Language Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching

Murat Hismanoglu
mhismanoglu [at] usa.net
Hacettepe University (Ankara, Turkey)
This paper aims at emphasizing the importance of language learning strategies in foreign
language learning and teaching. It summarizes the background of language learning strategies,
defines the concept of a language learning strategy, and outlines the taxonomy of language
learning strategies proposed by several researchers. It also takes into account the teacher's role in
strategy training and poses questions for further research on language learning strategies.

Introduction

There has been a prominent shift within the field of language learning and teaching over the last
twenty years with greater emphasis being put on learners and learning rather than on teachers
and teaching. In parallel to this new shift of interest, how learners process new information and
what kinds of strategies they employ to understand, learn or remember the information has been
the primary concern of the researchers dealing with the area of foreign language learning. This
paper provides the background of language learning strategies, gives various definitions and
taxonomies of language learning strategies presented by several researchers. It also stresses the
importance of language learning strategies for foreign language learning and the teacher's role in
strategy training. In the last section, the paper exhibits some questions for further research on
language learning strategies.

Background of Language Learning Strategies

Research into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. Particularly, developments in
cognitive psychology influenced much of the research done on language learning strategies
(Wiliams and Burden 1997:149). In most of the research on language learning strategies, the
primary concern has been on "identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a
second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or
foreign language." (Rubin and Wenden 1987:19). In 1966, Aaron Carton published his study
entitled The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study, which was the first attempt on
learner strategies.After Carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing research focussing on the strategies
of successful learners and stated that, once identified, such strategies could be made available to
less successful learners. Rubin (1975) classified strategies in terms of processes contributing
directly or indirectly to language learning. Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al.
(1978), Bialystok (1979), Cohen and Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and O'Malley
(1987), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Conti and Kolsody (1997), and many others studied
strategies used by language learners during the process of foreign language learning.

Definition of a Language Learning Strategy

The term language learning strategy has been defined by many researchers. Wenden and Rubin
(1987:19) define learning strategies as "... any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by
the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information." Richards and
Platt (1992:209) state that learning strategies are "intentional behavior and thoughts used by
learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new
information." Faerch Claus and Casper (1983:67) stress that a learning strategy is "an attempt to
develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language." According to Stern
(1992:261), "the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners
consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded
as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques." All language learners use
language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when processing new
information and performing tasks in the language classroom. Since language classroom is like a
problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to face new input and
difficult tasks given by their instructors, learners' attempts to find the quickest or easiest way to
do what is required, that is, using language learning strategies is inescapable.

Language learning strategies language learners use during the act of processing the new
information and performing tasks have been identified and described by researchers. In the
following section, how various researchers have categorized language learning strategies will be
shortly summarized:

Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies

Language Learning Strategies have been classified by many scholars (Wenden and Rubin 1987;
O'Malley et al. 1985; Oxford 1990; Stern 1992; Ellis 1994, etc. ). However, most of these
attempts to classify language learning strategies reflect more or less the same categorizations of
language learning strategies without any radical changes. In what follows, Rubin's (1987),
Oxford's (1990), O'Malley's (1985), and Stern's (1992) taxonomies of language learning
strategies will be handled:

Rubin's (1987) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

Rubin, who pionered much of the work in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between
strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning.
According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or
indirectly to language learning. These are:
Learning Strategies
Communication Strategies
Social Strategies
Learning Strategies
They are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the
language system constructed by the learner:
Cognitive Learning Strategies
Metacognitive Learning Strategies
Cognitive Learning Strategies
They refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct
analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Rubin identified 6 main cognitive
learning strategies contributing directly to language learning:
Clarification / Verification
Guessing / Inductive Inferencing
Deductive Reasoning
Practice
Memorization
Monitoring
Metacognitive Learning Strategies
These strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning. They involve
various processes as planning, prioritising, setting goals, and self-management.
Communication Strategies
They are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of
participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker
intended. Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to
the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted
with misunderstanding by a co-speaker.
Social Strategies
Social strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be
exposed to and practise their knowledge. Although these strategies provide exposure to the target
language, they contribute indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining,
storing, retrieving, and using of language (Rubin and Wenden 1987:23-27).
Oxford's (1990) Classification of Language Learning Strategies
Oxford (1990:9) sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the
development of communicative competence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into
two main classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into 6 groups. In Oxford's
system, metacognitive strategies help learners to regulate their learning. Affective strategies are
concerned with the learner's emotional requirements such as confidence, while social strategies
lead to increased interaction with the target language. Cognitive strategies are the mental
strategies learners use to make sense of their learning, memory strategies are those used for
storage of information, and compensation strategies help learners to overcome knowledge gaps
to continue the communication. Oxford's (1990:17) taxonomy of language learning strategies is
shown in the following :

