The Mirroring Effect of

Persian and Hebrew Typography on

Refabulation of Culture

by

Shirin Raban

Myth, Magic and Mind

Professor Allen F. Roberts
June 7, 2012


Rose and mirror and sun and moonwhat are they?

Wherever we looked, there was always Thy face.

Urdu poet Mir

The geographical, religious and political climates in ancient Persia and modern Iran, have

provided a fertile ground for peoples with various beliefs to live and interact alongside each other

for thousands of years, reflecting the rich and colorful rainbow of Iranian culture as a whole. The

role of typography1 as the visual form of the written word has gone beyond being the mirror that

reflects the accounts of these lives through time. It has become the agent of fabulation2 and

refabulation3 of culture through the many religious and political disjunctions4 people have had to

bear, by presenting symbolism in myths. This paper examines aspects of the enantiomorphic5

relationship of typography with ancient and contemporary eras of Persian cultural and political

life, in the attempt to shed some light on how typography has helped shape culture in Iran

and Diaspora.

I. Ancient Persia The Ritualistic Era

In post Islamic ancient Persia, ritual6 and communitas7 have defined the structure in all

levels and facets of life for Muslims and religious minorities alike. Religion and poetry have been

at the heart of everything, as they have both carried important symbolism from sacred and

mythological text, to provide heuristic models8 for extraordinarily difficult times. Juxtaposition

of calligraphy and imagery has acted as the main vehicle for communicating the message. The

spiritual aspects of this relationship have surfaced in Sufism, celebrating love, beauty, unity of

humanity and healing.

The Arab conquest of Persia created a major shift in Persian culture through forced

conversion in religious practices as well as change of the Pahlavi alphabet to Arabic. Henri-Jean

Martin indicates many aspects of this issue eloquently in this quotation:

The Koran the word of God, could be read only in its original text, as Allah had dictated
it to Mohammed in classical Arabic. Prohibited to copy it in anything but its canonical
form. Arabic became the sole official administrative language in conquered lands. The
graphic system of written Arabic was applied to Persian, and Pahlavi (Middle Persian)
script, which had been in use up to that point, was eliminated (32).

Kufic, Thuluth and Naskh (see figures 1, 2) are calligraphy styles for Arabic writing

(Anderson 1969, 301). As the Arabic calligraphy for writing the Koran was applied to needs of

merchants and administrative writing as well as poetry, new Persian variations of the alphabet

were developed that did not mark vowels above and below the words. Nastaliq (see fig. 3) the

bride of the Islamic styles of writings, is certainly an ideal vehicle for poetical texts, and the

combination of fine poetry written in elegant nastaliq (Schimmel 2012).

Figure 1. Kufic Figure 2. Naskh

Source: Anderson 1969, 300. Source: Anderson 1969, 301.

Figure 3. Nastaliq
Source: Schimmel 2012

Post Islamic Persian typography, as it is based on the Arabic alphabet, rises from the same

Aramaic origin as Hebrew. Andrew Robinson explains,

Modern Hebrew letters (see fig. 4) evolved from Phoenician letters via the Aramaic script,
as did modern Arabic letters. There are a few resemblances to the Phoenician letters, but
most of the letters are different. Note that vowels are not directly marked in Hebrew or
Arabic. In due course vowels came to be marked using three basic signs above and below
the line (see fig. 5). In Arabic, there are also extra consonants. 28 in all (173).

Donald M. Anderson denotes that the classical Hebrew alphabet, called squared Hebrew,

became standardized during the second and first centuries B.C. (Anderson 1969, 303). In my

conversation with Rabbi Chaim Seidler, I found out that the style of the Hebrew calligraphy

used in Persian prayer books (see fig. 6) and other documents was reminiscent of the curved

slants in Persian letterforms. The vowels of this alphabet are similar to the Persian counterpart

and placed above the letters.

Figure 4. European Square Hebrew (except for lamed)

Source: Anderson 1969, 303

Figure 6. Old Persian Prayer Book

Source: Private Library of Rabbi Chaim Seidler

Figure 5. Alphabet Chart

Source: Robinson 1995, 173

The golden years of Sufism were between ninth and fifteenth centuries, when the

elaboration of universal unity and attainment of God flourished in form of Persian and also

Hebrew calligraphy as seen in poetry, architectural monuments (see fig. 7, 8), artifacts and rugs.

