Galvanized Coatings - Types of Coatings,

Their Application and Characteristics

Topics Covered
Background

Zinc Electroplating

Mechanical Plating

Sherardizing

Continuous Strip Galvanizing

Continuously Galvanized Wire

Galvanized Pipe and Tube

General or Hot Dip Galvanizing

Zinc Metal Spraying

Background
There are a number of methods of applying zinc coatings and each will determine the
coatings thickness and its ultimate durability in a specific environments The most commonly
encountered types of zinc coatings are:

Zinc electroplating

Mechanical plating

Sherardising

Continuously galvanized sheet

Continuously galvanized wire

Galvanized pipe and tube

General or hot dip galvanizing

Zinc metal spraying

A brief description of each application process and the characteristics of the coating formed
are provided in the following sections.
Zinc Electroplating
Zinc electroplating involves immersion of the items to be coated in a solution containing zinc
ions and applying an electric current to uniformly coat the surface.

Coating characteristics: Zinc electroplated coatings are bright coatings that are thin -
typically around 5-10 microns and are not suitable for exterior use where durability is
required. Heavy chromate coatings are frequently applied to zinc platings to improve their
durability, especially for fastener applications. The coating is all pure zinc and lacks the hard
alloy layers of the hot dipped coatings.

Mechanical Plating
Mechanical plating involves tumbling the items to be coated in zinc powder with glass beads
and special reducing agents to bond the zinc particles to the steel surface.

Coating characteristics: The mechanical plating process is used to apply zinc or alloy
coatings to fasteners and small parts. The zinc particles are in lamellar form and durability
equivalent to hot dip coatings can be achieved in a uniform coating that is particularly suited
to threaded fasteners and hardened TEK type screws that are unsuitable for hot dip
galvanizing. These coatings are typically 15 - 20 microns thick.

Sherardizing
Sherardizing involves heating the articles to be coated in zinc powder to approximately 400
400oC at which temperature diffusion bonding of the zinc with the steel occurs.

Coating characteristics: Sherardised coatings are diffusion coatings whose thickness can be
varied considerably up to over 300 microns and whose constituents can be modified by
adding other metal or inorganic compounds to the zinc powder. The sherardized coatings are
almost entirely made up of iron-zinc alloy phases. The long cycle times for the process make
application costly. It is now rarely used.

Continuous Strip Galvanizing

Continuous strip galvanizing involves passing coil steel through a bath of molten zinc in a
controlled reducing atmosphere at high speed (180 m/min).

Coating characteristics: The zinc coating thickness is closely controlled in the

manufacturing process by air wiping of the sheet as it emerges from the galvanizing bath. The
coating thickness varies from an average of 7 microns on ZI00 sheet to 42 microns on the
heaviest Z600 sheet. The coating has a very thin zinc-iron alloy layer which gives it its
flexibility for pressing and forming.
Continuously Galvanized Wire
Continuously galvanized Wire is produced by passing cleaned steel wire through a lead/zinc
bath at high speed ( 180 m/min).

Coating characteristics: Similar to those of continuously galvanized sheet. Coating

thickness varies depending on the diameter and coating grade of the wire from 3 microns in
the thinnest standard gauge to 43 microns in the thickest (8 mm) heavy galvanized grade.

Galvanized Pipe and Tube

Galvanized pipe and tube is produced by two methods; one is semi-continuous where stock
lengths of tube are cleaned and passed continuously through a bath of molten zinc at 450
degrees centigrade.

The other method is continuous where strip is formed into tube from coil and the tube then
passed through a bath of molten zinc at 450 degrees centigrade. This second method coats the
exterior of the tube only.

Coating characteristics: The semi-continuously applied coating is a conventional

galvanized coating having a coating thickness typically around 65 microns which consists
largely of zinc-iron alloy layers as the free zinc layer is largely removed through air wiping
during the process. The continuous tube galvanizing process produces a bright coating which
is almost all free zinc with very thin alloy layers, giving the product good forming properties.
Coating thickness is typically 12-25 microns on the exterior of the tube only.

General or Hot Dip Galvanizing

General or hot dip galvanizing involves preparing work by acid pickling in batches or on jigs
and then dipping the work into a bath of molten zinc.

Coating characteristics: The typical general galvanized coating ranges from 65 microns to
over 300 microns depending on the steel analysis, thickness of material and immersion time
in the galvanizing bath. Typical coating thickness on most general galvanized products is 80-
100 microns.

