Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Copyright
1991by theAmericanGeophysical
Union. Reviews
of Geophysics,
29, 3 / August1991
pages279-316
8755-1209/91/91 RG-00969 .$15.00 Papernumber91 RG00969
279
280 von Huene and Scholl: GROWTH OF CONTINENTALCRUST 29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS
VOLCANIC
ARC ACCRETIONARY
PRISM
OCEAN
MARGIN AXIAL
DEPOSITS T R E NC H
WEDGE
OCEAN BASIN
DEPOSITS
+ + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + FRAMEWOR
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + + + I
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
I
0 200 km
I I
V.E.- 2:1
Figure1. Diagrammaticportrayal
of theprincipalsedimentarydeposits
andmorphologic elements
of a convergentoceanmarginandthesediment-associated subduction
processesoperating there.
Facingarrows indicate
thatthecontinentalor terrestrial
crustof theupperplate(left)converges
orthogonallywiththeunderthrustingoceaniccrustof thelowerplate.Seaward of themargin's
framework rock,theprocess
of subductionaccretionhasformeda smallaccretionarypileor prism
of offscrapedtrenchfloor deposits.The companionprocessof sedimentsubduction
is shown
conveyingtrench and oceanbasin depositsbeneaththe seawardbase of the frameworkand
potentially
to mantle(M) depths.
Diagramis onlyroughlyto scale.
29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS von HueneandScholl GROVVTHOF CONTINENTALCRUST 281
mantledepthseffectivelyequalsthe bestestimatesof the subduction complexes, and the small size or virtual
addition of juvenile igneousmassesto the layer of absenceof accretionarywedgesalong lengthy sectorsof
terrestrialrocks [Kay, 1980; Dewey and Windley,1981; convergentmargins.Sketchyhistoriesof theseconcerns
ReymerandSchubert,1984;Howell, 1989a]. have been presentedby Scholl et al. [1980] and $choll
[1987].One of thefirst to invokeandillustratetheconcept
of sediment subduction was Coats [1962], who
BACKGROUND PERSPECTIVE hypothesized thatsedimentinjectedto mantledepthsby an
underthrusting oceaniccrustwas neededto accountfor the
Convergentmargins are dynamic plate boundaries geochemistry of volcanicrocksexposedalongthe Aleutian
characterizedgeomorphicallyby deep ocean trenches, islandarc. Figure 2a is a simplifiedreproductionof the
seismicallyby landwarddipping zonesof earthquakes, diagramhe usedto presenthis seminalconcept.
tectonicallyby regional-scalecrustalfaulting and terrane
movements,and magmaticallyby arcuateand linear belts A
of eruptivecenters,the so-calledvolcanicarc (Figure 1).
Vexing to many [seeSchollet al., 1970; yon Hueneand _,e.,ALEUTIAN SEDIMENT
':':::?::'I ARC SUBDUCTION
$hor, 1969],in the 1960'sandearly 1970'stherecognition
of structuresdiagnostic of how subductionprocesses
workedat convergentmarginswaschallengedby the great 2 ^.^^^^^ ^^^
water depthsand steep submarineslopesof the trench +.*!!tlJl11^^ -^^,,",, ^
environment. These circumstances made it difficult to
recoverrock samplesby conventionaldredgingandgreatly '
oo, 0_.o '- '.' ..
-::::_.
'_ _". o
,'.o '..
o.'..';
diminishedthe resolutionof the subsurfacestructuresby ,o.,
-- .:. 'o-.,;.. ,...;,.';r
After Coats (1962)
acoustic imaging techniquesthen available to most
researchers.
Nonetheless,by the mid 70's, offshoreseismicreflec-
tion studieshad resolvedsomeof the importantstructural B
aspectsof the accretionaryprocess[Seely et al., 1974;
Karig and Sharman,1975]. Despitetheseadvances, much CHILE
ANDES
of the understandingof how subductionaccretionoperated TRENCH
camefrom examiningancientaccretionarymassesexposed -,,, _ , ,- -,:-,I :.--':,.,",
,:,--:,,.
,. ,-
in coastal mountainbelts, for example, the Franciscan
Complexof California[Hamilton,1969;Ernst, 1970]. But
the study of theseaccretionarycomplexesprovidedlittle
insightinto inferredand suspected processes
that might
EROSION-- ,k.fterH. Miller (1970)
effect the bypassingof oceanic sediment (subcrustal
sedimentsubduction)and wastageof upperplate material
(subductionerosion)[Schollet al., 1977]. C
Duringthe pastdecade,advancesin offshoregeological JAPAN
and geophysicaltechniqueshave made it possible to
successfully explore the deep subsurfacestructuresand
..j"&};'':'*. SUBDUCTION
19m, -,,t [t
.,-_,97;'.':-' ;',-T,
,'
, P
EROSION
/
rock sequencesof convergentmargins.These advance-
mentsincludeswath-mapping bathymetry,which provides
accuratearealimagesof the morphologyof the trenchaxis i
region,modemseismicreflectionacquisitionandprocess-
. ,// ,
ing techniquesthat resolve subsurfacestructureswith Aaer Murauchi' , A -
detail and clarity, and deep-seadrilling for scientific (1971) /17'4
purposesthat returns samplesfrom nearly a kilometer
beneaththe deeplysubmerged landwardslopesof trenches. Figure 2. Someof the first publisheddepictionsof the processes
of sedimentsubductionandsubductionerosion.(a) Coats [1962],
well before the plate tectonics paradigm was formulated,
conceivedthatsedimentsubduction wasan essentialingredientin
SEDIMENT SUBDUCTION volcanicrocks causingto be eruptedalongthe Aleutian arc. (b)
Miller [1970a, b], nearlya decadelater,proposedthatsubduction
can also truncatethe rock frameworkof oceanmargins,in his
SomeHistoryand Definitions examplethe structuralfabric of metamorphicand igneousrocks
The generalnotion that sedimentarymasseshave been underlyingthe centralandnorthernmarginof Chile (seeFigure
subductedbeneathoceanmarginsaroseover the implica- 18). Independently, Murauchi [1971] reasoned that a
tionsof unbalancedvolumesin regionalsedimentbudgets, subduction-related processof tectonicerosionwastedaway the
the paucity of oceanic pelagic sediment in exposed continentalcrustalrocksof thenorthernJapanmargin.
282 von HueneandScholl:GROWTH OF CONTINENTALCRUST 29, 3 / REVIEWS
OF GEOPHYSICS
Accretionary
prism
Active
frontal e>l
Palco
I
Zt
- Trench
-
axialfronta!. [ accreaionl
accreton .o- '_,_,. "...'.
-..
..........
_..-....'....'
","'"_-'
Ma!.g,n
.
.-'-'" seomen[
r, weage ....... ' "__+ + +
k ' + + + +
:,.::,.:<,::....,..:.,.,;,.,.,
,.--'----k+ +++++++ fRrarewor
k
I __I - " I ?v I,"'Z---'-.-""-zs;;:.
Accretedby
underplating
ACCRETIONARY
AND ... . . sediment Decollement
SEDIMENT
SUBDUCTION ubducteo
PROCESSES sediment
Y
Mass frontally
(H) accreted
during
Trench time
(T)
B wedge
--'"'''J'+
++
IlSubduction
V'fV VVVunderplating
V VDecollement
Convergence
rate
(CR)
- Accret
POTENTIAL
FRONTAL(Plate
boundary)
MASS = H xCR xT
0 5 10 Km
! I I
V.E. = 1.5x
Km GULF
OF
ALASKA
.,__
v v
9 Underthrust v
| sediment
v v v
v v v v
Decollement
Topofcrust
ocean
igneous
v v v
Aleutian
Decollement Trench axis
v v
_v',,
_ .----- /
-,-j" Underthrust
v- v
v v
v --. v Underplated sediment
Topofigneous
,, .,,," sediment
// ocean
crust B
Figure4. Linedrawings,
in depth,
of twoseismic
reflection
sections
thatshowthedecollement
sepiatingtheupper
andlowerplates.
Theuppersection
(a)crosses
theeastern
Aleutian
Trench
off
Kodiak
Island,
Alaska,
and
the
bottom
profile
(b)traverses
Islands, Alaska Peninsula.
the
lower
trench
slope
offthe
Shumagin
29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS von HueneandScholl GROWTH OF CONTINENTALCRUST 285
and volumetricgrowthof the prism(Figure3a). Concep- With clear seismic images and knowledge of the
tually,thedecollement can alsomoveupwardandtransfer velocityof soundin accretedrock unitsthe sizeof a frontal
accretedmaterial to the lower plate, thus promoting accretionary mass can be estimated(see, for example,
subduction erosion [Chadton, 1988; Cloos and Shreve, Bally [1983], von Huene [1986], Westbrooket al. [1988]
1988a, b]. and Ryan and Scholl [1989]). The age of the measured
accretionarymass can be best estimatedby subsurface
Observations samples recoveredat drillingsitesof theDeep-SeaDrilling
Project(DSDP) or the OceanDrilling Program(ODP). For
Sediment subductionis presumedto have occurred Neogenetime (approximatelythe past22 m.y. or sincethe
where the volume of sediment accreted frontally to a earliest Miocene) the orthogonalconversionrate can be
buttress is less than that which could have been so accreted extractedfrom many sources[e.g., Minster and Jordan,
(Figure3b). That is, if the measured sizeof the frontally 1978; Engebretsonet al., 1985; Jarrad, 1986a; Gordon
accreted mass is less than its potential size (had all andJurdy, 1986].
