Theory of relativity

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the scientific concept. For philosophical or ontological theories about relativity,
see Relativism. For the silent film, see The Einstein Theory of Relativity.

Two-dimensional projection of a three-dimensional analogy of spacetime curvature described in general

relativity

The theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: special
relativity and general relativity.[1] Special relativity applies to elementary particles and their
interactions, describing all their physical phenomena except gravity. General relativity explains the
law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature.[2] It applies to the cosmological and
astrophysical realm, including astronomy.[3]
The theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century, superseding a
200-year-old theory of mechanics created primarily by Isaac Newton.[3][4][5] It introduced concepts
including spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of
simultaneity, kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction. In the field of physics,
relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with
ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted
extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and gravitational
waves.[3][4][5]

Contents
[hide]

1Development and acceptance

2Special relativity
3General relativity
4Experimental evidence
o 4.1Tests of special relativity
o 4.2Tests of general relativity
5Modern applications
6See also
7References
8Further reading
9External links

Development and acceptance[edit]

Main articles: History of special relativity and History of general relativity
Albert Einstein published the theory of special relativity in 1905, building on many theoretical results
and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincar and
others. Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others did subsequent work.
Einstein developed general relativity between 1907 and 1915, with contributions by many others
after 1915. The final form of general relativity was published in 1916.[3]
The term "theory of relativity" was based on the expression "relative theory" (German: Relativtheorie)
used in 1906 by Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses the principle of relativity. In the
discussion section of the same paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the expression "theory
of relativity" (German: Relativittstheorie).[6][7]
By the 1920s, the physics community understood and accepted special relativity.[8] It rapidly became
a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic
physics, nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics.
By comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as useful, beyond making minor corrections to
predictions of Newtonian gravitation theory.[3] It seemed to offer little potential for experimental test,
as most of its assertions were on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics of general
relativity seemed difficult and fully understandable only by a small number of people. Around 1960,
general relativity became central to physics and astronomy. New mathematical techniques to apply
to general relativity streamlined calculations and made its concepts more easily visualized. As
astronomical phenomena were discovered, such as quasars (1963), the 3-kelvin microwave
background radiation (1965), pulsars (1967), and the first black hole candidates (1981),[3] the theory
explained their attributes, and measurement of them further confirmed the theory.

Special relativity[edit]
Main article: Special relativity
Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. It was introduced in Einstein's 1905 paper
"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (for the contributions of many other physicists
see History of special relativity). Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory
in classical mechanics:

1. The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform
motion relative to one another (principle of relativity).
2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers,
regardless of their relative motion or of the motion of
the light source.
The resultant theory copes with experiment better than classical mechanics. For instance, postulate
2 explains the results of the MichelsonMorley experiment. Moreover, the theory has many
surprising and counterintuitive consequences. Some of these are:

Relativity of simultaneity: Two events, simultaneous for one

observer, may not be simultaneous for another observer if the
observers are in relative motion.
Time dilation: Moving clocks are measured to tick more slowly than
an observer's "stationary" clock.
Length contraction: Objects are measured to be shortened in the
direction that they are moving with respect to the observer.
Maximum speed is finite: No physical object, message or field line
can travel faster than the speed of light in a vacuum.
 The effect of Gravity can only travel through space at the speed of
light, not faster or instantaneously.
Massenergy equivalence: E = mc2, energy and mass are
equivalent and transmutable.
Relativistic mass, idea used by some researchers.[9]
The defining feature of special relativity is the replacement of the Galilean transformations of
classical mechanics by the Lorentz transformations. (See Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism).

General relativity[edit]
Main articles: General relativity and Introduction to general relativity
General relativity is a theory of gravitation developed by Einstein in the years 19071915. The
development of general relativity began with the equivalence principle, under which the states
of accelerated motion and being at rest in a gravitational field (for example, when standing on the
surface of the Earth) are physically identical. The upshot of this is that free fall is inertial motion: an
object in free fall is falling because that is how objects move when there is no force being exerted on
them, instead of this being due to the force of gravity as is the case in classical mechanics. This is
incompatible with classical mechanics and special relativity because in those theories inertially
moving objects cannot accelerate with respect to each other, but objects in free fall do so. To resolve
this difficulty Einstein first proposed that spacetime is curved. In 1915, he devised the Einstein field
equations which relate the curvature of spacetime with the mass, energy, and any momentum within
it.
Some of the consequences of general relativity are:

Clocks run slower in deeper gravitational wells.[10] This is

called gravitational time dilation.
Orbits precess in a way unexpected in Newton's theory of gravity.
(This has been observed in the orbit of Mercury and in binary
pulsars).
Rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field.
Rotating masses "drag along" the spacetime around them; a
phenomenon termed "frame-dragging".
The universe is expanding, and the far parts of it are moving away
from us faster than the speed of light.
Technically, general relativity is a theory of gravitation whose defining feature is its use of
the Einstein field equations. The solutions of the field equations are metric tensors which define
the topology of the spacetime and how objects move inertially.