Zinc Metal Spraying

Zinc met metal spraying requires the steel surface to be cleaned to a Class 3 level and then
zinc wire or zinc powder is sprayed onto the surface with an oxy-acetylene or plasma flame
gun.

Coating characteristics: Zinc metal spraying produces a relatively porous coating that is
able to be applied in any desired thickness but is typically 75-200 microns.

It is used where the size or shape of the article make it unsuitable for hot dip galvanizing. The
availability of larger galvanizing baths has resulted in it being little used for other than repairs
to galvanized coatings.
Galvanised Coatings - Surface Area
Calculation Tables
While hot dip galvanising is usually priced in dollars per tonne, it is desirable to also convert
this to dollars per square metre to allow comparison with alternative coatings.

In addition, the conversion to square metres allows accurate estimation of weight increase
through the addition of the hot dip galvanised coating. The surface area per tonne can also be
calculated using the following formula:

Surface Area per tonne = 255/Section Area in mm

Mass per square metre of steel can be calculated using the following formula:

Mass per Square Metre (g/m2) = Section Thickness (mm) x .85

Section Surface Mass/m2 Min Coating Mass Increase

Thickness Area/Tonne kg/m2 Thickness (%)**
(mm) (m2/tonne) (m) per AS
1650*
1mm 255 7.85 45m 4.10
(320g/m2)
2mm 127 15.70 55m 2.85
(390g/m2)
3mm 85 23.55 55m 1.65
(390g/m2)
4mm 64 31.40 70m 1.59
(500g/m2)
5mm 51 39.25 70m 1.25
(500g/m2)
6mm 42 47.10 70m 1.05
(500g/m2)
8mm 32 62.80 85m 0.95
(600g/m2)
10mm 25 78.50 85m 0.75
(600g/m2)
12mm 21 94.20 85m 0.65
(600g/m2)
15mm 17 117.75 85m 0.50
(600g/m2)
20mm 13 157.00 85m 0.40
(600g/m2)
25mm 10 196.25 85m 0.30
(600g/m2)

* Hot rolled steel sections and heavier steel sections will generate galvanised coatings
considerably thicker than required by the AS 1650 Standard. To convert coating thickness in
microns to equivalent coating mass in grams per square metre (g/m 2 ), use the following
formula:

Coating mass (g/m2) = Coating Thickness (m) x 7.05

Coating Thickness (m) = Coating Mass (g/m2) x 0.14

** Actual zinc pickup after galvanising will depend on average coating thickness and section
design.

Poor drainage, zinc entrapment and large horizontal surfaces will result in higher zinc pickup.

Note: Actual zinc usage in hot dip galvanising is significantly higher than physical zinc
pickup. Zinc usage in hot dip galvanising is typically 5-7% of the mass of steel dipped
because of zinc consumed on jigs and in generating zinc ash and zinc dross in the galvanising
process.
Hot Dip Galvanised Steel - Avoiding
Distortion During Processing
Background
When steel sections or fabrications are immersed in molten zinc, their temperature is raised to
that of the molten zinc which is typically 455C. The rate at which the steel will reach this
temperature across its entire surface will depend on:

The thickness of the individual sections making

The total mass of the item

The dimension of the item

At galvanizing temperatures, there is no change to steels metallurgical microstructure and

the galvanizing process is not hot enough to have any heat treating effects on the mechanical
properties of the steel after galvanizing.

However, at galvanizing temperatures, the yield strength of steel is lowered by approximately

50%. If the adjacent steel is not at the same temperature and any stresses exist, the weaker
area will be subject to movement by the stronger area. There is a responsibility on the
designer, the fabricator and the galvaniser to co-operate in ensuring that distortion risks are
minimised or eliminated.

Basic Design Rules

1. Design to use uniform thickness sections throughout the fabrication.

2. Ensure welding and assembly techniques minimize stresses in components making up the
item.

3. Ensure that venting and draining are adequate. This will allow the item to be immersed in
and withdrawn from the molten zinc as quickly as possible.

4. Ensure that the structural design of the item is sufficient to support its own weight at 50%
of the steels specified yield strength. Consider temporary bracing if potential to yield
exists.