incoming sedimentbeen frontally accretedduring a Information adequate .to underwrite mass balance
prescribed time) then sediment underthrustingand calculations can be best compiledat sevenaccretionary
subductionhas taken place. In these calculations,sub- prisms.Six of theseare for small-to-medium-width prisms
decollement sediment passing beneath the actively (5-40 km from the trenchaxisto the corebuttress, Figure
growingfrontalmassis includedin thesubducted fraction. 3c that border the Pacific Basin; the seventhis repre-
The potentialsize of a frontal accretionarybody is the sentativeof the muchlargeraccretionaryprism (150-250
approximateproductof (1) the time during which the km) flankingthe Barbadosregionof the Atlantic'sLesser
sedimentaccreted,(2) the time-averagerate of orthogonal Antillesmargin(Figures3c and 5). The Pacificprismsare
plate convergence,and (3) the time-averagethicknessof listed on Table 1, which compares the measured
sedimententeringthe subduction zone(Figure3b). Where volumetricmassof their frontally accretedbody to the
exceptionallywide accretionarymasseshave formed,the potential volumes. A structurallydefined core buttress,
seawardgrowthrate shouldbe addedto the convergence which servesas the inner boundary,existsfor eachof the
rate [DavisandHyndman,1989]. Pacific margins.Unfortunately,it is difficult to clearly
Kuril Aleutian
ean
Japan
Nankai Lesser
30 Antilles
Izu-Bonin
Mariana Mexico
Middle
Yap-Palau
America
New Britain
Triobriand
San
Sulawesi Tonga
North
I Chile
Kermadec --
I
Hikurangi
MacQuarie
South
Sandwich
distinguishfrontallyaccreted
fromunderplated
materialon Although the contemporary thicknessof incoming
seismic reflection
records.As a consequence,
the sizeof trenchfloordeposits is accurately
measured by seismic
thefrontally accretedbodieslistedonTable1, espially reflection
techniques,
estimates
of pastthicknesses
become
for the Mexico,Alaska,andAleutianmargins,includes increasingly uncertainwithtime.Thisproblem is espe-
someunderplated sediment(perhaps asmuchas15-20%). ciallytroublesome forthepastseveral
millionyearsowing
Thiscircumstance increasesthecalculated
efficiencyof to higherglacialageratesof deliveryof terrigenous
frontal accretionover that of sedimentsubduction.Thus sedimentto the oceanfloors.Our calculationsin Table 1
for the Pacific-marginprism on Table 1 the frontal account fortheincrease in sedimentation
during glaciation
accretionpercentages shownare probablymaximum that is most applicableto high-latitude trenchesand
values.
trencheswith wedge-shaped bodiesof axial turbidite
TABLE
1.Effective
Frontal
Sediment
Accretion
atPacific
Margins
Bordered
bySmall-
toMedium-Sized
(5-40
km)
Accretionary
Pile
Potential
Solid- Solid
Measured Average Fraction Solid- Fraction
Volumeof Thickness Trench Fraction Volume,
Accreted ofTrench Conver-Average Sediment Average Accreted Accreted
Sediment, Sediment,
km gence Porosity Thickness,
km Porosity Sediment,Sediment
J, Percent
km$/kmMin.Age, 0-2.5Ma Rate, Trench 0-2.5Ma Accretedkm$1km km$1kmSediment
Margin ofTrench m.y. > 2.5Ma km/m.y.Sediment
> 2.5Ma Sediment
i ofTrenchofTrenchAccreted
Northern
Japan
63 10.5 0.8 100 46 0.43 107.5
INOC-2
19 51 251.5 20
0.4 55 0.18 144
MidAmerica
Trench
t' 0.6 50 0.30 52.5
Mexico 38 10 70 23 29 120.5 24
0.3 58 0.13 68
Peru
9S
c 0.7 48 0.36 90
38 6.5 100 33 25 150 17
0.35 56.5 0.15 60
Peru
11Sa 0.3 58 0.13 32.5
14 3 100 25 10.5 35.5 30
0.15 62 0.06 3
EasternAlaskaMargine 2.5 31 1.73 277
75 5 64 22 58.5 397 15
1.25 40 0.75 120
C.Aleutian
Margin
/ 116 6 2.0 75 33 1.34 20 93.5 251
L9-6
403 23
1.0 42 0.58 152
C. AleutianMargins 2.0 41 1.18 221
L9-6 116 6 75 24 88 363 24
1.0 46 0.54 142
*Accreted
voltune,
age,
trench
floor
thickness,
and
convergence
rate
derived
from
Nasu
etal.[1980]
andR.vonHuene
andJ.Miller
(unpublished
data,
1991).
Accreted
volume,
age,
trench
floor
MooreandShipley[1988].
thickness,
and
convergence
rate
derived
from
Collins
and Watkins
[1986],
Moore etal.[1982],
and
CAccreted
volume,
age,
trench
floor
thickness,
and
convergence
rate
derived
fromKulm
etal.[1986]
andSuess
etal.[1988].
aAccreted
volume,
age,
trench
floor
thickness,
and
convergence
rate
derived
fromyon
HueneandMiller[1988]
andSuessetal.[1988].
eAccreted
volume,
age,
trench
floor
thickness,
and
convergence
rate
derived
fromyon
Hueneetal.[1986,
1989].
/'Accreted
volume, age,
trench floor
thickness,
andconvergence
rate
derived
from
McCarthyandScholl
[1985],
Scholl
etal.[1987],
and
Ryan
and
Scholl
[1989]
anddensity,
velocity,
andporosity
relations
described
byHamilton
[1976,
1978].
gAverage
conversion
porositydeterminedusingmultichannel
curvesof Hamilton[1976,1978].
stacking
veocities
[McCarthy
andScholl,
1985;
RyanandScholl,
1989]
anddensity
STheaverageporosityoftrench sediment determined
fromFigure
6,except
forthebottom
row ofporosity
values
forthe
central
Aleutian
Trench,which arebasedonconvertinginterval
velocity
information
toinsitu
porosity
(see
footnote
g).
/Theaverageporosityofthe accreted
material
determined
fromFigure
6,exceptforthe
bottom
rowofporosity
values
forthe
central
Aleutian
Trench,
whicharebased
onconverting
interval
velocity
information
toinsitu
porosity
(see
footnote
g).
rPotential
solid-fraction
volume
=(age)
(solid-fraction
trench
thickness)
(convergence
rate).
kPercent
accreted
=(solid-fraction
volume
accreted/potential
volume)x 100.
29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS von Huene and Scholl GROWTH OF CONTINENTALCRUST 287
lOO lOO
200 2OO
300 300
400 4OO
500 500
600 6OO
700 7OO
800 8OO
CO 900 ( 900
1500 1500
1600 1600
1700 1700
1800 1800
1900 1900
2ooo I I 2OOO
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Orthogonal Trench
Convergence Sediment Estimated Solid and Fluid Estimated Solid Fraction
TrenchLensth,km Rate? Thickness Thickness,
c km Subducted
x 1000km$/m.y.
d
Trench Type1 Margin Type2 Margin km/rno
y. km Solid Fluid Type1 Margin Type2 Margin
North Pacific
Mexico 1450 70 0.80 0.43 0.37 35
Washington-Oregon 900 35 2.00 1.34 0.66 34
Vancouver* 400 35 2.00 1.34 0.66 13
Aleutian-Alaska 2700 70 2.00 1.34 0.66 177
Japan 800 105 0.80 0.43 0.37 29
Nankal 800 30 1.50 0.95 0.55 18
Manila* 1050 10 1.50 0.95 0.55 7
Negros 500 20 1.00 0.58 0.42 5
East Luzon 300 90 1.50 0.95 0.55 21
Sulawesi 600 30 1.00 0.58 0.42 8
Colombia 1050 70 1.50 0.95 0.55 56
Middle America 1450 65 0.40 0.24 0.16 23
Kuril 2200 90 0.40 0.24 0.16 48
Izu-Bonin 1000 105 0.40 0.24 0.16 25
Mariana 2400 90 0.40 0.24 0.16 52
Yap-PalauIsland 550 20 0.40 0.24 0.16 3
Ryukyu 1350 60 0.40 0.24 0.16 19
Philippine 1550 90 0.40 0.24 0.16 33
Southern Chile 1500 20 2.00 1.34 0.66 32
Central Chile 1400 70 1.50 0.95 0.55 74
Peru 1500 100 1.00 0.58 0.42 70
Triobriand 650 20 2.00 1.34 0.66 14
SouthPacific
New Britain 900 110 1.00 0.58 0.42 46
Hikurangi 600 30 2.00 1.34 0.66 19
New Hebrides 1800 100 0.40 0.24 0.16 43
Northern Chile 1500 80 0.40 0.24 0.16 29
San Cristobal 1050 110 0.40 0.24 0.16 28
Tonga 1350 170 0.40 0.24 0.16 55
Kermadec 1400 70 0.40 0.24 0.16 24
McQuarle 500 25 0.40 0.24 0.16 3
Indian Ocean
Makran* 950 35 6.00 4.65 1.35 108
Andaman* 1500 30 5.00 3.80 1.20 120
Sunda* 2050 50 2.00 1.34 0.66 96
Java 650 75 1.50 0.95 0.55 37
Atlantic-Mediterranean
Antilles* 800 20 2.50 1.74 0.78 19
South Sandwich 800 20 0.40 0.24 0.16
Aegean* 1500 25 5.00 3.80 1.20 100
Total 24,550 18,900 1138 389
Sums 43,450 1527
despitetensof millionsof yearsof underthrustingby an In our view the widespreadoccurrence of both nonac-
oceanplate typicallycoveredwith a layer of pelagic cretingmargins andaccretingmarginsthatretainin frontal
oceanicsediment200-600 m thick, the rock frameworkof accretionary bodiesonlya fractionof theoceanicsediment
most western Pacific margins are not fronted by provideddocuments the workingsof efficientsediment
accretionary
masses butremainexposedat theinnertrench subduction processes (Tables1 and 2; Figure3)). This
wall [Bloomer,1983; Bloomer and Fisher, 1987, 1988]. conclusion isconsistentwiththepaucity of oceanicpelagic
On Figure7 themultichannelseismicprofilesthattraverse sedimentexposedin mountainbeltsof deformedrocksof
the lower slopeof the TongaTrenchare exemplaryof ancientaccretionary complexes[Spencer,1974;Schollet
nonaccreting
margins.On the oppositeor easternside of al., 1977].
thePacific,similarnonaccreting,
sediment-starved
margins
are reported from southernPeru to southcentralChile Mechanisms of Sediment Subduction
(20-33S;
Hussong
et al., 1976;Hussong
andWipper- Theefficiency
of sediment
subduction
is thought
to be
man, 1981; Scholl et al., 1970; von Huene et al., 1985; affected
by a numberof physical
factors,including
the
ThornburgandKulrn, 1987]. volumeandtextureof sedimentsuppliedandthe surface
NW SE
Landward trench slope
4.0-
0_:_ Surface
ofsubducted
oceanic
crust
-''.'.':
'-::;".":.
