Software Defined Network Architecture and OpenFlow

Software Defined Network Architecture and OpenFlow
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
SDN is an emerging network approach to design the network with software programs. This
programmability and automation greatly reduces the time spent by staff provisioning and
maintaining the network device-by-device, effectively increasing network agility.
SDN is a programmable network, where behavior of network elements and their flow of
control to enable the implementation of SDN concepts in both hardware and software. These
software programs operate independently of network hardware. SDN uses Open flow
(McKeown etal., 2008) as a communication protocol between SDN controller and network
elements. The controller is used as a center of programmable control. Having centralized
control makes a whole network run efficiently and effectively. SDN and Open Flow
simplifies network management by decoupling the control plane and data plane of the
network (Kreutz, Ramos, & Verissimo, 2013)
SDN is a programmable network, proposed to facilitate evolution of networks and is a

paradigm where in control decisions decouple from forwarding hardware. The network
intelligence in SDN is logically centralized and called as control plane and forwarding
devices are programmed to forward packets through open interface and is known as data
plane. Recently SDN is growing with very fast pace and there are many research challenges
which have to be addressed.
In SDN, a centralized single controller managing all the forwarding devices inside the
network may show Singled Point of Failure (SPOF) and sometimes the network is overloaded
due to heavy traffic which leads to scaling limitations. One controller is not enough to
manage any data center network with large number of forwarding devices. A centralized
cluster node system offers high throughput inside the data center network.
The main inspiration of SDN is to make use of network devices with standard application
program interface (APIs) to allow 3rd party operators to control the data flow through the
network. SDN reduces complexity of networks by providing up to date network view to the
programmers. This signifies the development, management applications are simplified.
Control layer of SDN handles tedious work like synchronization and distribution.
The main objective of this paper is to provide a critical survey on SDNs with Open Flow.
Distributed computing has a common goal to solve computational Problems by sharing the
existing resource in heavy workload. Each controller will have its own task and, coordinates
with other controllers to provide the desired service. A distributed computing system scales
up to meet the requirements of any environment. These controllers may be centralized cluster
nodes or physically distributed elements.
Distributed controllers have a property of fault tolerance, when any node fails in the network;
the adjacent node will take the in-charge of the failed node. Even controllers will have a
property of tolerating crash failure.
This paper is organized as follows. In the next section SDN architecture is discussed. Later
some issues on SDN layers are explained briefly. Data center network and Research
challenges are discussed in the subsequent sections.
DEPT OF ES, SSIET Page 1

1. SDN History and Evolution:
While the term programmable is used to generalize the concept of the simplified Network
management and reconfiguration, it is important to understand that in reality it encapsulates a
wide number of ideas proposed over time, each having a different Focus (e.g., control- orz
data-plane programmability) and different means of achieving their goals.
This section reviews the history of programmable networks right from its
Early stages, when the need for network programmability first emerged, up to the
Present with the dominant paradigm of SDN. Along these lines, the key ideas that
Formed SDN will be discussed along with other alternatives that were proposed and
Affected SDN's evolution but which were not met with the same widespread success.
1.1 Early History of Programmable Networks
As already mentioned, the concept of programmable networks dates its origins Back in the
mid-90s, right when the Internet was starting to experience widespread Success. Until that
moment the usage of computer networks was limited to a small Number of services like e-
mail and file transfers. The fast growth of the Internet Outside of research facilities led to the
formation of large networks, turning the Interest of researchers and developers in deploying
and experimenting with new ideas for network services. However, it quickly became apparent
that a major obstacle towards this direction was the high complexity of managing the network
Infrastructure. Network devices were used as black boxes designed to support specific
Protocols essential for the operation of the network, without even guaranteeing vendor
Interoperability. Therefore, modifying the control logic of such devices was not an Option,
severely restricting network evolution. To remedy this situation, various Efforts focused on
finding novel solutions for creating more open, extensible and Programmable networks.
Two of the most significant early ideas proposing ways of separating the control software
from the underlying hardware and providing open interfaces for management and control
were of the Open Signalling (OpenSig) working group and from the Active Networking
initiative.
OpenSig - The Open Signalling working group appeared in 1995 and focused on
Applying the concept of programmability in ATM networks. The main idea was the
Separation of the control and data plane of networks, with the signalling between the
Planes performed through an open interface. As a result, it would be possible to
Control and program ATM switches remotely, essentially turning the whole network
Into a distributed platform, greatly simplifying the process of deploying new services.
The ideas advocated by the OpenSig community for open signalling interfaces acted as
motivation for further research. Towards this direction, the Tempest framework [4], based on
the OpenSig philosophy, allowed multiple switch controllers to manage multiple partitions of
the switch simultaneously and consequently to run multiple control architectures over the
same physical ATM network. This approach gave more freedom to network operators, as they
were no longer forced to define a single unified control architecture satisfying the control
requirements of all future network services.

