05 Development Planning Feb08

Reservoir Management
Development Planning
Primary Recovery
DELIVERING KNOWLEDGE. DEVELOPING COMPETENCE.

1 2008 PetroSkills LLC, All Rights Reserved
Elements of a Field Development Plan
Integrated combination of
Reservoir description
Well planning
Facilities
Transportation
Markets
Designed to maximize value
5.2
2008 PetroSkills LLC, All Rights Reserved
The Cost of Imperfect Knowledge
+
optimization
SOE range
Value ($)
Ultimate Project V
SOE High OIP

0
Development
Capacity
Base
Low OIP
-
(SOE Sub
Sub-Optimal
Optimal Expenditure)
5.3
Spectrum of Reservoir Energies
Primary Production (Internal Energies)
Pressure Depletion (Fluid Expansion, PV compaction)
Water Encroachment
Gas Cap Expansion (Oil Reservoirs Only)
Gravity Drainage (Oil Reservoirs Only)
External Energies (Added Injection)
Improved Recovery (Secondary Depletion)
Water Injection (Pressure Maintenance/Waterflood)
Gas Injection (Pressure Maintenance/Gasflood)
Cheap Fluids
Enhanced Recovery (Tertiary Depletion)
Miscible Hydrocarbon/CO2 Injection
Chemical
Thermal
Expensive Fluids
5.4
Undersaturated Reservoir Performance
Undersaturated Reservoir Recovery
Generallyy Low ((< 5%)) But Depends
p on Rock and
Fluid Compressibility
Undersaturated Material Balance Equation
Expressed for Fractional Recovery
Np
=
(Co So + C w S w + Cf ) B oi (p p)
N So i
Bo
B o B oi
where Co =
B ooi (pi p )
5.5
Recovery as Function of
Formation Compressibility
Undersaturated Oil
0.50
0.45
0.40
0 35
0.35
actor, Fraction OOIP
0.30
3.00E-06
1.50E-05
0.25
3.00E-05
Recovery Fa
1 00E 04
1.00E-04
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Final Pressure,
Pressure psi
5.6
Compaction Drive
Oil Recovery Due to Large Pore Volume

Compressibility
Need to Watch for Subsidence
Need to Account for Changes in Reservoir
Permeability with Depletion
May Cause Well Stability Problems
5.7
Production Characteristics of
Solution Gas Drive Reservoir
reservoir Abandoned due to:

pressure low pressure
low oil rate
high GOR
GOR uncontrolled
Pb Recovery
Efficiency:
producing 5 - 20% of
GOR STOIIP
Supplement with:
GOR control
oil rate
water injection
gas injection
i j ti
water rate
time
5.8
Gas Cap Drive Reservoir
reservoir
pressure Abandoned
Ab d d
due to:
low rate
producing high GOR
GOR
GOR controlled
oilil rate Recovery

Efficiency:
20 - 40%
water rate of STOIIP
time Supplement with:

gas (re-)
injection 5.9
Poor Gas Cap Reservoir Management
Need to Maintain Integrity of Gas Cap
Not This!
5.10
Good Gas Cap Reservoir Management
Need to Maintain Integrity of Gas Cap
But This!
5.11
Gas Cap Overrunning
Overrunning occurs when the angle () between the

GOC and the top of the formation goes to zero.
5.12
Critical Rate to Avoid Overrunning
Overrunning occurs at a maximum rate of
gas cap expansion
0.488 x 103 kA sin ( o g )
qmax = (Equ. 14-14)
( o / k ro ) ( g / k rg )
kro in oil zone

krg at displacement front
Tilt occurs at a lesser rate
2050qt ( o / k ro g / k rg )
= arctan tan
(Equ. 13-18)
kA( o g ) cos
5.13
Water Drive Reservoir
P Abandoned due
b Pre t
to:
s low rate
R high watercut
p
qoil Recovery efficiency:

35-75% of STOIIP
Supplement with:
water (re
(re-)) injection
qwater
time
5.14
Water Drive Reservoir Types
5.15
Water Drive Reservoir Pressure Support
servoir Prressure
Full Pressure Maintenance
Bubble Point Pressure
Partial Pressure
Res
Maintenance
Producing
g Time
Pressure History for a Water-Drive Reservoir
5.16
Recovery Efficiency
100
v. Pressure, % Oriig. Pressure
80
Expansion
60
40
20
Resv
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Recovery Efficiency, % OOIP
5.17
Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
More Than One Drive Mechanism May Be