:.;'.".'.
,'.:'
.,.'.!
.'.
::
.'.'-'.,':,:
:
Seaward
trench
slope '
.. .:..?-5-
..... . . _
: ' ,
-'g -t--;..'.
.'/.'....<:.//....
.' :...':':;;'-;'..',,,-..
'-:-'":?=.'..;.."7-'"*
.... [/' ,, -:.--.2.=:,,, = I -,- ,.,<,:,.-: .......-;,_.,_.::_<;,-,-.:.:.
;,,:..__-
::-:-'.-':"';
'.,""'-'::.-'':.'.'.{..-.'.:".:>..::,>,.':.'?.'..,::-,':5
:.-..,:::>':.:;'.-:-
t-'rl-""----'
..:.`..:<-``.:...:'.:`::::...?`..`'-:..-.......'7-`.-`:.-..:.:```.
'' G b - '-' ',- .
.-):-?_,'
e.':;
'.'=".6_.
V:..
:,;:.,;.;':}::.
;..'.:..<-'.'?....,.
:,.:.
.:.:
:mr ...... :,:..:....,:.:
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:.:*..m->-:
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Pressures increase landward of the trench axis because plate. This definition includes material that had been
of theincreasing
lithostatic
loadimposed by thethickening attachedto the seawardedge of the upper plate by
accretionarypile. The tectonicslackof offscraped and accretionaryprocessesas well as more landwardframe-
underplatedtrenchfloordeposits furthercomplicatesfluid workrockandits coverof slopedeposits.VonHueneand
escapepaths.Modelingsuggests thatmorethan90% of the Lallemand [1990] distinguishbetweenfrontal and basal
burden of the accreted'wedge can be supportedby subductionerosion. Processesof frontal erosion loosen and
heightenedpore fluid pressuresin the subdecollement or remove rock and sediment masses located at the front or
underthrusting section[Westbrookand Smith,1983;Davis toe of the landward trench slope. Processesof basal
et al., 1983; Davis and von Huene, 1987; Borja and erosionsubcrustally removethe underside of the upper
Dreiss, 1989]. Seismicimagesreveallittle deformationin plate, in particularthe margin's rock framework.Both
subdecollement
sediment,thus documenting
that weak frontal and basal subduction erosion act to reduce the
interplate coupling persistsbetween the underthrusting materialvolumeof themargin,therebycausingupperplate
sectionandthe frontallyaccretedandunderplated masses, thinningand the landwardmigrationof the trenchaxis.
as well as someof the margin'srock framework(see,for Frontaland basalerosionare the respectiveconverseof
example,Aoki et al. [1982], Moore andBiju-Duval [1982], frontalaccretion
andunderplating.
von Huene [1986], Brown et al. [1990], Moore et al.
[1990], and Shipley et al. [1990]): This observationis SomeHistoryandComments
consistentwith the fact that few majorearthquakes
occur Subduction
erosionwasperhaps
firstinvokedto explain
alongthe plate boundaryunderlyingthe lower slopesof largeamountsof missingcontinentalcrustalongocean
convergentmargins[Yoshi,1979]. margins.For example,two decadesago Rutland [1971]
Field evidenceof elevatedsubsurface pressures,
which proposed subduction-linked tectonic erosion as the
arelargelysummarized
by Shouldice
[1971];vonHuene explanation
for the occurrence
of a belt of arc igneous
andLee [ 1982], Carsonet al. [ 1982],Davis and Hyndman rocks of Mesozoicage along the coastof centraland
[ 1989],Minshulland White[1989]andthegroupof papers northernChile.Presentarc magmatism occursalongthe
introducedby Langseth and Moore [1990], has been crestof the Andesroughly220 km landwardof the coastal
recognized
at manyconvergent
margins.
Theseobserva-area and 325 km inboard of the trench axis. Thus some
tions includethe low anglesof thrustfaultsand seafloor processof rock removal had placed the Mesozoic arc
slopestypical of accretionarywedges,and, within them, within 100 km of the modem Chile Trench.
the commonoccurrenceof fluid escapestructures observed Reasoningsimilarly,but independently, Miller [1970a,
in drill cores. Seismic reflection and seafloorimaging b] identified subruction-induced tectonic erosion as the
techniquesalso reveal the abundanceof mud volcanoes processthat truncatedseaward projectingtrends in
and mud diapirs, which documentthe eruption at the continentalcrustalrocks exposedalong the coastlineof
seafloorof verticallyascendingmassesof overpressured, centralChile (Figure 2b). Along the westernside of the
fluid-rich sediment (s.ee, for example, Westbrookand Pacific,Murauchi [1971] appealedto tectonicerosionto
Smith[1983], Breen et al. [1986, 1988], Snavely[1987], explainthe truncation of well-lithifiedrocksexhibiting
Brown and Westbrook[1988], Reed et al. [1990], and Le high acoustictransmission velocities,presumablyold
Pichon et al. [1990]). Direct measurementsof fluid continentalcrustalmaterial, off northernHonshuIsland,
pressure near modem accretionary wedges are not Japan(Figure2c). Simplifiedrealmwings of the illustra-
numerous,but these measurementsconfirm modeling tionsMiller andMurauchiusedto introduce theirconcept
studiesand the implicationsof fluid escapestructures
that of subductionerosionare presented,respectively,on
overpressured conditionsprevail [Hottmanet al., 1979; Figures2b and 2c. But as Karig [1974] and Karig and
Moore et al., 1983; von Huene, 1985; Minshull and White, Ranken [1983] emphasize,truncationat convergent
19891. margins
canalsobecaused
byregionalstrike-slip
faulting.
During the 70s, studiesat modem and ancientconver-
gent marginscontinuedto provideevidenceof missing
SUBDUCTION EROSION materialand margintruncationand subsidence
(see,for
example,Hussonget al. [1976], Scholl et al. [1977], and
Definitions Ziegler et al. [1981]). But not until the 1980s was the
Subduction erosion, a form of tectonic erosion, de- conceptof subduction
erosionbolsteredsignificantly
by
scribesthesubduction-causedbreakup,wearingaway,and the recoveryof new offshoreevidence,in particularthat
removal of the rock and sedimentarybodiesof an ocean supplied by deepwater rock dredging,deep-seadrilling,
margin.Subductionerosionis not tied to a specificmeans andtheacquisition andmodemprocessing of multichannel
by whichloosened rock massesanddebrisare transported seismic reflection data. Drill cores and seismic records
beneaththe marginsrock framework.We distinguishthe fromtheJapanandPerumarginsin particulardocumented
removal processesof subductionerosionfrom those of deeplyburiedand subsidederosionalsurfaces(unconfor-
sedimentsubductionby requiringthat an erodedrock or mities) that had been carvednear sea level and then buried
sedimentmassmusthaveformerlybeenpart of the upper beneathan advancingshoreline[vonHuene et al., 1982,
29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS von Huene and Scholl GROWTH OF CONTINENTALCRUST 293
1988]. From the coastalregion seawardtheseunconfor- fracturesare much less than required to explain crustal
mities tilt downwardtowardthe trenchaxis andplungeto subsidenceof the order of the 4-5 km observed.Also,
depthsof 4-5 km, whichis nearlythe depthof the trench crustalthinningeffectedby trenchwardextensionwould
floor. Adjacent to the Mariana Trench, although the increasethe width of the margin from trench to arc,
evidencewas less firm for large-scalesinking of the whereas observational evidence indicates decrease in width
seafloor,DSDP drillingrecoveredcarbonatedepositsthat in conjunctionwith subsidence.
suggestedat least several kilometers of subsidence Thinningalongthe baseof the upperplate causedby
[Hussongand Uyeda, 1982]. In all theseareas it was tectonicerosionof therockframeworkcanaccountfor any
argued,subsidence was so substantialthatcrustalthinning measure of observed subsidence or truncation of ocean
of the upperplate was called for, and most likely by an marginrocks.Substantiallyfor this reasonand the lack of
erosiveprocesslinked to the underthrustingactionof the evidencesupporting the efficacyof othercauses,progres-
lowerplate. sively throughoutthe 1980s the processof subduction
Notwithstandingthis argument,subsidence of conver- erosionwas acceptedby a wideningcommunityof Earth
gent margins of the order of several kilometersand scientists[Schollet al., 1980; Hussongand Uyeda, 1982;
otherthan Scholl, 1987; Cloos and Shreve, 1988a, b; yon Huene and
possiblymorecan involvetectonicprocesses
tectonicerosion.The more importantof theseinclude(1) Lallemand, 1990].
depression of the lower oceanicplate and (2) thinningof
the upperplate by extensionand seawardslidingof the Observations
margin'srockframework. Unanticipatedevidenceof subsidencewas discovered
Depressionof the lower oceanicplate can be causedby alongthe landwardslopeof theJapanTrenchat DSDP site
the load imposedby a growingaccretionaryprism [Karig 438/439, located approximately90 km landward of the
et al., 1976]. But neither the Japannor Peru margins,at trench
inwater1560mdeep(Figures
8 and9).At thissite
which subsidenceof 4-5 km was documented [yon Huene an unconformity carvedin the early Neogeneby subaerial
and Lallemand, 1990], have large accretionarymassesof andnearshoreerosionwaspenetratedapproximately2750
Cenozoicage.The subsided shorelineunconformityalso m below presentsea level (Figure 9) [yon Huene et al.,
extends many tens of kilometers landward of the 1982]. Drill coresjust abovethe unconformityrecovered
accretionary
prismwherethe upperplate is unaffectedby upperOligocene conglomerate overlainby sandcontaining
accretionaryloading. Margin subsidencecan also result fossilsdiagnosticof a nearshoreor beach environment.
from an increasein the bulk densityof the subducting The unconformity was cut across a rock framework
lower plate,which wouldcauseit to sink deeperinto the consistingof a lithified accretionarycomplex (acoustic
underlyingasthenospheric mantle [Langsethet al., 1981; velocity-4.2 km/s) of Late Cretaceousage. Burial of the
Hilde and Uyeda, 1982]. The density of oceanic unconformityby the upper Oligocene beds ended a
lithosphereis proportionalto its age.If increasingly
older depositionalhiatus of approximately40 m.y. duration.