DIRECT STRATEGIES
I. Memory
A. Creating mental linkages
B. Applying images and sounds
C. Reviewing well
D. Employing action
II.Cognitive
A. Practising
B. Receiving and sending messages strategies
C. Analysing and reasoning
D. Creating structure for input and output
III. Compensation strategies
A. Guessing intelligently
B. Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
INDIRECT STRATEGIES
I. Metacognitive Strategies
A. Centering your learning
B. Arranging and planning your learning
C. Evaluating your learning
II. Affective Strategies
A. Lowering your anxiety
B. Encouraging yourself
C. Taking your emotional temperature
III. Social Strategies
A. Asking questions
B. Cooperating with others
C. Emphathising with others

It can be seen that much of the recent work in this area has been underpinned by a broad concept
of language learning strategies that goes beyond cognitive processes to include social and
communicative strategies.

O'Malley's (1985) Classification of Language Learning Strategies

O'Malley et al. (1985:582-584) divide language learning strategies into three main subcategories:
Metacognitive Strategies
Cognitive Strategies
Socioaffective Strategies
Metacognitive Strategies
It can be stated that metacognitive is a term to express executive function, strategies which
require planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring
of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.
Among the main metacognitive strategies, it is possible to include advance organizers, directed
attention, selective attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed
production, self-evaluation.
Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct
manipulation of the learning material itself. Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note
taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization,
elaboration, transfer, inferencing are among the most important cognitive strategies.
Socioaffective Strategies
As to the socioaffective strategies, it can be stated that they are related with social-mediating
activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main
socioaffective strategies (Brown 1987:93-94).
Stern's (1992) Classification of Language Learning Strategies
According to Stern (1992:262-266), there are five main language learning strategies. These are
as follows:
Management and Planning Strategies
Cognitive Strategies
Communicative - Experiential Strategies
Interpersonal Strategies
Affective Strategies
Management and Planning Strategies
These strategies are related with the learner's intention to direct his own learning. A learner can
take charge of the development of his own programme when he is helped by a teacher whose
role is that of an adviser and resource person. That is to say that the learner must:
decide what commitment to make to language learning
set himself reasonable goals
decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor progress,
evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals and expectations (
Stern 1992:263).
Cognitive Strategies
They are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis,
transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. In the following, some of the cognitive
strategies are exhibited:
Clarification / Verification
Guessing / Inductive Inferencing
Deductive Reasoning
Practice
Memorization
Monitoring
Communicative - Experiential Strategies
Communication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrase, or asking for repetition
and explanation are techniques used by learners so as to keep a conversation going. The purpose
of using these techniques is to avoid interrupting the flow of communication (Stern 1992:265).
Interpersonal Strategies
They should monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance. Learners
should contact with native speakers and cooperate with them. Learners must become acquainted
with the target culture (Stern 1992: 265-266).
Affective Strategies
It is evident that good language learners employ distinct affective strategies. Language learning
can be frustrating in some cases. In some cases, the feeling of strangeness can be evoked by the
foreign language. In some other cases, L2 learners may have negative feelings about native
speakers of L2. Good language learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems.
Good language learners try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language
and its speakers as well as towards the learning activities involved. Learning training can help
students to face up to the emotional difficulties and to overcome them by drawing attention to the
potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern 1992:266).

