Chapter 3 - General Differential Equations For Heat Conduction

10/1/2016 Chapter3.
GeneralDifferentialEquationsforHeatConductionFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer
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Chapter 2. Fouriers Law and Its Consequences Chapter 4. One-dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction

Chapter 3
General Dierential Equations for Heat Conduction

3.1 Introduction
Inheattransferanalysis,oneofourobjectivesistodeterminethetemperaturedistributionwithinthebodyatanygiveninstant,i.e.the
temperatureateverypointinthebody,takenasacontinuum.Then,wecancalculatetheheattransferrateatanypointinagiven
directionbyapplyingtheFourierslaw.Knowledgeoftemperaturedistributionisalsorequiredinotherfieldsofengineeringanalysis
e.g.incalculationofthermallyinducedstresses,thermalexpansion,optimumthicknessofinsulation,etc.
Generaltechniquetoobtainthetemperaturedistributionovertheentirebodyistoconsideradifferentialcontrolvolumewithinthe
bodyandapplythelawofconservationofenergytothisdifferentialcontrolvolume.Thisresultsinadifferentialequation.Solution
ofthisdifferentialequationwithappropriateinitialandboundaryconditionsgivesthetemperaturefield,i.e.thetemperatureatany
pointwithinthebody.
Inthischapter,first,generaldifferentialequationsforconductionisderivedinCartesian(i.e.rectangularorxyz)coordinates.This
isusefultoanalyseproblemsofheattransferinrectangularshapedbodiessuchassquares,rectangles,parallellopiped,etc.Next,the
generaldifferentialequationofconductionisstatedincylindricalandsphericalcoordinatestheseareusefultosolveheattransfer
problemsincylindersandspheres.Simplificationstothegeneraldifferentialequationsfordifferent,possiblepracticalconditionsare
presented.Typicalboundaryconditionsencounteredinpracticeandthemethodstorepresentthemmathematicallyareexplained.A
summaryoftheequationsisgivenattheendofthechapterforreadyreference.
3.2 General Dierential Equation for Heat Conduction in Cartesian Coordinates

Thisisalsoknownasheatdiffusionequationor,simplyheatequation.Considerahomogeneousbodywithinwhichthereisno
bulkmotionandheattransferoccursinthisbodybyconduction.Temperaturedistributionwithinthebodyatanygiveninstantis
givenby:T(x,y,z,).ThecoordinatesystemusedinthisderivationisgiveninFig.3.1.
Consideradifferentialvolumeelementdx.dy.dzfromwithinthebodyasshown.Ithassixsurfacesandeachsurfacemaybeassumed
tobeisothermalsincethedifferentialelementisverysmall.Further,thebodyisassumedtoberigid,i.e.negligibleworkisdoneon
thebodybyexternalmechanicalforces.
Letusmakeanenergybalanceonthisdifferentialelement.Letuslistoutthevariousenergytermsinvolved:first,thereisenergy
conductedintotheelementsecond,thereisenergyconductedoutoftheelementthird,forgenerality,lettherebeenergygenerated
withintheelement,say,duetojouleheating,chemicalreactionornuclearfission,etc.Netheatconductedintotheelementin
conjunctionwiththeheatgeneratedwithintheelement,willobviouslycauseanincreaseintheenergycontent(ortheinternalenergy)
oftheelement.Wecanwriteitmathematicallyas
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10/1/2016 Chapter3.GeneralDifferentialEquationsforHeatConductionFundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer
FIGURE3.1NomenclatureforderivationofgeneraldifferentialequationforheatconductioninCartesiancoordinates
EinEout+Egen=Est(3.1)
where, Ein=energyenteringthecontrolvolumeperunittime
Eout=energyleavingthecontrolvolumeperunittime
Egen=energygeneratedwithinthecontrolvolumeperunit
time
Est=energystoragewithinthecontrolvolumeperunittime.
Letuscalculatethesequantities,onebyone.
TocalculateEin.Energyentersthedifferentialcontrolvolumefromallthethreesidesbyconductiononly,sincethecontrol
volumeisembeddedwithinthebodyconsidered.
LettheenergyenteringthecontrolvolumeintheXdirectionthroughfaceABCDbeQX.Similarly,QYandQZenterthecontrol
volumefromthefacesABFEandDAEHasshownintheFig.3.1.
Ein=Qx+Qy+Qz(3.2)
TocalculateEout.EnergyenteringthecontrolvolumeintheXdirectionatfaceABCDleavesthecontrolvolumeattheopposite
faceEFGH.ThisisdesignatedasQx+dx.Similarly,Qy+dy andQz+dzleavethecontrolvolumefromthesurfacesoppositetotheonesat
whichtheyentered.Therefore,wewrite,
Eout=Qx+dx+Qy+dy +Qz+dz(3.3)
Now,fromcalculus,weknowthatQx+dxetc.canbeexpressedbyaTaylorseriesexpansion,where,neglectingthehigherorderterms,
wecanwrite,