Contributing
Combination Drive Reservoir
Reservoir Drive Indices Quantify the
Contribution of Each Mechanism
Determined From Material Balance Equation
q
Relative Importance of Each Mechanism
Can Change With Time
Important to Identify Dominant Mechanism and
Harness as Efficiently as Economics Allow
5.18
Causes of Incomplete Recovery
Low Natural Energy

Low GOR oil in hard rocks
Insufficient Natural Energy
Limited aquifer,
q , small g
gas cap
p
Inefficient Displacement
Bad mobilityy ratio
Incomplete Contact
Gravity override / underride, rock heterogeneity
Poor Development and Management
Haphazard well placement, no data, poor
maintenance
5.19
Ways to Improve Primary Efficiency
Reservoir Level Controls

Maximize water drive
Minimize depletion drive
Well Level Controls
Minimize gas and water production
Maintain well production capacity
Control flow rate to minimize drawdown (coning)
Control pproduction to minimize asphaltene
p
precipitation, sand production
Perforate wells with sufficient stand-offs
P iti the
Position th wellll away ffrom water
t lleg andd gas cap
5.20
Volumetric Gas Reservoirs
Maximum Recovery from

Pressure Depletion
Lower pabd1 to pabd2
Compression
Gathering system loss
Well lift capacity
5.21
Water Drive Can Reduce Recovery
Gp
= Ed E v Ea
G
5.22
Water-Drive Gas
Reservoir Management Strategies
Managing Gas Flow Rates From Wells
Optimizing per well rates using simulation
Producing High Volumes of Water
Coproduction of gas and water after breakthrough
Continue to produce water
water-out
out wells to retard aquifer influx up
up-
dip
Adding Wells by Recompletion or Drilling
Target unswept areas, better able to increase overall rates
Accelerating Gas Production Rates
Outrun the aquifer
May have unintended effects on sweep efficiency
Installing Compression and Coiled Tubing
Helps maintain gas production and minimize liquid loading
5.23
Gas Condensate Reservoirs
Reservoir fluid flow becomes two-phase once

pressures are below the saturation pressure
(dew point)
Wellbore flowing pressure < Pdp affects well
deliverability (skin factor)
Drainage area pressure < Pdp affects well
deliverability (krg) and material balance
calculations (two
(two-phase
phase z factor)
5.24
Example: Cupiagua Field - Colombia
Condensate banking g reduced well PI by

y a factor
of ~2 for BHP < pdew < pres
In areas where
pres < pdew, gas rel. perm. (and effective k*h)
reduced by a factor of 4 - 8
5.25
Cycling Gas Condensate Reservoirs
Attempt to minimize loss of liquid hydrocarbons

in the reservoir
Replace voidage caused by production with
i j ti off a replacement
injection l t fl
fluid
id
Keeps reservoir pressure elevated and
di l
displaces rich
i h gas ttowards
d producing
d i wells
ll
Injection continued until producing gas-oil ratio
reaches a specified level, then field is blown
down
5.26
Example Gas Cycling Projects
Unassociated gas reservoirs

Cupiagua - Columbia
Bruce North Sea
East Brae North Sea
Arun Indonesia (Sumatra)
Goodwyn NWS Australia
K b bS
Kaybob South
th - Canada
C d
Anschutz Ranch East USA (Wyoming/Utah)
Associated gas caps
Prudhoe Bay USA (Alaska)
5.27
Injection Schemes
RResidue
id gas iinjection
j ti ((partial
ti l pressure
maintenance)
Full pressure maintenance
residue + makeup gas
nonhydrocarbon gas - N2, CO2, flue gas
Pressure
P maintenance
i t b water
by t iinjection
j ti
5.28
Injection Fluid Considerations

Residue
R id gas and
d makeup
k h
hydrocarbon
d b gas
Cost of deferred gas sales and makeup volumes
Nonhydrocarbon gas
Effect on reservoir fluid phase behavior, wellbore corrosion,
and gas processing requirements
Water
Trapping of rich gas at high pressures, ability to maintain
desired injectivity
5.29
Candidate Reservoirs
GGas rich
i h iin liliquid
id content
t t
Flood must have good volumetric sweep efficiency
Areal connectivity
The less vertical stratification the better
Must account for gravity effects
PPoor sweep efficiency
ffi i will
ill kill a projects
j t
economics
Good geologic characterization is critical
5.30
Performance Predictions
Reservoir simulation usually best
Compositional description
Black oil model with live gas
SPE 63087 recommends compositional models for gas
injection studies
Can assess different plans of operation
Full or partial pressure maintenance
Injector - producer pattern configuration
Sweep efficiency is almost always overestimated
Plan for early breakthrough
5.31
Gas Cycling Economics

