Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) Characteristics and Design

Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
fosc
Desirable characteristics: fmax
Monotonic fosc vs. VC characteristic
with adequate frequency range
Well-defined Kvco slope = Kvco
fmin
VC
VC
in
KPD
VD
F (s) +

VC K^vco out
s
K^vco
out = VC
s + KPD K^vco F (s) / N

Noise coupling from VC into PLL
N output is directly proportional to Kvco.

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine
1

Oscillator Design
Vin 0
Vout Vout A(s)
A(s) HCL (s) =
Vin 1+ f A(s)
loop gain

f Barkhausens Criterion:
If a negative-feedback loop satisfies:
( )
f A j o 1
A( j ) = 180
o
!
then the circuit will oscillate at frequency 0.

2

Inverters with Feedback (1)
1 inverter: V2 1 inverter
V1 V2
1 stable
feedback
equilibrium
point
V1
V2
2 inverters:
feedback 3 equilibrium
V1 V2 points: 2 stable,
1 unstable
(latch)
2 inverters
V1
3

Inverters with Feedback (2)
3 inverters forming an oscillator:

V2
V1 V2 1 unstable
equilibrium point
due to phase shift
from 3 capacitors
V1
A0
Let each inverter have transfer function Hinv ( j ) =
1+ j p
3 A30
Loop gain: Hloop ( j ) = [Hinv ( j )] = 3
(1+ j p )
% (
1
Applying Barkhausens criterion: Hloop ( j ) = 3 tan ' * = 180! o = 3 p
& p)

A30
Hloop ( j o ) = 3
> 1 A0 > 2
[1+ 3] 2

4

Ring Oscillator Operation
tp tp tp
VA VB VC
VA
tp
1
VB Tosc = 3t p
tp 2
Tosc = 6t p
VC
tp
VA
1
Tosc
2

5

Variable Delay Inverters (1)
Inverter with variable load capacitance: Current-starved inverter:
Vin Vout
VC
Vin Vout
VC

6

Variable Delay Inverters (2)
Interpolating inverter:
ISS R R
Vout-
Vout+
+
V Vin+ Vin- Vin+ Vin-
_C
RG RG
Ifast
Islow
tp is varied by selecting weighted sum of fast and slow inverter.

Differential inverter operation and differential control voltage
Voltage swing maintained at ISSR independent of VC.

7

Differential Ring Oscillator
+ + + +
VA VB VC VD VA
+
additional inversion
VA (zero-delay)
tp
VB tp
1
Tosc = 4t p
VC tp 2
Tosc = 8t p
VD tp
Use of 4 inverters makes
quadrature signals available.
VA
1
Tosc
EECS 270C / Spring 2014 2 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine
8

Resonance in Oscillation Loop
H r ( j )
Hr (s)
1
r

Hr ( j )
Hr (s)
+
2

r

2
At dc: At resonance:

Since Hr(0) < 1, latch-up does not occur. H r ( j r ) > 1
o = r
Hr ( jr ) = 0
9

LC VCO
L C
Vin Vout 1
Hr (s) r =
Vout LC
Vin

Hr (s)
2L
C C
Hr (s)
realizes negative
resistance
EECS 270C / Spring 2014
Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

10

Variable Capacitance
varactor = variable reactance
Cj
A. Reverse-biased p-n junction
+ VR
VR
B. MOSFET accumulation capacitance Cg

p-channel

VBG
+ n diffusion in n-well
VBG
accumulation inversion
region region

11

LC VCO Variations
IS IS
2L 2L
C C C C
2L 2L
C C C C
ISS

12

Effect of CML Loading
1.
1. ideal capacitor load
1 nH 3.8
400 fF 400 fF 108 fF 108 fF
2.
Cg = 108fF
1 nH 3.8
400 fF 400 fF
2. CML buffer load

13

CML Buffer Input Admittance (1)
1+ j / z
Yin = jCgs + jCgd A0
1+ j / p
A0 = 1+ gm R
where: 1/ p = CL + Cgd R ( ) (note p < z)
CL R
1/ z =
A0

1 p 1 z
Re Yin = A0Cgd 2
( ) 2
(
1+ p )
Substantial parallel loss at high
frequencies weakens VCOs

tendency to oscillate

14

Yin magnitude/phase: Yin real part/imaginary part:
magnitude
imaginary
phase
real
Contributes 2k additional parallel resistance

15

3. CML tuned buffer load
Cg = 108 fF
imaginary
1 nH 3.8
3.8 nH
400 fF 400 fF
real
Contributes negative parallel resistance

16

ideal capacitor load
Cg = 108 fF
1 nH 3.8
3.8 nH
400 fF 400 fF
CML buffer load

Loading VCO with tuned CML buffer
allows negative real part at high
frequencies more robust oscillation!
CML tuned buffer load

17

Differential Control of LC VCO
Differential VCO control is preferred to reduce VC noise coupling into PLL output.