Experimental evidence[edit]
Einstein stated that the theory of relativity belongs to a class of "principle-theories". As such, it
employs an analytic method, which means that the elements of this theory are not based on
hypothesis but on empirical discovery. By observing natural processes, we understand their general
characteristics, devise mathematical models to describe what we observed, and by analytical means
we deduce the necessary conditions that have to be satisfied. Measurement of separate events
must satisfy these conditions and match the theory's conclusions.[2]
Tests of special relativity[edit]
Main article: Tests of special relativity
A diagram of the MichelsonMorley experiment

Relativity is a falsifiable theory: It makes predictions that can be tested by experiment. In the case of
special relativity, these include the principle of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light, and time
dilation.[11] The predictions of special relativity have been confirmed in numerous tests since Einstein
published his paper in 1905, but three experiments conducted between 1881 and 1938 were critical
to its validation. These are the MichelsonMorley experiment, the KennedyThorndike experiment,
and the IvesStilwell experiment. Einstein derived the Lorentz transformations from first principles in
1905, but these three experiments allow the transformations to be induced from experimental
evidence.
Maxwell's equationsthe foundation of classical electromagnetismdescribe light as a wave that
moves with a characteristic velocity. The modern view is that light needs no medium of transmission,
but Maxwell and his contemporaries were convinced that light waves were propagated in a medium,
analogous to sound propagating in air, and ripples propagating on the surface of a pond. This
hypothetical medium was called the luminiferous aether, at rest relative to the "fixed stars" and
through which the Earth moves. Fresnel's partial ether dragging hypothesis ruled out the
measurement of first-order (v/c) effects, and although observations of second-order effects (v2/c2)
were possible in principle, Maxwell thought they were too small to be detected with then-current
technology.[12][13]
The MichelsonMorley experiment was designed to detect second-order effects of the "aether
wind"the motion of the aether relative to the earth. Michelson designed an instrument called
the Michelson interferometer to accomplish this. The apparatus was more than accurate enough to
detect the expected effects, but he obtained a null result when the first experiment was conducted in
1881,[14] and again in 1887.[15] Although the failure to detect an aether wind was a disappointment, the
results were accepted by the scientific community.[13] In an attempt to salvage the aether paradigm,
FitzGerald and Lorentz independently created an ad hoc hypothesis in which the length of material
bodies changes according to their motion through the aether.[16] This was the origin of FitzGerald
Lorentz contraction, and their hypothesis had no theoretical basis. The interpretation of the null
result of the MichelsonMorley experiment is that the round-trip travel time for light
is isotropic (independent of direction), but the result alone is not enough to discount the theory of the
aether or validate the predictions of special relativity.[17][18]
The KennedyThorndike experiment shown with interference fringes.

While the MichelsonMorley experiment showed that the velocity of light is isotropic, it said nothing
about how the magnitude of the velocity changed (if at all) in different inertial frames. The Kennedy
Thorndike experiment was designed to do that, and was first performed in 1932 by Roy Kennedy
and Edward Thorndike.[19] They obtained a null result, and concluded that "there is no effect ... unless
the velocity of the solar system in space is no more than about half that of the earth in its
orbit".[18][20] That possibility was thought to be too coincidental to provide an acceptable explanation,
so from the null result of their experiment it was concluded that the round-trip time for light is the
same in all inertial reference frames.[17][18]
The IvesStilwell experiment was carried out by Herbert Ives and G.R. Stilwell first in 1938[21] and
with better accuracy in 1941.[22] It was designed to test the transverse Doppler effect the redshift of
light from a moving source in a direction perpendicular to its velocitywhich had been predicted by
Einstein in 1905. The strategy was to compare observed Doppler shifts with what was predicted by
classical theory, and look for a Lorentz factor correction. Such a correction was observed, from
which was concluded that the frequency of a moving atomic clock is altered according to special
relativity.[17][18]
Those classic experiments have been repeated many times with increased precision. Other
experiments include, for instance, relativistic energy and momentum increase at high velocities, time
dilation of moving particles, and modern searches for Lorentz violations.
Tests of general relativity[edit]
Main article: Tests of general relativity
General relativity has also been confirmed many times, the classic experiments being the perihelion
precession of Mercury's orbit, the deflection of light by the Sun, and the gravitational redshift of light.
Other tests confirmed the equivalence principle and frame dragging.