3
3
TocalculateEgen.Lettherebeuniformheatgenerationwithinthevolumeatarateofqg(W/m ).Heatgenerationisavolume
3
phenomenon,i.e.heatisgeneratedthroughoutthebulkofthebodyso,noteitsunits(W/m ).Asmentionedearlier,heatmaybe
generatedwithinthebodyduetopassageofanelectriccurrent,achemicalreaction,nuclearfission,etc.Then,forthedifferential
controlvolumedx.dy.dz,wecanwrite,
Egen=qgdxdydz(3.5)
TocalculateEst.Asaresultofthenetenergyflowintothecontrolvolumefromallthethreedirectionsandtheheatgenerated
withinthecontrolvolumeitself,internalenergyofthecontrolvolumeincreases.Thiswillmanifestitselfasanincreaseinthe
temperatureofthecontrolvolume.LetthetemperatureofthecontrolvolumeincreasebydTintimedThen,ifisthedensityand
cp,thespecificheatofthematerialofthecontrolvolume,rateofincreaseofinternalenergyofcontrolvolumeisgivenby,
Now,substitutingforalltermsinEq.3.1,weget,
EinEout+Egen=Est
i.e.
i.e.
Now,letusbringinFourierslawofheatconduction.If,forgenerality,weassumekx,ky ,kztobethethermalconductivitiesofthe
materialinthex,yandzdirectionsrespectively,andAx,Ay andAztobetheareasnormaltotherespectiveheatflowdirections,we
canwritefortheheatflowrates,
SubstitutingEq.(3.8)in(3.7),anddividingthroughoutbydx.dy.dz,weobtain,
ThisisthegeneralformofheatdiffusionequationinCartesiancoordinates,fortimedependent(i.e.unsteadystate)heat
conduction,withvariablethermalconductivityanduniformheatgenerationwithinthebody.Thisisaveryimportantbasic
equationforconductionanalysis.Ithastobesolvedwithappropriateinitialandboundaryconditionstogetthetemperature
distributionwithinthebodyasafunctionofspatialandtimecoordinates.Ofcourse,theheattransferrateiscalculatedapplyingthe
Fourierslaw,oncethetemperaturedistributionisknown.
Now,ifthematerialisisotropic,i.e.thethermalconductivityisthesameinallthethreedirections,i.e.kx=ky =kz=ksay,then
wecanwrite,
Eq.3.10isthegeneralformofheatdiffusionequationinCartesiancoordinates,fortimedependent(i.e.unsteadystate)
conduction,whenthermalconductivityvarieswithtemperature(i.e.withposition)anduniformheatgenerationoccurswithinthe
body.
Ifkisconstantanddoesnotvarywithtemperature,i.e.kdoesnotchangewithposition,theEq.3.10canbewrittenas,
where, =K/(cp)isthermaldiffusivity,and
=Laplacianoperator.
SolutionofgeneralformofheatdiffusionequationasgiveninEq.3.10or3.12israthercomplicated.However,inmanypractical
applications,wemakesimplifyingassumptionsandtheresultingequationsareeasilysolved.Forexample:
1.SteadystateThismeansthatthetemperatureatanypositiondoesnotchangewithtime,i.e. .So,Eq.3.12becomes:
ThisisknownasPoissonequationandisforsteadystate,threedimensionalheatconductionwithheatgeneration,with
constantthermalconductivity,inCartesiancoordinates.
2.WithnointernalheatgenerationThismeansthatqgtermiszero.So,Eq.3.12becomes,
ThisisknownasDiffusionequation,anditrepresentstimedependent,threedimensionalheatconduction,withnointernal
heatgeneration,andwithconstantthermalconductivity,inCartesiancoordinates.
3.Steadystate,withnointernalheatgenerationThismeansthatqgand arezero.So,Eq.3.12becomes,

2
T=0(3.15)
ThisisknownasLaplaceequation,anditrepresentssteadystate,threedimensionalheatconductionwithnointernalheat
generation,withconstantthermalconductivity,inCartesiancoordinates.
4.Onedimensional,steadystate,withnointernalheatgenerationThismeansthat,
So,Eq.3.12becomes,
Notethatnow,partialderivativeiswrittenasfullderivativesincetemperatureisdependentononecoordinateonly.
Youmaybewonderingwhywehavetoconsideronedimensionalheatflowwhenwearedealingwiththreedimensionalbodies.You
willbesurprisedtoknowthatsolutionofthissimplifiedversionofheatconductionequationforcasesofsimplegeometriesgives

resultswithacceptableaccuracyforengineeringapplications.Onedimensionalconductionimpliesthattemperaturegradientis
considerableonlyinonedirectionandisrelativelynegligibleintheotherthreedirectionsconsequently,heatflowisalsoinonlyone
direction.Examplesofsuchpracticalcasesare:largeslab(orwall)wherelengthinonedimension(say,itsthickness)issmall
comparedtotheothertwodimensionsthen,temperaturevariesonlyalongitsthicknesslongcylinder,whosetemperaturemaybe
assumedtovaryonlyalongitsradiussphere,whosetemperaturemaybeassumedtovaryonlyalongitsradius.
3.3 General Dierential Equation for Heat Conduction in Cylindrical Coordinates

Eq.3.10derivedearlierissuitabletoanalyseheattransferinregularbodiesofrectangular,squareorparallelopipedshapes.But,ifwe
havetoanalyseheattransferincylindricalshapedbodies(whicharecommonlyusedinpractice),then,workingwithcylindrical
coordinatesismoreconvenient,sinceinthatcase,thecoordinateaxesmatchwiththesystemboundaries.
NomenclatureforcylindricalcoordinatesystemisshowninFig.3.2.
FIGURE3.2Nomenclatureforderivationofgeneraldifferentialequationforheatconductionincylindricalcoordinatesystem
Differentialequationforheatconductionincylindricalcoordinatesmaybederivedbyconsideringanelementalcylindricalcontrol
volumeofthicknessdrandmakinganenergybalanceoverthiscontrolvolume,aswasdoneinthecaseofCartesiancoordinates,or,
coordinatestransformationcanbeadoptedforthispurpose,transformationequationsare,
x=rcos
y=rsin
z=z
1
=tan (y/x)
Theresultinggeneraldifferentialequationincylindricalcoordinatesis,
Eq.3.17isthegeneraldifferentialequationincylindricalcoordinates,fortimedependent,threedimensionalconduction,
withconstantthermalconductivityandwithinternalheatgeneration.
Foronedimensionalconductioninrdirectiononly,wegetfromEq.3.17,
i.e.
Eq.3.19representsonedimensional,timedependentconductioninrdirectiononly,withconstantkanduniform
internalheatgeneration,incylindricalcoordinates.
And,forsteadystate,onedimensionalheatconductioninrdirectiononly,withconstantkanduniformheat
generation,Eq.3.19reducesto,
3.4 General Dierential Equation