Importance of Language Learning Strategies in Language Learning and Teaching

Since the amount of information to be processed by language learners is high in language
classroom, learners use different language learning strategies in performing the tasks and
processing the new input they face. Language learning strategies are good indicators of how
learners approach tasks or problems encountered during the process of language learning. In
other words, language learning strategies, while nonobservable or unconsciously used in some
cases, give language teachers valuable clues about how their students assess the situation, plan,
select appropriate skills so as to understand, learn, or remember new input presented in the
language classroom. According to Fedderholdt (1997:1), the language learner capable of using a
wide variety of language learning strategies appropriately can improve his language skills in a
better way. Metacognitive strategies improve organization of learning time, self-monitoring, and
self-evaluation. Cognitive strategies include using previous knowledge to help solve new
problems. Socioaffective strategies include asking native speakers to correct their pronunciation,
or asking a classmate to work together on a particular language problem. Developing skills in
three areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective can help the language learner
build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning.
Lessard-Clouston (1997:3) states that language learning strategies contribute to the development
of the communicative competence of the students. Being a broad concept, language learning
strategies are used to refer to all strategies foreign language learners use in learning the target
language and communication strategies are one type of language learning strategies. It follows
from this that language teachers aiming at developing the communicative competence of the
students and language learning should be familiar with language learning strategies. As Oxford
(1990:1) states, language learning strategies "... are especially important for language learning
because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing
communicative competence." Besides developing the communicative competence of the
students, teachers who train students to use language learning strategies can help them become
better language learners. Helping students understand good language learning strategies and
training them to develop and use such good language learning strategies can be considered to be
the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher (Lessard-Clouston 1997:3). Research
into the good language learning strategies revealed a number of positive strategies so that such
strategies could also be used by bad language learners trying to become more successful in
language learning. However, there is always the possibility that bad language learners can also
use the same good language learning strategies while becoming unsuccessful owing to some
other reasons. At this point, it should be strongly stressed that using the same good language
learning strategies does not guarantee that bad learners will also become successful in language
learning since other factors may also play role in success.

The Teacher's Role in Strategy Training

The language teacher aiming at training his students in using language learning strategies should
learn about the students, their interests, motivations, and learning styles. The teacher can learn
what language learning strategies students already appear to be using, observing their behavior in
class. Do they ask for clarification, verification or correction? Do they cooperate with their peers
or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient foreign language users? Besides
observing their behavior in class, the teacher can prepare a short questionnaire so that students
can fill in at the beginning of a course to describe themselves and their language learning. Thus,
the teacher can learn the purpose of their learning a language, their favorite / least favorite kinds
of class activities, and the reason why they learn a language. The teacher can have adequate
knowledge about the students, their goals, motivations, language learning strategies, and their
understanding of the course to be taught (Lessard-Clouston 1997:5). It is a fact that each learner
within the same classroom may have different learning styles and varied awareness of the use of
strategies. The teacher cannot attribute importance to only one group and support the analytical
approach or only give input by using the auditory mode. The language teacher should, therefore,
provide a wide range of learning strategies in order to meet the needs and expectations of his
students possessing different learning styles, motivations, strategy preferences, etc. Therefore, it
can be stated that the most important teacher role in foreign language teaching is the provision of
a range of tasks to match varied learning styles (Hall 1997:4).
In addition to the students, the language teacher should also analyze his textbook to see whether
the textbook already includes language learning strategies or language learning strategies
training. The language teacher should look for new texts or other teaching materials if language
learning strategies are not already included within his materials.

The language teacher should also study his own teaching method and overall classroom style.
Analyzing his lesson plans, the language teacher can determine whether his lesson plans give
learners chance to use a variety of learning styles and strategies or not. The teacher can see
whether his teaching allows learners to approach the task at hand in different ways or not. The
language teacher can also be aware of whether his strategy training is implicit, explicit, or both.
It should be emphasized that questioning himself about what he plans to do before each lesson
and evaluating his lesson plan after the lesson in terms of strategy training, the teacher can
become better prepared to focus on language learning strategies and strategy training during the
process of his teaching (Lessard-Clouston 1997:5).

Conclusion

Language learning strategies, being specific actions, behaviors, tactics, or techniques, facilitate
the learning of the target language by the language learner. All language learners, needless to
say, use language learning strategies in the learning process. Since the factors like age, gender,
personality, motivation, self-concept, life-experience, learning style, excitement, anxiety, etc.
affect the way in which language learners learn the target language, it is not reasonable to
support the idea that all language learners use the same good language learning strategies or
should be trained in using and developing the same strategies to become successful learners. As
Lessard-Clouston (1997:8) mentions, studies to be done on language learning strategies and
strategy training should move beyond descriptive taxonomies of language learning strategies and
attempt to seek for answers to a wide range of questions, such as: What types of language
learning strategies appear to work best with what learners in which contexts? Does language
learning strategies or language learning strategies training transfer easily between L2 and FL
contexts? What is the role of language proficiency in language learning strategies use and
training? How long does it take to train specific learners in certain language learning strategies?
How can one best assess and measure success in language learning strategies use or training?
Are certain language learning strategies learned more easily in classroom and non-classroom
contexts? What language learning strategies should be taught at different proficiency levels? It
can be expected that answers to the above mentioned and many other questions from research in
a variety of settings will pave the way for building the theory that seems necessary for more
language learning strategies work to be relevant to current L2 / FL teaching practice.
References

BROWN, Douglas. 1987. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.