Modern applications[edit]
Far from being simply of theoretical interest, relativitistic effects are important practical engineering
concerns. Satellite-based measurement needs to take into account relativistic effects, as each
satellite is in motion relative to an Earth-bound user and is thus in a different frame of reference
under the theory of relativity. Global positioning systems such as GPS, GLONASS, and the
forthcoming Galileo, must account for all of the relativistic effects, such as the consequences of
Earth's gravitational field, in order to work with precision.[23] This is also the case in the high-precision
measurement of time.[24] Instruments ranging from electron microscopes to particle accelerators
would not work if relativistic considerations were omitted.

See also[edit]

Physics portal

Science portal
Cosmology portal

Doubly special relativity

Galilean invariance
General relativity references
Scale relativity
 Special relativity references

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Einstein A. (1916), Relativity: The Special and General
Theory (Translation 1920), New York: H. Holt and Company
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Einstein, Albert (November 28, 1919). "Time, Space,
and Gravitation". The Times.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Will, Clifford M (August 1,
2010). "Relativity". Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-
08-01.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b Will, Clifford M (August 1, 2010). "Space-Time
Continuum". Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Will, Clifford M (August 1, 2010). "FitzgeraldLorentz
contraction". Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
6. Jump up^ Planck, Max (1906), "Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der
Ablenkbarkeit der -Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung fr die Dynamik der
Elektronen (The Measurements of Kaufmann on the Deflectability of -
Rays in their Importance for the Dynamics of the
Electrons)", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 7: 753761
7. Jump up^ Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einstein's special theory of
relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (19051911),
Reading: AddisonWesley, ISBN 0-201-04679-2
8. Jump up^ Hey, Anthony J. G.; Walters, Patrick (2003). The New
Quantum Universe (illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge University
Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-521-56457-1. Extract of page 227
9. Jump up^ Greene, Brian. "The Theory of Relativity, Then and Now".
Retrieved 2015-09-26.
10. Jump up^ Feynman, Richard Phillips; Mornigo, Fernando B.;
Wagner, William; Pines, David; Hatfield, Brian (2002). Feynman
Lectures on Gravitation. West view Press. p. 68. ISBN 0-8133-4038-
1., Lecture 5
11. Jump up^ Roberts, T; Schleif, S; Dlugosz, JM (ed.) (2007). "What is
the experimental basis of Special Relativity?". Usenet Physics
FAQ. University of California, Riverside. Retrieved 2010-10-31.
12. Jump up^ Maxwell, James Clerk (1880), "On a Possible Mode of
Detecting a Motion of the Solar System through the Luminiferous
Ether", Nature, 21 (535): 314
315, Bibcode:1880Natur..21S.314., doi:10.1038/021314c0
13. ^ Jump up to:a b Pais, Abraham (1982). "Subtle is the Lord ...": The
Science and the Life of Albert Einstein (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ.
Press. pp. 111113. ISBN 0192806726.
14. Jump up^ Michelson, Albert A. (1881). "The Relative Motion of the
Earth and the Luminiferous Ether". American Journal of
Science. 22 (128): 120129. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120.
15. Jump up^ Michelson, Albert A. & Morley, Edward W. (1887). "On the
Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether". American
Journal of Science. 34 (203): 333345. doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333.
16. Jump up^ Pais, Abraham (1982). "Subtle is the Lord ...": The Science
and the Life of Albert Einstein (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
p. 122. ISBN 0192806726.
17. ^ Jump up to:a b c Robertson, H.P. (July 1949). "Postulate versus
Observation in the Special Theory of Relativity". Reviews of Modern
Physics. 21 (3): 378
382. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..378R. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.378
.
 18. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Taylor, Edwin F.; John Archibald Wheeler
(1992). Spacetime physics: Introduction to Special Relativity (2nd ed.).
New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 8488. ISBN 0716723271.
19. Jump up^ Kennedy, R. J.; Thorndike, E. M. (1932). "Experimental
Establishment of the Relativity of Time". Physical Review. 42 (3): 400
418. Bibcode:1932PhRv...42..400K. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.42.400.
20. Jump up^ Robertson, H.P. (July 1949). "Postulate versus
Observation in the Special Theory of Relativity". Reviews of Modern
Physics. 21 (3):
381. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..378R. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.21.378.
21. Jump up^ Ives, H. E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1938). "An experimental study of
the rate of a moving atomic clock". Journal of the Optical Society of
America. 28 (7):
215. Bibcode:1938JOSA...28..215I. doi:10.1364/JOSA.28.000215.
22. Jump up^ Ives, H. E.; Stilwell, G. R. (1941). "An experimental study of
the rate of a moving atomic clock. II". Journal of the Optical Society of
America. 31 (5):
369. Bibcode:1941JOSA...31..369I. doi:10.1364/JOSA.31.000369.
23. Jump up^ http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2003-
1/download/lrr-2003-1Color.pdf
24. Jump up^ Francis, S.; B. Ramsey; S. Stein; Leitner, J.; M. Moreau. J.
M.; Burns, R.; Nelson, R. A.; Bartholomew, T. R.; Gifford, A.
(2002). "Timekeeping and Time Dissemination in a Distributed Space-
Based Clock Ensemble" (PDF). Proceedings 34th Annual Precise Time
and Time Interval (PTTI) Systems and Applications Meeting: 201214.
Retrieved 14 April 2013.

