FORMATION EVALUATION

PETE 663

SHALY SAND EVALUATION - A

Summer 2010
 Shaly Formations
Archies Sw equations assume a
clean formation with a non-conductive
matrix

Shales are conductive

Shaly sand conductivity varies with:

Clay type (mineralogy)
Shale origin (dispersed, structural laminated)
Fluid composition
 Shaly Sand Obstacles
In Shaly Formations:
Fresh formation waters can cause
conventional log analysis to overestimate
water saturation
Relatively salty formation waters lead to low
resistivity, which may cause pay zones to be
bypassed
Thinly bedded zones may cause
conventional log analysis to underestimate
porosity and overestimate water saturation
 Shaly Formations
In Formation Evaluation shale and
clay are used synonymously
In fact, shale is a rock
Comprised dominantly of clay minerals
May be mineralogically complex (many minerals)
May have variable properties
And clay
May refer to a grain size (diameter < 0.004 mm), or
May refer to a class of minerals (e.g., illite,
smectite, montmorillonite, chlorite, kaolinite)
 SHALY FORMATION ISSUES
LECTURE A
Shales/clays have several origins and forms
Shales/clays affect:
Porosity
Permeability
Vshale
Estimations
Assumptions
Log responses
LECTURE B
Shales conduct electricity
Problems with Archie-based methods
Rwa problem
Sw errors
Shaly sand analysis of Rwa and Sw
 WHAT IS SHALE
1. Shale is type of clastic sedimentary rock
- Comprised dominantly of clay minerals
and other clay-size fragments
- Contains some silt-sized grains of
- Quartz
- Feldspar
- Other minerals
- May contain organic frags. (source rock)
2. Shale is a fissile rock it splits along bedding planes
3. Claystone massive appearance not fissile
 WHAT IS CLAY?
1. Clay is the name for a family of alumino-
silicate minerals including:
- Kaolinite
- Illite
- Smectite
- Montmorillonite
- Chlorite
- others
2. Clay is a class of clastic sediments with a grain size
(diameter) < 0.004 mm (< 4 microns)
- May contain clay minerals, quartz, feldspar
minerals, etc.
3. Clays form approximately 40% of the sedimentary
rocks
Grain-Size Classification, Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 SPECIFIC SURFACE AREAS OF SOME
MINERALS

Mineral Ft^2/ft^3

Sand 4.3-8.7 thousand

Kaolinite 15.2 million

Illite 85.4 million

Montmorollinite 274 million

Clays have extremely large surface areas

Surface area varies greatly among clay minerals
SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES:
Relative Abundances
Sandstone and
Conglomerate
(clastic)
~11%
Limestone and
Dolomite
Mudstone (carbonate)
(Siltstone ~14%
and shale)
(clastic)
~75%
AVERAGE DETRITAL MINERAL COMPOSITION
OF SHALE AND SANDSTONE

Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone

Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SANDSTONE

Framework
- Sand- and silt-size detrital grains (load-bearing)
Matrix
- Silt and clay-size detrital material
Cement
- Minerals precipitated post-depositionally,
during burial and diagenesis
- Cements fill pores and may replace
framework grains
Pores
- Voids Among the Above Components
 FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
Geologists Classification

1. Framework Note different use of matrix

2. Matrix Engineering
matrix by geologists and engineers
3. Cement
4. Pores

PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
 SANDSTONE COMPOSITION,
Framework Grains
KF = Potassium
Feldspar
Q PRF = Plutonic Rock
Fragment
Q = Quartz
PRF KF
P = Pore
Potassium feldspar is
stained yellow with a
chemical dye

Pores are impregnated with

P blue-dyed epoxy

Photo by R. Kugler
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains ~0.25 mm in diameter/length
SHALE / CLAY ORIGINS
IN SANDSTONES
EXPANDED DISCUSSION ON NEXT SLIDES

DETRITAL AUTHIGENIC

From Halliburton EL-1007

 SHALE / CLAY OCCURRENCES
EXPANDED DISCUSSION ON NEXT SLIDES

e Clay
Minerals
A
3 U
Dispersed Clay T
Detrital Quartz H
Grains

D
e
E
2 Clay Lamination T
R
I
Structural Clay e T
(Rock Fragments,
1 Rip-Up Clasts, A
Clay-Replaced Grains)
L

Order of discussion
HOW DO SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 1
Structural Shale
Replaces matrix (e.g., or feldspar) or occurs
as detrital grains
May not affect por., perm,
Example clast lag in channels deposits
Clay composition may differ from nearby
shales

Structural Clay e
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay
Clay-Replaced Grains) Detrital Quartz
Grains Minerals
 HOW DO SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 2

Laminated Shale
Interlayered with sand
Reduces poro., perm.
Common
Example shale
laminae
Assume composition
similar to nearby shale

e Clay
Minerals
Clay Lamination
Detrital Quartz
Grains
 Whole Core

Laminated Ss-Sh
Reservoir Rock

(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa

Sandstone, Venezuela), W. Ayers
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A. October 1985

Which environments are most likely

to result in:
- Structural shales/clays?
- Laminated shales/clays?
- Clean sands?

Log patterns reflect grain size and

mineral composition, which in turn,
are related to depositional environment
and sediment transport energy.