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Toanalyseheattransferinsphericalsystems,workingwithsphericalcoordinatesismoreconvenient,sincethecoordinateaxesmatch
withsystemboundaries.NomenclatureforthesphericalcoordinatesisshowninFig.3.3.
FIGURE3.3Nomenclatureforderivationofgeneraldifferentialequationforheatconductioninsphericalcoordinatesystem
Differentialequationforheatconductioninsphericalcoordinatesmaybederivedbyconsideringanelementalsphericalcontrol
volumeandmakinganenergybalanceoverthiscontrolvolume,aswasdoneinthecaseofCartesianandcylindricalcoordinates,or,
coordinatetransformationcanbeadoptedusingthefollowingtransformationequations,
x=rsinsin
y=rsinsin
z=rcos
Theresultinggeneraldifferentialequationinsphericalcoordinatesis,
Eq.3.21isthegeneraldifferentialequationinsphericalcoordinates,fortimedependent,threedimensionalconduction,
withconstantthermalconductivityandwithinternalheatgeneration.
Foronedimensionalconductioninrdirectiononly,wegetfromEq.3.21,
i.e.
Eq.3.23representsonedimensional,timedependentconductioninrdirectiononly,withconstantkanduniform
internalheatgeneration,insphericalcoordinates.
And,forsteadystate,onedimensionalheatconductioninrdirectiononly,withconstantkanduniformheat
generation,Eq.3.23reducesto,
3.5 Boundary and Initial Conditions

Letusrewritetheheatdiffusioneqn.i.e.Eq3.11inCartesiancoordinates,
Ofcourse,temperaturedistributioninthebodyisobtainedbysolvingthisdifferentialequation.
Weobservethatthisisasecondorderdifferentialequationinspatialcoordinatestherefore,itssolutionwillneedtwoboundary
conditionstoeliminatethetwoconstantsofintegration.Also,thisequationisoffirstorderintimecoordinateso,itwillrequireone
initialcondition,i.e.theconditionat=0.
CommonlyencounteredBoundaryConditions(B.C.s)are:
1.PrescribedtemperatureconditionsattheboundariesknownasB.C.ofthefirstkindorDirichletcondition
2.PrescribedheatfluxconditionattheboundariesknownasB.C.ofthesecondkindorNeumanncondition
3.ConvectionboundaryconditionknownasB.C.ofthethirdkind
4.InterfaceboundaryconditionknownasB.C.ofthefourthkind.
Wewillstudybelowthemethodofrepresentingtheboundaryconditionsmathematically.
3.5.1 Prescribed Temperatures at the Boundaries (B.C. of the First Kind)

ThissituationisrepresentedinFig.3.4.Here,itisgrantedthatthetemperaturesattheboundariesarespecifiedandareconstant.For
example,temperatureatasurfaceisconstantifthatsurfaceisincontactwithameltingsolidorboilingliquid.Or,inmoregeneral
case,thevariationoftemperatureatthesurfacemaybespecifiedasafunctionofpositionandtime.ReferringtoFig.3.4,thesurfaceat
x=0ismaintainedataconstanttemperatureT1andthesurfaceatx=LismaintainedatconstanttemperatureT2 .
FIGURE3.4Prescribedtemperaturesattheboundaries(B.C.ofthefirstkind)
Mathematically,theseconditionsarerepresentedas:
T(x,)|x=0=T(0,)=T1(3.25a)
T(x,)|x=L=T(L,)=T2 .(3.25b)
3.5.2 Prescribed Heat Flux at the Boundaries (B.C. of the Second Kind)
Here,theheatfluxattheboundariesisassumedtobeknown.Forexample,ifasurfaceisheatedbyanelectricheater,theheatflux
enteringthesurfaceisknown.ThisconditionisdepictedinFig.3.5(a).
InFig.3.5(a),aplateofthicknessLisshown.Atx=0,i.e.attheleftface,aheatfluxq0issuppliedthisisconductedintothematerial
asshown.Atx=L,i.e.attherightface,aheatfluxqLissuppliedandthisisalsoconductedintothematerial.Thissituationis
mathematicallyrepresentedasfollows,rememberingthattheconductionfluxatasurfaceisequaltotheheatfluxsupplied.Also,note
clearlythatk.(T/x)representstheheatfluxinthepositiveXdirection,i.e.fromlefttorightifthedirectionofheatfluxinaslabis
fromrighttoleft,obviously,itisequalto+k.(T/x).
Atx=0:q0=k.(T/x)|x=0(3.26a)
Atx=L:qL=+k.(T/x)|x=L(3.26b)
NoteagainthatinEq.3.26b,RHSispositivesincetheheatfluxatx=LisinthenegativeXdirection,i.e.fromrighttoleftasshown
intheFig.3.5(a).Similarrelationscanbewrittenifthegeometryiscylindricalorspherical.
Therearetwospecialcasesofthisboundarycondition,
1.InsulatedboundaryManytimes,toreducetheheatloss(orgain),theboundaryisinsulatedwithanappropriateinsulating
material.Eventhoughtheoreticallyheatlosswillbereducedtozeroonlywithaninfinitelythickinsulationthickness,heatloss
maybepracticallyassumedtobezerowithasufficientlythickinsulationwecallthisasperfectinsulation.
FIGURE3.5(a)Prescribedheatfluxattheboundaries(B.C.ofsecondkind)
FIGURE3.5(b)Insulatedboundaryatx=0
FIGURE3.5(c)Thermalsymmetryatx=L/2
So,foraperfectlyinsulatedboundaryatx=0,showninFig.3.5(b),theheatfluxacrosstheboundaryiszeroandwerepresent
thisconditionmathematicallyasfollows,
k.(T(0,)/x)=0
or,(T(0,)/x)=0(3.26c)
2.ThermalsymmetryInmanycases,thereisthermalsymmetryoveraplaneinsidethesystembeinganalysedforexample,
consideracopperplate,initiallyheatedtoahightemperatureandthenhunginairforcooling.Itisintuitivelyclearthatheat
flowisfromthecentreoftheplatetothetwosidesandthecentreplanewillbetheplaneofsymmetry.Inotherwords,noheat
willcrossthisplane,i.e.thisplaneisequivalenttoaninsulatedboundary.
So,forthecentreplane,wecanwrite,
[T(L/2,)/x]=0(3.26d)
3.5.3 Convection Boundary Condition (B.C. of the Third Kind)