Another project aimed at designing the necessary infrastructure for the control of ATM
networks was DCAN (Devolved Control of ATM networks). The main idea was that the
control and management functions of the ATM network switches should Be stripped from the
devices and should be assigned to external dedicated Workstations. DCAN presumed that the
control and management operations of multiservice Networks were inherently distributed,
due to the need of allocating resources across a network path in order to provide QoS
guarantees. The communication between the management entity and the network was
performed using a minimalistic Protocol, much like what modern SDN protocols like
OpenFlow do, adding any Additional management functionality like the synchronization of
streams in the Management domain. The DCAN project was officially concluded in mid-
1998.
Active Networking - The Active Networking initiative appeared in the mid-90s and
was mainly supported by DARPA like OpenSig, its main goal was the Creation of
programmable networks which would promote network innovations. The Main idea behind
active networking is that resources of network nodes are exposed through a network API,
allowing network operators to actively control the nodes as they desire by executing arbitrary
code. Therefore, contrary to the static functionality Offered by OpenSig networks, active
networking allowed the rapid deployment of Customized services and the dynamic
configuration of networks at run-time.
The general architecture of active networks defines a three-layer stack on active nodes. At the
bottom layer sits an operating system (NodeOS) multiplexing the nodes Communication,
memory and computational resources among the packet flows traversing the node. Various
projects proposing different implementations of the NodeOS exist, with some prominent
examples being the NodeOS project and Bowman At the next layer exist one or more
execution environments providing a Model for writing active networking applications,
including ANTS and PLAN .Finally, at the top layer are the active applications themselves,
i.e. the code Developed by network operators.
Two programming models fall within the work of the active networking Community; the
capsule model, in which the code to be executed is included in regular data packets; and
the programmable router/switch model, in which the code to be executed at network
nodes is established through out-of-band mechanisms. Out of the two, the capsule model
came to be the most innovative and most closely Associated with active networking [7]. The
reason is that it offered a radically different approach to network management, providing a
simple method of installing new data plane functionality across network paths. However,
both models had a significant impact and left an important legacy, since many of the concepts
met in SDN (separation of the control and data plane, network APIs etc.) come directly from
The efforts of the active networking community.
1.2 Understanding SDN
Although the key concepts expressed by these early approaches envisioned Programmable
networks that would allow innovation and would create open networking environments, none
of the proposed technologies was met with widespread success. One of the main reasons for
this failure was the lack of compelling problems that these approaches managed to solve
While the performance of various applications like content distribution and network
Management appeared to benefit from the idea of network programmability, there was

No real pressing need that would turn the shift to the new paradigm into a necessity, leading
to the commercialization of these early ideas. Another reason for which active networking
and open signalling did not become mainstream was their focus on the wrong user group.
Until then, the programmability of network devices could be performed only by programmers
working for the vendors developing them. The new paradigm advocated as one of its
advantages the flexibility it would give to end users to program the network, even though in
reality the use case of end user programmers was really rare [7]. This clearly had a negative
impact on the view that the research community and most importantly the industry had for
programmable networks, as it overshadowed their strong points, understating their value for
those that could really benefit like ISPs and network operators.
Furthermore, the focus of many early programmable network approaches was in Promoting
data- instead of control-plane programmability. For instance active Networking envisioned
the exposure and manipulation of resources in network devices (Packet queues, processing,
storage etc.) Through an open API but did not provide any Abstraction for logical control. In
addition, while one of the basic ideas behind Programmable networks was the decoupling of
the control from the data plane, most Proposed solutions made no clear distinction between
the two [6]. These two facts hindered any attempts for innovation in the control plane, which
arguably presents more opportunities than the data plane for discovering compelling use
cases.
A final reason for the failure of early programmable networks was that they focused on
proposing innovative architectures, programming models and platforms, paying little or no
attention to practical issues like the performance and the security They offered while such
features are not significant key concepts of network Programmability, they are important
factors when it comes to the point of Commercializing this idea. Therefore, even though
programmable networks had many Theoretical advantages, the industry was not eager to
adopt such solutions unless Pressing performance and security issues were resolved. Clearly
the aforementioned shortcomings of early programmable network Attempts were the
stumbling blocks to their widespread success. However, these Attempts were really
significant, since they defined for the first time key concepts that reformed the way that
networks are perceived and identified new research areas of High potential. Even their
shortcomings were of high significance, since they revealed many deficiencies that should be
addressed if the new paradigm was to be successful One day.
All in all, these early attempts were the cornerstones that shaped the way to the more
promising and now widely accepted paradigm of SDN.
1.3 FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS:

A key aspect of fire protection is to identify a developing fire emergency in a timely
manner, and to alert the building's occupants and fire emergency organizations. This is the
role of fire detection and alarm systems. Depending on the anticipated fire scenario, building
and use type, number and type of occupants and criticality of contents and mission, these
systems can provide several main functions. First they provide a means to identify a
developing fire through either manual or automatic methods and second, they alert building
occupants to a fire condition and the need to evacuate. Another common function is the
transmission of an alarm notification signal to the fire department or other emergency
response organization .This section will describe the basic aspects of fire detection and alarm
systems. There are several options for a building's fire detection and alarm system. The

ultimate system type, and selected components, will be dependent upon the building
construction and value, its use or uses, the type of occupants, mandated standards, content
value, and mission sensitivity. Contacting a fire engineer or other appropriate professional
who understands fire problems and the different alarm and detection options.
1.4 FIRE SPRINKLERS:

For most fires, water represents the ideal extinguishing agent. Fire sprinklers utilize
water by direct application onto flames and heat, which causes cooling of the combustion
process and prevents ignition of adjacent combustibles. They are most effective during the
fire's initial flame growth stage, while the fire is relatively easy to control. A properly selected
sprinkler will detect the fire's heat, initiate alarm, and begin suppression within moments after
flames appear. In most instances sprinklers will control fire advancement within a few
minutes of their activation, which will in turn result in significantly less damage than
otherwise would happen without sprinklers.
Fire sprinklers can be automatic or open orifice. Automatic fire sprinklers operate at a
predetermined temperature, utilizing a fusible element, a portion of which melts, or a
frangible glass bulb containing liquid which breaks, allowing the plug in the orifice to be
pushed out of the orifice by the water pressure in the fire sprinkler piping, resulting in water
flow from the orifice. The water stream impacts a deflector, which produces a specific spray
pattern designed in support of the goals of the sprinkler type (i.e., control or suppression).
Modern sprinkler heads are designed to direct spray downwards. Spray nozzles are available
to provide spray in various directions and patterns. The majority of automatic fire sprinklers
operate individually in a fire. Contrary to motion picture representation, the entire sprinkler
system does not activate, unless the system is a special deluge type. Automatic fire sprinklers
utilizing frangible bulbs follow a standardized color coding convention indicating their
operating temperature. Activation temperatures correspond to the type of hazard against
which the sprinkler system protects. Residential occupancies are provided with a special type
of fast response sprinkler with the unique goal of life safety.
CHAPTER-2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Power supply is common to all sections shown below

Fig 2.1: block diagram of intelligent fire detector
2.2 EXPLANATION:
In this section we will be discussing about complete block diagram and its functional
description of our project. And also brief discussion about each block of the block diagram.
POWER SUPPLY:
In this type we are using 5v, 12v power supply for op-amp and relay for the fire
detection purpose. We use rectifier for thee purpose of converting A.C, in to D.C and a step
down transformer to step down the voltage. In smoothing, the data points of a signal are
modified so that individual points that are higher than the immediately adjacent points
(presumably because of noise) are reduced, and points that are lower than the adjacent points
are increased. This naturally leads to a smoother signal. As long as the true underlying signal
is actually smooth, then the true signal will not be much distorted by smoothing, but the noise
will be reduced.
The purpose of a voltage regulator is to keep the voltage in a circuit relatively close to
a desired value. Voltage regulators are one of the most common electronic components, since
a power supply frequently produces raw current that would otherwise damage one of the
components in the circuit. Voltage regulators have a variety of specific functions, depending
on their particular application. The full description of the power supply section is given in
this documentation in the following sections i.e. hardware components.
FIRE DETECTOR:
A smoke detector is a device that detects smoke, typically as an indicator of fire.
Commercial, industrial, and mass residential devices issue a signal to a fire alarm system,
while household detectors, known as smoke alarms, generally issue a local audible and/or
visual alarm from the detector itself.
OP-AMP:
An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times
larger than the voltage difference between its input terminals. Op-amps are among the most
widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and
scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production
volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance
specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as
components, or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.
RELAY:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to

operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal.
SPRINKLER:
A fire sprinkler is the part of a fire sprinkler system that discharges water when the
effects of a fire have been detected, such as when a predetermined temperature has been
reached. A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection measure, consisting of a water
supply system, providing adequate pressure and flow rate to a water distribution piping
system, onto which fire sprinklers are connected. Although historically only used in factories
and large commercial buildings, home and small building systems are now available at a cost-
effective price.
CHAPTER-3
POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.1 block diagram of regulated power supply system

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig 3.2 circuit diagram of power supply

CIRCUIT OPERATION:
In this section we will discuss about the operation of the power supply. The input to
the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The AC input i.e., 230V from the
mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. When the switch
s1 is open current doesnt pass through the circuit. Current flows when the switch s1 is
closed, and passes through the transformer which acts as a step-down transformer. It defines
the number of primary windings are greater than the secondary windings. A step-down
transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the
High voltage mains supply and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give
a low output voltage. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage. So in
order to get a pure DC voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove
any AC components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage
regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage. The reduced AC voltage is rectified using the
diode bridge circuit shown. In one direction of the current, two diodes will be 'on' while
other two diodes will be off. In the other direction vice-versa. It is called a full-wave rectifier
because it uses the entire AC wave (both positive and negative sections).
The out put wave occurred from the bridge rectifier consists of some disturbance so
the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the bridge alone supplies an output of
fixed polarity but continuously varying or "pulsating" magnitude, an attribute commonly
referred to as "ripple". The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (or
smoothing capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage
waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a
low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and
AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage
and current of the bridge tends to be canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor.
3.3 TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors. Here we are using a step down transformer having