18

Oscillator Type Comparison
Ring Oscillator LC Oscillator
slower + faster
low Q more jitter generation + high Q less jitter generation
+ Control voltage can be applied Control voltage applied single-ended

differentially
+ Easier to design; behavior more Inductors & varactors make design

predictable more difficult and behavior less
predictable
+ Less chip area More chip area (inductor)

19

Random Processes (1)
Random variable: A quantity X whose value is not exactly known.
Probability distribution function PX(x): The probability that a random variable

X is less than or equal to a value x.
PX(x)
1
Example 1:
Random variable X [,+] 0.5
x

20

Probability of X within a range is straightforward:
PX(x)
1
0.5
( )
P X [x 1, x 2 ] = P(x 2 ) P(x 1)
x1 x2 x

If we let x2-x1 become very small

21

Probability density function pX(x):
Probability that random variable X lies within the range of x and x+dx.
x2
p X (x) dx = PX (x + dx) PX (x) ( )
P X [ x 1, x 2 ] = p X (x) dx
x1
dPX (x)
p X (x) =
dx
PX(x)
pX(x)
1
0.5
dx x x

22

Expectation value E[X]: Expected (mean) value of random variable X

over a large number of samples.
+
E[X ] X = x p X (x)dx

Mean square value E[X2]: Mean value of the square of a random

variable X2 over a large number of samples.
+
E[X 2 ] = x 2
p X (x)dx

+ 2
Variance: [
E (X X ) = 2
] 2
(x X ) p X (x)dx

Standard deviation: = E (X X )
2
[ ]


23

Gaussian Function
1. Provides a good model for the probability density functions of many

random phenomena.
2. Can be easily characterized mathematically , X . ( )
3. Combinations of Gaussian random variables are themselves
Gaussian.

1 f (x)
2
0.607
1 % (x X )2 ( 2
f (x) = exp' * 2
2
2 '& 2 *)
+
f (x)dx = 1
X X + x
X

24

Joint Probability (1)
Consider 2 random variables:
(
P(x, y) P X x and Y y )
If X and Y are statistically independent (i.e., uncorrelated):
( )
P X [ x, x + dx ] and Y [ y, y + dy ] = p X (x) pY (y) dx dy

25

Consider sum of 2 random variables:

Z = X +Y
y
(
P Z [ z0 , z0 + dz ] = ) strip
p X (x)pY (y) dx dy
% (
='
&

p X (x)pY (z0 x) dx * dz
)

x + y = z0 + dz

p Z (z0 )
x + y = z0 dy = dz
determined by convolution
of pX and pY.
x
dx

26

Example: Consider the sum of 2 non-Gaussian random processes:

27

3 sources combined:

28

4 sources combined:

29

Noise sources
Central Limit Theorem:

Superposition of random variables tends toward normality.

30

Fourier transform of Gaussians:
% 2(
1 X ) % 1 2 2(
p X (x) = exp'
(x * F PX ( ) = exp' X *
2 '& 2 2 *)
X X & 2 )
Recall:
& )
(
P Z [ z0 , z0 + dz ] = (
'
)
p X (x)pY (z0 x) dx + dz
*
F
p Z (z0 ) =

p X (x)pY (z0 x) dx PZ ( ) = PX ( ) PY ( )
% 1 ( % 1 (
= exp' 2X 2 * exp' Y2 2 *
& 2 ) & 2 )
% (
p Z (z) =
1
exp'
(z Z)2
'2 2 + 2
*
*
F -1 % 1 (
= exp' ( 2X + 2X ) 2 *
(
2 2X + Y2 ) & ( X Y ) ) & 2 )
Variances of sum of random normal processes add.