Project sanction is ultimately an economic decision
Incremental value of recovered condensate less
Cost of deferred gas sales and
Incremental costs for injection
Usually requires a minimum condensate yield
100 Bbl / MMscf - Donohoe and Buchanan SPE 7494 (1981)
150 Bbl / MMscf - McCain 2000 SPE ATCE
All candidate reservoirs must be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis
5.32
Reservoir Management
Development Planning
Improved Recovery
DELIVERING KNOWLEDGE. DEVELOPING COMPETENCE.

33 2008 PetroSkills LLC, All Rights Reserved
Major Considerations for
Injection Processes
Mobility Ratio
Reservoir
R i FForces and
dRRelative
l ti StStrength
th
Heterogeneity
5.34
Mobility Ratio
Mobility ratio is defined as the mobility of the displacing

fluid divided by the mobility of oil
For waterflood:
w K r w o
M= =
o K r o w
For gas-injection:
gas injection:
g K r g o
M= =
o K r o g
5.35
Mobility Ratio Implications
M < 1 Favorable Displacement

Piston
Piston-like
like displacement
M > 1 Unfavorable Displacement
Leaky
y ppiston
Most successful waterfloods have <10 cp oil
viscosity & M between 0.2 and 2.0
Gas injection always has M > 1
5.36
Displacement Efficiency
Piston Versus Non-Piston Displacement
Capillary Residual Oil
5.37
Reservoir Forces and
Their Relative Strengths
1. Viscous Force
This force, due to pressure gradients imposed
during the displacement process, controls the fluid
movement in the reservoir pore space
2 Gravity
2. Gra it Force
This force, due to fluids density contrast, controls
the g
gravity
y segregation
g g of the lighter
g fluid floating
g
towards the top and the heavier fluid gravitating
towards the bottom
3 Capillary Force
3.
This force, due to the interfacial energy at oil-water
interface, either adds to or opposes the other two
forces
5.38
Heterogeneity
Can Short Circuit Flood Success

Partitioning (Compartmentalization)
Anisotropic Permeability
Presence of Natural Fractures
High Degree of Permeability Variation
Vertical / Horizontal Permeability Ratio
Permeability Distribution
Inter-layer communication
5.39
Design Considerations
in a Displacement Process
1. Reservoir Attributes
Reservoir size, shape,
p and internal
connectivity/continuity/compartmentalization
2. Immiscible or Enhanced Fluid
High remaining oil saturation (ROS) - immiscible displacement
with water or gas.
ROS near residual oil saturation (Sor), EOR processes are
considered.
3. Reservoir State
Pressure, temperature, free gas and initial water saturations
4. Well Locations
Peripheral or pattern injection
5
5. Injection Fluid Usually Water for Immiscible Floods
5.40
Reservoir State Considerations
Initiate Waterflood at Close to (But Above)

Bubble Point Pressure
Minimize Residual Oil Volume
Minimize Oil Viscosity
Oil Relative Permeability Maximized
High
g Free Gas Saturation
Delays Oil Response
If Too High Can Prevent Oil Bank Formation
High Initial Water Saturation
Can Prevent Oil Bank Formation
5.41
Waterflood Geometries
Peripheral Inject on Perimeter (usually at/below OWC)
Advantages include:
Generally maximum oil recovery with minimum water production
Provides larger contact area between high pressure water and
the oil column
Gravitational segregation facilitates uniform water encroachment,
particularly for high dip & small Kv/Kh
Disadvantages
g include:
Production rate limited by injectivity of peripheral wells
Temporary injection loss to aquifer
Pressure support delayed in low perm reservoirs
Long fillup times, causing delay in oil bank formation
Lack of well control if directional perms or fractures
Early water production if high perm contrast layers
5.42
Waterflood Geometries (Continued)
Pattern Floods: Form repeating patterns
g include:
Advantages
Accelerates gas collapse & oil bank formation
Facilitates production-injection balancing
Higher sweep efficiencies if significant perm
variation
Disadvantages
Higher facilities expenses
Higher operating costs
earlier & larger water volumes
associated maintenance & repair
more chemical costs (demulsifiers, corrosion, scale
inhibitors
5.43
Water Source Considerations
Surface Injection
Water sources include aquifers, surface water,
produced water
Treatment to required quality
Pump through lines to injection wells
Downhole Dump Floods from a Water Zone
Perforate injection zones and production zones in
same well
Injection Water Must be Compatible With Oil
Reservoir Rock and Connate Water
5.44
Water Injectivity
Key to Waterflood Success is to Get Water Into