oceancrustunderthrusts a margin,for exampleaspresently During the past 22 m.y., youngeroceanmargin sediment
happensin the far northPacific alongthe Aleutianridge accumulatedin increasinglydeeper water, thereby
[Grow and Atwater, 1970; Scholl et al., 1987; Lonsdale, documentingthe progressiveNeogene subsidenceof a
1988;Atwater, 1989], it canbe anticipatedthat at leastthe former subaerialterrane (Figure 9) [yon Huene et al.,
outer margin will progressively subside. But plate 1982].Seismicreflectionrecordsimagethe unconformity
reconstruction
modelsshowthatrapidNeogenesubsidence as a distinctivehorizon truncatingdipping beds of the
of the Japanand Peru marginswas accompanied by little underlyingCretaceousaccretionarybody (Figures4a, 9,
change, or even a decrease,in the absoluteage of the and 13). In the reflectiondata the unconformitycan be
underthrustinglithosphere[yon Huene and Lallemand, tracedfrom the lower trenchslope,at a depthnearly7 km
1990]. belowsealevel,to theinnershelf,andtheserecordsverify
Crustalthinninglinked to largesubsidenceoccurswhere that subsidenceaffectedthousands of squarekilometersof
lithosphericslabsare stretchedandpulledapart[Wernicke theJapanmargin(Figures8 and9).
andBurchfiel,1982],includingat continentalmargins,see, Assuming subsidencewas caused by subduction
for example, Tankard and Balkwill [1989]. Low-angle erosion, the amount of material eroded from the base of the
detachment faulting,grand-scalesliding,andthe unroofing upperplate to accountfor the subsidencecan be estimated
of deep-crustalrock complexescan occur at convergent by comparingthe margin's presentstructuraldimension
margins,in particularwhere massiveaccretionarypiles with thatexistingin theearlyNeogene.Reconstructing the
haveformed[Listeret al., 1984;Platt, 1986;Jaykoet al., earlyNeogenemarginis explainedfully by yonHueneand
1987]. Evidence of massive-scalesliding at convergent Lallemand[1990],but theprocedurebasicallyinvolves(1)
marginswouldbe regional-scale extensionfaultingandthe placingtheseawardmost pointof the unconformity at sea
translationof rotatingblocksof upperplate rock toward level, (2) droppinga descendingslope parallel to the
the trench. Although extension faults are common on modemone from this point to the early Neogenetrench
convergentmargins,and typical of Japanand Peru, the axis,(3) determining thedepthof theearlyNeogenetrench
horizontaland vertical displacements recordedby these axis,and(4) determiningthe ancientsubsurface profileof
294 vonHueneandScholl'GROWTHOFCONTINENTAL
CRUST 29, 3 /REVIEWS
OF GEOPHYSICS
Erimo Smt
iN OF
EW, FI6. 16
ORI78-4 (fig4)
436 Figure8. Indexmapof northern
Japan,
showinggeneralizedbathymetryand
P-849
location of multichannel seismic lines
in the vicinity of DSDP sites (large
dots with numbers)and used to draw
Figures9, 11, and 13. Boxes outlines
mesh-net perspectivediagrams, and
,/ direction of viewing of seamounts
illustratedon Figures14 and16.
Katori
Smt(
DainiKashimaSmt
l&0 o
Daiichi
Kashima
Smt
IRECTIONOF VIEW FIG. 1/,
lZ5
V V V VE=
the oceanic plate from the paleotrenchaxis landward Because the rate of orthogonal underthrustinghas
beneaththe margin (Figure 10). The depth of the early averagednear 100 km/m.y., the approximatesolid-volume
Neogenetrenchcan be fixed by the empiricalrelation thicknessof the layer of eroded material transported
establishedby Hilde and Uyeda [1982] relating age of landwardbeneaththe upper plate has averaged0.5 km.
subducting crustandtrenchdepth.The platereconstruction This layer is composedof materialremovedfrom the base
of Sageret al. [1988] indicatesthat in the early Neogene, of the upper plate's rock frameworkand mass-wasting
60-m.y.-old crust was at the trenchaxis, a plate age that debristhatreachedthebaseof the trenchslopebut that did
corresponds to a paleotrenchdepthof about 8 km. The not accretethere. Subsidenceof the margin was attended
profile of the underridingoceanicplate is reconstructed by the relativelandwardmigrationof the trenchaxis by
from the paleotrenchaxis to a locationinlandwherethe about 75 km Iron Huene and Lallemand, 1990]. The
lower platereacheda depthof about100 km, the typical subcrustal transportof erodedmaterialis in additionto that
depth above which arc volcanismoccurs.The 100-km- injectedbeneaththe corebuttressby sedimentsubduction,
deeptie point,which is locatedbeneaththe axis of early which presentlycontributesa roughly equivalentsolid-
Neogenearc volcanism,is essentiallycoincidentwith the volume mass (Table 2). The calculated solid-volume
axisof contemporary arc volcanoes. thicknessof subductingmaterial is thus about 1 km, a
In the reconstruction the early Neogeneprofile of the measurethat is in keepingwith the 2-km-thicklayer of
underthrusting plate mustbe adjusteddownwardfrom the sedimentand debristhat has been seismicallyimaged
positionof the modemone to compensate for the removed beneaththe seawardmostedge of the core buttress[yon
lithostaticload of a formerly thickerupperplate (Figure Huene and Culotta, 1989].
10). As the mass of the upper plate was progressively Hussonget al. [1976] wereamongthe first to point out
lessenedby subsurfaceerosion,the load it imposedon the evidence for large-scalesubsidenceof the central Peru
underthrusting plate steadilylessened,thus causingthe margin, which they ascribed to subduction erosion.
plateinterfaceto isostaticallyrise.Correctionfor the uplift Reprocessed seismicreflectiondata and drilling results
is estimatedby modelinga bendingelasticplate subjected alonga 600-kmstretch of thePerumargin(8 and 14S
to an underlyinghydrostaticrestoringforce [Karig et al., latitude) have now documenteda subsidencehistory
1976]. similar to that of Japan (Figure 12) [yon Huene et al.,
By subtractingthe volumeof the modemJapanmargin 1988]. Seismicrecordsreveal a regional unconformity
from the reconstructed early Neogenemarginthe volume extendingseawardfrom the shelf to at least the middle
of removed material can be identified (Figure 11) [von region of the trenchwarddescendingcontinentalslope
HueneandLallemand,1990].Thusduringthepast20 m.y. (Figure9) [Hussonget al., 1976; Hussongand Wipper-
for each linear kilometerof Japanmargin,approximately man, 1981; yon Huene et al., 1985; Ballesteros et al.,
1110km3 of upper platematerial havebeeneroded. The 1988]. Petroleumexplorationdrilling and dredgingof
volume rate of subductionerosion has averaged ap- submarineoutcropshave recoveredcrystallinemetamor-
proximately 50 km3/m.y. perkm of theJapan margin.phicrocksof Paleozoicagefrom below the unconformity
DEPTH OF
PALEO TRENCH
' ,,x,s
---t I
I __.,.,,-.m....
. .....:"..:'-.:':.:':.:':.:':.:':.:"'"
'.::.":.:':.:':.?i.:':.:'i.:':
"'...
......
'""""
' ' '".
'"."
' "' ""' .'..'
'""
' "- .'/:.:".'".'".'".'".,':
:'::'::'::'::' ' :':-:':-.'.-.'..'.
.::.::.::.:':.:':.:':.:':.:':-:':.:':.:':."'.'".'"'
'...-....
.........
====================================.;':
......:i:::-...' ........:.:':::'':2"
':;
:.,.,..
:...
.-..'' -'..'..'
'-.::,,-"''',x x ,N(OF;RMiT
' '..4.:.' :-::.: :': :': :-:2: :': :-::-::': :': :-;..,...i ' '-' '-: :;;..;4.-'.'
Y FROM
'-"'-"-':':':'':.:iii:ii:::i!:::i?i':.":..:
:..:. EROSION
I" A
'"'""!':'?:'i:!'::: SURF-ZONE
_,.,p,.,,.M"DERN
ISOSTATIC
.......
'-:':':''!:i'i?.:::..,..UBDUCTING
PLATE
REBOUND
FROM / ' '"''""--;.-".
UNLOADING TOP OF
EARLY NEOGENE
SUBDUCTING PLATE
Figure10.Diagram showingthemethod
of measuring
therockandsediment
volumeremoved by
subduction
erosionby comparing
thecontemporary
andearlyNeogene
structural
configuration
of
an oceanmargin.The areabetweenmodemsealevelanda wave-base
unconformitycut asthe
margin subsidedbeneathan ancientsea surfaceis a measureof the materialremovedfrom the
margin. Theweightof theerodedmaterialwasoncecompensated
forby a deeper
levelto thetop
of thelowerplate,whichroseisostatically
astheplatewasunloaded.
Missingmaterial
of theearly
Neogenemarginis indicated
by thepatterned
area.
296vonHuene
andScholl'GROWTH
OFCONTINENTAL
CRUST 29,3/ REVIEWS
OFGEOPHYSICS
w
present E
DSDP
/ seafloor point
Honshu I.
reconstructed 0
seafloor
V' = c.
'
I '-
.......c.-
area
=340
beneath
km 2
uplifted
./ - [ margin
" Hate boundary
'*
present
prate
20
Ha JAPAN TRENCH
boundary
pointODP ODP
A 688 670
PERU TRENCH reconstructed
.'.".".".'..".'t::'-.'::.''"lia'
'..
'..'..
:...-
..-.:
seafloor"-"-'"'t'"-:'s'".:'{"..'..'Z80
'....'."
k2'm
'"-'
'-'....
''."._ _'
Lima Basin area ",.
'.........
'-"
":-'.'.' present "Neogene
erosiona[ seafloor
surface, top
..kx,..
i..._.
of Eocene
0 50km ax,s.
20r.
la/ <.' '..
'...
:.'..::/..
._
:... beneath
area: 130km
uplifted
2
w
VE = 5.
' 10km
present
trench
axis Lc':..:...._-.