Further reading[edit]
Einstein, Albert (2005). Relativity: The Special and General Theory.
Translated by Robert W. Lawson (The masterpiece science ed.).
New York: Pi Press. ISBN 0131862618.
Einstein, Albert. Relativity: The Special and General Theory (PDF).
1920: Henry Holt and Company.
Einstein, Albert; trans. Schilpp; Paul Arthur (1979). Albert Einstein,
Autobiographical Notes (A Centennial ed.). La Salle, Ill.: Open Court
Publishing Co. ISBN 0875483526.
Einstein, Albert (2009). Einstein's Essays in Science. Translated by
Alan Harris (Dover ed.). Mineola, N.Y.: Dover
Publications. ISBN 9780486470115.
Einstein, Albert (1956) [1922]. The Meaning of Relativity (5 ed.).
Princeton University Press.
The Meaning of Relativity Albert Einstein: Four lectures delivered at
Princeton University, May 1921
How I created the theory of relativity Albert Einstein, December 14,
1922; Physics Today August 1982
Relativity Sidney Perkowitz Encyclopdia Britannica

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History of gravitational theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In physics, theories of gravitation postulate mechanisms of interaction governing the movements of
bodies with mass. There have been numerous theories of gravitation since ancient times.

Contents
 [hide]

1Antiquity
2Modern era
o 2.1Newton's theory of gravitation
o 2.2Mechanical explanations of gravitation
o 2.3General relativity
o 2.4Gravity and quantum mechanics
3See also
4References

Antiquity[edit]
See also: Aristotelian physics
In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that there is
no effect or motion without a cause. The cause of the downward motion of heavy bodies, such as
the element earth, was related to their nature, which caused them to move downward toward the
center of the universe, which was their natural place. Conversely, light bodies such as the
element fire, move by their nature upward toward the inner surface of the sphere of the Moon. Thus
in Aristotle's system heavy bodies are not attracted to the earth by an external force of gravity, but
tend toward the center of the universe because of an inner gravitas or heaviness.[1][2]
In Book VII of his De Architectura, the Roman engineer and architect Vitruvius contends that gravity
is not dependent on a substance's "weight" but rather on its "nature" (cf. specific gravity).
If the quicksilver is poured into a vessel, and a stone weighing one hundred pounds is laid upon it,
the stone swims on the surface, and cannot depress the liquid, nor break through, nor separate it. If
we remove the hundred pound weight, and put on a scruple of gold, it will not swim, but will sink to
the bottom of its own accord. Hence, it is undeniable that the gravity of a substance depends not on
the amount of its weight, but on its nature.[3]