It was during this era that great men such as Ibn Arabi, Rumi, Attar, Shah Nimatullah Wali,

and others were born (Bayat and Jamnia 1994, 11). The design of many buildings and

architecture in general, the patterns of poetry and music, and the visual effects of colors and

calligraphy are all areas of Sufi influence in the Middle East (Bayat and Jamnia 1994, 9). In

fact, the proportions of calligraphy are the key for understanding of the proportions of Islamic

architecture (Nasr 1987, 26).

Figure 7. Persian Mosque Calligraphy

Source: Cordelia 2007

Figure 8. Persian Synagogue Calligraphy

Source: Meek 1995, 116-117.

Sufism and Kabbalah as the spiritual sides of Islam and Judaism have had many encounters

throughout history. As Thomas Block compares Kabbalah and Sufi theology, he explains that

they have mirrored each other at different instances. He asserts that there is enough Islamic

Mystical thought reflected in the Kabbalah to hint at their connection (Block 2010, 172). He

then, discusses the Islamic mystics that appeared to follow the earlier Jewish Hasidim (Block

2010, 6). Professor Michael McGaha points out in his Sefer ha-Bahir and Andalusian Sufism:

It was no coincidence that the earliest Kabbalistic writings and the work of [Sufi
philosopher] Ibn Arabi appeared around the same time [late 12th-early 13th centuries].
Jewish refugees from Muslim Spain were breathing new life into the doctrines and
imagery developed by the Sufis in Baghdad and later in Andaluisa, creating the new
system of mysticism known as the Kabbalah. (57)

Both Muslim and Jewish traditions have white prayer shirts (see fig. 9, 10) with fringes on

the sides that glorify the name of God. The rituals and symbolism used in each shirt are different,

but both items are dominant ritual symbols that act as the mirror to the soul in connecting one to

God through polarization of meaning9. The Muslim prayer shirts are covered with powerfully

beautiful religious calligraphy and khatems (mystical squares that Mouride diviner/healers write

the name of someone who has come in need of divine intervention to heal.) These shirts are only

prepared for the few privileged persons who have access to them. (Roberts 2003, 182). The

Jewish prayer shirts are to be worn by Jewish men as a daily ritual. They do not carry any visible

written words. However, the four corners, each hung with tassels made of knotted threads the

number of knots and the number of times a thread is wrapped around the others in the tassel

corresponds numerically to the name of God. (Alain-Ouaknin 1997, 16). The visible signs

contained within each shirt become the ideological pole10, and the connection to God that

the person feels through wearing the shirt, becomes the sensory pole11 of this ritual.

(Turner 1967, 28)

Figure 9. Muslim Prayer Shirt Figure 10. Jewish Prayer Shirt

Source: Roberts 2003, 182 Source: Talit Katan 2012

Jews in Persia spoke a variety of southern, central, and northeastern Iranian dialects

(Yeroushalmi, 2002). There exist numerous written records i.e., inscriptions, legal documents,

and private correspondence dating from the eighth and ninth centuriesthat are written in one or

another Iranian language and transcribed into Hebrew characters (Yeroushalmi, 2002). While

preserving and cherishing the sacred texts and traditions of Judaism, Iranian Jews made use of

the Persian language and its varied literary forms, styles, and contents (Yeroushalmi, 2002).

Judeo Persian text also appears transcribing mainstream Persian poetry such as the epic of

Khosrow and Shirin of the great Sufi poet Nizami (see fig. 11). The contingency12 of Persian

language written in Hebrew letters, became the pronominal structure that helped preserve

Persian words during a time that Muslims were supposed to use Arabic words and Persian words

were dying out. The Jews of Iran have been said to be the keepers of the ancient language.

(Moreen 2002, 63-74).

Figure 11. Epic of Khosrow and Shirin

Source: Sarshar 2002, 83.

This recondite speech13 stems from the many centuries of restrictions and limitations posed

on the Jews by Islamic rule, especially Shiism. Most notably, Jews were considered impure and

were forbidden to read the holy Koran (Ebrami 2002, 96-102). As a major element of Persian

life, myth in poetry becomes the symbol in a ritual that refabulates a culture that helps the Jewish

population to survive through hopeless life conditions. One such myth is created through the

poetry of seventeenth century Jewish poet, Shahin, asserting that Queen Esther is the mother of

King Cyrus. This poem is presented in the format of an illuminated manuscript (see fig. 12).