Thisisamorecommonpracticalsituation,whereheattransferoccursattheboundarysurfacetoorfromafluidflowingonthesurface
ataknowntemperatureandaknownheattransfercoefficient,e.g.inheatexchangers,condensers,reboilersetc.
Consider,again,aslabofthicknessLasshowninFig.3.6.
Attheleftsurface(x=0),ahotfluidoftemperatureT1isflowingwithaheattransfercoefficienth1,supplyingheatintothebody.At
therightsurface(x=L),acoldfluidatatemperatureT2 isflowingonthesurface,removingheatfromthebodywithaheattransfer
coefficienth2 .
Equatingtheconductionheatfluxtotheconvectionheatfluxoneithersurfaceandrememberingtonotethedirectionofheatflow(i.e.
whetheritisinthepositiveXdirectionornegativeXdirection),wecanrepresentthisboundaryconditionmathematicallyasfollows,
AtX=0:h1(T1T|X=0)=k.(T/x)|X=0(3.27a)
AtX=L:h2 (T|X=LT2 )=k.(T/x)|X=L(3.27b)
InEq.3.27b,wewritefortheconductionheatfluxatx=L:=k.(T/x)|X=LsinceheatisflowinginpositiveXdirection.
Usingthesameprinciples,expressionscanbewrittenforconvectionboundaryconditionsatsurfacesofcylindricalandspherical
geometries.
FIGURE3.6Convectionboundarycondition(B.C.ofthethirdkind)
3.5.4 Interface Boundary Condition (B.C. of the Fourth Kind)

Whenasystemismadeupofoneormorelayersofdifferentmaterials,solutionoftheproblemrequiresthattheconditionsatthe
interfacebetweenthelayersAandBisspecified.Perfectthermalcontactattheinterfacepresupposesthefollowingrequirements:
FIGURE3.7Interfaceboundarycondition(B.C.ofthefourthkind)
1.boththebodiesmusthavethesametemperatureattheinterface
2.heatfluxonboththesidesoftheinterfacemustbesame.
InterfaceboundaryconditionisdepictedinFig.3.7.
Wewrite,attheinterface,

TA=TB (3.28a)
kA.(T/x)=kB .(T/x)(3.28b)
Ofcourse,thefourboundaryconditionsexplainedabovedonotcoverallthepossibleboundaryconditionsthatmaybeencountered
inpractice.However,inanygivensituation,correctB.C.canbederivedbyapplyingtheenergybalanceatthesurface(i.e.toacontrol
volumeofzerovolumewhichmeansthatnoenergystorageispossibleatthecontrolsurfaceand,heatenteringIN=heatgoing
OUT),aswasdoneinderivingEq.3.27.
Asafurtherexampleofthistechnique,consideraslabofthicknessLatitsleftsurface,itreceivesheatbyradiationandatitsright
face,losesheatbyradiation.ThissituationisrepresentedmathematicallyasshowninFig.3.8.
Onthelefthandside,energyimpingingonthesurfacebyradiationisequatedtotheenergyconductedintotheslabsincetheheatis
conductedinthepositiveXdirectiontheconductionterm(flux)hasanegativesignasperFourierslaw.Similarly,ontherighthand
face,radiationimpingingonthesurfaceisconductedintotheslabfromrighttoleft,i.e.inthenegativeXdirectiontherefore,weput
apositivesignintheconductionterm,asshownintheFig.3.8.
FIGURE3.8Radiationboundaryconditionsatthesurfaces
2
Example3.1.Temperaturevariationinaslabisgivenby:T(x)=100+200x500x ,wherexisinmetresx=0attheleftface
3
andx=0.3mattherightface.Thermalconductivityofthematerialk=45W/(mC).Also,cp=4kJ/(kgK)and=1600kg/m .
Determine:
1.Temperatureatbothsurfaces
2.Heattransferatleftfaceanditsdirection
3.Heattransferatrightfaceanditsdirection
4.Isthereanyheatgenerationintheslab?Ifso,howmuch?
5.Maximumtemperatureintheslabanditslocation
6.TimerateofchangeoftemperatureatX=0.1miftheheatgenerationrateissuddenlydoubled
7.Drawthetemperatureprofileintheslab
8.Averagetemperatureoftheslab.
FIGUREExample3.1(a)
Solution.Temperatureprofileisgivenso,temperaturesattheleftandrightfacesareeasilydeterminedbysubstitutingx=0andx
=0.3m.MaximumtemperatureisdeterminedbyfirstdifferentiatingT(x)w.r.t.xandequatingtozerotogettheposition(xmax)
wherethemaximumoccursandthensubstitutingthisxmaxinT(x).TemperatureprofileisgraphedusingMathcad.Timerateof
changeoftemperatureatX=0.1misfoundbyapplyingthetimedependent,onedimensional,heatconductionequationinCartesian
coordinates.Proceduretodeterminetheaveragetemperatureoftheslabisexplainedattheend.Weshallsolvethisproblemin
Mathcad,withsuitablecommentsateachstep.
Data:
i.e.
6 2
=7.03110 m /s
2
T(x):=100+200x500x
(DefineT(x)i.e.temperatureasafunctionofx)
Temperatureatleftface,i.e.atx=0T(0)=100C
Temperatureatrightface,i.e.atx=0.3m:T(0.3)=115C
Tofindmax.temperature
DefinethefirstderivativeofT(x):
Also,definethesecondderivativeofT(x):
Byhandcalculation:weget:T(x)=2001000.x
WesetT(x)equaltozerotogetthepositionxmaxwheretemperatureismaximum
i.e.2001000.x=0.
Thisgivesx=0.2m.SubstitutethisvalueofxmaxinT(x)togetthevalueofTmax.
2
So,Tmax=T(0.2)=100+2000.2500(0.2) =120C.
However,inMathcad,allthisprocedureisverysimple.ReadthecommentsinMathcadsolutionbelow.
SetT(x)=0andfindoutthevalueofxmax.Todothis,usetherootfunction,whichsolvestherootofT(x)=0.First,assumeatrial
valueofxthenusetherootfunctionwhichgivesthetruevalueofx
x:=0.15 (Trialvalueofx)
xmax:=root(T(x),x) xmaxisobtainedfromtheroot
function)
i.e. xmax=0.2m (valueofxwhereTisamax.)
TogetTmax:SubstitutethisvalueofxmaxinT(x):
T(xmax)=120C
ToSketchthetemperaturedistributionintheslab:
x:=0,0.01,,0.3
(Definetherangevariablex,i.e.xtovaryfrom0to0.3minstepsof0.01m)
Todrawthegraph:
Justselectthexyplotfrompallete,pluginxandT(x)intheplaceholders:

xisinmetresandT(x)indeg.C.Clickanywhereoutsidethegraphregionimmediatelythegraphappears.
Notefromthegraphthatthemaximumtemperatureoccursatx=0.2manditsvalueis120C,asalreadycalculated.
FIGUREExample3.1(b)
Tocalculatetheheatfluxesattheleftandrightfaces:
ApplytheFourierslawatx=0andx=0.3m,rememberingthattemperaturegradientisgiveninT(x),alreadydefined.
qleft:=kT(0) (applyingFourierslawatleftface,i.e.atx=
0)
3 2
i.e. qleft=910 (Heatfluxattheleftface(W/m )note
thatvesignindicatesheatflowingfrom
righttoleft)
qright:=kT(0.3) (applyingFourierslawatrightface,i.e.atx
=0)
3 2
i.e. qright=4.510 (Heatfluxattherightface(W/m )note
that+vesignindicatesheatflowingfromleft
toright)
2
qtotal:=|qleft|+|qright| (Totalheatgeneratedperm ofsurface)
4 2 2
i.e. qtotal=1.3510 W/m (Totalheatgenerated/m )
Therefore,qg,thevolumetricheatgeneratedrateisgivenbytotalheatgeneratedperunitvolume:
(volumetricheatgenerationrateintheslab)
Tocalculatethetimerateofchangeoftemperatureatx=0.1mwhenqgissuddenlydoubled:
WehavethetimedependentdifferentialequationforheatconductioninCartesiancoordinates
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Fromthegivenequationfortemperaturedistribution,itisclearthat doesnotdependonx,i.e. dependsonlyonqg:
(definedT/dasafunctionx.Now,wecangetdT/dtatanyxbysimplysubstitutingthatvalueofxinthefunctiondefined)
i.e.
NotethatthisistrueforallxsinceT(x)doesnotdependonxforthetemperaturedistributiongiven
Todeterminetheaveragetemperatureoftheslab:
Foradifferentialelementofthicknessdx,amountofheatenergycontainedintheelementisequaltoA.dx..cp.T(x).Totalamountof
energyintheslabisobtainedbyintegratingthisfromx=0tox=0.3.Now,iftheaveragetemperatureofslabisTav,amountofenergy
intheslabcanalsobewrittenas:.A.L.cp.Tav.Equatingthesetwoexpressions,weget
InMathcad,evaluatingtheintegralwithingivenlimitsisveryeasy.First,defineTavgandthenjustpluginthelimitsMathcad
automaticallyevaluatestheintegralandgivesthevalue.
(MathcadeasilydoestheintegrationofT(x)withinthelimitsspecified)
i.e.Tavg=115C
(Averagetemperatureoftheslab.)
NotethatMathcaddirectlygivesthevalueoftheintegralwithinthelimitsspecifiedthereisnoneedtoexpandtheintegralandwrite
downasyoudoinhandcalculations.
7 3
Example3.2.Uniforminternalheatgenerationatqg=510 W/m occursinacylindricalnuclearreactorfuelrodof50mm
diameter,andundersteadystateconditionsthetemperaturedistributionisoftheform:
5 2 3
T(r)=8004.16710 r ,whereTisindeg.Celsiusandrisinmetres.Thefuelrodpropertiesare:k=30W/(mK),=1100kg/m
andcp=800J/(kgK)
1.Whatistherateofheattransferperunitlengthoftherodatr=0(i.e.atthecentreline)andatr=25mm(i.e.atthesurface)?
2.Sketchthetemperaturedistributionalongtheradius.
8 3
3.Ifthereactorpowerissuddenlyincreasedto10 W/m ,whatistheinitialtimerateoftemperaturechangeatr=0andr=25
mm?
4.Findtheaveragetemperatureoftherodinthefirstcase.
Solution.Here,temperaturedistributionisgivenso,heatfluxcanbecalculatedatanyradiusrfromFourierslaw:q=k(dT/dr).
TemperaturedistributionalongtheradiusiseasilygraphedwithMathcad.Timerateofchangeoftemperaturewhenqgchangesis
foundoutbyapplyingthetimedependent,onedimensionalheatconductionequationincylindricalcoordinates.Averagetemperature
ofthecylinderisobtainedfromfirstprinciplesasdoneinthecaseofslabinExample3.1.
Data:
R:=0.025m
k:=30W/mC
cp:=800J/kgK
3
:=1100kg/m
L:=1m
FIGUREExample3.2(a)
5 2
T(r):=8004.16710 r
(DefineT(r)i.e.temperatureasafunctionofr)
(DefinefirstderivativeofT(r))
(DefinesecondderivativeofT(r))
Qcentre=0
(heattransferrateatthecentreiszerosincetemperatureatcentreismaximumanddT/dr=0atr=0.)
Tofindtheheattransferrateatthesurface(i.e.atr=0.025m):
ApplyFourierslaw:
(heattransferrateatthesurfaceisobtainedbyapplyingFourierslawatthesurface,i.e.atr=RT(R)isthetemperature
gradientatr=R)
4
i.e.Qsurface=9.81810 W/metrelength
(heattransferatthesurface)
Then,selectthexygraphfrompalleteandfillintheplaceholdersinboththeaxes.Onxaxis,fillinrandonyaxis,fillinT(r).Click
anywhereoutsidethegraphregionandimmediately,thegraphappears.
Tocalculatethetimerateofchangeoftemperatureatx=0.1m:
Wehavetheonedimensional,timedependentdifferentialequation,withconstantk,forheatconductionincylindricalcoordinates:
Therefore,timerateofchangeoftemperatureisgivenby:
FIGUREExample3.2(b)
8 3
OuraimistofindoutdT/dwhenqgchangessuddenlyto10 W/m
8 3
qg:=10 W/m
(thermaldiffusivity.)
2 2
DefinesecondderivativeofT(r)w.r.t.r=d T/dr
(define thedesiredtimerateofchangeoftemperatireasafunctionofr)
Atthesurfacei.e.atr=R:
(define thedesiredtimerateofchange)
i.e.dTbydt(0.025)=56.814C/s
Atthecentre,i.e.atr=0:
(sinceatr=0,dt/dr=0)
i.e.dTbydt(0)=85.225C/s. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today
Todeterminetheaveragetemperatureofthecylinder:
Foradifferentialelementofthicknessdr,amountofheatenergycontainedintheelementisequalto2.r.dr.L..cp.T(r).Total
amountofenergyinthecylinderisobtainedbyintegratingthisfromr=0tor=R=0.025m.Now,iftheaveragetemperatureof
2
cylinderisTav,amountofenergyinthecylindercanalsobewrittenas:..R .L.cp.Tav.Equatingthesetwoexpressions,weget,
AlltheabovecalculationsaredonejustinonestepeasilyinMathcad:
(defineTavgMathcadeasilydoestheintegrationofT(r)withinthelimitsspecified)
i.e.Tavg=669.781C
(Averagetemperatureofthecylinder)
Example3.3.Consideranorange,assumedtobeasphereof8cmdiameter,producinganaverageinternalheatgenerationof2.25
4 3
10 W/m duringitsripening.Thermalconductivityofthematerialis0.15W/(mK)anditscentretemperatureisobservedtobe
50C.Assumingonedimensional,steadystateconduction,findout:
1.temperaturedistributionalongtheradius,
2.surfacetemperature,
3.heattransferredatthesurfaceofthesphere,
4.drawthetemperatureprofilealongtheradius,and
5.averagetemperatureofthesphere.
Solution.
Data:
FIGUREExample3.3
(i)TemperaturedistributionForsteadystate,onedimensionalconduction,forasphere,wehavethecontrollingdifferential
equation:
Togetthetemperaturedistribution,wehavetosolveEq.(a)withthefollowingBoundaryConditions(B.C.s):
(i)atr=0,(dT/dr)=0,sincethetemperaturehastobemaximumatthecentrebecausetheheatflowsfromcentretoperipheryand
symmetryconsiderations.
(ii)Given:Tc =50Catthecentre,i.e.atr=0
2
MultiplyingEq.(a)byr :
i.e.
Integrating,weget,
Integratingagain,
ApplyingB.C.(i)toEq.b:C1=0
Then,
ApplyingB.C.(ii)toEq.c:C2 =50
SubstitutingvaluesofC1andC2 inEq.c,wegetthetemperaturedistributioninthesphere:
(ii)SurfacetemperatureNow,temperatureatthesurfaceisobtainedsimplybyputtingr=R=0.04minEq.d.Itiseasierto
workinMathcadfirst,definethefunctionT(r):
(DefineT(r)i.e.temperatureasafunctionofr)
Surfacetemperature:
T(R)=10C
(surfacetemperature,i.e.atr=0.04m)
(iii)Next,heattransferatthesurfaceThisisdeterminedbyFourierslawsincewealreadyhavetherelationforthe
temperaturedistribution:
2 2 2
i.e.Q(r)=k.(4R ).(dT/dr)/r=R.GradientssuchasdT/drandd T/dr etc.areeasilyfoundinMathcad,oncethefunctionT(r)is
defined:
Heattransferatthesurface:

(DefinederivativeofT(r))
2
Q(r):=k(4R )T(r) (Q(r)istheheattransferrateatradiusr,by
Fourierslaw)
i.e. Q(R)=6.032W (heattransferrateatthesurface,i.e.at

r=R=0.04m)
Check:thismustbeequaltoheatgeneratedinsidetheorangeinsteadystateQgen.
SketchthetemperatureprofilealongtheradiusThisisdoneveryeasilyandconvenientlyinMathcad.First,definearange
variablerfrom0toR=0.04m,instepsofsay,0.001mthen,selectthexygraphfromthepalleteandjustfillintheplaceholders,
i.e.fillinrintheplaceholderonthexaxisandT(r)intheplaceholderontheyaxis.Clickanywhereoutsidethegraphregionand
immediately,thegraphappears:
Temperatureprofilealongtheradius:
r:=0,0.001..0.04
(definetherangevariable,i.e.rtovaryfrom0to0.04m,instepsof0.001m)
FIGUREExample3.3(b)
Notefromthegraphthatmaximumtemperatureoccursatthecentre(r=0)slopeofthetemperaturecurve,(dT/dr)tendstozero
(i.e.thecurvebecomesalmosthorizontal)asitaproachestheyaxisatr=0.
(v)AveragetemperatureofthesphereForadifferentialelementofthicknessdr,amountofheatenergycontainedinthe
2
elementisequalto4r .dr..cp.T(r).Totalamountofenergyinthesphereisobtainedbyintegratingthisfromr=0tor=R.Now,if
3
theaveragetemperatureofsphereisTav,amountofenergyinthespherecanalsobewrittenas:.(4/3).R .cp.Tav.Equatingthesetwo
expressionsweget,
AlltheabovecalculationsaredonejustinonestepeasilyinMathcad:
(defineTavgMathcadeasilydoestheintegrationofT(r)withinthelimitsspecified)
i.e.Tavg=26C
(Averagetemperatureofthesphere)
3.6 Summary of Basic Equations

