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This work was supported in part by the U.S. National Science Foundation To illustrate potential issues of EV integration in terms of
(NSF) under Grant# ECCS-1232076, and the Deanship of Scientific distribution transformer overloading and voltage profiles, the
Research of King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals under the base case with no EV penetration and the case of three houses
International Summer Scholarly Program grant.
DT Load Profile House 1 Load Profile DT Voltage Profile House 1 Voltage profile
30 10 0.970 0.975
25 0.969 0.970
7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
Load (kW)
Load (kW)
20 0.968 0.965
15 5 0.967 0.960
10 0.966 0.955
2.5
5 0.965 0.950
0 0 0.964 0.945
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
House 2 Load Profile House 3 Load Profile House 2 Voltage profile House 3 Voltage profile
15 10 0.975 0.975
12.5 0.970 0.970
7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
Load (kW)
Load (kW)
10 0.965 0.965
7.5 5 0.960 0.960
5 0.955 0.955
2.5
2.5 0.950 0.950
0 0 0.945 0.945
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
Fig. 1. Load profiles of the transformer and houses Case 1. Fig. 2. Voltage profiles of the transformer and houses Case 1.
DT Load Profile House 1 Load Profile DT Voltage Profile House 1 Voltage profile
30 10 0.970 0.975
25 0.969 0.970
7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
Load (kW)
Load (kW)
20 0.968 0.965
15 5 0.967 0.960
10 0.966 0.955
2.5
5 0.965 0.950
0 0 0.964 0.945
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
House 2 Load Profile House 3 Load Profile House 2 Voltage profile House 3 Voltage profile
15 10 0.975 0.975
12.5 0.970 0.970
7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
Load (kW)
Load (kW)
10 0.965 0.965
7.5 5 0.960 0.960
5 0.955 0.955
2.5
2.5 0.950 0.950
0 0 0.945 0.945
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
Fig. 3. Load profiles of the transformer and houses Case 2. Fig. 4. Voltage profiles of the transformer and houses Case 2.
each having one EV are simulated in Matlab/Simulink based III. THE PROPOSED DISTRIBUTED VOLTAGE CONTROLL
on the input parameters shown in Tables I and II. APPROACH
Case 1 Base Case without EV: this case study This paper explores a distributed voltage control approach.
considers no EV penetration. Load and voltage profiles of the Objectives of the proposed approach are as follows:
distribution transformer and each house during 17:00-23:00 To maintain nodal voltages at the transformer and houses
are depicted in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, respectively. within the limit specified by ANSI C84.1 [11];
Case 2 Base Case with EV: this case study assumes To prevent transformer overload; and
that each house has an EV with the specification shown in To flatten a distribution transformer load profile.
Table II. Load and voltage profiles of the transformer and To ensure that these objectives are met, a set of algorithms
houses are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, respectively. is proposed both at a distribution transformer level and at a
Table III summarizes results of the above two cases. It can household level taking into account the merit of a
be seen that after adding EVs, the transformer experiences decentralized control system. Specifically, the algorithm at a
momentarily overloading condition (i.e. transformer load distribution transformer makes an effort to maintain voltages
exceeds its rating), while the transformer voltage is minimally and to prevent transformer overload. While that at a house
impacted and still meets the 5% requirement specified by makes an attempt to flatten household load profiles, resulting
ANSI C84.1-2006 [11]. However, voltages at three houses in a smoother load profile at the transformer.
drop below 0.95 per unit (pu) due to high power demand An emerging smart distribution transformer technology
contributed by EVs. To prevent transformer overload and [12] is now able to monitor its loading level and
improve voltage profiles at end-use customer nodes, this communicate with its connected houses over an AMI network
paper explores possible approaches to control power- via the Field Area Network (FAN) gateway through the
intensive household loads as elaborated in Section III. Home Energy Management System (HEM) at the customer
TABLE III premises. The proposed approach can be embedded in a smart
RESULT COMPARISON DURING THE SIMULATION PERIOD (17:00-23:00)
distribution transformer to control load and voltage profiles at
Case 1 w/o EV Case 2 w/ EV
At the distribution transformer (DT) end-use customers locally.