2kva rating with 50Hz frequency. A transformer is an electrical apparatus designed to convert
alternating current from one voltage to another. It can be designed to "step up" or "step down"
voltages and works on the magnetic induction principle. A transformer has no moving
Parts and is a completely static solid state device. This step-down transformer converts high-
voltage, low-current power into low-voltage, high-current power, (N1>N2). Alternating
current has certain advantages over direct current. One important advantage is that when ac is
used, the voltage and current levels can be increased or decreased by means of a transformer.
The electrical energy is always transferred without a change in frequency, but may involve
changes in magnitudes of voltage and current. Because a transformer works on the principle
of electromagnetic induction, it must be used with an input source voltage.
Fig 3.3: diagram of a transformer
3.3.1 APPLICATIONS:
To increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through
wires.
Transformers are used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply
voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match
devices such as microphones and record player cartridges to the input impedance of
amplifiers.
Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation
over a single pair of wires.
Transformers are also used when it is necessary to couple a differential-mode signal
to a ground-referenced signal, and for isolation between external cables and internal
circuits.

3.4 BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
Fig 3.4 block diagram of bridge rectifier
The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes
D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows
through the load as shown above.
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating
D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier
is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. When used in its
most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current
(DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The diagram describes a diode-bridge design
known as a full-wave rectifier. This design can be used to rectify single phase AC when no
transformer center tap is available. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge
arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration; both with
individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge
is wired internally conduct. Now the 2nd diode will not conduct as it is reverse biased
. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or alternating
current into direct voltage or direct current. The device used for rectification is called
rectifier.
3.4.1 CURRENT FLOWING IN BRIDGE RECTIFIER:

Fig 3.5 Current in Bridge Rectifier for +ve half cycle
Fig 3.6 Current in Bridge Rectifier for -ve half cycle
3.4.2 DESCRIPTION:
During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown
above.
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through
the load is the same direction as before. Both conduction paths cause Current to flow in the
same direction through the load resistor, accomplishing full-wave rectification. The Bridge
rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles
3.5 THE SMOOTHING CAPACITOR:

. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value with less
superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input
supply frequency. We can therefore increase its average DC output level even higher by
connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge circuit as shown
below.

Fig 3.7 circuit diagram for rectifier with capacitive filter
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains
voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage
received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a
smooth DC output voltage. Generally for DC power supply circuits the smoothing capacitor
is an Aluminum Electrolytic type that has a capacitance value of 100uF or more with repeated
DC voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to peak voltage. However, their
are two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable smoothing capacitor and
these are, working voltage which must be higher than the no-load output
Value of the rectifier and its capacitance value which determines the amount of ripple
that will appear superimposed on top of the DC voltage.
3.5.1 ADVANTAGE:
To accomplish, in each case, full wave rectification, the advantage of the four diode
(full bridge) version does not require use of a center tapped transformer. That is, a less
expensive simpler transformer that requires fewer windings would be needed.
3.6 REGULATORS:
Fig3.8 3-pin diagram of a regulator

In this project we need two regulators i.e.LM7805, LM7812. As the name itself
implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator
designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project, power supply of
5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 voltage regulator is to
be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the number 05 represent the
required output voltage level.
The LM7805 three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK
package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of
applications. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with
external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The 78xx line is positive
voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to produce a voltage that is positive
relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are
Complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in
combination to provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit, if
necessary.
3.6.1 REGULATOR CIRCUIT:
Fig 3.9: circuit diagram of regulator

The 7805,7812 voltage regulators employ built-in current limiting, thermal shutdown, and
safe-operating area protection which makes them virtually immune to damage from output
overloads. The voltage regulators employ built-in current limiting, thermal shutdown, and
safe-operating area protection which make them virtually immune to damage from output
overloads. 7805 is a three-terminal positive voltage regulator. With adequate heat sinking, it
can deliver in excess of 0.5A output current. Typical applications would include local (on-
card) regulators which can eliminate the noise and degraded performance associated with
single-point regulation.
When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a two-digit
number, which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to provide (for
example, the 7805 voltage regulator has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts).
The 78xx line is positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to produce a
voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices
which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in
combination to provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit, if
necessary. 7805 ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220 form
factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are also available from some
manufacturers. These devices typically support an input voltage which can be anywhere from

a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and
can typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps of current.
3.6.2 FEATURES:
Output Current up to 1A
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24
Thermal Overload Protection
3.6.3 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS:

Absolute maximum ratings are those values beyond which damage to the device may occur.
Table 1: Absolute maximum ratings
3.7 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODES):

As its name implies it is a diode, which emits light when forward biased. A light-
emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in
many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Charge carrier recombination takes place when electrons from the N-side cross the junction.
Fig 3.10: diagram of light emitting diode