.:..: margin
k.... ___
Douneary
'Z._'%.presenf
-...'-
plate
ODP ODP 20-1;-'
' 'q;..".,
boundary
688 679
0 reconstructed
.ea-0'f :-:u:-idhYe'
i!i:::::
searloor '%/,/'
8-S
Ha,,,c
::::
_..
'."/ '!. erosionai
/...,C_: :_::::
:.,
'x . "Neogene to presenf
present
eBallena
c
Delfin 'Chimbote
9 684
10
Figure12. Map showing
location
of multichannel seismic reflection
lines, ODP drill sites, and the
location of geographicfeatures
681
alongthePeruvian
margin.
11
679
12
allao
13
686
1481o
W 80 79 78 77
[Kulmet al., 1988]. The characteristichigh acoustic duringthe past 10 m.y. by an episodeof uplift and
velocityof theserocksallowsthemto be tracedseaward subsidence.This cycle of verticaltectonismis roughly
beneathmuchof the margin. concurrentwith thetime of subduction
of theNazcaRidge,
that a large submarine
In 1986,scientificdrillingby theODP established mountainrangeunderthrusting the
beneaththe landwardtrenchslopethe unconformity is Peruvianmargin(Figure12) [vanHueneet al., 1988].
immediately
overlainby sandy,shallow-water deposits
of If all the subsidenceis ascribed to subductionerosion,
middleEocene50 Ma age[Suess et al., 1988].Thesebasal the volume of rock and sedimenterodedand removed from
Paleogenebedsarein turnunconformably overlainby a thePerumargincanbe estimated by comparing its former
Neogenesectionof chieflymiddleMiocene (15 Ma) and cross-sectional masswith thatremaining(Figure 11). The
youngerstratathat accumulated in deeperwater,thus total subsidence,compensated for isostaticunloading,
testdying
to erosionat wavebasesucceeded by margin requires theremovalof a rockmassalongeachkilometer
submergencebeginning about20 Ma. The unconformityof margin euivalentto610 km3/yr during thepast 20m.y.
separating
Neogene andPaleogene unitsis thusa sealevel and370 km/km of marginduringthe past8 m.y., which
reference Miocenemarinetransgres- includesthe time of subductionof the Nazca Ridge. The
datumfor a post-early
sionacrossmuchof the Perumargin[Suesset al., 1988; corresponding rates of erosionare respectively31
van Huene and Lallemand, 1990]. The transgressive km3/m.y./km and46km3/m.y./km. During subduction
of
surfacecanbetracedseawardfromtheshelfedgeto within theNazcaRidgetherateof erosion localto theridgemay
15 km of the trenchaxis.Rocksexposedon the seafloor haveeffectivelydoubledoverthatof theprevious12 m.y.
flankingtheLimabasinfurtherdocument subsidence of (i.e.,from20-8Matheratewasonly20km3/m.y./km).
themargin duringthepast20m.y.[Kulmetal., 1988].The AlongthePerumarginat a convergence
rateof about90
subsidence historyof the marginhasbeencomplicatedkm/m.y.the requiredaveragethickness
of the subducted
298 von Huene and Scholl: GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST 29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS
"_'-'----
_'-------._..._ NEOGENE 'r
'""--.,---- ACCRETIONARYn-n' Z
-'--''- ''-.-- PRISM Ou_ ua Ocean
basin
.,.
-_._..
.__... :......_
. u.i
n-< sediment 6
unconform,ty
"'" --'-"'
......
"" _- _.-.-.__._----'- 7
;,?
cretacus
..................................
5;:.,;,,,...:..,,I,:...
.......:;..,rff'.-?....-..;?.-/:;.?,:,:,,
_. 9
KM
baneament
5 Trunkted
beds
ofCretaceous
accretiona
prism 0 5 ! 0 KILOMETER$
Top of igneous I [ I
ocean crust V.E. = 1.05
rock fragmentsmoving along the subductionchannel low relief (-500 m) underthrustthe inner trench wall.
beneaththe buttress[von Huene and Lallemand, 1990]. Evidencethat frontal erosionis causedby the subduction
Individualblocksor fragmentsthathavebeenloosened by of bathymetricrelief has thereforeto be soughtwhere
basalerosionor are in the processof being transported seafloor features large enough to be imaged well, for
landward,areprobablytoo smallto be imagedby conven- example, major seamountsand oceanic ridges, enter
tionalreflectiontechniques. The hypotheticalsubduction subduction zones.
slurrywouldprobablyappearacoustically similarto a The tectonicconsequence of the collisionof a seamount
layerof subducted sediment. An overpressuredinterplate with an inner trench"wall" has long been a fascinating
environment canalsocauseplateboundaryshearplanesto consideration, no doubtbecausethe idea conjuresimages
move upward,therebyattachingslabsof the margin's of a calamitous tectonic event. But, like the chainsaw
framework rock to the underthrustinglower plate. model of horst and graben subduction,the drama of
Conceivably, theseupperplateslabscouldbe acoustically collidingtrenchwallsandseamounts is muchenhanced by
imaged,but distinguishing them from other"layerlike" the high verticalexaggeration commonlyused(typically
rockmassesin the shearzoneof theplateboundarywould 5-10:1) to illustratephysiographicfeatureson the ocean
be difficult [see Calvert and Clowes, 1990]. Shreveand floor. A verticallyexaggerated seamountappearsimpos-
Cloos [1986] and Cloosand Shreve[1988a, b] more fully sibly high for the continentalslopeto accommodate,thus
discussthe physical environmentof the subduction conveyingthe incorrectnotionthat seamounts are seldom
channelthatpromotessubduction erosion. subductedbut sheared off, smashed, and accreted to the
marginin smallbits.
Mechanisms of Frontal Erosion In the late 1970s, using conventionalor ship track
Deep-seadredginghasestablished thatframeworkrock sounding profiles, a partially subducted seamount,
is exposedalong the landwardslopesof nonaccretingDaiichi-Kashima,was discoveredalong the axis of the
trenches,an observation commonlycitedas documenting JapanTrench (Figure 8) [Mogi and Nishizawa, 1980].
the effectsof frontal erosion[Bloomer, 1983; Bloomer and Advanced or areal swath mapping techniqueswere
of frontalerosion,like subsequently
Fisher, 1988]. Initially, processes employedto define the morphologyof the
basal erosion,were visualizedas a consequence of the seamountin much greaterdetail (Figure 14) [Oshimaet
abrasiveaction of the underthrustinghorst and graben al., 1985;Kobayashiet al., 1987]. Daiichi-Kashimais cut
topography. Underthrusting ridge crestswere thoughtto by steeplydippingextension
faultsthatextendtowardit
cutoff thefrontof theupperplateanddelivertheresulting fromtheadjacent
oceanic
crust.
Tension
faulting
aros
the
debrisinto the trench,from which it was removedas part seamount
and the surrounding
oceanfloor 6CCurS
in
of thematerialfilling thetroughsof underthrusting
grabensresponseto the downwardflexing of the oceanicplate
[Schwellerand Kulm, 1978; Hilde and Sharman, 1978; towardthe trenchaxis [Fyrer and Smoot,1985;Fyrer and
Schweller et al., 1981]. However, seismic reflection Hussong, 1985]. Off Japan, the impacting seamounts
profilesand bathymetricdata show that the relief of elevateand bulge the lower trenchslope,disruptingthe
underthrustinghorstsare not like the sharpteeth of a downslopecontinuity of a drainage system of small
chainsawbut rather are broad ridgesborderedby gentle submarinecanyonsthat formally led to the trenchfloor.
slope(5 to 15) and toppedby weaklyconsolidatedSeismicreflectionrecordsshow that at the impact site,
oceanicbasin sediment[Shipleyand Moore, 1986]. As thrust faults and tilted strata have thickened the sediment
emphasized, where thesesedimentary sectionsenterthe and rock of the inner trench wall, but the structureof the
subductionzone, overpressuredconditionsform and underridingseamountis basicallyintact [Lallemandet al.,
frictional couplingbetween the two plates is greatly 1989].
reduced. Bathymetricswath-mapping farther to the north has
Alongnonaccreting marginsandevenalongsomewith revealedotherseamountsat variousstagesof underthrust-
medium-sizedaccretionarypiles, the passageof ocean ing (Figure 8). The initial stage is observedat Katori
floor horstsand ginbensbeneaththe margin cyclically seamount(immediatelynorthof Daiichi-Kashima),whose
elevatesandlowersthebaseof the trenchslope[McCarthy leadingflank has narrowedand elevatedthe trenchfloor
and Scholl,1985;Moore et al., 1986;Shipleyand Moore, (Figure14). Extensionfaultsinitiallypropagated acrossthe
1986]. This processof tectonicripplingis envisionedas seamount where it crossed the zone of maximum crustal
fracturingandthereforeweakeningthe rock and sediment flexurejust seawardof the trenchaxis. The initial stage,
sequenceof the lower slope.But, more importantly,at wherethe leadingflank of the seamounts is beginningto
poorly sedimentedand nonaccreting marginsthe under- be wedged beneath the base of the trench slope, is
thrustinghorstswill be borderedby unfilledginbensthat illustratedin Figure 15a.
shouldcausegravityfailureof the lowerlandwardtrench Fromthecrestto thebase,theoverallslopeangleof the
slopeas theypassbeneathits base[Ballanceet al. 1989]. subducting Japanese seamounts is about15. The under-
Unfortunately,owing to the limited resolvingpower of thrustingactionof theselargeedificeswedgesup, deforms,
contemporaryreflectiontechniques,this suppositionhas and thereforepresumablyfracturesthe baseof the trench
not beenconfirmedwhereridgesand valleysof relatively slope(Figure15b) [LallemandandLe Pichon,1987].
300 von HueneandScholl:GROWTHOF CONTINENTAL
CRUST 29, 3 / REVIEWS
OF GEOPHYSICS
partiallyfilled trenchaxis
constricted ' .....
re-entrant . .., .,-,...,, ._,,.. .- r,AiuN! SMT.
-2000
- .... -.... -..
-4000
-6000
.. - :: -< ...... :--------. -.......
-8000
.... - ., .-:. ,
.. disrupted
drainages .-
'.::::. '". . ,..'---. -
.uplifteo
a ea: -C . Z -' '' '' '
0 10 20kin
VE= 1,5
SUBDUCTED'
Jap
Trench
ERIMO SMT.