TABLE3.1
Sl. Equation Remarks

No.
1 Threedimensional,timedependentheatconduction
equationwithheatgenerationandtemperature
dependentk,inCartesiancoordinates.
equationwithheatgenerationandconstantk,in
Cartesiancoordinates.
3 Poissonequation,i.e.threedimensional,steady
stateheatconductionequationwithheatgeneration
andconstantk,inCartesiancoordinates.
4 Diffusionequation,i.e.threedimensional,time
dependentheatconductionequationwithnoheat
generationandconstantk,inCartesiancoordinates.
5 Laplaceequation,i.e.threedimensional,steady
stateheatconductionequation.withnoheat
generationandwithconstantk,inCartesian
coordinates.
equationwithheatgenerationandconstant.k,in
cylindricalcoordinates.
equationwithheatgenerationandconstantk,in
sphericalcoordinates.
8 Onedimensional,timedependentheatconduction
dependentk,inCartesiancoordinates.
dependentk,incylindricalcoordinates.

dependentk,insphericalcoordinates.
11 Equations8,9,10arecompactlywrittenas, Compactformofonedimensional,timedependent,
heatconductionequationwithheatgenerationand
temperaturedependentk
where,n=0forCartesian
coordinates,usexasvariableinsteadofr
n=1forcylindricalcoordinates.
n=2forsphericalcoordinates.
12 Compactformofonedimensional,timedependent,
where,n=0forCartesian constantk
13 Compactformofonedimensional,steadystate,heat
conductionequationwithheatgenerationand
where,n=0forCartesian constantk
14 Alternateformofonedimensional,steadystate,heat
constantk,inCartesiancoordinates.
constantk,incylindricalcoordinates.
constantk,insphericalcoordinates.
17 Alternateformofonedimensional,timedependent,
constantk,inCartesiancoordinates.
constantk,incylindricalcoordinates.
constantk,insphericalcoordinates.
3.7 Summary
Thischapterlaysthefoundationforthestudyofheattransferbyconduction.First,generaldifferentialequationforconductionwas
derivedinCartesian(or,rectangular)coordinates.Thisequationhastobesolvedforagivensystemapplyingtheappropriate
boundaryandinitialconditionstogetthetemperaturefield.Todothis,mathematicalrepresentationofmorecommontypesof
boundaryandinitialconditionsareexplained.Oncethetemperaturedistributionwithinthebodyisknown,rateofheattransfer(or
heatflux)atanypointiscalculatedeasilybyapplyingFourierslaw.Cartesiancoordinatesareusedwhiledealingwithrectangular
geometriessuchassquares,rectangles,walls,parallelopipes,etcthesegeometriesfindapplicationsinfurnaces,boilerwalls,wallsof
buildings,airconditioningducts,etc.Next,generaldifferentialequationsforconductionincylindricalandsphericalsystemsare
stated.Theyareusefulinsolvingheattransferproblemsinvolvingcylindricaltanks,pipes,sphericalstoragevessels,reactors,etc.
SummaryofthebasicrelationsisgiveninTabularformforreadyreference.
Inengineeringpractice,weordinarilydealwiththreedimensionalobjectshowever,solutionofthreedimensionalgeneral
differentialequationisrathercomplicated.So,asimplifyingassumptionismadesometimes,ofonedimensionalconduction,i.e.
temperaturevariationissubstantialonlyinonedimensionandthetemperaturevariationisconsideredtobenegligibleintheother
twodimensions.Manypracticalproblemsfitintothiscategory:e.g.wallswhosethicknessesaresmallcomparedtootherdimensions,
longcylinders,spheres,etc.Insuchcases,analyticalsolutionsforonedimensionalheattransferproblemsareverymuchsimplified.
Inthenextchapter,weshallstudyonedimensional,steadystateconductionasappliedtoafewregulargeometriessuchasslabs,
cylindersandspheres.
Questions
1.Derivethegeneraldifferentialequationinrectangularcoordinates(i.e.Cartesiancoordinates).Therefrom,writedownthe
governingdifferentialequationsforthefollowingcases:
1.3dimensional,constantk,unsteadystateconductionwithheatgeneration
2.3dimensional,constantk,steadystateconductionwithoutheatgeneration
3.3dimensional,temperaturedependentk,steadystateconductionwithheatgeneration
4.Onedimensional,constantk,unsteadystateconductionwithheatgeneration
5.Onedimensional,temperaturedependentk,unsteadystateconductionwithheatgeneration
6.Onedimensional,constantk,steadystateconductionwithoutheatgeneration
7.Onedimensional,constantk,steadystateconductionwithheatgeneration.
2.Derivethegeneralequationforthe3dimensionalunsteadystateheatconductionwithuniformrateofheatgenerationinan
isotropicsolid.Hence,deduceLaplacesequation.
[V.T.U.,Aug.2001]
3.Writedownthetwodimensional,steadystateheatconductionequationinxandyvariablesinrectangularcoordinatesystem,
forthecaseoftemperaturedependentkandwithuniformheatgenerationinthebody.
4.Writedowntheonedimensional,timedependentheatconductionequationinsphericalandcylindricalcoordinatesystems,in
thervariable,withtemperaturedependentkandwithuniformheatgenerationinthebody.
5.Inamedium,heatconductionequationisgiveninthefollowingform:
1.Istheheattransfersteadyortransient?
2.Isheattransferone,twoorthreedimensional?
3.Isthereheatgenerationinthemedium?
4.Isthethermalconductivityofthemediumconstantorvariablewithtemperature?
6.Inamedium,heatconductionequationisgiveninthefollowingform:
1.Istheheattransfersteadyortransient?
2.Isheattransferone,twoorthreedimensional?
3.Isthereheatgenerationinthemedium?
4.Isthethermalconductivityofthemediumconstantorvariablewithtemperature?
7.Explainwhatdoyouunderstandbyonedimensionalheatconduction.
8.Statethegeneraldifferentialequationforsteadystateheatconductionincylindricalandsphericalcoordinates.
9.Whatistheneedtohavethegeneraldifferentialequationforheatconductioninthreeseparatecoordinatesystems?Givetheir
applications.
10.WhatismeantbyInitialconditionandBoundaryCondition?
11.ExplaintheB.C.s.offirst,secondandthirdkinds.Representthemmathematically.
12.WritedownthemathematicalformulationoftheB.C.sforheatconductioninarectangularregion0xa,0yb,for:
2
1.Boundaryatx=0:heatremovedatconstantrateofq0(W/m )
2.Boundaryatx=a:heatdissipationbyconvectionwithheattransfercoefficienthaintotheambientairatconstant
temperatureTa
3.Boundaryaty=0:maintainedataconstanttemperatureT0
2
4.Boundaryaty=b:heatsuppliedintothemediumatarateofqb (W/m )
13.WritedowntheB.C.forthecaseofacylindricalwallwithinsideradiusr1andoutsideradiusr2 ,whentheinsidesurfaceis
2
heateduniformlyatarateofq(W/m )andtheoutsidesurfacedissipatesheatbyconvectionwithaheattransfercoefficienth2
2
(W/(m C)intotheambientairatzerodeg.C.
2
14.Asphericalshell,insideradiusr1,outsideradiusr2 ,isheatedattheinnersurfaceelectricallyatarateofq1(W/m )outside
surfacedissipatesheatbyconvectionwithaconvectionheattransfercoefficienth2 ,intoambientattemperatureTaWritedown
theB.C.s.
Problems
1.Awall,1.5mthickhasthefollowingtemperaturedistribution:
3
T(x)=60+18x6x wherexisinmetresandT(x)isindeg.C.Determinethelocationofmaximumtemperatureandtheheat
2
flowperm areaatboththefaces.Takek=25W/(mC).Also,findouttheaveragetemperatureofthewall.
3
2.Consideraplanewall2cmthick,withuniformlydistributedheatsources(qg,W/m )insideitsvolumeitsleftandrightfaces
aremaintainedattemperaturesT1andT2 ,respectively.Steadystatetemperaturedistributioninthiswallisgivenby:
5 2 3
T(x)=1601000x10 x .Ifqg=40MW/m ,determine:
1.TemperaturesT1andT2
2.Heatfluxattheleftface
3.Heatfluxattherightface
4.Heatfluxatthecentreoftheplate
5.Averagetemperatureoftheplate.
3.Temperaturedistributioninaslabof1mthicknessisgivenby:
2 2
T(x)=900300x50x .Heattransferoccursacrossanareaof10m andthereisuniformheatgenerationatarateofqg=
3 3 (
1000W/m .Assumedensity=1600kg/m ,thermalconductivityk=45W/(mK)andspecificheatcP=4kJ/ kgK).
Calculate:
1.Maximumtemperatureintheslab
2.Energyenteringtheleftface(i.e.atx=0)
3.Energyleavingthewallatrightface(i.eatx=1m)
4.Rateofchangeofenergystorageintheslab,and
5.Timerateoftemperaturechangeatx=0.5mintheslab.
4.Thetemperaturedistributionacrossalargeconcreteslab50cmthick,heatedfromoneside,asmeasuredbythermocouples
approximatestotherelation:
2 3 4 2
T(x)=6050x+12x +20x 15x ,whereTisindeg.Candxisinmetres.Consideringanareaof5m ,compute:
1.heatenteringandleavingtheslabinunittime
2.heatenergystoredinunittime
Forconcrete,takek=1.2W/(mK).[V.T.U.,Jan./Feb.2003]
5.Ahollowcylinderofinnerradiusr1andouterradiusr2 hastemperaturevariationalongtheradiusgivenby:
T(r)=400400.ln(r/r1).Thermalconductivityofthematerial,k=45W/(mC).
Ifr1=5cmandr2 =10cm,determinethedirectionandrateofflowofheatatthetwosurfacesfor1mlengthofpipe.
6.Ahollowsphereofinnerradiusr1andouterradiusr2 hasthetemperaturealongtheradiusvaryingas:
T(r)=400+400.ln(r/r2 ).Assumek=45W/(mK).Ifr1=5cmandr2 =10cm,determinethedirectionandrateofflowof