31

Autocorrelation function RX(t1,t2): Expected value of the product of 2
samples of a random variable at times t1 & t2.
RX (t1,t2 ) = E [ X (t1) X (t2 )]
For a stationary random process, RX depends only on the time

difference = t1 t 2
RX ( ) = E [ X (t) X (t + )] for any t

2
Note RX (0) =

Power spectral density SX():

' + 2*
) ,

SX ( ) = E) X (t) e jt dt , SX() given in units of [dBm/Hz]
)( ,+

32

Relationship between spectral density & autocorrelation function:
1
RX ( ) =
2

SX ( ) e j d
1
RX (0) = =
2
2

SX ( )d
infinite variance
Example 1: white noise (non-physical)
SX ( ) RX ( )

K
( )
SX = K RX ( ) =
2
()
t


33

Example 2: band-limited white noise
RX ( ) 1
SX ( ) 2 = K p
2
K

p p p

RX ( ) = 2e
K
( )
SX =
2
1+ 2
p

p X (x)
For parallel RC circuit

capacitorvoltage noise:

i n2
K= R2 = 2kBTR
f kBT
V2C =
1 C
p =
RC + x

34

Random Jitter (Time Domain)
Experiment:
CLK
data
source
DATA CDR RCK
(DUT) analyzer

35

Jitter Accumulation (1)
Experiment:
Observe N cycles of a free-running VCO on an oscilloscope over a long
measurement interval using infinite persistence.
NT
Free-running
oscillator output

1
2
3
4

1
Tosc =
fosc
1 2 3 4 Histogram plots

trigger

EECS 270C
/ Spring 2014 / U.C. Irvine

Prof. M. Green
36


proportional proportional
to to 2
Observation:
As increases, rms jitter increases.

37

Noise Spectral Density (Frequency Domain)
Power spectral density Single-sideband

of oscillation waveform: spectral density:
Sv(f) ( ) [dBc Hz]

Ltotal f
[dBm Hz] 1/f3 region (-30dBc/Hz/decade)

1/f2 region (-20dBc/Hz/decade)
fosc f (log scale)

fosc+f
" P f + f
Ltotal (f ) = 10 log$
1Hz osc ( ) %' Ltotal(f) given in units of [dBc/Hz]
$# Ptotal '&
Ltotal includes both amplitude and phase noise

38

Noise Analysis of LC VCO (1)
noise from
resistor
+
vc C L
C L R -R _ inR
active
circuitry j L
Z( j ) =
1 R $ '2
r = Q= 1 & )
LC r L % r (
Consider
frequencies near resonance:
(
j r + L ) r2
[(
Z j r + = )] 2
2
jL
2
1
+ 2r +
r ( )
r2
R R r r
r L =
Q
[(
Z j r + j
2Q
)] r +

39

Noise Analysis of LC VCO (2)
+
Spot noise current from resistor:
vc C L 4kT
_ inR 2
i nR = f
R
v c2 = i nR
2
| Z( j ) |2

4kT % r (2
= f 'R *
R & 2Q )
% r (2
= 4kTR ' * f
& 2Q )
Leesons formula (taken from measurements): spot noise relative to carrier power

2 +- % (2 /-% 3 (5
kT
L{ } = 10 log4F ,1+ ' r
* 0''1+ 1/ f **7 dBc/Hz
4 Psig - & 2Q ) - )7
3 . 1& 6
Where F and 1/f3 are empirical parameters.

40

Oscillator Phase Disturbance
ip(t) ip(t)
Current impulse q/t
ip(t)
1 t 2 t
_ Vosc +
Vosc(t) Vosc(t)
= 0
< 0
Vosc jumps by q/C
Effect of electrical noise on oscillator phase noise is time-variant.

Current impulse results in step phase change (i.e., an integration).
current-to-phase transfer function is proportional to 1/s

41

Impulse Sensitivity Function (1)
The phase response for a particular noise source can be determined at each point
over the oscillation waveform.
( )
Impulse sensitivity function (ISF): ( ) q max
q
= C Vmax
change in phase
(normalized to
charge in impulse
signal amplitude)

Example 1: sine wave Example 2: square wave

Vosc (t) Vosc (t)
Vmax
t t

( ) ( )
Note has same period as Vosc.