CHAPTER 4
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
4.1 OP-AMP:
Op-amp stands for operational amplifier. It is available in IC (Integrated Circuit) chip.
It is an electronic circuit of many electronic components already connected and packaged
inside a chip of many pins for external connection. Originally, op-amps were so named
because they were used to model the basic mathematical operations addition, subtraction,
integration, differentiation, etc. in electronic analog computers. In this sense a true
operational amplifier is an ideal circuit element. An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a
DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a
single-ended output. An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of
thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its input terminals
Their popularity in circuit design largely stems from the fact that
characteristics of the final op-amp circuits with negative feedback are set by external
components with little dependence on temperature changes and manufacturing variations in
the op-amp itself. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. There are many op-amp
circuit variations available and several types of differential amplifiers that are made by using
several op-amps together. As each input terminal receives a different voltage, the op-amp
attempts to make the two voltages equal by amplifying the difference between the two
voltages and passes the resulting voltage to the output terminal.
4.1.1 OPERATION:
Fig 4.1: symbol for op-amp
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of an input and an input, and ideally
the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called
the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation,
Where is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, is the voltage at the inverting
terminal and AOL is the open loop gain of the amplifier.
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large10,000 or more for integrated circuit
op-ampsand therefore even a quite small difference between and drives the amplifier
output nearly to the supply voltage. This is called saturation of the amplifier. The magnitude
of AOL is not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an
operational amplifier as a stand-alone differential amplifier. Without negative feedback, and
perhaps with positive feedback for regeneration, an op-amp acts as a comparator. If the
inverting input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor, and the input voltage V in

applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum positive; if V in is
negative, the output will be maximum negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to
either input, this is an open loop circuit acting as a comparator. The circuit's gain is just the
GOL of the op-amp.
4.1.2 DC BEHAVIOUR:
Open-loop gain is defined as the amplification from input to output without any
feedback applied. For most practical calculations, the open-loop gain is assumed to be
infinite; in reality, however, it is limited by the amount of voltage applied to power the
operational amplifier, i.e. Vs+ and Vs- in the above diagram. Typical devices exhibit open
loop DC gain ranging from 100,000 to over 1 million. This allows the gain in the application
to be set simply and exactly by using negative feedback. Of course theory and practice differ,
since op-amps have limits that the designer must keep in mind and sometimes work around.
4.1.3 AC BEHAVIOUR:
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. This effect is
due to limitations within the op-amp itself, such as its finite bandwidth, and to the AC
characteristics of the circuit in which it is placed. Where negative feedback changes to
positive feedback due to parasitic low passes. Typical low cost, general purpose op-amps
exhibit a gain bandwidth product of a few MHz. Specialty and high speed op-amps can
achieve gain bandwidth products of 100s of MHz.
4.1.4 APPLICATIONS:
Op-amps are most notably used in integrated circuits that have revolutionized home
computers, mobile devices, and portable servers. T
The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and clearer than specifying all
their individual circuit elements
They are also used in oscillators, rectifiers, and audio-video frequency buffers.
Op-amps are used as filters, voltage clamps, and voltage and current regulators.
4.1.5 ADVANTAGES:
Op-amps are extremely cheap to mass produce, are small enough to fit into a wide
variety of electronic devices, and can withstand a wide temperature range
Nearly all op-amp types can substitute another type of op-amp
Op-amps also have high gain, a virtually infinite frequency range, and high
bandwidth.
4.1.6 DIS-ADVANTAGES:
They produce random voltage discharges at their input terminals, usually due to noise
and thermal effects.
Op-amps also produce a small amount of current that leaks back into the input
terminals, causing voltage levels to drop.
Op-amps are extremely cheap to mass produce, are small enough to fit into a wide
variety of electronic devices, and can withstand a wide temperature range
4.2 LM358:
The LM358 series consists of two independent, high gains; internally frequency compensated
operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power
supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible
and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply

voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all the
conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power
supply systems. For example, the LM358 series can be directly operated off of the standard
+5V power supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the
required interface electronics without requiring the additional 15V power supplies.
The LM358 is a great, easy-to-use dual-channel op-amp. Op-mps have so many applications.
We figured we should probably carry at least one in a DIP package. LM358 applications
include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op-mp circuits.
If you're looking for a good, standard op-mp the LM358 should fill most of your needs. It can
handle a supply of 3-32VDC and source up to 20mA per channel.
4.2.1 PIN DIAGRAM:
Fig 4.2: pin diagram of lm358

4.2.2 FEATURES:
Available in 8-Bump micro SMD chip sized package
Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
Large dc voltage gain: 100 Db
Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz (temperature compensated)
Wide power supply range
Low input offset voltage: 2 mV
Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage
4.2.3 APPLICATIONS:
General purpose amplifier.
Transducer amplifier
It also include transducer amplifiers ,dc gain blocks and all the conventional op-amp
circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems
4.2.5 ADVANTAGES:
Two internally compensated op amps
Eliminates need for dual supplies
Allows direct sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND
Compatible with all forms of logic

CHAPTER-5
RELAY DESCRIPTION
5.1 RELAY DEFINITION:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another.
Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to
the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place
by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other
set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function.
The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures
continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on
the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
5.1.1 OPERATION OF A RELAY:

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or
breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. Then the movement
opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When
the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high
voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
Fig 5.1 Internal structure of a relay