Figure 12. Birth of King Cyrus

Source: Sarshar 2002, 91.

Forced conversions and pogroms were a recurring event throughout the Islamic history of

Persia. During the 16th Century, the Safavid dynasty introduced a policy of forcible conversion of

Sunni Muslims and religious minorities to the Shiite form of Islam (Moreen 2002, 63-74). In the

nineteenth century, the Jewish population of Mashhad demonstrated the efficacy14 of

communitas as they decided to convert to Islam to avoid pogrom. However, they managed to

lead a dual life as devout Muslims in public, as they simultaneously practicing Orthodox Jewish

rituals in secret. All of their religious documents such as marriage contracts (see figures 13, 14)

were rendered in both Persian and Hebrew versions (Pirnazar 2002, 117-136).

Figure 13. Persian Wedding Document Figure 14. Hebrew Wedding Document
Source: Pirnazar 2002, 126 Source: Pirnazar 2002, 127

One of the most prominent symbols of weddings and other life cycle rituals has been the

mirror. Encyclopedia of Religion asserts that divination by mirror (or catoptromancy) originated

in Persia (Melchior-Bonnet 2005). The mirror, in the ancient Zoroastrian religion of pre-Islamic

Persia, presented the duality of Ahuramazda and Ahriman or good and evil. Nowruz, the ancient

Zoroastrian festival of Spring, is still being celebrated by Iranians of all faiths. Ehsan Yarshater

explains in the Encyclopedia of Religion:

In addition to the sabzeh and the haft-sn, the Nowrz table is adorned with a mirror,
a copy of the holy book of the household's faith, a bowl of water in which green leaves
or flower petals may float, and colored eggs, as well as fruits, fresh herbs, cakes,
and candies.

10


The mirror and the bowl of water are symbols of light and good fortune in the coming new

year. Aside from the mirror sitting side by side with the calligraphy of the holy book, there are

traditional mirrors framed in silver and adorned with Hebrew or Arabic calligraphy.

The mirror has been used as the metaphor for mystical love of the Divine in Sufi poetry.

Anne Marie Schimmel explains that the feminine element, becomes a mirror capable of

reflecting the divine in the Sufi poetry of Rumi, Ibn Arabi and Bayzeid Bistami. The smooth

front side and the heavily decorated back side of the mirror have been compared in poems to

emphasize the purity of the Divine against the material world. This idea comes up in many

ancient religious instances such as (Shimmel 1995, 107-117). Jewish prophet Isaiah scolded the

Hebrew women for using mirrors in self admiration (Pendergrast 2003, 1-27).

II. Contemporary Iran and Diaspora The Artistic Era

During late nineteenth century, as a result of the Industrial Revolution in Europe, the

printing press made it possible to arrange typography on a mass scale, and for political ideas and

news to circulate at an unparalleled speed. Availability of political books, newspapers and

magazines, as well as the interference of foreign powers, was instrumental in the formation of the

constitutional revolution of early twentieth century (Constitutional Revolution 2012). For the

educated and scientific minded, the traditional model for sacred ritual gave way to folklore15 as a

more popular way of dealing with religion and spirituality in a newly emerged secular and

nationalistic society. Unification of the Persian language and written word across the nation, and

allowing equal rights to education for religious minorities, limited the use of Hebrew and other

alphabets to traditional religious purposes (Sahim 2002, 285-293). Classical poetry and prose

gave way to Modern poetry, and creative writing of fiction, inspired by European existentialist

and other literary movements. In 1937, Nima Youshig, the Father of modern Persian poetry,

11


introduced the first symbolist free verse based on French symbolist poems (Yushij 2012). Sadeq

Hedayat who studied literature in France, and later on studied Middle Persian in India, created a

number of literary works including his 1936 modernist novel, Buf-e kur. The book has many

identifiable Persian, French, Indian and other international sources (Hedayat 2012).