0 20 Km
t I
V.E. x 3
Figure 16. Junctureof the Japanand Kuril Trenches,viewed from the east in a perspective
diagramconstructed from Seabeamswathmappingover the continentalslopeand trenchregion
and conventionalbathymetrictechniques,i.e., data collectedonly directlybeneaththe surveying
vessel,over the shelf (see Figure 8 for location).The reentrantnorth of Erimo Seamountis an
erosionalscar or "cookie bite" in the lower landwardtrenchslope made by the passageof a
subductedseamount,whichpresentlyunderliesthe upliftedpart of the adjacentslope.Within the
reentrantare topographicblocksof slope-failuredebristhat contrastwith areasof flat-lying sea
floor underlainby the more fluidized debris of avalanchedeposits.Linear extensionfaults
parallelingtheKuril Trenchcut acrossErimoSeamountandthe adjacentseafloor.
Because theslopeof theinnertrenchwall is typicallyat a shouldered aside and remains on the trench wall, an
criticalangleof gravitationalstability[Nasuet al., 1980; importantfraction is thought to be missing, having
yon Huene and Culotta, 1989], the weakened material collapsedto the trench floor to be either accretedor
underlying thebulgeresponds to steepeningby failingin subducted.The mass-wastingmaterial either forms
gravity-drivenslides.As thetrailingflankof theseamount structurelessdebrispiles or, where sufficientlyfluidized,
movesbeneaththe slope,the thickenedwelt of fractured trenchaxis deposits.The formationof the reentrantin the
anddeformedrockpiled up overthecrestof the seamount wakeof the underthrusting seamountimpliesthatthe bulk
collapses downa descending slopetowardthetrenchfloor of both accumulationsare removed by subduction
[yonHueneandLallemand,1990]. processes.
Evidence that impacting seamountsacceleratethe Because a small accretionaryprism underlies the
removal of material from the front of the margin is landwardslopeof the JapanTrench,it seemslikely that
providedby theexistenceof reentrants,
"cookiebites,"or some of missing material is reaccretedand some is
scallops
alongthebaseof theinnertrenchwall (Figure16) introducedinto the sedimentsubductionprocess.But the
[LallemandandLe Pichon,1987;CollotandFisher, 1989; reentrantscarsaredeepenoughto reachthemargin'sinner
Ballance et al., 1989]. Reentrantsform where seamounts or core rock framework.Conceivably,farther landward,
have passedbeneath the landwardtrench slope. For the subcrustal passageof a seamountlocally elevatesthe
example,a largereentrantat thejunctureof theJapanand plate boundary (i.e., position of the decollement)and
Kuril trenchesmarks the point where a large seamount acceleratesbasal erosionof the margin'score buttressas
landward of Erimo Seamount has been completely well [Ballance et al., 1989].
subducted (Figures8 and 16) [Lallemandand Chamot- Alongnonaccreting marginsthe existenceof seamount-
Rooke, 1986, Yamazakiand Okamura, 1989]. Although impactscarsis strongevidencefor the localizedacceler-
some of the material of the reentrant is probably ated frontalerosionof the margin.For example,seamount
302 van HueneandScholl' GROWTH OF CONTINENTALCRUST 29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS
Samoa
23os
LQU
200--
5
Horizon-Deep
Bighf
S. Fiji
Basin
DSDP
3oos
25os
265
t,0o:
Chatham
Ioo Rise 176W 175 17t2W
Figure 17. (a) Index chartof the southwesternPacific,northof New Zealand(NZ), of the
Tonga-Kermadec Ridgeandtrenchsystem, and(b) itscollision
zonewiththeLouisvilleRidgeof
thePacificplate.Becausethetrendof therapidlyunderthrusting
LouisvilleRidgeis obliqueto that
of theTonga-Kermadec Ridge,thecollisionzonealongthelandwardtrenchslopemigrateseven
morerapidlysouthward. The Horizon-Deep bight,a tectonicreentrant
in theregionaltraceof the
trenchaxis,is thoughtto be primafacieevidencefor theeffectsof subduction
erosionenhanced
by
ridge-ridge
collision[Ballanceet al., 1989].
29, 3 / REVIEWS
OF GEOPHYSICS vonHueneandSchollGROWTHOF CONTINENTAL
CRUST 303
fracturingof the lower landwardtrenchslope,and the each sectorthe contemporaryor currentrate of sediment
sliding of oversteepened material into underthrustingsubductionis the product of the average orthogonal
grabens. Adjacentto theTongaTrench,thedimensions of convergence rate, the averagesolid-volumethicknessof
thesedepressionsareuncommonly large,3-5 km wideand the trench floor section,and the length of the sector.At
0.5-1.5 km deep [Lansdale,1986;Pelletierand Dupont, nonaccreting marginswe estimatethat the global average
1990]. The greatsize and lengthof the reentrantof the thicknessof the dominantly pelagic and hemipelagic
Horizon-Deep bightrecordnotonlyaccelerated subduction trenchfloor sectionis 0.4 km (rangefrom 0.2 to 0.6 km).
erosionbut theeffectsof therapidsouthward movementof UsingHamilton's[1976] porosity-versus-depth valuesfor
the collision zone [Ballance et al., 1989; Pelletier and thesesedimenttypesand the data of Howell and Murray
Dupont,1990].The lowerlandwardslopeis constructed[1986], we set the equivalentsolid-volumethicknessof
of basementrock exhibitinghigh acoustic subductedsediment at 0.24 km (see Tables 2). By
substantially
velocities [Schall et al., 1985]. Thus subductionerosion summingthe volume rates listed on Table 2 (see also
primarilyremovedarc frameworkrock at a rate at least Figure 5) we estimatethe contemporaryglobal rate of
40-50 km3/km/m.y.
aboveanyregional sediment
or background subduction
atnonaccreting
margins
is389x 10
rate. km3/m.y.,
or0.4km3/yr.
On the easternsideof the SouthPacifictheNazcaRidge Where accretionaryprismsform at type 1 margins,the
collideswith the Perumargin(Figure12). As previously thicknessof the underthrustingor subdecollementsection
noted,subductionof the ridge has acceleratedsubduction is commonlymorethan 1.0 km. But seismicdatameasur-
erosion [van Huene et al., 1988; van Huene and Lal- ing the thicknessof the sectionactuallybeing subducted
lemand, 1990]. Although the collision zone migrates (i.e., imagedpassingbeneaththe activebuttress)are sparse
slowlysouthward, it is nottrailedby anembayment
cutby [Bally,1983;vanHuene,1986].For all type 1 marginswe
frontalerosion.Unlike the sediment-starved
TongaTrench, therefore, use massbalance considerationsto estimate the
thePeruTrenchreceivessufficientsedimentto supportthe contemporaryvolume of sediment underthrustingthe
growth of a moderate-size prism, which actively accumulatingfrontal mass or that has been
accretionary
presumablyhas filled in the lower slope embayment subductedlandward of the active buttress(Figure 3a;
subsequent
to ridgesubduction. Table 2). By averagingthe data from the four best-
Fartherto thesouth,at 46S,theSouthChileRidge,a controlled margin sectors (Japan, Mexico, Peru, and
spreadingcenter that separatesthe south and central Alaska, includesAleutians)we estimatedearlier that about
sectorsof the Chile Trench(Figure 12), underthrusts
the 20% of the sedimententeringsubduction zonesfrontedby
Chile margin.A major cuspin the regionaltrendof the small- to medium-sizedprismsis frontally accretedand a
trench axis is coincident with the collision zone, which minimum of 80% is subducted.We supposethat these
migratesslowlynorthward[CandeandLeslie,1986].The partitioningfactorsareapplicableto similartype 1 margins
floor of the southernChile Trenchis underlainby a thick elsewhere.Over long periods of time the amount of
wedgeof terrigenous sediment, and,exceptin thevicinity material subductedat all accreting margins must be
of the collisionzone, the lower slopeis underlainby an adjustedfor higherNeogeneratesof oceanfloor sedimen-
accretionary pile [CandeandLeslie,1986].Theabsence of tation,a correctionthat tendsto lessenthe long-termrate at
thepile wherethe ridgeunderthrusts the marginis strong which sediment is subductedat type 1 margins (see
evidenceattestingto the efficacyof subduction erosionat below).
thiscollisionzone [Bangset al., 1989].Becausethe trench It can be presumedthat efficientaccretion(both frontal
floor is well nourishedby terrigenoussediment,rapid and underplating)takes place where large accretionary
growthof theaccretionary pile in thewakeof themigrat- prismshaveformed[Davis and Hyndman,1989]. Exam-
ing collisionzonehasin partlimitedthewidthandlength pies of theseprismsare found along the Sundamargin
of its trailingtectonicscar.As previouslynoted,seismic from Burma to Sumatra [Moore et al., 1980], the Makran
data imply that basal subductionerosionhas greatly marginof southernIran and Pakistan[White, 1982; White
thinnedthe margin'sframeworkof Mesozoicand older and Lauden, 1982], the Barbadosmargin of the Lesser
igneousandmetamorphic rock. Antilles [Westbrook et al., 1988; Mascle and Moore,
1990], the Manila margin of the Philippines[Lewis and
CONTEMPORARY QUANTITIES OF ACCRETEDAND Hayes, 1984; Hayes and Lewis, 1985], and the northern
SUBDUCTED SEDIMENT AND ASSOCIATED FLUIDS Cascadiamargin off Vancouver,British Columbia, and
northernWashington[Davisand Hyndman,1989;Snavely
Global Mass of Subducted and Accreted Sediment and Wells, 1991] (Figure5). Theselarge,activelygrowing
The globalrate of contemporary sedimentsubduction accretionarypiles are identified on Table 2 as type 1'
can be estimatedfrom the volume of trenchfloor sediment, margins.