42

Recall from network theory:
out (s)
i in H(s) out LaPlace transform: = H(s)
Iin (s)
t
h(t)
Impulse response: out (t) = h(t, ) i in ( ) d
0

time-variant
( ) ( ) impulse response
( )
Recall: q max ( ) = q
q q max
ISF convolution integral:

t t
( )
(t) =
q

max
u(t ) [i ( ) d ] = q( ) i ( ) d
max
can be expressed in terms of
Fourier coefficients:
0 0

from q
= 1 for (0,t) ( ) = c k (
cos kosc + k )
k=0


43

Case 1: Disturbance is sinusoidal:
[( )]
i (t) = I0 cos mosc + t , m = 0, 1, 2,

(Any frequency can be expressed in terms of m and .)

I t
(t) = 0
q max
c {cos(k
k
0
osc ) [(
+ k cos mosc + t ) ] } d
k=0
( )
& sin (k + m) + t +
I

( [ { osc ] k } {
sin [(k m)osc + ]t + k } *(+
= 0
2q max
ck '
() (k + m) osc +
+
(k m)osc + (,
k=0

negligible significant only for
m=k

I0
cm
(
sin t + k )
2q max

44

[(
For i (t) = I0 cos mosc + t )]
(t)
I0
cm
sin t + k 2( I02
= 2
cm2 )
2q max 8q max 2
( )
Current-to-phase frequency response:
osc
2osc

1
osc-1
osc+1

2osc-1 2osc+1
I0 c0 I0 c1 I0 c2

2q max 1 2q max 1 2q max 1

45

Case 2: Disturbance is stochastic:
2
MOSFET current noise: i n (f ) = 4kTgm + gm2 Kf A2/Hz
f Cg f in
2 i n2 f cm2
f 2
8q max 2 thermal 1/f
( ) noise noise

i n2 i n2
1/f noise
f f
2 Kf
gm2 thermal noise
Cg
c0 c0 c1 c2
4kTgm
osc 2osc osc 2osc

( )
S


46

* -
1
,
,
ck2 gm2 Kf c02
/
/
Total phase noise: S ( ) = 2 , 4kTgm
0
2
+ 2 3/
8q max C
, ( ) g ( ) /
,+ /.
due to due to 1/f
thermal noise noise
i n2
f
c0 c1 c2

n osc 2osc

( )
S
2
2
c =
0 ( )

2

ck2 = rms
( )
k=0

47

) 2 , 2
S ( ) =
1 +
4kTg
( )
rms
+ 2
g Kf

2
m . ( )

2 + m 2 3.
8q max Cg
+* ( ) .- ( )
2 2 2
( )
rms 2
( )
g ( +
g Kf
4kTgm 2
= 2 m
Cg
3 n,phase = m ** -
2kT Cg ) rms -,
() ( )
noise corner
frequency n

( )
S (dBc/Hz)

1/()3
region:
30 dBc/Hz/decade

1/()2 region:
20 dBc/Hz/decade
n,phase
(log scale)

48

Example 1: sine wave Example 2: square wave
Vosc (t) Vosc (t)
t t
( ) ( )
rms is higher will generate more

1/()2 phase noise
Example 3: asymmetric square wave
Vosc (t)

( )
> 0 will generate more 1/()3 phase noise

49

Effect of current source in LC VCO:
Due to symmetry, ISF of this noise source

contains only even-order coefficients c0 and c2
are dominant.
+ Vosc _ Noise from current source will contribute to

phase noise of differential waveform.

50

ID varies over
oscillation waveform Same period as
oscillation
i n2
= 4kTgm (t)
f
& W )
= (4kT ) ( Cox
' L
(
VGS (t) Vt +
*
)
2 & )
i n0 W
Let
f
= (4kT ) ( Cox
' L
(
VGS(DC ) Vt +
*
)

i 2
i 2 VGS (t) Vt
Then n
= n0
(t) where (t) =
f f VGS(DC ) Vt

We can use eff ( ) = ( ) ( )


51

ISF Example: 3-Stage Ring Oscillator
R1A R1B R2A R2B R3A R3B

+
Vout

M1A M1B M2A M2B M3A M3B
MS1 MS2 MS3
fosc = 1.08 GHz

PD = 11 mW

52

ISF of Diff. Pairs
ISF by tx1 for 3stage differential ring osc ISF by tx3 for differential ring osc ISF by tx5 for differential ring osc
M1A M2A M3A
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1