The superficial push for westernizing Iran and the interference of foreign governments was

a major component in the eruption of the 1979 Islamic revolution. Typography was a major

force in this liminal16 instance of time; it was used not only as the written message in books,

articles, newspapers, magazines and flyers, it was also explicitly displayed on huge horizontal

banners carried by furious demonstrators, and was written on walls as political graffiti. Iranian

Jews participated in demonstrations, as they carried banners, (see fig. 15) in solidarity with the

Islamic republic (Menasheri 2002, 381-402).

Figure 15. Jewish Demonstrators in Support of the Islamic Republic

The new model for statesmanship proved to be frightfully more authoritarian than the

previous regime, in having very low regard for basic human rights of its own citizens. Once

again, minorities were called unholy by the ruling entity (Ebrami 96-102). Religious minorities

were treated as second-rate citizens. However, this time, they were not stripped of their right to

12


use Persian alphabet, or to move into ghettos. This rigid disjunction, along with a long-term war,

created a liminal environment for the people in Iran and those who were forced or chose to exile,

to attempt to reinvent their ways.

During the early revolution years in Iran, in an effort to revive traditional Islamic ways, the

government banned most of the expressive arts, including non-religious music. Artistic

calligraphy and traditional Persian music became very popular as the means to express ancient

myths written by Sufis and poets such as Rumi, Hafez and Saadi. This new calligraphy takes

inspiration from historical and religious sources such as mosques and illuminated manuscripts, as

well as Persian poetry and mythology to create brand new multivalent17 artistic applications.

Instead of being paired with representational miniature paintings or decorative borders, the type

takes a new life of its own, becoming the image. The calligraphy and calligraphic paintings of

Mohammed Jalil Rasouli (see figures 16, 17) one of the founders of the new Persian calligraphy,

spans through curvilinear shapes of Nastalique Shekasteh to more free forms (Rasouli 2012). Ali

Bozorgmehr (see fig. 18) uses calligraphy to create exquisite animal shapes (Bozorgmehr 2012).

Figure 16. Mohammad Jalil Rasouli

Source: Rasouli 2012

Figure 17. Mohammad Jalil Rasouli

Source: Rasouli 2012

13


Figure 18. Ali Bozorgmehr

Source: Google Search

Despite the oppressive and limiting atmosphere regarding the arts, the worldwide web has

opened the doors to a brave new world. Here is yet another opportunity for artists to experiment

and project their voice beyond the confines of the system. For Jews, however, the Hebrew

calligraphy used by their great grandfathers has been long forgotten, and instead, the printed

squarish Roman version has become routinzed18 in the language of prayer in religious rituals. As

a community Jews have learned to keep to themselves and be spared from getting into trouble.

They are not particularly interested in participating in the arts any more. Of course there are

always exceptions to the rule. Krista Nassi (see fig. 19) is an Iranian-American Jewish graphic

14


designer and painter who creates installations for the most part, but when she moved to Los

Angeles, she designed a street banner celebrating Nowruz, the Iranian festival of Spring (Nassi

2012). This is a yearly project sponsored by Los Angeles County Museum of Art in collaboration

with Farhang Foundation, whose mission is to celebrate and promote the study and research of

Iranian art and culture for the benefit of the community at large (Farhang Foundation 2012).

Figure 19. Krista Nassi

Source: Farhang Foundation 2011, Nowruz Banner Contest

In response to the international sanctions placed on Iran during the American hostage

crisis, typography started emerging in multivalent forms of graphic design. A culture of self-

reliance prompted the establishment of a new school of performance to create national movies.

15


Along with movie titles, movie posters and political posters came to exist. Pedram Harby, (see

fig. 20) an award winning graphic designer who mixes Farsi and English in his posters, says, As

Iranian designers want to participate in international exhibitions, we predominantly use English

in the designs so people outside of Iran can understand our work. (Harby 2006, 58-65)

Figure 20. Pedram Harby

Source: Harby 2006, 58-65

16


These movies and also the posters have become quite vocal in the international forums as

they have claimed numerous awards due to creative use of metaphors and symbolism in

presenting in-depth and sensitive social issues through the filter of a heavily censored

environment. A vivid example is the 2012 Oscar winning Iranian movie, A Separation. A

review in the Los Angeles Times states, The early front-runner for the foreign-language Oscar

and a rare triple prize winner at the Berlin International Film Festival, this is a movie from