heatatthetwosurfaces.Also,findouttheaveragetemperatureofthesphere.
3
7.A5cmdiametercylindricalrod(k=15W/(mC)),withauniformheatgenerationrateofqg(W/m )insideit,hasaradial
temperaturedistributiongivenby:
4 2
T(r)=3152.110 r whereTisindeg.C,rinmetres.Determine:
1.Maximumtemperatureintherod
2.Volumetricrateofheatgeneration
3.Averagetemperatureofthecylinder.
8.Thesteadystateradialtemperatureprofileina10cmdiametersolidsphereisgivenby:
2
T(r)=101.41390r ,whereTisindeg.Candr,inmetres.Itsk=10W/(mC).Thesphereisplacedinanambientof30C.
1.Whatisthemaximumtemperatureinthesphere?
2.Isthereheatgenerationinthesphere?Ifyes,atwhatrate?
3.Calculatetheconvectioncoefficientattheoutersurface.
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10/1/2016 Chapter3.

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

General Dierential Equations for Heat Conduction

3.2 General Dierential Equation for Heat Conduction in Cartesian Coordinates

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3.3 General Dierential Equation for Heat Conduction in Cylindrical Coordinates

3.4 General Dierential Equation

3.5 Boundary and Initial Conditions

3.5.1 Prescribed Temperatures at the Boundaries (B.C. of the First Kind)

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3.5.3 Convection Boundary Condition (B.C. of the Third Kind)

AtX=L:h2 (T|X=LT2 )=k.(T/x)|X=L(3.27b)

3.5.4 Interface Boundary Condition (B.C. of the Fourth Kind)

i.e. xmax=0.2m (valueofxwhereTisamax.)

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Fromthegivenequationfortemperaturedistribution,itisclearthat doesnotdependonx,i.e. dependsonlyonqg:

i.e.dTbydt(0)=85.225C/s. Enjoy Safari? Subscribe Today

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i.e. Q(R)=6.032W (heattransferrateatthesurface,i.e.at

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3.6 Summary of Basic Equations

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Sl. Equation Remarks

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T(r)=400+400.ln(r/r2 ).Assumek=45W/(mK).Ifr1=5cmandr2 =10cm,determinethedirectionandrateofflowof

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