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil
to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series may absorb the surge. If the coil is
designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be
crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
These contacts can be either normally-open, normally-closed, or change-over contacts
shown in fig
Acts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when
the relay is inactive.
Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is connected when the relay is inactive.
Change-over contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one
normally-closed contact.
5.1.2 SPECIFICATIONS:
Operating voltage: 6v to 24v DC
No. of contacts: 1 to 4change over
Contact current rating:1.5 to 25 amp
5.1.3 RELAYS AND TRANSISTORS COMPARED:

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching
small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay.
However, transistors cannot switch AC (such as mains electricity) and in simple circuits
they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a
relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the
current for the relay's coil.
Fig 5.2 circuit with diode, relay, transistor
5.1.4 PROTECTION DIODE FOR RELAYS:

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a
relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (e.g. 1N4148) is connected
'backwards' across the relay coil to provide this protection. Current flowing through a relay
coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The

sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which
is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode allows the induced voltage
to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly
rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause
damage to transistors and ICs.
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC
current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the
armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts.
When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch
mechanism.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the
pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious
and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes'
when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent
damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil. The animated picture
shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being
attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts.
There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the
relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

5.1.5 WORKING OF A RELAY:
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC
current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the
armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts.
When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch
mechanism. There are three basic functions of a relay:
On/Off Control: Example: Air conditioning control, used to limit and control a high
power load, such as a comparator.
Limit Control: Example: Motor Speed Control, used to disconnect a motor if it runs
slower or faster than the desired speed.
Logic Operation: Example: Test Equipment, used to connect the instrument to a
number of testing points on the device under test
5.1.6 FEATURES:
We need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
Physical size and pin arrangement: If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB
you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You
should find this information in the supplier's catalogue.
Coil voltage: The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit
powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and
24V relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply
voltage which is a little lower than their rated value.
Coil resistance: The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay
coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
Switch ratings (voltage and current): The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for
the circuit they are to control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings.
Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or
125V AC".
Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc): Most relays are SPDT or DPDT
which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole
changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page on switches
5.1.7 ADVANTAGES:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.
Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
5.1.8 DIS-ADVANTAGES:
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times
per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
5.1.9 APPLICATIONS:
Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems
or audio amplifiers,
Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile,
Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers(protection relays),
Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch
Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires
are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They
may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
Logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting
normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive
or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are

CHAPTER-6
WATER SPRINKLER SYSTEM
6.1 DESCRIPTION:
A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection measure, consisting of a water
supply system, providing adequate pressure and flow rate to a water distribution piping
system, onto which fire sprinklers are connected. Although historically only used in factories
and large commercial buildings, home and small building systems are now available at a cost-
effective price. A glass bulb type sprinkler head will spray water into the room if sufficient
heat reaches the bulb and causes it to shatter. Sprinkler heads operate individually. Note the
red liquid in the glass bulb.
6.2 HISTORY:
The worlds first recognizable sprinkler system was installed in the Theatre Royal,
Drury Lane in the United Kingdom in 1812 by its architect. The system was designed by Sir
William Congreve, 2nd Baronet was covered by a patent No 3606 dated the same year. The
apparatus consisted of a cylindrical airtight reservoir of 400 hogsheads (~95,000 liters) fed by
a 10 inches (250 mm) water main which branched to all parts of the theatre. A series of
smaller pipes feed from the distribution pipe were pierced with a series of 12 inches (13 mm)
holes which pour water in the event of a fire. From 1852 to 1885, perforated pipe systems
were used in textile mills throughout New England as a means of fire protection. However,
they were not automatic systems; they did not turn on by themselves. Inventors first began
experimenting with automatic Pratt of Abington sprinklers around 1860. The first automatic
sprinkler system was patented by Philip W., MA, in 1872.
Henry S. Parma lee of New Haven, Connecticut is considered the inventor of the first
automatic sprinkler head. Parma lee improved upon the Pratt patent and created a better
sprinkler system. In 1874, he installed his fire sprinkler system into the piano factory that he
owned. Frederick Grinnell improved Parma lees design and in 1881 patented the automatic
sprinkler that bears his name. He continued to improve the device and in 1890 invented the
glass disc sprinkler, essentially the same as that in use today. schools, hotels and other public
buildings, subject to the local building codes and enforcement. Until the 1940s, sprinklers
were installed almost exclusively for the protection of commercial buildings.
6.3 USAGE:
Sprinklers have been in use in the United States since 1874, and were used in factory
applications where fires at the turn of the century were often catastrophic in terms of both
human and property losses. In the US, sprinklers are today required in all new high rise and
underground buildings generally 75 feet (23 m) above or below fire department access, where
the ability of firefighters to provide adequate hose streams to fires is limited.
Sprinklers may be required to be installed by building codes, or may be recommended
by insurance companies to reduce potential property losses or business interruption. Building
codes in the United States for places of assembly, generally over 100 persons, and places with
overnight sleeping accommodation such as hotels, nursing homes, dormitories, and hospitals
usually require sprinklers either under local building codes, as a condition of receiving State
and Federal funding or as a requirement to obtain certification (essential for institutions who
wish to train medical staff).