Max load (kW) 18.78 27.73
A. Algorithm at the Distribution Transformer Level
Min voltage (pu) 0.967 0.966
At each house H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3 As the voltage profile is a function of system loading
Max load (kW) 6.10 8.42 5.85 9.40 11.23 9.15 levels, controlling loads at customer premises can be
Min voltage (pu) 0.954 0.954 0.954 0.947 0.945 0.946 performed to maintain nodal voltages and prevent transformer
overloading condition. This paper accomplishes this local
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control by allowing a distribution transformer to impose a historical load profile and the actual transformer
demand limit (DL) to cap the maximum transformer loading demand ( after deploying the proposed strategy.
level during peak hours. This DL signal (kW) is then
allocated to all houses served by this transformer to limit the (3)
power demand that each house can consume. This paper
compares two decentralized strategies to allocate DL (kW) C.2) Demand Restrike Potential of each House (
from the transformer to each house: This index represents the potential level of household load
Strategy 1: DL given to each house is a constant regardless of compensation after the DL signal is imposed. The higher
house size and its meter service ampere. Thus, the DL implies higher deferred time of power-intensive
allocated to each house is given as: appliances. It is calculated based on the similar-day historical
(1) load profile of a house and the actual household
where, power demand ( resulting from the proposed strategy.
: DL (kW) given to house i ( = number of
(4)
houses connected to a distribution transformer);
DRKP (kWh)
30 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960
Load (kW)
Load (kWh)
10 0.968
(kW)
25 0.955
20 5 7.5 5 0.967
0.950
DRKP
15 5 0.966
10 2.5 2.5 0.945
5 2.5 0.965 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.964 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
House 2 Load Profile & DRKP House 3 Load Profile & DRKP House 2 Voltage profile House 3 Voltage profile
15 10 15 10 0.970 0.970
12.5 12.5 0.965 0.965
DRKP (kWh)
7.5 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960 0.960
Load (kW)
Load (kWh)
10 10
(kW)
0.955 0.955
7.5 5 7.5 5
DRKP 0.950 0.950
5 5 0.945 0.945
2.5 2.5
2.5 2.5 0.940 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.935 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
Fig. 5. Load profiles of the transformer and houses Case 3. Fig. 6. Voltage profiles of the transformer and houses Case 3.
DT Load Profile & DRKP House 1 Load Profile & DRKP DT Voltage Profile House 1 Voltage profile
30 10 12.5 10 0.970 0.970
25 10 0.969 0.965
DRKP (kWh)
7.5 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960
Load (kWh)
Load (kW)
20 0.968
(kW)
7.5 0.955
15 5 5 0.967
0.950
DRKP
5
10 0.966 0.945
2.5 2.5 2.5
5 0.965 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.964 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
House 2 Load Profile & DRKP House 3 Load Profile & DRKP House 2 Voltage profile House 3 Voltage profile
12.5 10 12.5 10 0.970 0.970
0.965 0.965
10 10
DRKP (kWh)
7.5 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960 0.960
Load (kWh)
Load (kW)
(kW)
5 5
2.5 2.5 0.945 0.945
2.5 2.5 0.940 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.935 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
Fig. 7. Load profiles of the transformer and houses Case 4. Fig. 8. Voltage profiles of the transformer and houses Case 4.
DT Load Profile & DRKP House 1 Load Profile & DRKP DT Voltage Profile House 1 Voltage profile
40 10 15 10 0.970 0.970
35 12.5 0.969 0.965
DRKP (kWh)
30 7.5 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960
Load (kWh)
Load (kW)
10 0.968
(kW)
25 0.955
20 5 7.5 5 0.967
0.950
DRKP
15 5 0.966
10 2.5 2.5 0.945
5 2.5 0.965 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.964 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
House 2 Load Profile & DRKP House 3 Load Profile & DRKP House 2 Voltage profile House 3 Voltage profile
15 10 15 10 0.970 0.970
12.5 12.5 0.965 0.965
DRKP (kWh)
7.5 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960 0.960
Load (kWh)
Load (kW)
10 10
(kW)
0.955 0.955
7.5 5 7.5 5
0.950 0.950
DRKP
5 5 0.945 0.945
2.5 2.5
2.5 2.5 0.940 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.935 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
Fig. 9. Load profiles of the transformer and houses Case 5. Fig. 10. Voltage profiles of the transformer and houses Case 5.