Iran unlike any we've seen before. And it's arrived at a time when other Iranian filmmakers, like

the more overtly political Jafar Panahi, are being forbidden to work. (Turan 2011) The efficacy

of this Iranian movie in unifying peoples has become apparent, as it became an overnight

sensation in Israel. According to Times of Israel, Israeli newspapers warn daily of the Iranian

nuclear threat, but for the past week and a half, Israeli filmgoers have packed movie theaters to

watch a drama set in Tehran. (Cheslow 2012)

Figure 21. A Separation

Source: Cheslow 2012

17


This display of recondite speech and use of secrecy19 in communication through use of

metaphors, is deeply rooted in Persian poetry and prose, as part of Sufism and also because of the

flexible nature of the Persian alphabet. Non-religious writing does not display vowels on top or

bottom of letters, which in turn presents the opportunity for ambiguity20. The same word can be

read in different ways that present a completely different meaning. The word dard means

pain and the word dord means pearl (see fig. 22)

!" !"
!"#$$$$$$$$!%#
!%%#$ &'"#(

Figure 22. Recondite Speech

Although mediums are similar inside and outside of Iran, typography in Diaspora takes a

different path. Outside of Iran, artists do not have the cultural and political restrictions and focus

that exists inside of Iran. Aside from the strong communitas that Iranians are practicing in

Diaspora, individual artists are paving the way in this inchoate21 state of being to refabulate and

give articulation22 to this mass cultural transition. In effect, the artwork becomes an expression of

individuality reflecting on a variety of ideas such as survival, nostalgia, identity, obligation,

community, or simply art for the sake of art.

Mohammad Heidari (see fig. 23) is a calligrapher and author in Los Angeles, whose work

follows the nostalgic style of Iranian calligraphy with a modern twist (Heidari 2012). Mitra

Forouzan (see fig. 24) is a Jewish painter in Los Angeles. Her work explores the poetic nature of

life and dreams, making visual reference to Sufi symbolism (Forouzan 2012). Charles Hossein

18


Zenderoudi (see fig. 25) is a graphic designer, painter and writer, living in Paris. He uses Persian

calligraphy as image in his paintings. He calls himself a citizen of the world (Restany 2012).

Figure 23. Mohammad Heidari Figure 24. Mitra Forouzan

Source: Heidari 2012, Calligraphy Gallery Source: Forouzan 2012, Mitra Forouzan Gallery

Figure 25. Charles Hossein Zenderoudi

Source: Crowns of Love 2012

19


The crossroads that are experienced through exposure to the multivocality23 of genres and

international artistic movements in typography, graphic design and performing arts have added

the third dimension of globalism to the enantiomorphic effect between Persian and Hebrew

typography. As the context has changed, there are no clear boundaries or central force as

unifying factor. A new hybrid culture is in the making.

Persian and Arabic typography is coming together again not through religious text, but

through collaborative efforts presented in a variety of books and exhibitions such as the book

series Arabesque (see fig. 26) showcasing various examples of graphic design from the Arab

World and Persia. There is also the influence of Arabic typography and typeface design for

international fonts that has opened up the forum for interrelation of Arabic and Persian with

English. Nadine Cahine, (see fig. 27) award winning Lebenese type designer is working with

Linotype in Germany on the design of Frutiger typeface in Arabic (Dixon 2012). Pouya

Jahanshahi (see fig. 28) is a graphic design professor in Los Angeles whose current research

focuses on the development of what he calls Hybrid Visual Cultures; where cross-pollination

from cultures across the globe has resulted in birth of new visual realms. His work incorporates

Persian and English calligraphy and typography (Jahanshai 2012). Israeli graphic and type

designer, Ezer Oded (see figure 29) in Tel-Aviv, has worked with novelist Jonathan Safran Foer

to create a new Haggadah. This book of recounting Passover rituals is designed in an

experimental typographic form using Hebrew and English to encourage interaction of

generations (Shapiro, 2012). This radical impericism24 has developed intersubjectivity25 as a

forum for exchange of social dynamics that leads toward interexperience26.

20


Figure 27. Nadine Cahine

Source: Dixon 2012

Figure 26. Arabesque 2

Source: Robinson 1995

Figure 28. Pouya Jahanshahi

Source: Jahanshahi 2012

21


Figure 29. Ezer Oded

Source: Shapiro 2012

In fall of 2012, Light and Shadows, a travelling exhibit about the Story of Iranian Jews at

UCLAs Fowler Cultural Museum, displayed ancient artifacts and modern day artistic works

depicting the history of Jews in Iran and in Los Angeles. The Persian translation of the poetry of

Iranian-American artist and photographer, Jessica Shokrian, was scribbled on a life size mirror,

reflecting the passion and inner feelings of an Iranian Jewish Angelino.