LESSARD-CLOUSTON, Michael. 1997. "Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2

Teachers" on The Internet TESL Journal

FAERCH, Claus and G. KASPER. 1983. Strategies in Interlanguage Communication. London:

Longman.

FEDDERHOLDT, Karen. 1997. "Using Diaries to Develop Language Learning Strategies" on

Internet

HALL, Stephen. 1997. "Language Learning Strategies: from the ideals to classroom tasks".
Language and Communication Division, Temasek Polytechnic on Internet
O'MALLEY, J. Michael, CHAMOT, Anna U., STEWNER-MANZANARES, Gloria, RUSSO,
Rocco P., and L. KUPPER. 1985. "Learning Strategy Applications with Students of English as a
Second Language" in TESOL Quarterly 19: 557-584.

OXFORD, Rebecca. 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know.
New York: Newbury House Publishers.

RICHARDS, J. and John PLATT. 1992. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman.

STERN, H.H. 1992. Issues and Options in Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP.

WENDEN, A. and Joan RUBIN. 1987. Learner Strategies in Language Learning. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.

WILLIAMS, M. and Robert L. BURDEN. 1997. Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social
Constructivist Approach. Cambridge: CUP.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 8, August 2000

http://iteslj.org/

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Hismanoglu-Strategies.html

Learning strategies are definedasspecificactions,behaviors,steps,ortechniques-- such as seeking

out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task --
used by students to enhance their own learning(Scarcella&Oxford,1992,p. 63). When the
learner consciously chooses strategies that fit his or her learning style and the L2 task at hand,
these strategies become a useful toolkit for active, conscious, and purposeful selfregulation of
learning. Learning strategies can be classified into six groups: cognitive, metacognitive,
memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social. Each of these is discussed later in this
chapter

Learning Strategies

As seen earlier, L2 learning strategies are specific behaviors or thought processes that students
use to enhance their own L2 learning.

The word strategy comes from the ancient Greek word strategia, which means steps or actions
taken for the purpose of winning a war. The warlike meaning of strategia has fortunately fallen
away, but the control and goaldirectedness remain in the modern version of the word (Oxford,
1990).

A given strategy is neither good nor bad; it is essentially neutral until the context of its use is
thoroughly considered. What makes a strategy positive and helpful for a given learner? A
strategy is useful if the following conditions are present: (a) the strategy relates well to the
L2taskathand,(b)thestrategyfitstheparticularstudentslearning style preferences to one degree or
another, and (c) the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other
relevantstrategies.Strategiesthatfulfilltheseconditionsmakelearning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, moreeffective,andmoretransferabletonewsituations(Oxford,
Learning Styles & Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 9 9 1990, p. 8).

Learning strategies can also enable students to become more independent, autonomous, lifelong
learners (Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991). Yet students are not always aware of the power of
consciously using L2 learning strategies for making learning quicker and more effective (Nyikos
& Oxford, 1993). Skilled teachers help their students develop an awareness of learning strategies
and enable them to use a wider range of appropriate strategies. Strategy Use Often Relates to
Style Preferences When left to their own devices and if not encouraged by the teacher or forced
by the lesson to use a certain set of strategies, students typically use learning strategies that
reflect their basic learning styles (Ehrman & Oxford, 1989; Oxford, 1996a, 1996b). However,
teachers canactivelyhelpstudentsstretchtheirlearningstylesbytryingoutsomestrategiesthatare
outside of their primary style preferences. This can happen through strategy instruction, as
discussed later in this chapter.