0 0 0
ISF by tx1
ISF by tx3
ISF by tx5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
-5 -5 -5
Radian Radian Radian
ISF by tx2 for differential ring osc ISF by tx4 for differential ring osc ISF by tx6 for differential ring osc
M1B M2B M3B
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0
0 0
ISF by tx4
ISF by tx2
ISF by tx6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
-5 -5 -5
rms = 1.86
for each diff. pair transistor
= 0.26

53

ISF of Resistors
R1A R2A R3A
rms = 1.72
for each resistor
= 0.16

54

ISF of Current Sources
ISF by tail tx1 for differential ring osc ISF by tail tx2 for differential ring osc ISF by tail tx3 for differential ring osc
MS1 MS2 MS3
2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5
1 1 1
ISF by tail tx1
ISF by tail tx3

0.5
ISF by tail tx2

0.5 0.5
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
-1 -1 -1
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5
-2 -2 -2
rms = 1.00
for each current source transistor
= 0.12
ISF shows double frequency due to source-coupled node connection.

55

Phase Noise Calculation
Using: Cout = 1.13 pF

Vout = 601 mV p-p
qmax = 679 fC
2 2 2
rms(dp) 4kT gm(dp) rms(res) 4kT R rms(cs) 4kT gm(cs)
L{f } = 6 2 2 2
+ 6 2 2 2 + 3 2 2 2
8 f qmax 8 f qmax 8 f qmax
322 122 70
f 2 f 2 f 2

514
L{f } = = 112 dBc/Hz @ f = 10 MHz
f 2

56

Phase Noise vs. Amplitude Noise (1)
How are the single-sideband noise spectrum Ltotal() and phase

spectral density S() related?
[(
Vosc (t) = [Vc + v (t)] exp j osc t + (t) )]
v Spectrum of Vosc would

v include effects of both

amplitude noise v(t) and
phase noise (t).
osct

57

Recall that an input current impulse causes an enduring phase

perturbation and a momentary change in amplitude:
i(t) i(t)
t t
Vc(t) Vc(t)
q
t = 0 t =
osc Amplitude impulse response
exhibits an exponential decay
due to the natural amplitude
limiting of an oscillator ...

58

Lamp ( ) ( )
L
c

Q
( )
Ltotal

Phase noise dominates

at low offset frequencies.


59

Sv()

( ) (
Vosc (t) = Vc + v (t) cos osc t + (t) )
(V + v (t)) [cos( t) (t) sin(osc t)] phase amplitude
c osc
noise noise
= Vc cos(osc t) (t) Vc sin(osc t) + v (t) cos(osc t)
noiseless phase amplitude

oscillation noise noise osc

waveform component component
Phase & amplitude noise
cant be distinguished in a
signal.
Amplitude limiting will decrease amplitude noise
but will not affect phase noise.

60

Sideband Noise/Phase Spectral Density
(
Vosc (t) = Vc cos osc t + (t) )
Vc [cos(osc t) (t) sin(osc t)]
Vc cos(osc t) Vc (t) sin(osc t)

noiseless phase
oscillation noise
waveform component

1 2 2
Pphase noise Vc
2 1
= = 2 ( )
Lphase = ( )
S
Psignal 1 2 2
Vc
2


61

Jitter/Phase Noise Relationship (1)
NT
1 ) 2,
2 2
E *[ (t + ) (t) ] -
osc + .
1
= 2
osc
E { [
2
(t + ) + E ] [
2
]
(t) 2E [ (t) (t + )] }
autocorrelation functions

R (0) R (0) 2R ( )
2
2 = 2
[R (0) R ( )]

osc
Recall R and S() are a Fourier transform pair:

1
R ( ) =
2

) e j ( ) d( )
S (

62


1
R (0) =
2
S ()d()

1
R ( ) =
2
S () e

j ( )
d( )

1
2
=
2

osc
S
( ) 1 e j ( )
(
d( ) )

1
= 2
osc

S ( ) [1 cos( ) j sin( )] d( )

4 , /
= 2
osc
S ( ) sin .
- 2 0
2
1 d( )
0


63

2 3
Jitter from 1/() noise:
Jitter from 1/() noise:

a^ b
Let
S ( ) = Let
S ( ) =
( )2 ( )3

4 a^ (
2 ( )
+ 4 b (
2 ( )
+
2 = 2
osc
( ) 2
sin *
) 2
- d( )
,
2 = 2
osc
( ) 3
sin *
) 2 ,
- d( )
0

4 a^ = 2
=
2
osc 4

a^ a
= 2
= 2 where a^ (2 )2 a
osc fosc

Consistent with jitter accumulation measurements!