that is, both ocean basin and axial trench deposits,that Although the internal structuresof large prism are
enterssubduction zonesbut is not frontallyaccreted(Table difficult to image seismically,massbalancecalculations
2). Presentnonaccreting or type 2 trenchsectorsborder require that for many of them volumetric growth is
roughly19,000linearkm of oceanmargin(Table2). For contributedby both frontal and underplatingaccretion
304 von Huene and Scholl: GROVV-rHOF CONTINENTAL CRUST 29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS
[Platt et al., 1985; Platt, 1986, Ladd et al., 1990]. For material,or be transported
on theoceanicplateuntilthey
example,at the Makranprismit canbe inferredfrom mass are absorbed into uppermantlerocks(see,for example,
balance considerationsthat the relative proportionsof Peacock[1990]).
frontally accretedto subductedsediment(most of which First-orderestimatesof the volumeof fluids expelled
underplatesthe prism) is roughly 1:2 [Platt et al., 1985]. from the frontallyaccretedmasscan be basedon the data
At the northernBarbadosmargin, drilling and seismic in Table 2 and somesimplifyingassumptions. Accreted
informationcompiledby Brown et al. [1990] and Mascle materialdewaters asthickening of theaccretionarywedge
and Moore [1990] establishthat during the past 2 m.y. loadsthe underlyingsedimentandcausesexpulsionof its
approximately30% of the incomingsectionwas frontally fluids;theresultingporosityprofilelooksmoreor lesslike
accretedand70% is eitherunderthrusting the frontalprism thatshownin Figure6. As thesizeof theprismincreases,
or has been subducted landward of the active buttress. the porosityprofile shifts upwardthroughthe accreted
Although we recognizethat perhapslitfie underplating sectionproportionalto its growth.We assumethat in the
occurs within the large Vancouver prism [Davis and prismtheporositydecreases to 10%at a depthof 3.5 km,
Hyndman, 1989], within-section decollements are changing little belowthislevel (Figure6). Oncethefrontal
prominent structuresof most other large accretionary accretionary body becomessufficientlylarge so that its
masses.For the large accretionaryprisms we adopt a porosityprofile extendsdownwardto the 10% end of the
partitioningfactor of 30% frontal accretionversus70% gradient,the position of the gradientshifts upward
sediment subduction. equivalentto the additionof new trenchsediment.Under
The combinedlengthof all sectorsof accretingor type 1 conditionsof a constantgradient shift the additionof
margins is approximately 24,500 km (Table 2). The sediment andfluid to theprismresultsin an expulsion of
contemporary subductionratefor eachsectoris theproduct fluid equivalentto the added volume. Thus the rate at
of the sector'saverage orthogonalconvergentrate, the whichpore fluid is expelledfrom frontalaccretionary
subduction partitioningfactorappliedto the thicknessof massesapproximatesthe rate at which fluid is incor-
thetrenchfloor section,andthelengthof thesector.Using porated,less10%.
the appropriateporosity-depthcurve of Figure 6, the Similarapproaches can be takento estimatethe volume
measured thickness of the trench floor section is first of fluids expelledfrom subductedsediment,which either
shrunk to its zero porosity or solid-volumethickness. underplates or bypassestheprism.Subductedsedimentand
Summingthe ratesfor eachsectorgivesa contemporary containedfluid travel below the prism from its front to
global rateof 1138x 103km3/m.y., or,inrounded figures,depthsexceedingabout10 km wherehydratedmetamor-
1.1km3/yr (0.7fortype1margins withsmallerprisms, 0.4 phic mineralsof the greenschists and in particularthe
for type 1' or large-prismmargins;Table 2). Combining high-pressureblueschistsfacies form. As sedimentand
thisrate with that for the nonaccreting
or type 2 margins fluids move in a conveyorbelt fashion along the
(1.1 + 0.40; Table2), providesa contemporary globalrate subductionchannel, a constant amount of fluid will be
ofsediment
subduction
of1.5km/yr. expelled.For sediment thatdeeplyunderplates theprismor
Correspondingly,the total solid-volume mass of themargin'srockframework,thevolumeexpelledwill be
sedimentfrontallyaccretedat all formsof type 1 margins equalto that associatedwith this subductedsedimentless
is0.4km/yr. Wepresent observations below thatthebulk an estimated3% tied up in the growthof metamorphic
of the subductedsediment is stored as underplated minerals. But somesubducted sediment will underplate
the
sedimentin the part of the accretionaryprism lying prismat higherstructural positions andmostlikelyretain
betweenits activeandcorebuttresses (Figures3a and 3c). pore fluids at about the 10% level. Becausewe cannot
The estimatedmassof the underplatedmaterialbooststhe easilydistinguish therelativequantitiesof thesesubducted
total volume of offscrapedsedimentstoredat accreting masses,we assumean averageretentionof 5% fluid for the
margins
to0.9km/yr. totalmassof sedimentsubducted
at all formsof type 1
margins.Similarly,we assigna 5% retentionto themassof
Global Volume of Fluids porefluidssubducted
at nonaccreting
marginsor type2
Sediment that enters the subduction zone contains a margins.
porosity-equivalent volume of interstitialfluids. As the On the basis of the data assembled in Table 2 the total
accretedsedimentis thickenedby thrust faulting and volumeof fluid enteringsubductionzonesis closeto 1.0
folding, fluids are squeezedfrom the sedimentinterstices km3/yr.Therateoffluidexpulsion isthefrontally accreted
and returned to the ocean basin. Fluids associated with volume
less10%,or0.1km3/yr,
andthevolume
subducted
underthrustsedimenthave been observedto vent by less
5%,or0.8km/yr.
Thecombined
volumes
ofexpelled
channelizedflow seawardalong the decollement[Mascle fluidsis thus0.9km3/yr.
Thisvolume
is similar
to that
andMoore,1990],to discharge a moredistributed
wayvia estimatedby Working Group 3 during the Second
manyfractureswithin overlyingrock framework[Carson Conferenceon ScientificOcean drilling (COSOD II,
et al., 1982], dischargewith upwelling massesof 1987).Our simplisticassumptionof steadystatetectonism
subductionchannelsediment[Cloos and Shreve, 1988a], and fluid expulsionis in keepingwith the difficultyof
combinechemicallyor mineralogically
with surrounding estimating fluidrecyclingfromothersources, particularly
29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS von Huene and Scholl GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST 305
from mineral transformationas sedimentand igneous changesand major convergentmargin tectonism have
oceancrestis metamorphosed and also from fluids in the combinedduring the past 35 m.y. to irregularly but
upperpart of the underthrusting
igneousslab.Our rough progressively
increasethe supplyof terrigenoussediment
estimate of expelled pore fluids from accreted and to the ocean basins seaward of trenches [Davies et al.,
subductedsedimentis probablysignificantlysupplemented 1977; Worsleyand Davies, 1979; Southhamand Hay,
by volumesfromtheseothersources. 1981;Sloan,1985;Hay et al., 1988].The magnitudeof the
changewasfromanunusual
globallowof0.5g/cm2/103yr
LONG-TERM SUBDUCTION RATES OF intheearlyOligocene
toabout
2.5g/cm:/10ayr
justpriorto
TERRESTRIAL MATERIAL the onsetof late Cenozoicglaciationand thenceto nearly
4.0g/crn2/103yr
[Sloan,
1985;
W.W.Hay,personal
commu-
Long-Term
Rateof SedimentSubduction nication,1990].The averageNeogenerate is roughly2
The contemporary
volumeof sedimentsubducted g/cm2/103yr
yearly [SouthhamandHay,1981; Hayetal., [1988].
at convergent
margins
(1.5km3/yr,
Table2) is probablyGlaciationthereforeaugmentedan establishedtrend of
higher than that typical of most of Cenozoictime and increasing terrigenousdeposition that beganin the early
arguablythat typicalof the pastseveralhundredm.y. We Oligocene.
recognizedearlier that the trenchsectionsof many type 1 Otheruncertaintiesfurtherhinderestimating theaverage
or accretingmarginsare probablyoverly thick becauseof long-term thicknessof type 1 trench sectionsbased on
glaciallyelevatedratesof deep-seaterrigenous sedimenta- existing sections.These include the circumstancethat
tion. Preglacialaxial fills havebeenseverelydeformedor oceanbasinterrigenous inputis in partregulatedby trench
subducted thusaffordinglittle basisfor reconstructing
their axis overflowtherebyprecludinga directrelationbetween
former thicknesses. Referringas a guideto ratesof ocean trenchandoceanbasinratesof sedimentation. In recogni-
floor terrigenoussedimentation tabulatedby Southamand tion of the uncertaintyinvolved,and in an attemptto avoid
Hay [1981],Sloan[1985],andHay et al. [1988],we earlier overestimatingthe long-termrate of sedimentsubduction
estimatedthat prior to 2.5 Ma the thicknessof the trench at type 1 margins,we halve the thicknessof the modem
sectionwas about one half that of the contemporaryor trenchsectionas was donein Table 1. The long-termrate
glacial-agethickness(Table 1). of sedimentsubduction at type 1 marginsis thussetat 0.55
For the purpose of estimatinga long-term rate of km3/yr, which isonehalfthecontemporary ratelistedin
sedimentsubduction,applying the 50% reductionmay be Table 2.
an overcorrection.For example, many modem trench Thelong-termsubduction rateof thedominantly pelagic
sectorsare thicklysedimented as muchfor the reasonthat sedimentat type 2 marginsshouldbe little different than
they are nourishedby rivers draining rapidly elevating themodem rate,0.4km3/yr. Combining thisratewiththe
mountainranges,for example,the trenchesborderingthe trench-thickness-corrected ratefor type 1 marginsyieldsa
Sundra,Makran, Manila, and Alaska-Aleutianregions,as global long-term rate of sediment subductionof 1.0
by the effectsof glaciation.Elevationof the rangesis in km3/yr.
responseto convergentmargin tectonism,in particular
where masses of continental crust are colliding (for How Good Are the Estimates?