Conscious Movement Toward Goals Learning strategies are intentionally used and consciously
controlled by the learner (Pressley with McCormick, 1995). In our field, virtually all definitions
of strategies imply conscious movement toward a language goal (Bialystok, 1990; Oxford, 1990,
1996a). Let us consider Divna, whose goal is to conduct research in chemistry with the help of
articles written in the L2. She is a busy professional without a lot of extra time for reading
journals, but she needs the information contained in them. To meet the need, she plans a
manageable task: finding and reading one L2 article per week on chemistry until she develops a
rapid reading rate and is able to identify and understand published research findings. Other
strategies to help Divna accomplish this task might include scheduling time each week to search
for an article in Learning Styles & Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 10 10 the library or on
the Internet, as well as preparing herself by looking at articles on related topics in her own
language. In addition, she could use strategies such as skimming for the main points, reading
carefully for supporting details, keeping a notebook for L2 scientific vocabulary, using the
dictionary to look up difficult words, guessing the meaning of words from the context, and
making a written outline or summary if needed. The well-orchestrated set of strategies used by
Divna might be called a strategy chain, i.e., a set of interlocking, related, and mutually
supportive strategies.

Positive Outcomes from Strategy Use In subject areas outside of L2 learning, the use of learning
strategies is demonstrably related to student achievement and proficiency (Pressley &
Associates, 1990). Research has repeatedly shown this relationship in content fields ranging from
physics to reading and from social studies to science. In light of this remarkable association
between learning strategy use and positive learning outcomes, it is not surprising that students
who frequently employ learning strategies enjoy a high level of self-efficacy, i.e., a perception of
being effective as learners (Zimmerman & Pons, 1986). In the L2 arena, early studies of so-
calledgoodlanguagelearners(Naiman,Frhlich, Stern, & Todesco, 1975; Rubin, 1975)
determined that such learners consistently used certain types of learning strategies, such as
guessing meaning from the context. Later studies found
thattherewasnosinglesetofstrategiesalwaysusedbygoodlanguagelearners,however. Those
studies found that less able learners used strategies in a random, unconnected, and uncontrolled
manner (Abraham & Vann, 1987; Chamot et al., 1996), while more effective learners showed
careful orchestration of strategies, targeted in a relevant, systematic way at specific L2 tasks. In
an investigation by Nunan (1991), more effective learners differed from Learning Styles &
Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 11 11 less effective learners in their greater ability to
reflect on and articulate their own language learning processes. In a study of learners of English
in Puerto Rico, more successful students used strategies for active involvement more frequently
than did less successful learners, according to Green and Oxford (1995). The same researchers
also commented that the number and type of learning strategies differed according to whether the
learner was in a foreign language environment or a second language setting. In their review of
the research literature, Green and Oxford discovered that second language learners generally
employed more strategies (with a higher frequency) than did foreign language learners. Strategy
Instruction Research To increase L2 proficiency, some researchers and teachers have provided
instruction that helped students learn how to use more relevant and more powerful learning
strategies. In ESL/EFL studies, positive effects of strategy instruction emerged for proficiency in
speaking (Dadour&Robbins,1996;OMalley,Chamot,Stewner-Manzanares, Kpper, & Russo,
1985) and reading (Park-Oh,1994),althoughresultsforlisteningwerenotsignificant(OMalleyet al.,
1985). Chamot et al. (1996), Cohen et al. (1995), and Cohen and Weaver (1998) investigated the
effects of strategy instruction among native-English-speaking learners of foreign languages and
found some positive results mixed with neutral findings. In other studies, strategy instruction led
to increased EFL learning motivation (Nunan, 1997) and, among native-English-speaking
learners of foreign languages, greater strategy use and self-efficacy (Chamot et al., 1996). The
most effective strategy instruction appears to include demonstrating when a given strategy might
be useful, as well as how to use and evaluate it, and how to transfer it to other related tasks and
situations. So far, research has shown the most beneficial strategy instruction Learning Styles &
Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 12 12 to be woven into regular, everyday L2 teaching,
although other ways of doing strategy instruction are possible (Oxford & Leaver, 1996). Six
Main Categories of L2 Learning Strategies Six major groups of L2 learning strategies have been
identified by Oxford (1990). Alternative taxonomies
havebeenofferedbyOMalleyandChamot(1990)andothers. Cognitive strategies enable the learner
to manipulate the language material in direct ways, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note-taking,
summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas
(knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds
formally. Cognitive strategies were significantly related to L2 proficiency in studies by Kato
(1996), Ku (1995), Oxford and Ehrman (1995), Oxford, Judd, and Giesen (1998), and Park
(1994), among others. Of these studies, three were specifically in EFL settings: Ku (Taiwan),
Oxford, Judd, and Giesen (Turkey), and Park (Korea). The other two studies involved the
learning of Kanji by native English speakers (Kato, 1996) and the learning of various foreign
languages by native English speakers (Oxford & Ehrman, 1995). Metacognitive strategies
(e.g.,identifyingonesownlearningstylepreferencesand needs, planning for an L2 task, gathering
and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and
evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy) are
employed for managing the learning process overall. Among native English speakers learning
foreign languages, Purpura (1999) found that metacognitive strategies had "a significant,
positive, direct effect on cognitive strategy use, providing clear evidence that metacognitive
strategy use has an executive function over cognitive strategy use in task completion" (p. 61).
Studies of EFL learners in various countries (e.g., in South Africa, Learning Styles &
Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 13 13 Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; and in Turkey, Oxford,
Judd, & Giesen, 1998) uncovered evidence that metacognitive strategies are often strong
predictors of L2 proficiency. Memory-related strategies help learners link one L2 item or concept
with another but do not necessarily involve deep understanding. Various memory-related
strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms),
while other techniques create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a
mental picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and
images (e.g., the keyword method), body movement (e.g., total physical response), mechanical
means (e.g., flashcards), or location (e.g., on a page or blackboard) (see Oxford, 1990 for details
and multiple examples). Memory-related strategies have been shown to relate to L2 proficiency
in a course devoted to memorizing large numbers of Kanji characters (Kato, 1996) and in L2
courses designed for native-English speaking learners of foreign languages (Oxford & Ehrman,
1995). However, memory-related strategies do not always positively relate to L2 proficiency. In
fact, the use of memory strategies in a test-taking situation had a significant negative relationship
to learners' test performance in grammar and vocabulary (Purpura, 1997). The probable reason
for this is that memory strategies are often used for memorizing vocabulary and structures in
initial stages of language learning, but that learners need such strategies much less when their
arsenal of vocabulary and structures has become larger. Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing
from the context in listening and reading; using
synonymsandtalkingaroundthemissingwordtoaidspeakingandwriting;andstrictlyfor speaking,
using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up for missing knowledge. Cohen (1998)
asserted that compensatory strategies that are used for speaking and writing (often known as a
form of communication strategies) are intended only for language use and Learning Styles &
Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 14 14 must not be considered to be language learning
strategies. However, Little (personal communication, January, 1999) and Oxford (1990, 1999a)
contend that compensation strategies of any kind, even though they might be used for language
use, nevertheless aid in language learning as well. After all, each instance of L2 use is an
opportunity for more L2 learning. Oxford and Ehrman (1995) demonstrated that compensatory
strategies are significantly related to L2 proficiency in their study of native-English-speaking
learners of foreign languages. Affective strategies, such as
identifyingonesmoodandanxietylevel,talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good
performance, and using deep breathing or positive selftalk, have been shown to be significantly
related to L2 proficiency in research by Dreyer and Oxford (1996) among South African EFL
learners and by Oxford and Ehrman (1995) among native English speakers learning foreign
languages. However, in other studies, such as that of Mullins (1992) with EFL learners in
Thailand, affective strategies showed a negative link with some measures of L2 proficiency. One
reason might be that as some students progress toward proficiency, they no longer need affective
strategies as much as before. Perhaps because
learnersuseofcognitive,metacognitive,andsocialstrategiesisrelatedtogreaterL2 proficiency and
self-efficacy, over time there might be less need for affective strategies as learners progress to
higher proficiency. Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for
clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-
speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) help the learner work
with others and understand the target culture as well as the language. Social strategies were
significantly associated with L2 proficiency in studies by the South African EFL study by
Learning Styles & Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 15 15 Dreyer and Oxford (1996) and the
investigation of native-English-speaking foreign language learners by Oxford and Ehrman
(1995).