64

( )
S f (dBc/Hz)
Let fosc = 10 GHz
Assume phase noise dominated by 1/()2
-20dBc/Hz
per decade
-100 a
( )
S f =
(f )2
Setting f = 2 X 106 and S =10-10:
a
2 MHz f (
S 2 106 = ) 2
= 1010 a = 400
(2 10 ) 6
Accumulated jitter:
a 400
2 =
fc2
= 2 [ ]
= 4 1018 [
= 2 109 ]
(
10 109 )
Let = 100 ps (cycle-to-cycle jitter):
= 0.02ps rms (0.2 mUI rms)


65

More generally:
a (fm )2 10Nm 10
( )
S f =
(f )2
=
(f )2
( )
S f (dBc/Hz)
a % f (2
2 = = ' m * 10Nm 10
-20 dBc/Hz 2
fosc & fosc )
per decade
Nm
$f '
= & m ) 10Nm 20 [ps]
% fosc (

= fm 10Nm 20 [UI]
f Tosc
fm
Let phase noise increase by 10 dBc/Hz:
( Nm+10) 20 & )
fm 10 = (fm 10Nm 20 + 100.5
Tosc ' *
rms jitter increases by a factor of 3.2


66

in vco
phase loop
VCO out
filter
detector +
Kpd F (s) Kvco
fb

N

out K 1
Open-loop characteristic:
= G(s) = K pd F (s) vco
2s N
NG(s) 1
Closed-loop characteristic: out
= in + vco
1+G(s) 1+G(s)


67

Ich Kvco 1 1+ sCR
Recall from Type-2 PLL: G(s) = 2
N s (C + Cp ) 1+ sCeq R
-40 dB/decade

( )
S (dBc/Hz)
|1 + G| 1/()3 region:
30 dBc/Hz/decade

|G|
z 1/()2 region:
0
p

20 dBc/Hz/decade
2
out
vco
(
j ) n,phase

1

As a result, the phase noise at low offset frequencies
is determined by input noise...
80 dB/decade
0


68

fosc = 10 GHz
Assume 1-pole closed-loop PLL characteristic
( )
S f (dBc/Hz)
+ a a
2 - 2
, f << f0
f0 ( )
- f0 ( )
-20dBc/Hz
( )
S f = ,
$ f '2 - a , f >> f
-100 per decade 1+ & ) - f 2 0
% f0 ( . ( )

a

R ( ) = S (f ) e j (2 f ) d(f ) =
(2 f )
e 2 f0
0
f0 = 2 MHz f
2
2 = 2
[R (0) R ( )]
2 fosc
a 1 e 2 f0
= 2

fosc 2 f0

69

) a 1
+ 2
, <<
2 a 1 e 2 f0 + fosc 2 (f0 )
= *
+ a 1
2
fosc 2 f0 1
2
, >>
+, fosc 2 (f0 ) 2 (f0 )
a = 4 102 For small :

= 0.02 ps rms
f0 = 2 MHz cycle-to-cycle jitter
fosc = 10 GHz
For large :
= 1.4 ps rms
2 (log scale) Total accumulated jitter
a
slope = 2
fosc

1

(2 ) (2 MHz)

70

2 (log scale)
proportional to 2
(due to 1/f noise)
proportional to
(due to thermal noise)
The primary function of a PLL is to place a bound on cumulative jitter:

2 (log scale)


71

Closed-Loop PLL Phase Noise Measurement
L() for OC-192 SONET transmitter

72

Other Sources of Jitter in PLL
Clock divider
Phase detector
Ripple on phase detector output can cause high-frequency jitter. This
affects primarily the jitter tolerance of CDR.