5. Avoid using large areas of thin (under 8 mm) flat plate.

6. Guillotine cut plate is preferred to oxy cut plate.

Case Study
The pattern of distortion in this 3 mm floorplate is clearly the result of the welding technique
used. Attaching the channels with fasteners after galvanizing would significantly reduce the
risk of distorting.
Galvanised Steel - Galvanic Corrosion of
Galvanised Steel
Background
While hot dip galvanized coatings provide envelope protection for steel, the zinc in the
coating will also protect the steel cathodically if the coating is damaged and the bare steel
exposed.

The rate of consumption of the galvanized coating will depend on the size of the cathode (the
bare steel) and the size of the anode (the galvanized coating). It is essential that exposure of
galvanized coatings to cathodic metals and materials be minimised to prevent accelerated
corrosion of the galvanized coating.

The following table lists metals in order of their relative reactivity with each other and when
considering coatings and materials for maximim durabality, contact between dissimilar
metals should be avoided where electolyte forming moisture is likely to be present.

ANODIC
more reactive
Magnesium
Zinc
Cadmium
Steel
Lead
Tin
Brass
Bronze
Copper
Nickel-Copper Alloys
Stainless Steel
Silver
Gold
Platinum
CATHODIC
less reactive
Galvanised Steel - Causes and Defects in
Galvanised Coatings
Topics Covered
Background

Defects in Galvanised Coatings

Ungalvanised Weld Areas

Dark Staining Adjacent To Welds

Dull Gray or Mottled Coatings

Dross Pimples/Inclusions

White Storage Staining

Ash Staining

Striations and General Surface Irregularities.

Runs, Drainage Spikes and Puddling

Bare Patches

Rust Staining

Delamination

Black Spots

Spangled Coatings
Background
There are a number of common types of defects arising from the hot dip galvanising process.
An explanation of the causes of defects and variations in appearance follows.

Defects in Galvanised Coatings

Ungalvanised Weld Areas
Coating misses on weld areas are caused by the presence of welding slag on the welds. All
welding slag must be removed by the fabricator prior to despatch to the galvaniser.
Dark Staining Adjacent To Welds
Preparation chemicals entering unsealed overlaps or through poor quality welds boil out of
the connection during galvanising and cause surface contamination and coating misses during
galvanising.

Also, anhydrous fluxing salts left in the connection will absorb atmospheric moisture and
leach out onto the adjacent galvanised surface. Leaching of these salts will eventually reach
equilibrium. Affected area should be washed clean to remove slightly corrosive leachate.

Dull Gray or Mottled Coatings

Reactive steels will generate thicker galvanised coatings that are duller than standard
coatings. These coatings have longer life because of their greater thickness and their
appearance is a function of steel metallurgy and generally beyond the control of the
galvaniser.

Dross Pimples/Inclusions
Dross is formed in the galvanising process in the form or zinc-iron crystals (approx 95% zinc
- 5% iron) with a higher melting point than the metal in the zinc bath. Dross trapped in the
galvanised coating may give the coating a rough or gritty appearance. The presence of dross
inclusions in the coatings is not detrimental to the coatings performance as the corrosion
resistance of zinc dross is identical to that of the galvanised coating.

White Storage Staining

After galvanising, items stored or stacked in wet, poorly ventilated conditions will react with
atmospheric moisture to form bulky white zinc hydroxide deposits on the surface of the
galvanised coating.

Ash Staining
Zinc ash is formed in the galvanising process as the work is immersed in the zinc. The ash
formed is skimmed off the surface of the molten zinc prior to withdrawing the work from the
galvanising bath. Sometimes, ash is trapped inside inaccessible areas and sticks to the outside
of the coating as the work exits the bath. Ash may leave a dull surface appearance or a light
brown stain after removal. It does not affect the performance of the galvanised coating.

Striations and General Surface Irregularities.

Ridges and lines thicker than the adjacent galvanised coating are caused by different rates of
reaction of the zinc with the steel surface due to stress areas on the steel surface or the
presence of weld areas or weld metal with modified metallurgy to the parent metal. This
phenomenon is most commonly encountered on pipe and tube products. Coating performance
is unaffected.
Runs, Drainage Spikes and Puddling
These defects are unavoidable in the hot dip galvanising of general items and are acceptable
as long as they do not interfere with the assembly of the function of the item or present a
safety hazard in handling or service.

Bare Patches
Uncoated areas on the surface of galvanised work are due to poor surface preparation,
inadequate pretreatment in degreasing, pickling and pre-fluxing. These areas must be repaired
using a recommended repair method or the item regalvanised if the defect is of sufficient size.