6.4 OPERATION:
Each closed-head sprinkler is held closed by either a heat-sensitive glass bulb or a
two-part metal link held together with fusible alloy. The glass bulb or link applies pressure to
a pip cap which acts as a plug which prevents water from flowing until the ambient
temperature around the sprinkler reaches the design activation temperature of the individual
sprinkler head. In a standard wet-pipe sprinkler system, each sprinkler activates
independently when the predetermined heat level is reached. Because of this, the number of
sprinklers that operate is limited to only those near the fire, thereby maximizing the available
water pressure over the point of fire origin.
Sprinkler activation will do less damage than a fire department hose stream, which provides
approximately 900 liters/min (250 US gallons/ min). However, a typical Early Suppression
Fast Response (ESFR) sprinkler at a pressure of 50 p is (340 k Pa) will discharge
approximately 100 US gallons per minute (0.0063 m3/ s). In addition, a sprinkler will usually
activate between one and four minutes, whereas the fire department typically takes at least
five minutes to arrive at the fire site after receiving an alarm, and an additional ten minutes to
set up equipment and apply hose streams to the fire. This additional time can result in a much
larger fire, requiring much more water to extinguish. As fire fighters arrive their efforts will
focus on ensuring that the system has contained the fire, and, when satisfied, shut off the
water flow to minimize water damage.
6.5 DESIGN:
Sprinkler systems are intended to either control the fire or to suppress the fire. Control
mode sprinklers are intended to control the heat release rate of the fire to prevent building
structure collapse, and pre-wet the surrounding combustibles to prevent fire spread. The fire
is not extinguished until the burning combustibles are exhausted or manual extinguishment is
effected by firefighters. Suppression mode sprinklers (formerly known as Early Suppression
Fast Response (ESFR) sprinklers) are intended to result in a severe sudden reduction of the
heat release rate of the fire, followed quickly by complete extinguishment, prior to manual
intervention. Most sprinkler systems installed today are designed using an area and density
approach. First the building use and building contents are analyzed to determine the level of
fire hazard. Usually buildings are classified as light hazard, ordinary hazard group 1, ordinary
hazard group 2, extra hazard group 1, or extra hazard group 2.
After determining the hazard classification, a design area and density can be
determined by referencing tables in the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
standards. The design area is a theoretical area of the building representing the worst case
area where a fire could burn. The design density is a measurement of how much water per
square foot of floor area should be applied to the design area. For example, in an office
building classified as light hazard, a typical design area would be 1,500 square feet (140 m2)
and the design density would be 0.1 US gallons per minute (6.3106 m3/s) per 1 square foot
(0.093 m2) or a minimum of 150 US gallons per minute (0.0095 m3/s) applied over the 1,500-
square-foot (140 m2) design area.
Sprinkler systems in residential structures are becoming more common as the cost of
such systems becomes more practical and the benefits become more obvious. Residential
sprinkler systems usually fall under a residential classification separate from the commercial
classifications mentioned above. A commercial sprinkler system is designed to protect the
structure and the occupants from a fire. Most residential sprinkler systems are primarily
designed to suppress a fire in such a way to allow for the safe escape of the building

occupants. While these systems will often also protect the structure from major fire damage,
this is a secondary consideration.
CHAPTER-7
SOLDERING TECNIQUES
7.1 SOLDERING:
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point
than the work piece. Soldering differs from welding in that the work pieces are not melted.
There are three forms of soldering, each requiring higher temperatures and each producing an
increasingly stronger joint strength: soft soldering, which originally used a tin-lead alloy as
the filler metal, silver soldering, which uses an alloy containing silver, and brazing which
uses a brass alloy for the filler. The alloy of the filler metal for each type of soldering can be
adjusted to modify the melting temperature of the filler. Soldering appears to be a hot glue
process, but it differs from gluing significantly in that the filler metals alloy with the work
piece at the junction to form a gas- and liquid-tight bond. Solders are special alloys, which
are used to get either a mechanically strong joint or electric joint of low contact resistance.
Solders have low melting points compared to meals to be joined. Therefore when solder is
heated, molten solder wets the metal, spreads and joins. Any contamination on the surface of
the metal to be joined acts as a barrier and hampers as action of wetting.
In the soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to
melt and to bond to the work pieces in an alloying process called wetting. In stranded wire,
the solder is drawn up into the wire by capillary action in a process called wicking. Capillary
action also takes place when the work pieces are very close together or touching. The joint
strength is dependent on the filler metal used, where soft solder is the weakest and the brass
alloy used for brazing is the strongest. Soldering, which uses metal to join metal in a
molecular bond has electrical conductivity and is water- and gas-tight
7.2 TYPES OF SOLDERING:

Soft and
Hard
Soft solders have lower melting point and lower tensile strength. Soft solders are largely
tin lead alloys with 18%to 19% of tin.
Hard solders are copper zinc alloys and silver base compositions. Fluxs are auxiliary
materials used while soldering is done.
They dissolve and remove oxides and contaminants from surface of metals to be
soldered.
They protect the metal surface and molten solder from oxidation
They reduce the surface tension of molten solder.
They improve the ability of solder to wet the metal.
7.3 APPLICATIONS:
Soldering was historically used to make jewelry items, cooking ware and tools.
Currently, the two most common uses of soldering are in plumbing and in electronics where it
is used to connect electrical wiring and to connect electronic components to printed circuit
boards (PCBs). It provides reasonably permanent but reversible connections between copper
pipes in plumbing systems as well as joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof
flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators.