example,Himalaya,Taiwan,Gulf of Alaskaregions).It is How well are the estimated volumes of subducted
instructiveto realize that 70% of the sedimentdischarged sediment constrained?Roughly 40% of the world's
by rivers to oceanbasinsis from two regionsof intense margins are nonaccretionary,and at these margins,
tectonicuplift linked to the collisionsof India and Asia, sedimentsubductionis very efficient. Uncertaintiesof the
and more diffusely,of Australiaand Indonesia[Milliman subductedvolume at these margins reflect inaccurate
and Meade, 1983;Dickinson,1988;Meade, 1991]. Owing assessments of orthogonalconvergence rates,and of the
substantiallyto the India collisioneventalone,nearly28% averagethicknessof the incomingblanketof oceanfloor
of all ocean basin terrigenoussedimentresides in the pelagicsedimentand sedimentdepositedalongthe trench
Indian Ocean, the smallest of the three major oceans axis. In consideration of these factors our estimate of the
[Howell and Murray, 1986], and the supplyof terrestrial contemporary volumeof sedimentsubductionat type 2
debris needed to sustain the growth of the large marginare probablyno better than _+20%of the total 0.4
accretionaryprismsof the Makran and Andaman-Sunda km3/yr noted.
trench systemshas thus been maintainedat high levels Data used to estimate the proportionsof sediment
sinceat leastthe earlyNeogene[Curray and Moore, 1971; frontallyaccretedand subducted at all formsof type 1
Beaudryand Moore, 1985; Copelandand Harrison, 1990]. marginsare besetby the samemeasurement inaccuracies,
Thereforemany type 1 trenchsectorsprobablysustained and, in particular,by the assumption that duringmostof
thick axial wedgesbefore the sedimentation enhancing Cenozoictime the averagethicknessof the incoming
effects of glacially induced oscillating sea levels and sectionwas only one half that presentlyenteringthese
heightenedcontinentalerosion. subductionzones. In constructingTable 1 we noted
In additionto directly supplyingclasticsedimentto the variabilities of_+20%in calculating proportions of frontally
trench axis the consequencesof both global climatic accreted versus subducted sediment that arose from
306 von Huene and Scholl: GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST 29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS
71 70 69 68 67 66
I
o f
I I
Miocene-Holocene
Coast Magmatic Arc ARG-1
CHI-3 Figure 18. Plot of radiometricages
40 CHI-6 and samplinglocalitiesof arc ig-
neousrocksfrom coastalrangesof
CHI-2
i + CHI-4
CHI-8 Late-Cretaceous-Paleogene
& Magmatic
Arc dilleraOrientalof the Andes(fig-
northern Chile eastward to the Cor-
Ma
CHI-5
+!
CHI-1
Mid-Cretaceous
Magmatic
Arc
Andriessenand Reutter, 1991]).
Demonstrated eastward shift of the
locus of arc magmatismis com-
monly cited as evidence for the
subduction-erosion-c aused east-
120 ward truncation of the landward
slopeof the Chile Trenchduring
the past 160-180 m.y. [see Rut-
Jurassic-Early Cretaceous
MagmaticArc
land, 1971; Scholl et al., 1977;
Mpodozisand Ramos,1990; Stern,
tCHi_7
160
]99].
0 100 Km
I I
200 I I I I I
71 70 69 68 67 66
, ' i"'
!i'!":'"
CHI
_2
CHI-4
?.: .}'.:i.Atacama
ntofagasta
,/ '
.... :
::..: ::.Salar
de
I .._.-?CHI-8bnl-o
:.....x..._
..:. / Salar
de
--;:::
24
[:;.CHI-7 CHI-3
\CHI-5 ..... /]/! : iCauchri
San
Antonio
I ,- I ! !
29, 3 / REVIEWS
OF GEOPHYSICS von HueneandScholl GROWTH OF CONTINENTALCRUST 307
Beck [1983, 1986]). New or juvenile continentalcrustis Althoughthe bypassingfigures for the large prisms
formedby mantle-sourced igneousactivity.Many authors rangewidely (nil to perhaps20%), we currentlysuppose
emphasizethat the dominant mechanismsupplying thatat least10% (+50%) of the incomingsectionbypasses
juvenile crust is arc magmatism,assistedby lesser theseaccretionarybodies.We recognizethe large uncer-
contributionsfrom hotspot volcanism,intracontinental taintyassociated with this estimate,but traceelementand
volcanismandmagmaticunderplating, andtheaccretionof isotopicgeochemistryof the arc volcanic rocks of the
slabs of oceanic crust (see, for example, Kay [1980], Lesser Antilles are convincing evidence that sediment
Thorpeet al. [1981],ReymerandSchubert [1984,1986], bypassingoccursat the massiveBarbadosPrism [White
Arndt and Goldstein [1989], Klemperer [1989], and and Dupre, 1986; Bouyseeet al., 1990], and, therefore,
RogersandHawkesworth[1989]).But, as we notedin our possiblyat otherlargeaccretionarybodiesas well. Because
introductory comments, terrestrialmaterialcanpotentially large prisms constituteonly about 20% of convergent
be lostat convergentmargins. margins,andconvergence ratesat themare typicallyslow
Terrestrialmaterialthat is removedfrom the upperplate (-30 km/m.y.; Table 2), adoptinga 10% bypassrate adds
by subduction erosion,or oceanicsedimentthatbypasses less than0.03km3/yr totheglobal volume ofsubcrustally
the prismand underthrusts the margin'srock framework, subductedsediment,a figure that has little effect on the
can be tectonicallytransportedto greatdepths(>15 km or amountof terrestrialmaterialpotentiallyrecycledto the
more). Material transportedbeneaththe margin's rock mantle.
framework is referred to in this paper as subcrustally By applyingthe corresponding bypasspercentages to
subductedmatter.At type 2 margins,where long-lasting the long-term rate at which oceanic sediment enters
prismsdo not form, virtually all of the volumeof sub- subruction zones(i.e.,100%of0.4km3/yr atnonaccreting
ductedsedimentis availablefor transportto deepsubcrus- margins,and, correctedfor high Neogenesedimentation,
tal levels. At type 1 margins,however,large massesof 65%of 0.4 km3/yr at accreting margins withsmall-to-
subductedsediment underplatethe prism between its medium prisms,and10%of 0.3km3/yr at largeprisms,
active and core buttresses.But rough estimatescan be Table2), the globalrate at which sedimentis subcmstally
made of the portionof the incomingoceanfloor section subducted is 0.7km3/yr. Tothismass mustbeadded the
that is retainedin the accretionaryprism and that which globalvolumeof materialprovidedby subductionerosion,
bypasses it to reachsubcrustal levels. estimatedto rangefrom a minimumof 0.6 to as muchas
For example,wheresmall-to-medium sizedprismsfront 1.1km3/yr. In Table3 wethusshow twoscenarios forthe
type 1 margins,we estimatefrom seismicdata and the volume of subcrustallysubductedterrestrialmaterial, 1.3
massbalancecalculationsof Table 1 that roughly 65% and1.8kmS/yr. Themeanof thisrange, 1.6kmS/yr, is
(+20%) of the incomingsectionbypassestheseprisms. regradedasa conservative estimateof thelong-termrateat
Because only about 20% is stored in the frontal whichterrestrialmatteris subcrustallysubducted.
accretionarymass, an additional 15% must nourishthe Threefatesawait subcmstallysubducted materialit can
prism's volumetric growth by underplatingprocesses either (1) underplatethe baseof continentalor island-arc
(Figure3a). Bypassingat largeprismsis apparentlymuch crustalrocks,(2) enterthe mantleand recycleto the crest
less.Massbalancefiguresprovidedby Platt et al. [1985] via processesof arc magmatism,or (3) be entrainedinto
for the Makranprismindicatethatduringthe past 13 m.y. mantlecirculation.Insofaras the net growthof continental
approximately30% of the incomingsectionwas usedto crust is concerned, a critical issue is the amount of
build the frontal prism, 60% underplatedthe prism, and subducted terrestrial matter that is not returned to the crust
potentially 10% bypassedthe prism. For the Barbados but absorbedinto the mantle [Karig and Kay, 1981;
region of the LesserAntilles, massbalancecalculations Armstrong,1971, 1981; Thorpeet al., 1981;Reymerand
based on the seismic sectionsof Westbrooket al. [1988] Schubert, 1984; Ashwal, 1989; Warren, 1989; Albarede,
and Ladd et al. [1990] and regionalinformationconcern- 1989].
ing the time-averagethicknessof the incomingsection The occurrence in youngvolcanicrocksof cosmogeni-
[Moore et al., 1990] indicatethat bypassingof the 50-to callyformed Beis "smoking gun"evidence that,as
55- m.y.-old accretionaryprism rangesfrom effectively Coats [1962] surmised, oceanic sediment travels at least
zero to as much as severaltensof percent.Similarly,for 200 km landwardof the trenchand to depthsof 100 km
the Vancouverprism of British Columbia,massbalance [Brownet al., 1982; Tera et al., 1986; Morris et at., 1990].
numbers support a bypassingfigureofvirtually nil[Davis Despitethis fact, the traceelementand isotopiccomposi-
and Hyndman,1989] to as muchas 30% of the incoming tion of arc magmaticrocks disclosesthat their mass is
section(our calculations).The variability for this prism overwhelmingly suppliedby the meltingof mantlerock
arises from the range in average porosity that can be and only a few percent is contributedby subducted
assignedto the accretionaryprism,differentestimatesof terrestrialmaterial (see, for example,Kay [1980], Gill
the averagethicknessof the incomingsectionduringthe [1981], and Stern, [1991].
42 m.y. history of prism growth, and differencesin Evidencehasalsobeenrecognizedthat somesubducted
interpretationof the seismicrecords[seealsoCalvert and terrestrial material is reattached to continental and
Clowes,[1990]). island-arccrest by underplatingprocesses. For example,
29, 3 / REVIEWSOF GEOPHYSICS von Huene and Scholl GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST 309
hemipelagicsediment.Thereforeabout40% pelagicand
Albarede,F., Sm/Nd constraintson the growthrate of continental
60% clasticdepositsare subcrustally
subducted at modern
crust,Tectonophysics,
161,299-305, 1989.
convergentmargins,but the long-termproportionsare, Allegre, C. J., Chemical geodynamics,Tectonophysics,81,
respectively,
56 and44%. 109-132, 1982.
8. The pore-fluid volume squeezedfrom frontally Andriessen, P. A.M., and K. J. Reutter, K-At and fission track
accreted sediment and returned to the oceans is estimated mineral age determinationsof igneous rocks related to
fromsubducted multiple
at 0.1 km3/yr.Porefluidssqueezed magmaticarcsystems alongthe23Slatitude of
Chile andNW Argentina,in Tectonicsof theSouthernCentral
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