CHAPTER 1: MOTOR SKILLS & ABILITIES

Motor Skills

Generic Motor Skill - Movement that readily available, Exist naturally and biologically
Secondary Motor Skill - Movement acquired through learning, through practice and
training

One dimension classification systems

Size of Primary Musculature - Gross Motor Skills, Fine Motor Skills

Specificity Of Where Actions Begin Or End Discrete, Continuous, Serial
Stability Of The Environmental Context - Closed, Open

Fundamental Movement Skills - Behaviour that come different body part

Categories of FMS - Body management skills, Locomotor skills, Object control skills
Factors influence FMS Child, Environment

Reaction Time - Interval of time between the onset of a signal (stimulus) and the initiation of
a movement response

Type of RT - Simple , Discriminate, Choice, Fractionated

Use of RT - preparing to produce a required action, provides information on how we
interact with the environment

Error Measure - allow us to evaluate performance for skills for which accuracy is the goal.

Absolute error(AE)
Variable error(VE)
Constant error(CE)

Kinematic Measure - Kinematic is a branch of classical mechanics which describes the

motion of points ex: displacement, velocity, acceleration, angular & linear motion

Kinetic Measure - The measurement of force that cause a motion Ex: Force of Magnitude,
Direction

Brain Activity Measures

EEG (Electroencephalography) - to assess brain disorders

PET (Positron Emission Topography) - Used to provide clear and precise images
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) - determines brain function in terms of blood
flow changes.
MEG (Magnetoencephalography) - measures the function of brain
TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) - a scan of the brain

Movement-Related Coordination Measure

Types - Specific Time (Temporal), Space (Spatial)

Function - create a graphic angle-angle plot of the movement joints, repeats a
movement pattern for a certain amount of time:

Motor Abilities - An ability that related to the motor skill

Motor Abilities Categories

By Fleishmann, 1967

Perceptual-motor abilities Physical proficiency abilities

Reaction time Static strength

Speed of arm movement Dynamic strength

Rate control Explosive strength

Finger dexterity Dynamic flexibility

By Ackerman, 1988

General ability Cognitively oriented abilities & memory-

related process (acquiring, storing,
retrieving, combining and comparing
memory based information)

Perceptual speed Solving problems of increasing

complexity & speed at processing
information

Psychomotor ability Speed and accuracy of movement that

place little or no cognitive demand on
the person
CHAPTER 3: ATTENTION AND MEMORIES

Memory: Process of maintaining information over time (MATLIN, 2005)

Storage of information - ability to keep information in the brain

Retrieval of information - recall and recognition
System specific functions - The use of memory in a particular situation

MEMORY COMPONENT

Working Memory

Phonological loop (Verbal information)

Visuospatial sketchpad (Imagine & visualize)
Central executive (Focus on chosen info)

Long-term Memory - The memory system into which all the information is placed to be kept
more or less permanently.

Function - Allows people to have information about specific past events as well as
general knowledge
o Procedural memory - how to perform certain procedures.
o Semantic memory - storing information about the world as well as general
knowledge
o Episodic memory - storing information about events / episodes that we have
experienced in our lives

Distinguish

Declarative - Knowledge that can be verbally described what to do to perform a

skill
Procedural how to do, Difficult to verbalize, Indescribable

Terminology of remembering

Encoding - experience of perceiving and learning information.

Storage - maintaining information over time.
Rehearsal - Transfer information from working to long term memory.
Retrieval - the ability to access information when you need it.

Causes of Forgetting

Trace decay - automatic decay or fading of the memory trace.

Proactive interference - old memory interferes new memory.
Retroactive interference new memory interferes old one

Strategies to Enhance Memory Performance

Increasing a movements meaningfulness - Visual metaphoric imagery, Verbal

level
The intention to remember - Intentional and incidental memory
Subjective organization - Organizing sequence of movement

Attention Theories
 Bottle neck theory / Filter theory - Attention on one task only / filter
Central-resources capacity - Give all attention for all activities in one time
Kahnemans attention - Related to cognitive effort and arousal level.
Multi resources theory - Several attention resource mechanism, receive too many
instruction

Focus attention

Internal focus - Internal thoughts, plan and behaviour

External focus - Focus on the environment cues

Automaticity - Automaticity refers to knowing how to do something so well that you don't
have to think about it

Visual Selective Attention - Process of directing visual attentional to locate relevant

information in the environment
CHAPTER 4: ASSESSING & STAGE OF LEARNING

Assessing - observing performance during practice and tests

Performance - act of executing a skill at a specific time and in a specific situation

