly based on the basic devices used. Also the
considerations are the architecture, languages, modes of operation, etc. The functions performed by
the computers and the speed of their operations have been changing since the old days to the most
modern computers. There have been great variations in size and cost of computer. Technological
break-through in hardware and software resulted into more and advanced computer systems. It has
been identified that there are four major stages in the continuous development process of the
computers. These stages are called computer generations. In fact, computer system belonging to one
particular technological class is said to belong to a particular computer generation.
The first generation computer was the large mainframes built with valves. The smaller but the more
reliable computers built with transistors are called the second-generation computers. And the
computers made with silicon chips are the third generation computers. Real break-through came
when the microprocessor chip appeared. The microprocessor-based computers are called fourth
generation computers.

First Generation Computer (1945-1956 AD)

The first generation computers operated on the principle of thermionic emission. They used
Thermionic valves also known as vacuum tubes as CPU components, magnetic drum for data
storage, and machine language was used for giving instructions. The first generation computers used
stored program concept. The computers of this generation were very large in size called mainframe or
room sized computers. Their programming was a difficult and time consuming. The programming
of first generation computers was done in machine language (instructions were written in binary
digits 0s and 1s). Afterwards assembly language (programs were written in mnemonics) was
developed and used in first generation computers.
John Von Neumann designed a computer called EDVAC with architecture of CPU, which allowed
all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source. Lee De Forest invented vacuum
tubes in 1908.
Features of the first generation computers were:
It was the large mainframes, built with thermionic valves or vacuum tubes technology.
It occupied very large space, slow, inefficient, and unreliable due to low accuracy.
The operating speed was in terms of milliseconds.
The power consumption was very high and it generated much heat.
Electrostatic tubes (internal), paper tape, punched card, magnetic tape were used for computer
operation.
Programming mainly at the hardware level. Low level programming languages were used.
Operating instructions were different in different computers depending upon the task for which
the computer was to be used i.e. use machine dependent low level languages.
It could only perform straight forward numerical calculation.
The examples of first generation computers are ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC and UNIVAC.
24
Second Generation (1956-1964 AD)
The second generation of electronic computers began with the development of the transistor
(electronic switching device). A transistor transfers electric signals across a resister. The three Bell
Lab scientists, John Burdeen, Walter Brattain, and William Schockley, working for Bell Labs invented
the transistor in 1947 which won Nobel Prize in 1956.
Transistors were highly reliable compared to tubes. Transistors were far more superior in
performance on account of their miniature size, smaller power consumption and heat production
rate. The second-generation computers used these semiconductor devices. Second-generation
computers had many advantages over their predecessors.
Features of the second generation computers were:
They were compact and hence occupied less space.
Because of the absence of heating, the power required to operate them was low.
The operating speed was much higher than first generation computers. It was in terms of
microseconds.
Transistor reduced the size of the computer. ( a transistor is approx. 1/200 th the size of vacuum
tube)
Magnetic core was used as primary and magnetic drum as secondary memory.
It was much faster, more reliable, better speed and could handle enormous amount of data than
first generation computer.
Assembly language and machine independent language (high level) such as COBOL (Common
Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translation) were introduced to
simplify programming.
It could perform scientific calculations such as solving differential equations.
The example of second generation computers are: IBM 1620, Honeywell 400 series, LEO Mark III,
IBM 7094, etc.
Although these computers were faster, smaller, and powerful, they were still expensive machines,
which only large commercial organizations could afford.

Third Generation (1964-1971 AD)

The development of Integrated Circuits (IC) signaled the beginning of the third generation.
Transistors were replaced with integrated circuit known popularly as chips. Scientists managed to
fit many components on a single chip; as a result, computers became ever smaller as more
components were squeezed on the chip.
IC was first designed and fabricated by Jack S. Kilby at Texas Instruments and by Robert S. Noyce at
Fairchild independently. Integrated Circuit is a circuit consisting of a large number of electronic
components placed on a single silicon chip by a photolithographic process.
IC can be classified on the basis of components density as:

Table 1.3: Classification of IC

IC Number of components
SSI (Small Scale Integration) 1-20
MSI (Medium Scale Integration) 20-100
LSI (Large Scale Integration) 100-1000
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) 1000-10,000
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) Above 10,000
 25
Magnetic disks began to replace magnetic tape for auxiliary and video display terminals were
introduced for the output of data. Keyboards were used for the input of data. A new operating
system was introduced for automatic processing and multiprogramming.
The size of main memories reached about four megabytes. These computers were highly reliable,
relatively inexpensive, and faster. High-level programming languages continued to be developed.
Features of the third generation computers were:
Transistors were replaced by Integrated Circuits in their electronic circuitry.
Magnetic disks were used for auxiliary memory.
Monitors and keyboards were introduced for data input and output respectively.
They had larger storage capacity.
About ten times faster than the first generation.
Multiprogramming and multiprocessing facility was developed with computer.
FORTRAN, BASIC and more high level languages are used.
Database Management System was developed.
Computers were used in census calculation, military, banks and industries.
The examples of third-generation computers are IBM-360 series, ICL-900 series, and Honey Well 200
series.