73

Jitter/Bit Error Rate (1)
Eye diagram from

sampling oscilloscope
Histogram showing
Gaussian distribution
near sampling point
2 L 2 R
L R

1UI
Bit error rate (BER) determined by and UI

74

& 2 )
1 & t )
2
pR (t) =
1 (
( T t ) +
pL (t) = exp( 2 + exp( +
2 ' 2 * 2 2 2
(' +*
2 2

0 t0 T T t0 T
R
1 & x2 )
Probability of sample at t > t0 from left-

PL =
2
exp( 2 + dx
t0
' 2 *
hand transition:
& 2)
Probability of sample at t < t0 from right- 1
(( T )
x +
hand transition: P R =
2

t0
exp(
2 2 + dx
(' +*

75

1& x2 )
PL =
2 t0
' 2 *

exp( 2 + dx
& 2 )
1 ( T x ( ) + 1 & x2 )
PR =
2
exp(
t0 2 2
+ dx =
2
Tt 0
exp( 2 +
' 2 *
(' +*
Total Bit Error Rate (BER) given by:

1 & x2 ) 1
& x2 )
BER = PL + PU =
2 t0
' *

exp( 2 + dx +
2 2
Tt 0
exp( 2 + dx
' 2 *
1* # t &
0
#T t &-
0
= ,erfc%% (( + erfc%% ((/
2 ,+ $ 2 ' $ 2 '/.
2
where erfc(t)

t
( )
exp x 2 dx


76

Example: T = 100ps
log(0.5)
log BER
= 2.5 ps
= 5 ps

= 2.5 ps :
t0 (ps)

BER 1012 for t0 [18ps, 82ps] (64 ps eye opening)
= 5 ps :
BER 1012 for t0 [36ps, 74ps] (38 ps eye opening)


77

Bathtub Curves (1)
The bit error-rate vs. sampling time can be measured directly using a bit
error-rate tester (BERT) at various sampling points.
Note: The inherent jitter of the analyzer trigger should be considered.

2 2 2
( )
RJ
Jrms
measured
( )
RJ
= Jrms
actual
( )
RJ
+ Jrms
trigger

78

Bathtub Curves (2)
Bathtub curve can easily be numerically extrapolated to very low BERs

(corresponding to random jitter), allowing much lower measurement times.
Example:
10-12 BER with T = 100ps is
equivalent to an average of 1 error
per 100s. To verify this over a
sample of 100 errors would require
almost 3 hours!

t0 (ps)


79

Equivalent Peak-to-Peak Total Jitter
p(t)
RJ
BER JPP Areas sum
10-10 12.7 to BER

10-11 13.4

10-12 14.1
10-13 14.7
10-14 15.3

1 1
n n
2 2
, T determine BER
RJ
BER determines effective JPP
Total jitter given by:

J TJ = n + JPP
( DJ
)


80

Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) Characteristics and Design

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Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) Characteristics and Design

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Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

If a negative-feedback loop satisfies:

then the circuit will oscillate at frequency 0.

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

3 inverters forming an oscillator:

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Inverter with variable load capacitance: Current-starved inverter:

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

tp is varied by selecting weighted sum of fast and slow inverter.

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

EECS 270C / Spring 2014

Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

B. MOSFET accumulation capacitance Cg

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

400 fF 400 fF 108 fF 108 fF

2. CML buffer load

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

where: 1/ p = CL + Cgd R ( ) (note p < z)

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Yin magnitude/phase: Yin real part/imaginary part:

Contributes 2k additional parallel resistance

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

3. CML tuned buffer load

Contributes negative parallel resistance

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

ideal capacitor load

CML buffer load

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Ring Oscillator LC Oscillator

low Q more jitter generation + high Q less jitter generation

+ Control voltage can be applied Control voltage applied single-ended

+ Easier to design; behavior more Inductors & varactors make design

+ Less chip area More chip area (inductor)

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Random variable: A quantity X whose value is not exactly known.

Probability distribution function PX(x): The probability that a random variable

Probability of X within a range is straightforward:

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Expectation value E[X]: Expected (mean) value of random variable X

Mean square value E[X2]: Mean value of the square of a random

1. Provides a good model for the probability density functions of many

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Consider 2 random variables:

If X and Y are statistically independent (i.e., uncorrelated):

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Consider sum of 2 random variables:

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Central Limit Theorem:

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Variances of sum of random normal processes add.

RX (t1,t2 ) = E [ X (t1) X (t2 )]

For a stationary random process, RX depends only on the time

RX ( ) = E [ X (t) X (t + )] for any t

Power spectral density SX():

EECS 270C / Spring 2014 Prof. M. Green / U.C. Irvine

Relationship between spectral density & autocorrelation function:

For parallel RC circuit