Rust Staining
Uncoated steel in contact with galvanised coatings will accelerate corrosion of the coating
and stain the coating brown in the area of contact. This can be removed by wire brushing.

Delamination
Very heavy galvanised coatings (over 250 microns thick) may be brittle and delaminate from
the surface under impact and require more careful handling in transport and erection. Thin,
cold rolled items with very smooth surface finish and manufactured from reactive steel may
also give rise to coating delamination.

Black Spots
Scattered black spotting is due to residual galvanising flux crystalising on the surface of the
work and is generally due to poor rinsing after galvanising or flux contaminated rinse water.
This defect is usually encountered from galvanising baths using the wet galvanising process
where the flux is on top of the molten zinc. Excess aluminium in the galvanising bath can
also give rise to this defect.

Spangled Coatings
Some hot dip galvanised coatings exhibit a high level of spangling' caused by zinc crystal
patterns on the surface. This phenomenon arises with galvanising alloys produced in
particular smelting processes and these alloys are commonly used for hot dip galvanising.
There is no difference in coating performance.
Galvanised Steel - Embrittlement Due to
Hot Dip Galvanising
Topics Covered
Background

Sources of Embrittlement

Types of Embrittlement

Liquid metal Embrittlement

Hydrogen Embrittlement

Avoiding Hydrogen Embrittlement

Strain Age

Avoiding Strain Age Embrittlement

Background
With mild steels that are produced by conventional methods, hot dip galvanising has no
significant effect on their properties or performance other than enhancing the steel's
durability and providing a low level of stress relief from fabrication stresses through the
items being heated to the galvanising temperature.

Sources of Embrittlement
With some types of steels and with some fabrication techniques which involve severe cold
working of the steel prior to galvanising, embrittlement problems can arise that can result in
the performance of the item in service being affected.

Types of Embrittlement
There are three significant types of steel embrittlement that can be associated with the hot dip
galvanising process. These are:

Liquid metal embrittlement

Hydrogen embrittlement

Strain age embrittlement

Liquid metal Embrittlement
Liquid metal embrittlement is caused by the attack of the molten metal (zinc in the case of
galvanising) on susceptible steels.

The most common liquid metal embrittlement problems associated with hot dip galvanising
are with stainless steel. Attaching stainless steel fittings to mild steel items prior to
galvanising should be avoided for this reason as the molten zinc may affect the mechanical
properties of the stainless steel.

Hydrogen Embrittlement
When atomic hydrogen diffuses into the structure of susceptible metal such as high strength
steel, some mechanical properties can be seriously impaired. Sustained tensile stress can thus
lead to failure. Dynamic and static laboratory testing can detect losses of tensile or torsional
ductility.

Hydrogen embrittlement is caused by the presence of hydrogen atoms within the crystal
lattice structure of a metal or alloy. In the galvanising process, hydrogen may be absorbed in
the steel during the pickling process through contact with the hydrogen ions present in the
hydrochloric acid.

Steels with a tensile strength in the order of 1000 MPa or higher or with an equivalent surface
hardness of 30 Rockwell C or higher are considered to be most susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement.

The hot dip galvanising processes throughout Australia use hydrochloric acid at ambient
temperature almost exclusively for pickling prior to galvanising. Acid concentration is
typically 10-15% HCl.

The majority of steel hot dip galvanised is generally in the range of 200-450 MPa so is not
subject to hydrogen embrittlement problems. Higher strength steels such as the quenched and
tempered Bisalloy steels are appearing in the structural area and special consideration must
be given to these types of steels if they are required to be hot dip galvanised.

Avoiding Hydrogen Embrittlement

The requirement to galvanise high strength steels is a very small one in comparison to the
volume of lower strength product that is routinely processed through galvanising plants. High
strength steels can be galvanised satisfactorily provided the necessary precautions are taken
in the galvanising process.

The recommended method of processing high strength steels for galvanising is to eliminate
the acid pickling process and use mechanical cleaning methods for preparation of the surface
prior to hot dip galvanising.

Abrasive blast cleaning to Class 2 1/2 immediately prior to galvanising will ensure that the
steel is adequately cleaned and that a satisfactory hot dip galvanised coating will be
produced.

Australian Standard AS 1214-1973 Appendix C states the following with respect to hydrogen
embrittlement of high strength bolts, which are the most commonly encountered high
strength steel requiring to be galvanised.