Learning - Change in the capability of a person to perform a skill: It must be inferred from a
relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience

Characteristic of skill

Improvement

Consistency

Persistence (measure with retention test)

Adaptability

Stability

Performance curve evidence Improvement, Consistency

Performance Curves Examples

1. Linear

Proportional increases over trials or time

Eg: Datuk Lee Chong Wei

2. Negatively accelerated

Early improvement but slows during later practice

Eg: Hafiz Hasyim

3. Positively accelerated

Slight improvement early but substantial

improvement during later practice

Eg: Datuk Nicol Ann David

4. Ogive or S-shaped

Combination of A, B, & C curves

Eg: swimming

Types of Learning Assessment

Acquisition Test - Practice that required before executing the actual test
Retention Test - Assess permanence of the performance level achieved during
practice.
 Transfer Test - Assess the performance characteristics of adaptability of what was
learned during practice.
Coordination Dynamic - Involves the observations of the stabilities and transitions
of the dynamics of movement coordination related to performing a skill.
Practice performance may misrepresent learning - Involves the observations of
the stabilities and transitions of the dynamics of movement coordination related to
performing a skill.

Performance plateau - Period of time in which no overt changes in performance

occur.

Stages Of Learning

Fitts and Posner Three Stages Model

Cognitive stages
Associative stages
Autonomous stages

Gentile Two Stages Model

Initial Stages - Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory

condition in environmental context.
o Regulatory pin position, lane condition.
o Non regulatory - crowd noise, score.
Later Stages
o Adapting movement pattern
o Increase consistency of action goal achievement.
o Perform with an economic of an effort.

Type of Skills / Goals Of Movement

Fixation - To consistently repeat optimal movement to achieve goals.

Diversification - To enable adaptation to changing environment condition.
Professional - To develop the basic movement pattern whether open or closed skill.

Performer and Performance Changes Across The Stages Of Learning

1. Rate of improvement

2. Limb segment coordination

3. Altering an old preferred coordination pattern

4. Muscle used

5. Energy used

6. Conscious attention

7. Visual attention

8. Error detection
Type of Skill Transfer

Near transfer - similar task in a similar situation but in different environment.

Far transfer - Development of general capabilities for producing a wide variety of
actions in the future.
Positive transfer - previous experience facilitates performance a skill in a new
context or the learning of a new skill.
Negative transfer - previous experience hinders or interferes with performance of a
skill in a new context or the learning of a new skill.
Skill modification - simple movement has been done and then perform the
complex's movement
Zero transfer - previous experience has no influence on performance of a skill
Proactive transfer - Performance of a skill effects the learning of a skill yet to be
learnt. Influence one skill to another.
Retroactive transfer - The effect that learning a new skill has upon a previously
learnt skills

Expertise vs. Novice

Novice Expert

Spend more time on decision making Can make accurate decision in the nick of
time

Can do one task at one time Can do multiple task at one time

Cannot predict what will happen Can predict what will happen
CHAPTER 5: DEMONSTRATIONS AND VERBAL INSTRUCTION AUGMENTED
FEEDBACK

TERM OF DEMONSTRATION - Learning a skill from direct observation of people

performing a skill

Observational learning - Learning a skill by observing (verbal, auditory, manual

cues)
Modelling - Use demonstration to give information how to perform a skill

INFLUENCE LEARNING OF OBSERVING DEMONSTRATION

Cognitive mediation theory Dynamic view of modelling

Observes a skilled model observed movement in a

way that constrains the
motor control system to act
accordingly

Translate that observed movement The person does not need to

info into cognitive code that the engage in cognitive
person store in memory mediation

Uses when then observer performs

the skill

Sub-Processes of Observational Learning

Attention process

Retention process

Behavior reproduction

Motivation process

Verbal instruction & cues

Types Explain

1. Verbal cues short, concise phrases that direct performer's attention to important
environmental regulatory characteristics, or that prompt the person
to perform key movement pattern components of the skills

2. Verbal cues & give verbal cues alone with demonstration to supplement visual
demonstration information

3. Verbal cues cue direct attention to a specific environmental event or to specific

sources of regulatory information
environmental context
 4. Verbal cues cue prompts action for either a specific movement or sequence of
movements
Prompt action