One of the notable collective artistic events in Los Angeles, in 2008 was a Hollywood Bowl

performance entitled, "A Celebration of Rumi: The Sights and Sounds of Mystic Persia." (see fig.

30) The program featured the Grammy Award-winning cellist Yo-Yo Ma, the artistic director for

the Silk Road Project, accompanied by kamancheh player Kayhan Kalhor from Iran.

Throughout the program, live free flow calligraphy in nastaligh shekesteh style inspired by the

poems of Rumi was being created and projected on large television screens. Richard S. Ginell of

Los Angeles Times exclaimed, The cellist's East-West event tops off a Bowl concert full of

Persian design, calligraphy, verse, dance and melody. (Ginell 2008)

22


Figure 30. Sufi Sama Dance at the Hollywood Bowl

Source: Bing 2012, Hollywood Bowl

With this renewed interest in Sufism and Kabbalistic practices, contemporary typography

acts as the artistic agent of connecting and infusing international cultures and peoples. Here, the

ritual has become drama, as type is infused with other arts, helping the community reinvent itself

in this liminal time.

As typography has travelled through the ages, contexts have changed dramatically. The one

constant is the sanctity that typography has brought into peoples lives through ritual, folklore,

and performance. It links peoples and generations, and becomes the means to surviving and

transcending adversities. Typography is the mirror to the soul, as it transubstantiates27 the artists

innermost expressions. The inter-experience of multivalent and multivocal facets of global

typography embody the Sufi twirling dance of interchanging mirrors, reflecting through and

through, this endless kaleidoscope.

23


Notes:
1. Typography is defined by the Merriam Wester dictionary as the design or selection of letter-forms to be organized into words
and sentences and printed or displayed electronically.

2. Fabulation is the process of building culture. in order to survive and thrive, cultural systems ought to accommodate change
and stay dynamic.

3. Refabulation is the active process of reconceiving culture and making it different than what it has been, when disaster
happens and it is too much too bear.

4. Disjunctions are discontinuities that interrupt.

5. Enantiomorphic refers to the properties of the mirror as it reverses the image and plays on the focal point.

6. Ritual consists of the three stages of separation, liminality and commencement. The purpose for ritual is to instigate change
through use of myth as main symbolism.

7. Communitas refers to solidarity of a community for a common purpose, despite individual preferences.

8. Heuristic models for are systems that are created to help people move to the next step.

9. Polarization of meaning is when norms and values are in opposition.

10. Ideological pole relates to why we hang together as a group (kinship), values, purposes, issues, and why we do things we
dont like for the good of the community (obligation).

11. Sensory pole relates to the oretic, emotional and gross body functions.

12. Contingency is a negotiative process, were there is room for back and forth and change.

13. Recondite speech is code switching and change language with different people. It is being abstruse, esoteric and not directly
evident. It implies code switching based on audience.

14. Efficacy is producing the desired result.

15. Folklore is the traditional tales of a community. This is not as potent as ritual. As society changes, what used to be truth
becomes folklore, ritual shifts to theatre.

16. Liminal is the in between phase, where cultural change is happening. It alludes to shape shifting.

17. Multivalent alludes to more than three.

18. Routinzed is when creative acts become fixed and regular.

19. Secrecy implies negotiation.

20. Ambiguity is the property of ritual that provides opportunities for education, learning and mistake making, experimentation
that helps in change of culture.

21. Inchoate alludes to not being fully formed.

22. Articulation is the act of defining categories outside of an ambiguous taboo.

23. Multivocality happens when people dont necessarily agree, but respect eachothers opinion. This is a post modern concept
that there is no right answer.

24. Radical impericism to develop intersubjectivity, as a forum of exchange and social dynamics that lead toward
interexperience.

25. Intersubjectivity is the property of a mirror.

26. Interexperience is a negotiative act.

27. Transubstantiate is the doctrine that the bread and wine in the Eucharist are changed into the body and blood of Christ.

24


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