CHAPTER-8
8.1 CONCLUSION:
New intelligent building technologies have strong potential to improve fire safety.
Multifunction sensors (i.e., chemical gas sensors, integrated sensor systems and computer
vision systems) and wireless sensors will not only reduce expenditure on sensors, but also
reduce false alarms; speed response times and reduces fire-related losses. Real-time control
via the Internet will extend the monitoring and control of building service systems and fire
safety systems out of the building, which will increase the efficiency and reduce costs for
building management operations, more efficiently discriminate between fire and non-fire
threats, and increase the time available for property and life protection. The integration of fire
detection and alarm systems with other building systems should also increase fire safety in
the building. However, the application of intelligent building technology may also create
completely new risks.
Sensor technologies will need to be robust enough to prevent false alarms, accurately
discriminate between fire and non-fire threats, and ensure that vital information such as the
location of occupants is not lost due to data overload during a fire. Internet based monitoring
and control of building service systems will need to be completely secure to prevent false fire
information being provided to building owners and fire brigades. Integrated building systems
will need to be designed not only to give fire safety priority over other building activities but
also that fire emergencies do not crash the building service system.
A close examination of the concept of system integration will need to be conducted as
intelligent building systems become more prevalent in order to determine whether a full
integrated building system has sufficient redundancy to provide adequate fire safety. In
addition to the need for further research in developing new fire safety systems and ensuring
that intelligent building systems do not hinder fire safety, additional work is needed to
overcome the problems that are common to all parts of the intelligent building industry.
Fragmentation of the building and communication industries, a reluctance to change
established practices, the complexity of intelligent building systems, and the lack of universal
communication standards have all slowed intelligent building progress. Much effort is needed
to remove these barriers.
8.2 REFERENCES:
McClelland, S., .Intelligent Building,. An IFS Executive Briefing, IFS
Publication/Springer Verlag, Blenheim Online, England, 1985.
So, A. T. and Chan, W. L., .Intelligent Building Systems, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Norwell, USA, 1999
Lafontaine, J., .Intelligent Building Concept,. Public Works and Government
Services Canada, January, 1999
DEGW/Teknibank, .The Intelligent Building in Europe,. DEGW/Teknibank, 1992
Harrison, a, Loe, E. and Read, J., .Intelligent Buildings in South East Asia & FN
SPON, 1998
DEGW, Over Arum & Partners and North croft, .Intelligent Buildings in Latin
America,. DEGW, Over Arup & Partners and North croft, 1999
Read, J., .Todays Intelligent Buildings .What can they really offer,. Conference

Proceedings: Intelligent Buildings Realizing the Benefits, Oct. 1998, Watford, UK

Chapman, R. E., .Benefits and Costs of Research: A Case Study of Cybernetic



Software Defined Network Architecture and OpenFlow

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Software Defined Network Architecture and OpenFlow

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Software Defined Network Architecture and OpenFlow

SDN is a programmable network, proposed to facilitate evolution of networks and is a

DEPT OF ES, SSIET Page 1

1. SDN History and Evolution:

1.1 Early History of Programmable Networks

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1.2 Understanding SDN

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1.3 FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS:

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1.4 FIRE SPRINKLERS:

Power supply is common to all sections shown below

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Fig 2.1: block diagram of intelligent fire detector

DEPT OF ES, SSIET Page 6

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

DEPT OF ES, SSIET Page 7

Fig 3.1 block diagram of regulated power supply system

Fig 3.2 circuit diagram of power supply

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Fig 3.3: diagram of a transformer

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3.4 BRIDGE RECTIFIER:

Fig 3.4 block diagram of bridge rectifier

3.4.1 CURRENT FLOWING IN BRIDGE RECTIFIER:

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Fig 3.5 Current in Bridge Rectifier for +ve half cycle

Fig 3.6 Current in Bridge Rectifier for -ve half cycle

3.5 THE SMOOTHING CAPACITOR:

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Fig 3.7 circuit diagram for rectifier with capacitive filter

Fig3.8 3-pin diagram of a regulator

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3.6.1 REGULATOR CIRCUIT:

Fig 3.9: circuit diagram of regulator

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3.6.3 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS:

Table 1: Absolute maximum ratings

3.7 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODES):

Fig 3.10: diagram of light emitting diode

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Fig 4.1: symbol for op-amp

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4.2.1 PIN DIAGRAM:

Fig 4.2: pin diagram of lm358

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5.1.1 OPERATION OF A RELAY:

Fig 5.1 Internal structure of a relay

DEPT OF ES, SSIET Page 18

5.1.3 RELAYS AND TRANSISTORS COMPARED:

Fig 5.2 circuit with diode, relay, transistor

5.1.4 PROTECTION DIODE FOR RELAYS:

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7.2 TYPES OF SOLDERING:

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Proceedings: Intelligent Buildings Realizing the Benefits, Oct. 1998, Watford, UK

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