DT Load Profile & DRKP House 1 Load Profile & DRKP DT Voltage Profile House 1 Voltage profile
30 10 12.5 10 0.970 0.970
25 0.969 0.965
10
DRKP (kWh)
7.5 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960
Load (kWh)
Load (kW)
20 0.968
(kW)
7.5 0.955
15 5 5 0.967
0.950
DRKP
5
10 0.966 0.945
2.5 2.5 2.5
5 0.965 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.964 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
House 2 Load Profile & DRKP House 3 Load Profile & DRKP House 2 Voltage profile House 3 Voltage profile
12.5 10 12.5 10 0.970 0.970
0.965 0.965
10 10
DRKP (kWh)
7.5 7.5
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
0.960 0.960
Load (kWh)
Load (kW)
(kW)
5 5
2.5 2.5 0.945 0.945
2.5 2.5 0.940 0.940
0 0 0 0 0.935 0.935
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)
Fig. 11. Load profiles of the transformer and houses Case 6. Fig. 12. Voltage profiles of the transformer and houses Case 6.
peak hours of the transformer. With Strategy 1, the DL given nodal voltages at both transformer and home levels are
to each house is a constant of 6 kW (18kW/3). Simulation maintained within 5% of a nominal voltage (1pu), see Fig.
results, showing load profiles of the transformer and three 12. In addition, transformer loading levels are kept below its
homes with , and associated voltage profiles rating at all time and the transformer load profile is flatten
are depicted in Fig. 5 and 6 respectively. (Fig. 11) as compared to the base case without any control -
Case 4 Strategy 2 with DLcap@25kW: is chosen at Case 2 (Fig. 3). Case 6 also shows minor impacts on customer
25kW, which is the rating of the distribution transformer. comfort level (CLV) as compared to Case 2, see Table VI.
With Strategy 1, the DL given to each house is a constant of In Cases 3 and 4, sudden voltage drops resulting from
8.33 kW (25kW/3). Simulation results, showing load and overly increased power demands (i.e., demand restrike) are
voltage profiles are depicted in Fig. 7 and 8 respectively. experienced, see Fig. 6 and Fig. 8. This is because the DL
level at the transformer is too low. Even though the
Case 5 Strategy 2 and DLcap@18kW: With Strategy 2 and of all cases go back to zero (i.e., the deferred power demand is
kW, the DL assigned to each house is based on fully compensated) after peak hours, the problem of
the houses electrical service ampere. These are 150A, 200A transformer overload persists in Cases 3, 4, and 5, as can be
and 150A for houses 1, 2 and 3, respectively, as shown in seen in Fig. 5, Fig. 7, and Fig. 9 respectively. It can be seen
Table II. In this case, DL assigned to three houses are as that and are the essential indices that
follows: =5.4kW, =7.2kW, =5.4kW. indicate the quality of the proposed strategies. The higher
Simulation results are depicted in Fig. 9 and 10. (or the higher ) increases the likelihood of
Case 6 Strategy 2 and DLcap@25kW: With Strategy 2 and under-voltage problem experiencing at the distribution
kW, the DL assigned to each house are: transformer level (or at the home level) as can be seen in the
=7.5kW, =10kW, =7.5kW. Simulation Fig. 6, Fig. 8, and Fig. 10.
results are depicted in Fig. 11 and 12. Overall, simulation results indicate that the proposed
distributed voltage control approach has a potential to improve
Tables V and VI compare simulation results of Cases 3-6
distribution-level voltage profiles, mitigate consequences of
to those of Case 2 - Base Case with EV at the distribution
voltage sags, prevent transformer overloading condition
transformer level and at the household level, respectively.
during and after peak hours of the day, and flatten the
TABLE V
transformer load profile. However, the DL level must be
SIMULATION RESULTS AT THE DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LEVEL DURING carefully selected.
THE SIMULATION PERIOD (17:00-23:00) V. CONCLUSION
Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
Max DT load (kW) 27.73 37.69 26.26 37.70 21.62 This paper studies the impact of EV penetration on load
Min DT voltage (pu) 0.9658 0.9648 0.9660 0.9648 0.9664 and voltage profiles at a distribution transformer and
customer premises. The analysis shows that EV penetration
TABLE VI can result in transformer overloads and voltage sags below an
SIMULATION RESULTS AT THE HOUSEHOLD LEVEL DURING THE SIMULATION
PERIOD (17:00-23:00) acceptable limit. A distributed voltage control algorithm is
House 1 House 2 House 3 then proposed that can be embedded into an emerging smart
Case 2 Base Case w/ EV distribution transformer, allowing local control and
2.1 Max household load 9.40 kW 11.23 kW 9.15 kW management of end-use loads at the appliance level. This
2.2 Min household voltage 0.9470 pu 0.9453 pu 0.9462 pu
approach has potential to provide additional capability to the
2.3 Comfort level violation 16.89 18.47 17.91
Case 3 Strategy 1 with 18 kW current state-of-the-art smart distribution transformer. Several