Ayers, 2004 STS084-721-029 Selenga River Delta, Lake Baykal, Russia May 1997
 HOW SHALES/CLAYS OCCUR? - 3
Dispersed Clay/Shale
Pore-filling clays
Very common
Forms in situ (authigenic clay - diagenesis)
Mineral composition may differ greatly from
nearby shales
Por. and perm. reduction depend on clay minerals

e Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains
 DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis:
Carbonate Post-depositional chemical and
Cemented mechanical changes that occur in
sedimentary rocks

Diagenetic Effects include:

Oil - Compaction
Stained - Precipitation of cement
-Dissolution of framework
grains and cement

Diagenesis may:
-Enhance or degrade reservoir
quality
Whole core, Misoa Formation, Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Porosity in sandstone
Pore
typically is lower than
that of idealized packed
spheres owing to:

Quartz - Variation in grain size

- Variation in grain shape
Grain
- Cementation
- Mechanical and chemical
compaction

Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Scanning Electron Micrograph
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore Pores provide the

Throat volume to store
hydrocarbons

Pore throats connect

pores; may restrict
flow

Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Scanning Electron Micrograph
Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore throats in
sandstone may
be lined with
a variety of
cement minerals
that affect
petrophysical
properties

Scanning Electron Micrograph Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Tordillo Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

 DISPERSED CLAY TYPES AND FORMS
Kaolinite booklets, particles
Moderate perm effects
May dislodge, block
throats
Chlorite linings, coatings
Significant perm loss,
sensitive to acid treat.
Trap water
Illite pore-bridging tangles
Choke pores and throats
Drastic perm reduction
Collapse if dried,
giving anomalous lab
values
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Kaolinite

Significant permeability
reduction

High irreducible water

saturation

Migration of fines
problem

Not recognized by
Secondary electron micrograph
gamma ray
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Chlorite

Iron-rich
varieties react
with acid
Occurs in several
deeply buried
sandstones with
high reservoir
quality
Occurs as thin
coats on detrital
grain surfaces

Electron photomicrograph
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone ~ 10 m
Offshore Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Fibrous, Authigenic Illite

Significant
permeability
reduction

Negligible
Illite porosity
reduction
High irreducible
water saturation

Migration of
fines problem

Electron Photomicrograph (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA
 10000
SHALY FORMATIONS - 2 1000

Permeability (mD)
100
10
Shales affect por.,
1
perm. - Illite 0.1
Reduces porosity 0.01 Illite-free
Illite-affected

Changes permeability 0.001

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Reduces perm. Porosity (%)
10000 1
Illite-free

Vertical Permeability (mD)

Reduces variability 1000 Illite-affected 0.1

Reduces anisotropy 100 0.01

10 0.001
k v /k h
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.001 0.1 10 1000
Horizontal Permeability (mD)
INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY

Intergranular
Intergranular pores
Pore
contain hydrocarbon
fluids

Microporosity Micropores contain

irreducible water

Quartz
Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 SHALY SANDS -
Vshale Estimation
 Vshale Estimation
Several estimators
(Vsh)GR
(Vsh)SP
(Vsh)DS
All depend on defining
Clean point e.g., GRmin
Shale point e.g., GRmax
Set Vsh = min{(Vsh)GR,(Vsh)SP,(Vsh)DS}
Each estimator has flaws e.g., GR and mica, SP and
HCs
Assumes smallest estimate is accurate
 Vshale Assumptions

Response in nearby shale gives 100% shale

Some interval has 0% shale

Shale in formation same as nearby shale

The minimum is best estimate

 Porosity Estimation Using Vsh 1

corr = app Vsh sh

Effective porosity = corr

Apparent porosity, matrix adjusted = app
Apparent porosity in shale = sh
Example...
 Determine Correct
EXAMPLE - WELL X
Density Porosity
In a 10-ft shale interval,
RHOB = 2.39
ma b
sh =
ma fl
2.65 2.39
= = 15
2.65 1.0

224ft shaly sand

RHOB = 2.27
Vsh = 19%
ma b
app = = 23
ma fl
Using corr eq.: (prev. Slide)
Dcorr = 23 0.19(15) = 20
 Determine Correct EXAMPLE - WELL X
Neutron Porosity

10ft shale
PHIN = 36 (LS)
PHIN = 40 (SS)
224ft shaly sand
PHIN = 23 (LS)
PHIN = 27 (SS)
Vsh = 19%

Ncorr = 27 0.19(40) = 19

Density & neutron

agree within 1 pu
 Porosity Estimation using Vsh - 2

corr = app Vsh sh

In water, corr for each tool will agree

In HCs, corr may still differ
For the density-neutron,

2 2
Dcorr + Ncorr
corr = 2
SHALY SANDS ARE COMPLICATED!
Swt

VSh Vma
Sh Sw Sb

Oil or Free Bound Dry

Gas Water Water Clay
Sandstone Shale Sandstone Matrix (Solids)
Pore- Filling
Fluids

z
 SHALY FORMATION ISSUES
LECTURE A
Shales/clays have several origins and forms
Shales/clays affect:
Porosity
Permeability
Vshale
Estimation
Assumptions
Log responses
LECTURE B
Shales conduct electricity
Problems with Archie-based methods
Rwa problem
Sw errors
Shaly sand analysis of Rwa and Sw