Feedback

Task-intrinsic Feedback - Auditory, Visual, Tactile, Proprioceptive

Augmented Feedback

Knowledge Of Performance (KP) - movement characteristic

Knowledge Of Result (KR) - achieving the goal of performance

Types of Knowledge Performance

Verbal of knowledge of performance - Descriptive KP, Prescriptive KP

Videotape as augmented feedback
Movement kinematics as augmented feedback
Biofeedback as augmented feedback

Concurrent augmented feedback - Provide while a person is performing a skill, can

enhance or hinder learning

Terminal augmented feedback - Provided after a person has complete the performance of
skill (Post KR interval, KR delay interval)

Technique That Reduce Augmented Feedback Frequency

1. Performance based on bandwidths

2. Performer selected frequency

3. Summary and averaged augmented feedback

Types of Instructional Feedback

Program - Assist learners in developing fundamental relative motion pattern

Parameter - Assist learners in adjusting fundamental relative motion pattern
Visual - Provides learners with a visual depiction of their action
Descriptive - Direct learners attention to a particular aspect of the action
Prescriptive - Suggest a specific alteration or correction for the action
CHAPTER 6: PRACTICE CONDITIONS

Practice Variability

Concept Variability in practice experience is important for learning motor

skills.

Definition Successful future performance depends on the amount of variability

the learner experiences during practice (Schmidt)

Variety of movement and context characteristics the learner

experiences while practicing a skill

Characteristic Skill Variation

Physical Context

Situation

How to Contextual Interference Effect

organize
a. Practice Variable
practice
variability? b. Problem Thinking

Types of Design - Block Practice, Serial Practice, Random Practice

Why does contextual interference effects occur? - Elaboration hypothesis, Action plan
reconstruction hypothesis

How to implement

Asses characteristic of the physical context and skill characteristic of that

performance.
Vary these characteristic according to the type of skill being learned.
o Practice condition to vary for closed skill
o Practice condition to vary for open skill

Practice Specificity - Test performance is directly related to the similarity between

characteristics of the practice and test conditions

3 Practise related to the specificity hypothesis - Sensory-perceptual information,

Performance context (Intentional remembering, Incidental remembering), Cognitive
processing

Relating practise variability and specificity hypothesis

1. Practice variability hypothesis - Retention of transfer test benefit from various skill

2. Practice specificity hypothesis - Retention and transfer performance is better

when practice and test are similar relative
AMOUNT & PRACTICE DISTRIBUTION - The amount of practice and the spacing or
distribution of practice can affect both practice performance and learning of motor skills

Overlearning and Learning Motor Skills - Continuation of practice beyond the amount
needed to achieve a certain performance criterion

Types of Motor Skills

Procedural skills - Skills that include a combination of cognitive and motor

components
Dynamic balance skills - Diminishing returns for amount of extra practice 50% as
effective as 100% and 200%
Physical education class setting - student-determined extra practice resulted in
better learning than teacher-determined extra practice these settings

Types of Practice Distribution Schedules

Massed Practice
Distributed Practice

Distributed Practice Sessions Are Better for Learning

Fatigue hypothesis Influence in mass practice shedule

Effort hypothesis practice beyond certain amount lead to

diminish learning

Memory consolidation Long term memory storage. store in two

hypothesis relevant information we need to learn a skill

Whole Practice - Teaching the skill in the whole at the one time (low complexity, high
organization)

Part Practice - Learn the skill that is divided into part (high complexity, low organization)

Skill Complexity - Skill complexity is how many part or components are in the task

Skill Organization - Refer to how spatially and temporally the components are interrelated.

Type of Part practice

Fractionalization - involves practicing body part separately before performing

together
Segmentation - Involves separating the skill into parts and then practicing one part.
Simplification - Involves reducing difficulty of the whole skill or specific parts of a
skill
Mental Practice - cognitive (thinking) rehearsal of a physical skill without movement

Function/roles of M.P - Improve the acquisition of motor skill and Aids in performing
a well-learned skill
The supported hypothesis
o Neuromuscular Hypothesis: emg show muscle activity during mp.
o Brain Activity Hypothesis: Brain Activity during Imagery is same to Activity
During Performance.
o Cognitive Hypothesis: Helps Learner to solve the problem that common in
initial stage of learning.

Imagery Ability - The ability of performer to imagine the skill want to do.

Mp & Ia association

People with high level of imagery ability will have more benefit than people with a
low level of imagery ability.
The success of Mental Practice influenced by an excellent imagery ability.