Where additional sqfeguard is sought (eg. For bolts of Grade 10.9 or higher cleaned by acid
pickling), fasteners should be baked at a temperature of 200C + 10C for a time found on the
basis of experience to be adequate (for guidance, a time of 30 minutes before galvanising, or
4 hours immediately after galvanising, might prove satisfactory).

Strain Age
Strain ageing is associated with strain that results from plastic deformation which is more
commonly known as cold working. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and contains other
alloying elements which provide it with specific performance characteristics.

Severe cold working of steel causes the migration of carbon atoms in the iron crystals and the
segregation of these atoms at dislocations in the steel causes a reduction in ductility of the
steel.

The ageing process is a function of temperature and time and occurs very slowly at ambient
temperature but very rapidly at the 450-460C temperatures of the galvanising process.
Severe cold working of steel can be caused by hole punching in thicker sections, tight radius
bending or rebending.

It should be noted that it is not the hot dip galvanising that is the cause of accelerating the
strain ageing of the steel, but the heat of the process, so strain age embrittlement can be
induced in any severely cold worked steel by heating and the tendency to embrittlement by
strain ageing will always be present and its manifestation will simply be a matter of time.

Avoiding Strain Age Embrittlement

To avoid the risk of strain age embrittlement, the following design criteria should be
followed:

Use bend radii at least 3 times the section thickness

Hot bend if bend radii is under 3 times section thickness is required

Anneal at 650-815C prior to galvanising

Ream punched holes to remove severely cold worked material from surface prior to
galvanising.
Galvanising - Venting and Draining Design
Guide
Topics Covered
Background

Basic Venting Rules

Basic Draining Rules

Drain and Vent Hole Sizes for Hollow Sections

Vent and Drain Hole Sizes for Tanks and Pressure Vessels
Background
One of the most common issues in designing fabrications for hot dip galvanizing is ensuring
that fabrications are vented and drained correctly. All steel to be galvanised needs to be
immersed in molten zinc and the zinc needs to be able to flow freely into and out of all
hollow sections and corners.

The flow of molten zinc into, off, and out of the fabrication is one of the most important
factors in determining the final quality of the coating. Inadequate venting and draining can
cause the following galvanised coating defects:

Misses in the coating caused by air locks preventing molten zinc contacting the steel
surface.

Puddling of zinc in corners, wasting zinc and interfering with subsequent assembly

Ash trapped on zinc surface causing surface defects

Irregularities in surface appearance caused by erratic immersion and withdrawal because

of item floating or trapping zinc internally

Thick zinc runs on surface caused by zinc freezing during draining

Steel is only about 15% heavier than zinc. A relatively small amount of air trapped inside
a hollow section will prevent the section from sinking in the molten zinc

Any water trapped inside a hollow section will expand 1750 times its original volume as
steam and generate pressures as high as 50 mPa (7250 psi).

Basic Venting Rules

No vent hole should be smaller than 8 mm
 The preferred minimum size is 12 mm

About 200 grams of zinc ash will be produced for each square metre of steel surface
galvanised. This ash is a solid powder and will not pass through small openings. Venting
large internal areas required larger vent holes to allow ash to escape

Hollow vessels require 1250 mm2 of vent hole for each cubic metre of enclosed volume.
This means that a 40 mm2 diameter hole is required for each cubic metre of volume

Hollow sections such as tube, RHS and SHS require minimum vent hole area equivalent
to 25% of the sections diagonal cross section

Vent holes should be at the edges of hollow sections

Basic Draining Rules

No drain hole should be less than 10 mm

Preferred minimum drain hole size is 25 mm

Large hollow sections ( tanks, pressure vessels) require a 100 mm diameter drain hole for
each cubic metre of enclosed volume

Drain holes should be at the edges of hollow sections.

Hollow sections such as tube, RHS and SHS require minimum drain hole area equivalent
to 25% of the section diagonal cross section. The preferred design option is to leave the ends
of tubes, RHS and SHS open.

Drain and Vent Hole Sizes for Hollow Sections

Table 1. Recommended minimum hole and vent sizes for various size hollow sections.