Fourth Generation (1971 AD-Present)

The invention of microprocessor chip marked the beginning of the fourth generation computers. MSI
yielded to LSI, VLSI and ULSI. Semiconductor memories replaced magnetic core memories. The
invention of microprocessors led to the development of microcomputer or the personal computer.
The development of chips diminish the size and price of computers. The first microprocessor called
Intel 4004 was developed by American Intel Corporation in 1971.
This computer has faster accessing and processing speed and increased memory capacity. These
features led to the development of much more powerful operating systems.
Developments in fourth generation language and application software for microcomputers became
popular and allowed home and business users to adapt their computers for word processing,
spreadsheet manipulating, file handing and graphics.
In this generation, the concept of computer networks and CD-ROMs came into existence.
Features of the fourth generation computers are:
VLSI is introduced and used.
In mid of 1970s minicomputers came complete with user friendly software
In 1981 IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in homes, offices and schools.
Computer size changed from desktop to laptop and from laptop to palmtop.
More advance operating system such as window 95 and NT were developed.
Computers could be linked together and share information. Electronic mail and internet were
developed.
Fourth generation language (4GL) is used.
It is used for all scientific, engineering and commercial applications.
The examples of fourth-generation computers are IBM-PC, HP laptops, Mac Notebook etc.

Fifth Generation (Coming Generation)

26
These computers are incomplete. Researchers are going on the development of these computers.
These computers will have been developed that will be able to converse with people and will be able
to mimic human sense, manual skills, and intelligence. For this, the concept of Artificial Intelligence
is being used. Researchers are planning to produce biochips that are to be used in fifth generation
computers. While a truly fifth generation computer is not available, the computer scientists are
implementing fifth generation concept on fourth generation computer.
Many projects has been started in the world for the 5th generation of computer
The ICOT program in Japan
DARPA project in USA Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
MCC project in USA Microelectronic and Computer Technology Corporation
Features of the fifth generation computers will be:
Intelligent Knowledge Based System (IKBS) are the central elements of fifth generation
computers.
These will use superconductor technology with little or no resistance greatly improving the
speed of information flow.
These machines will incorporate Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI).
These are aimed to be able to solve highly complex problems, which require great intelligence
and expertise when solved by people.
They are intended to be able to cope with large subset of natural languages, and draw on very
large knowledge bases.
Table 1.4: Generation of Computers with their main features
First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Generation Generation Generation Generation Generation
Electronic device Valve Transistors IC Microprocessor Bio-Chips
Speed Mili Second Micro Second Nano Second Pico Second More than
Femto Sec
Internal Memory Valve Magnetic Core Semi Conductor Semi Conductor Super
Memory Memory Memory Conductor
Memory
Permanent Storage Punch Cards Magnetic Tapes Magnetic Disk Magnetic and New
(Floppy disk) Optical Disks technology for
(Hard Disk, CD, storage
DVD, Pen Drive)
Computer Language Fully Machine Assembly Fully High Level High Level and Natural
Level language and 4GL language
little bit of High
Level and
Cost, Size, Electrical Very high High Low Very low Not known
consumption, Heat
generation
Speed, Capability Very less Less Moderate High Much higher

COMPUTER SPEED AND MEASUREMENT UNIT

No doubt, a computer is a very fast processing electronic device. It can do task calculations at
extremely high speed in fact with the speed of light.
When people talk about a computer's speed, they mean how fast it can do processing-turn data into
information. Every microprocessor contains a system clock. The system clock controls how fast all
the operations within a computer take place.
 27
Processing speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz), with 1 MHz equal to 1 million beats (cycles)
per second. An old IBM PC had a clock speed of 4.77 MHz, whereas computers with 80486 chips may
run at 66 MHz. The high-end Power Macintosh 8100, from Apple, uses a PowerPC microprocessor
running at 80 MHz. The most recent Intel Pentium I chip, used in IBM-style computers, runs at
speeds of 88 or 100 or 125 MHz.
There are several units, which are used to evaluate the speed of a processor. Although none of them is
a perfect indication to evaluate the performance of a processor. It is measured by the number of
instruction executed per unit time, such as the use of Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) in case
of a super scalar architecture processors, where as for a vector processor the speed is measured in the
Million Floating Point Instruction per Second such as the use of Mega Floating Point Instruction per
Second (Mega FLOPs).