Brahmagupta, the Indian astronomer and mathematician whose work influenced Arab mathematics
in the 9th century, held the view that the earth was spherical and that it attracted objects. Al
Hamdn and Al Biruni quote Brahmagupta saying "Disregarding this, we say that the earth on all its
sides is the same; all people on the earth stand upright, and all heavy things fall down to the earth by
a law of nature, for it is the nature of the earth to attract and to keep things, as it is the nature of
water to flow, that of fire to burn, and that of the wind to set in motion. If a thing wants to go deeper
down than the earth, let it try. The earth is the only low thing, and seeds always return to it, in
whatever direction you may throw them away, and never rise upwards from the earth."[4][5]

Modern era[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this
section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (February 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template
message)

During the 17th century, Galileo found that, counter to Aristotle's teachings, all objects accelerated
equally when falling.
In the late 17th century, as a result of Robert Hooke's suggestion that there is a gravitational force
which depends on the inverse square of the distance,[6] Isaac Newton was able
to mathematically derive Kepler's three kinematic laws of planetary motion, including
the elliptical orbits for the six then known planets and the Moon:
"I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of
their distances from the centres about which they revolve, and thereby compared the force requisite
to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth and found them to
answer pretty nearly."

Isaac Newton, 1666

So Newton's original formula was:

where the symbol means "is proportional to".

To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed
to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct
force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance
between them. This gravitational constant was first measured in
1797 by Henry Cavendish.
In 1907 Albert Einstein, in what was described by him as "the
happiest thought of my life", realized that an observer who is falling
from the roof of a house experiences no gravitational field. In other
words, gravitation was exactly equivalent to acceleration. Between
1911 and 1915 this idea, initially stated as the Equivalence
principle, was formally developed into Einstein's theory of general
relativity.
Newton's theory of gravitation[edit]
Main article: Law of universal gravitation
In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac
Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square
law of universal gravitation. In his own words, "I deduced that the
forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as
the squares of their distances from the centers about which they
revolve; and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the Moon
in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the Earth; and
found them answer pretty nearly."
Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to
predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that
could not be accounted by the actions of the other planets.
Calculations by John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier both
predicted the general position of the planet, and Le Verrier's
calculations are what led Johann Gottfried Galle to the discovery of
Neptune.
Years later, it was another discrepancy in a planet's orbit that
showed Newton's theory to be inaccurate. By the end of the 19th
century, it was known that the orbit of Mercury could not be
accounted for entirely under Newtonian gravity, and all searches for
another perturbing body (such as a planet orbiting the Sun even
closer than Mercury) have been fruitless. This issue was resolved in
1915 by Albert Einstein's new general theory of relativity, which
accounted for the discrepancy in Mercury's orbit.
Paul Dirac developed the hypothesis that gravitation should have
slowly and steadily decreased over the course of the history of the
universe.[7]
Although Newton's theory has been superseded, most modern non-
relativistic gravitational calculations still use it because it is much
easier to work with and is sufficiently accurate for most applications.
Mechanical explanations of gravitation[edit]
Main article: Mechanical explanations of gravitation
The mechanical theories or explanations of the gravitation are
attempts to explain the law of gravity by aid of basic mechanical
processes, such as pushes, and without the use of any action at a
distance. These theories were developed from the 16th until the
19th century in connection with the aether theories.[8]
Ren Descartes (1644) and Christiaan Huygens (1690)
used vortices to explain gravitation. Robert Hooke (1671)
and James Challis (1869) assumed, that every body emits waves
which lead to an attraction of other bodies. Nicolas Fatio de
Duillier (1690) and Georges-Louis Le Sage (1748) proposed
a corpuscular model, using some sort of screening or shadowing
mechanism. Later a similar model was created by Hendrik Lorentz,
who used electromagnetic radiation instead of the corpuscles. Isaac
Newton (1675) and Bernhard Riemann (1853) argued that aether
streams carry all bodies to each other. Newton (1717)
and Leonhard Euler (1760) proposed a model, in which the aether
loses density near the masses, leading to a net force directing to
the bodies. Lord Kelvin (1871) proposed that every body pulsates,
which might be an explanation of gravitation and the electric
charges.
However, those models were overthrown because most of them
lead to an unacceptable amount of drag, which is not observed.
Other models are violating the energy conservation law and are
incompatible with modern thermodynamics.[9]
General relativity[edit]
Main article: Introduction to general relativity
In general relativity, the effects of gravitation are ascribed
to spacetime curvature instead of to a force. The starting point for
general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates free fall
with inertial motion. The issue that this creates is that free-falling
objects can accelerate with respect to each other. In Newtonian
physics, no such acceleration can occur unless at least one of the
objects is being operated on by a force (and therefore is not moving
inertially).
To deal with this difficulty, Einstein proposed that spacetime is
curved by matter, and that free-falling objects are moving along
locally straight paths in curved spacetime. (This type of path is
called a geodesic). More specifically, Einstein and Hilbert
discovered the field equations of general relativity, which relate the
presence of matter and the curvature of spacetime and are named
after Einstein. The Einstein field equations are a set of
10 simultaneous, non-linear, differential equations. The solutions of
the field equations are the components of the metric tensor of
spacetime. A metric tensor describes the geometry of spacetime.
The geodesic paths for a spacetime are calculated from the metric
tensor.
Notable solutions of the Einstein field equations include:

The Schwarzschild solution, which describes spacetime

surrounding a spherically symmetric non-rotating uncharged
massive object. For compact enough objects, this solution
generated a black hole with a central singularity. For radial
distances from the center which are much greater than
the Schwarzschild radius, the accelerations predicted by the
Schwarzschild solution are practically identical to those
predicted by Newton's theory of gravity.
The ReissnerNordstrm solution, in which the central object
has an electrical charge. For charges with a geometrized length
which are less than the geometrized length of the mass of the
object, this solution produces black holes with an event
horizon surrounding a Cauchy horizon.
The Kerr solution for rotating massive objects. This solution
also produces black holes with multiple horizons.
The cosmological RobertsonWalker solution, which predicts
the expansion of the universe.
General relativity has enjoyed much success because of the way its
predictions of phenomena which are not called for by the older
theory of gravity have been regularly confirmed. For example:

General relativity accounts for the

anomalous perihelion precession of the planet Mercury.
The prediction that time runs slower at lower potentials has
been confirmed by the PoundRebka experiment, the Hafele
Keating experiment, and the GPS.
The prediction of the deflection of light was first confirmed
by Arthur Eddington in 1919, and has more recently been
strongly confirmed through the use of a quasar which passes
behind the Sun as seen from the Earth. See also gravitational
lensing.
The time delay of light passing close to a massive object was
first identified by Irwin Shapiro in 1964 in interplanetary
spacecraft signals.
Gravitational radiation has been indirectly confirmed through
studies of binary pulsars. In 2016, the LIGO experiments
directly detected gravitational radiation from two colliding black
holes, making this the first direct observation of both the
gravitational radiation as well as black holes.
The expansion of the universe (predicted by the Robertson
Walker metric) was confirmed by Edwin Hubble in 1929.
Gravity and quantum mechanics[edit]
Main articles: Graviton and Quantum gravity
Several decades after the discovery of general relativity it was
realized that it cannot be the complete theory of gravity because it is
incompatible with quantum mechanics.[10]Later it was understood
that it is possible to describe gravity in the framework of quantum
field theory like the other fundamental forces. In this framework the
attractive force of gravity arises due to exchange
of virtual gravitons, in the same way as the electromagnetic force
arises from exchange of virtual photons.[11][12] This reproduces
general relativity in the classical limit. However, this approach fails
at short distances of the order of the Planck length.[10]
It is notable that in general relativity, gravitational radiation, which
under the rules of quantum mechanics must be composed of
gravitons, is created only in situations where the curvature of
spacetime is oscillating, such as is the case with co-orbiting objects.
The amount of gravitational radiation emitted by the solar system is
far too small to measure.
However, gravitational radiation has been observed both indirectly,
as an energy loss over time in binary pulsar systems such as PSR
1913+16, and directly by the LIGO gravitational wave observatory,
whose first detection (named GW150914) occurred on 14
September 2015[13] and matched theoretical predictions of signals
due to the inward spiral and merger of a pair of black holes. It is
believed that neutron star mergers and black hole formation may
also create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation.