the Reservoir
Need to Keep Monitor Injection Withdrawal
Balance
Keep Injection Wells in Good Mechanical
Condition
Avoid Temptation to Convert Only Poor
Producers to Injection
5.45
Estimating Injection Recovery Factor
Injection Recovery is a Function of
Displacement Efficiency (ED). Fraction of oil displaced from
contacted pores. Related to initial and residual oil saturations, fluid
mobilities and time.
Areal Sweep p Efficiency

y ((EA)). Fraction of reservoir area swept.
p
Related to Injection pattern geometry, fluid mobilities and time.
Vertical Sweep Efficiency (EV). Fraction vertical reservoir interval

swept Related to permeability stratification
swept. stratification, heterogeneity
heterogeneity, fluid
mobilities, gravity segregation and time.
Recovery Factor (RF) = ED * EA * EV
All Parameters Can be Approximated Analytically Simulation More

Rigorous
5.46
Waterflood Areal Sweep
Areal Growth of the Swept Zone
X-rayy shadowgraphs
g p of flood p progress
g
in scaled five-spot patterns
5.47
Waterflood Vertical Sweep
Waterflood Vertical Conformance

Gravity
y Dominated. Fluids Segregate
g g Based on Gravity.
y
Which reservoir is better for waterflooding?
5.48
Gas Injection in Oil Reservoirs
Mobility Ratio Always Unfavorable

L
Large D
Density
it Diff
Difference Promotes
P t
Segregation
N
NeeddF Formation
ti Di
Dip tto P
Promote
t Stable
St bl
Injection Front
Process is Rate Sensitive Too Fast Will
Cause Gas Overrunning
5.49
Water-Alternating-Gas (WAG)
Classical approach:
Normally
gas overrun Added
Add d water
t reduces
d mobility
bilit
and improves sweep,
e.g. CO2 floods in Denver Unit
OWC
Recent successes in Norway (Gullfaks, Snorre):
This type of WAG:

- Clever way of gas disposal (avoid oil deferral)
- Incremental oil from crestal / Attic volume (or acceleration)
- Low Capex solution (no dedicated GI wells)
5.50
Reservoir Floodability
All the continuous pay is not necessarily floodable.

The be floodable a pay interval must meet the
following criteria
(1) Be continuous between injector and producer
(2) Be injection supported
(3) Be effectively completed in a producer
5.51
What Would You Do?
5.52
Add Perforations and Infill Drill
New Producer
Convert to Injection
5.53

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05 Development Planning Feb08

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Reservoir Management

DELIVERING KNOWLEDGE. DEVELOPING COMPETENCE.

SOE High OIP

Oil Recovery Due to Large Pore Volume

reservoir Abandoned due to:

oilil rate Recovery

time Supplement with:

Need to Maintain Integrity of Gas Cap

Need to Maintain Integrity of Gas Cap

Overrunning occurs when the angle () between the

kro in oil zone

qoil Recovery efficiency:

Full Pressure Maintenance

Bubble Point Pressure

Pressure History for a Water-Drive Reservoir

More Than One Drive Mechanism May Be

Low Natural Energy

Reservoir Level Controls

Maximum Recovery from

Reservoir fluid flow becomes two-phase once

Condensate banking g reduced well PI by

Attempt to minimize loss of liquid hydrocarbons

Unassociated gas reservoirs

Injection Fluid Considerations

Gas Cycling Economics

DELIVERING KNOWLEDGE. DEVELOPING COMPETENCE.

Mobility ratio is defined as the mobility of the displacing

M < 1 Favorable Displacement

Piston Versus Non-Piston Displacement

Capillary Residual Oil

Can Short Circuit Flood Success

Initiate Waterflood at Close to (But Above)

Key to Waterflood Success is to Get Water Into

Areal Sweep p Efficiency

Vertical Sweep Efficiency (EV). Fraction vertical reservoir interval

Recovery Factor (RF) = ED * EA * EV

All Parameters Can be Approximated Analytically Simulation More

Areal Growth of the Swept Zone

Waterflood Vertical Conformance

Which reservoir is better for waterflooding?

Mobility Ratio Always Unfavorable

Recent successes in Norway (Gullfaks, Snorre):

This type of WAG:

All the continuous pay is not necessarily floodable.

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