3.1 Max household load 12.01 kW 12.67 kW 12.02 kW case studies are presented to compare and showcase how the
3.2 Min household voltage 0.9364 pu 0.9360 pu 0.9362 pu objectives of the proposed set of algorithms can be achieved.
3.3 Comfort level violation 47.51 31.17 45.19 Simulation results indicate that with the proper strategy and
Case 4 Strategy 1 with 25 kW an appropriate demand limit (DL) value, issues of voltage
4.1 Max household load 8.87 kW 8.67 kW 8.87 kW
4.2 Min household voltage 0.9470 pu 0.9480 pu 0.9475 pu
sags and transformer overload resulting from high EV
4.3 Comfort level violation 21.38 30.60 18.22 penetration scenarios can be mitigated. The more
Case 5 Strategy 2 with 18 kW sophisticated voltage-feedback control algorithm to address
5.1 Max household load 12.01 kW 12.67 kW 12.02 kW challenges due to uncertainty in a time duration of a
5.2 Min household voltage 0.9364 pu 0.9360 pu 0.9362 pu transformers overload will be proposed in the future work.
5.3 Comfort level violation 46.48 31.87 45.66
Case 6 Strategy 2 with 25 kW
6.1 Max household load 7.49 kW 8.64 kW 7.46 kW
VI. REFERENCES
6.2 Min household voltage 0.9513 pu 0.9513 pu 0.9516 pu [1] S. Wencong, H. Eichi, Z. Wente, and C. Mo-Yuen, "A Survey on the
6.3 Comfort level violation 23.68 18.60 17.97 Electrification of Transportation in a Smart Grid Environment," IEEE
Trans on Industrial Informatics, vol.8, no.1, pp.1,10, Feb. 2012
[2] K. Clement-Nyns, E. Haesen, and J. Driesen, The impact of charging
Comparing among voltage-controlled Cases 3-6, Case 6 is plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on a residential distribution grid, IEEE
the only scenario that all desired objectives are archived. This Trans on Power Systems, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 371-380, 2010.
indicates that with the proper DL assignment strategy, the [3] K. Dyke, N. Schofield, M. Barnes, The Impact of Transport
desired objectives of the system can be obtained. In Case 6, Electrification on Electrical Networks, IEEE Trans. Industrial
Electronics, vol. 57, no. 12, pp. 3917 3926, 2010.
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VII. BIOGRAPHIES
Warodom Khamphanchai (S'11 - IEEE) received the M.Eng. degrees in
Electric Power System Management from Asian Institute of Technology
(AIT), Thailand in 2011 and the B.Eng. degree in Electrical Engineering
from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand in 2009. He is currently pursuing
his PhD degree in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department,
Virginia Tech. His research interests are power systems operation and
control, power system optimization, renewable energy systems, distributed
microgrids, artificial intelligence and multi-agent systems.
Manisa Pipattanasomporn (S01, M06, SM11 IEEE) joined
Virginia Tech's Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering as an
assistant professor in 2006. She serves as one of the principal investigators
(PIs) of multiple research grants from the U.S. National Science Foundation,
the U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S. Department of Energy, on
research topics related to smart grid, microgrid, energy efficiency, load
control, renewable energy and electric vehicles. Her research interests
include renewable energy systems, energy efficiency, distributed energy
resources, and the smart grid.
Saifur Rahman (S75, M78, SM83, F98 - IEEE) is the director of the
Advanced Research Institute at Virginia Tech where he is the Joseph Loring
Professor of electrical and computer engineering. He also directs the Center
for Energy and the Global Environment at the university. From 2009-2013 he
served as a vice president of the IEEE Power & Energy Society and a member
of its Governing Board. He is a member-at-large of the IEEE-USA Energy
Policy Committee. Professor Rahman was the chair of the US National
Science Foundation Advisory Committee for International Science and
Engineering from 2010 to 2013. Between 1996 and 1999 he served as a
program director in engineering at NSF. In 2006 he served as the vice
president of the IEEE Publications Board, and a member of the IEEE Board of
Governors. He is a distinguished lecturer of IEEE PES, and has published in
the areas of smart grid, conventional and renewable energy systems, load
forecasting, uncertainty evaluation and infrastructure planning.
AliT.Al-Awami (M01) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical
engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM),
Dhahran, SaudiArabia, in 2000 and 2005, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree
from the University of Washington, Seattle, in 2010. In 2000 he joined the
Saudi Electricity Company as a System Operation Engineer. In 2002, he
joined KFUPM as a Graduate Assistant, where he is currently an Assistant
Professor there. He authored and coauthored several papers and book chapters
in his research areas. His research interests include power system operation
and optimization and the integration of renewable energy sources into the
smartgrid.