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

AI is the computer science field which tries to improve computers by endowing them with some of
the characteristics associated with human intelligence like capacity to understand natural language
and to reason under conditions of uncertainty. It is software that attempts to imitate aspects of
human behaviors like reasoning, communicating, seeing and hearing etc.

Characteristics of AI
AI is man made and its level of activity depends on the programming capability.
It has the potential to extend problem solving ability of a manager beyond his/her normal
capabilities.
It is a mechanism that is not subject to human feelings like fatigue, worry etc.

EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions
1. Computer is a versatile machine. Explain briefly.
2. What are the application areas of computer? Explain in brief. [HSEB 2067]
3. Why is Charles Babbage known as Father of the Computer? [HSEB 2062, Supp]
4. Describe at least five ways in which information technology can help students studying subjects
other than computing. [HSEB 2062]
5. Write short notes on evolution of computer.
6. Why is John Von Neumann a remarkable name in the history of computer?
7. Write brief note on the achievement of the following computer scientists:
a. Howard Aiken [HSEB 2062]
b. Herman Hollerith
c. Lady Ada
8. Explain the evolution of computer describing the technologies used in different generations.
[HSEB 2059]
9. What do you mean by generation of computer? Explain the characteristics of third generation of
computers. [HSEB 2061]
28
10. Compare the distinctions between third and fourth generations of computer. [HSEB 2060]
11. Pentium I computers are fourth generation computers. Why?
12. What are the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes?
13. State the characteristics of fourth generation computers. [HSEB 2064]
14. Convert the following:
a. 45 GB = (?) MB b. 230 MB = (?) bytes
c. 12.5 GHz = (?) Hz d. 2400 MHz = (?) EHz
15. Write short notes on:
a. Charles Babbage [HSEB 2064] b. AI
c. EDVAC d. Abacus

Long Answer Question

1. Define computer system? Explain the characteristics of a computer?
2. What are the application areas of computer? Explain in detail. [HSEB 2065]
3. Discuss about how the development of the PCs (Personal Computers) has extended the use of
computer at present days. [HSEB 2058]
4. Explain the different generation of computers. [HSEB 2065, 2066]
5. What do you mean by generation of computer? Explain the technology used in different generation
of computer. [HSEB 2067]

 29

Introduction.................................................................................................................................1

Concept of Computer...................................................................................................................2

Definition..................................................................................................................................2

Characteristics (features or capabilities) of COMPUTER...............................................................2

Application of Computers ............................................................................................................4

1. Computer in Education.........................................................................................................5

2. Computer in Business...........................................................................................................6

3. Computer in Office...............................................................................................................6

4. Computer in Communication...............................................................................................7

5. Computer in Bank.................................................................................................................8

6. Computer in Health and Medical Field.................................................................................8

7. Computer in Industry...........................................................................................................9

8. Computer in Military............................................................................................................9

9. Computer in Aviation..........................................................................................................10

10. Computer in Robotics.......................................................................................................10

Computer Science Education COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
11. Computer in Graphics.......................................................................................................11
Medicine
COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
12. Computer in Design and Research Work.........................................................................11
Economy

13. Computer in CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) / CAD (Computer Aided Design).........12
Engineering
Management
14. Computer in Desktop Publishing System............................................................................12
Education
Office automation
15. Computers in Some Other Places.....................................................................................13
Tourism

Capability and Limitation of Computer.......................................................................................14

Finance
Science & Research
Agriculture
Capability................................................................................................................................14
Industry

Limitation...............................................................................................................................14
30
Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer.............................................................................15

Advantage..............................................................................................................................15

Disadvantage..........................................................................................................................15

History of Computer...................................................................................................................15

The Mechanical Era (Zeroth Generation)................................................................................15

The Electro-Mechanical Era....................................................................................................20

The Electronic Computers Era................................................................................................22

Generation of Computers...........................................................................................................23

First Generation Computer (1945-1956 AD)...........................................................................23

Second Generation (1956-1964 AD).......................................................................................24

Third Generation (1964-1971 AD)..........................................................................................24

Fourth Generation (1971 AD-Present)....................................................................................25

Fifth Generation (Coming Generation)...................................................................................26

Computer Speed and measurement Unit...................................................................................27

Artificial Intelligence (AI)............................................................................................................27

Characteristics of AI................................................................................................................27

Exercises.....................................................................................................................................27