AssessingLearnersUseofStrategies Many assessment tools exist for uncovering the strategies

used by L2 learners. Selfreport surveys, observations, interviews, learner journals, dialogue
journals, think-aloud techniques, and other measures have been used. Each one of these has
advantages and disadvantages, as analyzed by Oxford (1990) and Cohen and Scott (1996). The
most widely used survey, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (an appendix in Oxford,
1990), has been translated into more than 20 languages and used in dozens of published studies
around the world. Various learning strategy instruments have disclosed research results beyond
those that have been mentioned above. These additional findings include the following: L2
learning strategy use is significantly related to L2 learning motivation, gender, age, culture, brain
hemisphere dominance, career orientation, academic major, beliefs, and the nature of the L2 task.
A number of these findings have been summarized in Oxford (1999a, 1999b). Implications for
L2 Teaching The research synthesized in this chapter has four implications for classroom
practice: assessing styles and strategies in the L2 classroom, attuning L2 instruction and strategy
instructiontolearnersstylepreferences,rememberingthatnosingleL2instructional methodology fits
all students, and preparing for and conducting strategy instruction. Assessing Styles and
Strategies in the L2 Classroom L2 teachers could benefit by assessing the learning styles and the
strategy use of their students, because such assessment leads to greater understanding of styles
and strategies. Learning Styles & Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 16 16 Teachers also need
to assess their styles and strategies, so that they will be aware of their preferences and of possible
biases. Useful means exist to make these assessments, as mentioned earlier. Teachers can learn
about assessment options by reading books or journals, attending professional conferences, or
taking relevant courses or workshops.
AttuningL2InstructionandStrategyInstructiontoLearnersStyleNeeds The more that teachers
know about their students' style preferences, the more effectively they can orient their L2
instruction, as well as the strategy teaching that can be interwoven into language instruction,
matched to those style preferences. Some learners might need instruction presented more
visually, while others might require more auditory, kinesthetic,
ortactiletypesofinstruction.Withoutadequateknowledgeabouttheirindividualstudents style
preferences, teachers cannot systematically provide the needed instructional variety.
Remembering that No Single L2 Instructional Methodology Fits All Students
Stylesandstrategieshelpdetermineaparticularlearnersabilityandwillingnessto work within the
framework of various instructional methodologies. It is foolhardy to think that a single L2
methodology could possibly fit an entire class filled with students who have a range of stylistic
and strategic preferences. Instead of choosing a specific instructional methodology, L2 teachers
would do better to employ a broad instructional approach, notably the best version of the
communicative approach that contains a combined focus on form and fluency. Such an approach
allows for deliberate, creative variety to meet the needs of all students in the class. Learning
Styles & Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 17 17 Preparing for and Conducting L2 Strategy
Instruction L2 teachers should consider various ways to prepare to conduct strategy instruction in
their classes. Helpful preparatory steps include taking teacher development courses, finding
relevant information in print or on the Internet, and making contacts with specialists. Although
we do not yet know all we wish to know about optimal strategy instruction, there is growing
evidence that L2 teachers can and should conduct strategy instruction in their classrooms. For
some teachers it might be better to start with small strategy interventions, such as helping L2
readers learn to analyze words and guess meanings from the context, rather than with full-scale
strategies-based instruction involving a vast array of learning strategies and the four language
skills, i.e., reading, writing, speaking and listening. (See Oxford, 1990, for a table of L2
strategies based on the six categories cross-indexed by the four language skills.) Other teachers
might want to move rapidly into strategies-based instruction. Strategiesbased
instructionisnotsomuchaseparateinstructionalmethodasitissoundstrategy instruction interwoven
with the general communicative language teaching approach noted
above.ChamotandOMalley(1996)describetheCALLAmodel,aformofstrategies-based instruction
for ESL learners that includes explicit strategy instruction, content area instruction, and academic
language development. Cohen (1998) presents a different but somewhat related version of
strategies-based instruction for native English speakers learning foreign languages.
Inevaluatingthesuccessofanystrategyinstruction,teachersshouldlookforindividuals progress
toward L2 proficiency and for signs of increased self-efficacy or motivation. Learning Styles &
Strategies/Oxford, GALA 2003 Page 18 18 References Abraham, R., & Vann, R., 1987:
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Second-language Use. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell. Chamot, A.U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P., &
Robbins, J., 1996: Methods for teaching learning strategies in the foreign language classroom. In
R. Oxford (Ed.), Language Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross-cultural Perspectives
(pp. 175-188). Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.
Chamot,A.U.,&OMalley,J.M.,1996:ImplementingtheCognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach (CALLA). In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language Learning Strategies Around the World:
Cross-cultural Perspectives (pp. 167-174). Manoa: University of Hawaii Press. Cohen, A.D.,
1998: Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Essex, U.K.: Longman. Cohen, A.D.
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