See also[edit]

Gravitation portal

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in
the Middle Ages, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996), pp. 60-
1.
2. Jump up^ Olaf Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy,
(Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1993), p. 130
3. Jump up^ Vitruvius, Marcus Pollio (1914). "7". In Alfred A.
Howard. De Architectura libri decem[Ten Books on
Architecture]. VII. Herbert Langford Warren, Nelson Robinson
(illus), Morris Hicky Morgan. Harvard University, Cambridge:
Harvard University Press. p. 215.
4. Jump up^ Alberuni's India. London : Kegan Paul, Trench,
Trbner & Co., 1910.Electronic reproduction. Vol. 1 and 2. New
York, N.Y. : Columbia University Libraries, 2006. p. 272.
Retrieved 3 June 2014.
5. Jump up^ Kitb al-Jawharatayn al-atqatayn al-miatayn min al-
afr wa-al-bay : al-dhahab wa-al-fiah. Cairo : Mabaat Dr
al-Kutub wa-al-Wathiq al-Qawmyah bi-al-Qhirah
(Arabic:
: ) , 2004.
pp. 4344, 87. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
 6. Jump up^ Cohen, I. Bernard; George Edwin Smith (2002). The
Cambridge Companion to Newton. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 1112. ISBN 978-0-521-65696-2.
7. Jump up^ Haber, Heinz (1967) [1965]. "Die Expansion der Erde"
[The expansion of the Earth]. Unser blauer Planet [Our blue
planet]. Rororo Sachbuch [Rororo nonfiction] (in German) (Rororo
Taschenbuch Ausgabe [Rororo pocket edition] ed.).
Reinbek: Rowohlt Verlag. p. 52. Der englische Physiker und
Nobelpreistrger Dirac hat [...] vor ber dreiig Jahren die
Vermutung begrndet, dass sich das universelle Ma der
Schwerkraft im Laufe der Geschichte des Universums
auerordentlich langsam, aber stetig verringert." English: "The
English physicist and Nobel laureate Dirac has [...], more than
thirty years ago, substantiated the assumption that the universal
strength of gravity decreases very slowly, but steadily over the
course of the history of the universe.
8. Jump up^ Taylor, W. B. (1876). "Kinetic Theories of
Gravitation". Smithsonian: 205282.
9. Jump up^ Zenneck, J. (1903). "Gravitation". Encyklopdie der
mathematischen Wissenschaften mit Einschluss ihrer
Anwendungen. Leipzig. 5 (1): 2567. doi:10.1007/978-3-663-
16016-8_2.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b Randall, Lisa (2005). Warped Passages:
Unraveling the Universe's Hidden Dimensions. Ecco. ISBN.
11. Jump up^ Feynman, R. P.; Morinigo, F. B.; Wagner, W. G.;
Hatfield, B. (1995). Feynman lectures on gravitation. Addison-
Wesley. ISBN 0-201-62734-5.
12. Jump up^ Zee, A. (2003). Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell.
Princeton University Press. ISBN.
13. Jump up^ Abbott, Benjamin P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific
Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of
Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Phys.
Rev. Lett. 116 (6):
061102. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. PMID 26918975. arXiv:
1602.03837 . doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. Lay
summary (PDF).

[hide]

Theories of gravitation

Newtonian gravity Newton's law of universal gravitation

(NG) History of gravitational theory

Standard Introduction

General relativity History

(GR) Mathematics
Resources
 Tests

Post-Newtonian formalism

Linearized gravity

ADM formalism

GibbonsHawkingYork boundary term

Classical theories of gravitation

Paradigms Quantum gravity

Theory of everything

EinsteinCartan
Bimetric theories

Gauge theory gravity

Teleparallelism

Composite gravity

f(R) gravity

Massive gravity

Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND)

Nonsymmetric gravitation

Scalartensor theories
Alternatives to BransDicke
neral relativity
Classical

Scalartensorvector

Conformal gravity

Scalar theories

Nordstrm

Whitehead

Geometrodynamics

Induced gravity

Tensorvectorscalar

Chameleon

Pressuron

Euclidean quantum gravity

Quantisation
Canonical quantum gravity
 WheelerDeWitt equation

Loop quantum gravity

Spin foam

Causal dynamical triangulation

Causal sets

DGP model

Rainbow gravity theory

KaluzaKlein theory

Dilaton
Unification

Supergravity

Noncommutative geometry

Semiclassical gravity

Superfluid vacuum theory

Logarithmic BEC vacuum

String theory

M-theory

F-theory
Unification and
Heterotic string theory
quantisation
Type I string theory

Type 0 string theory

Bosonic string theory

Type II string theory

Little string theory

Twistor theory

Twistor string theory

Generalisations Scale relativity

/ Liouville gravity

Extensions of Lovelock theory

GR (2+1)-dimensional topological gravity
 GaussBonnet gravity

JackiwTeitelboim gravity

Aristotelian physics

CGHS model

RST model

Mechanical explanations
and toy models
FatioLe Sage

Entropic gravity

Gravitational interaction of antimatter

Categories:
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