Hollow Section Min. Hole Size

Pipe (dia) SHS (mm) RHS (mm) Vent (mm) Drain (mm)
<32 8 10
40 <30x30 10 10
50 12 12
40x40 50x25 14 14
65 16 16
80 20 20
65x65 75x50 23 23
100 25 25
125 32 32
150 38 38
125x125 150x100 45 45
200 50 50
300 50 50
Vent and Drain Hole Sizes for Tanks and Pressure Vessels
Table 2. Recommended vent and drain hole sizes for tanks and pressure vessels.

Capacity (l) Drain dia. (mm) Vent dia (mm)

1000 112 40
3000 195 70
4000 225 80
5000 252 90
6000 276 98
7000 300 106
8000 320 114
9000 340 120
10000 356 125

Galvanised Coatings - Zinc Galvanising

versus Zinc Plating
Topics Covered
Background

Coating Characteristics

Zinc Plating

In-Line Galvanised Coatings

Accelerated Weathering Testing

Finding the Facts

S.A.B.S. Report

Poor Performance from Plated Coatings

Background
Consumers at the domestic and industrial level are frequently confronted with the need to
select steel products that are already galvanised. The fact that they are galvanised is used as
a major selling point. In many cases, the standard of the galvanised coating may not be not
clearly represented, and in some cases, misrepresented.

Claims may be made by the manufacturer that are not able to be substantiated in the field.
With other products, particularly those that are zinc plated, descriptions such as galvanised
are used on the packaging that deliberately mislead buyers into expectations of durability that
will never be realised.

More and more products are being introduced that are galvanised by high-speed, in line
galvanizing technology. This allows a thin zinc coating to be applied to the steel at low cost.
These thin zinc coatings are frequently coated with clear polymer topcoats to enhance their
storage characteristics and in some cases, claims have been made that the addition of these
polymer topcoats significantly improves the durability of the coating compared to a
conventional galvanised coating. The addition of organic coatings to zinc plated parts is also
a common technique that the manufacturers claim improves the corrosion resistance of their
products. What are the facts?

Coating Characteristics
Zinc Plating
Zinc plating involves the electrolytic application of zinc by immersing clean steel parts in a
zinc salt solution and applying an electric current. This process applies a layer of pure zinc
that ranges from a few microns on cheap hardware components to 15 microns or more on
good quality fasteners. Technical and cost issues prevent the economical plating of
components with heavier coatings.

In-Line Galvanised Coatings

In-line galvanised coatings are applied during the manufacturing process of the hollow or
open section, with the cleaned steel section exiting the mill and passing into the galvanizing
bath. This process applies a coating of zinc to the surface that can be controlled in thickness.
This coating is usually measured as coating mass in grams per square metre and ranges from
a minimum of about 100 g/m2 upwards, with an average around 175 g/m2.

Accelerated Weathering Testing

Accelerated weathering testing of coatings has traditionally been done in salt spray cabinets.
This testing technique has been largely discredited with respect to metallic coatings as it does
not reflect the way metallic coatings weather in atmospheric exposure conditions where the
development of stable oxide films gives these coatings there excellent anti-corrosion
performance. The addition of polymer topcoats to metallic coatings will significantly improve
their apparent performance in salt spray tests but field performance will not necessarily
reflect this.

Finding the Facts

The South African Bureau of Standards has recently undertaken accelerated weathering trials
of polymer coated in-line galvanised coatings and compared them with conventional in-line
galvanised and hot dip galvanised coatings to evaluate the effect on durability of the addition
of these this polymer topcoats. A summary of this report follows.
S.A.B.S. Report
The samples were subjected to Salt Fog testing, Damp SO2 Atmosphere testing and QUV
Weatherometer testing as well as Hardness testing. The conclusion of the SABS report states
the following;

"The results of the accelerated corrosion tests indicate that the expected life of the
continuously galvanised and lacquer coated samples will not be essentially different from the
commercially continuously galvanised sheet material. Test results demonstrate that the
expected life exhibited by the standard hot-dip galvanised panels (zinc coating thickness
approx. 100 microns) can be considered to be significantly superior to the continuous
galvanised/lacquer samples. The lacquer coating appears not to be fully effective in
inhibiting the onset of corrosion under damp conditions due to porosity.

It is well known that the zinc/iron alloy layers of standard hot-dip galvanised coatings are
hard in nature (in excess of 200HV - often harder than the base steel itself). Conventional
hot-dip galvanised coatings, consisting of alloy layers with a soft zinc outer layer, therefore
provide in essence a buffer stop coating which withstands knocks and abrasion. The soft
nature of continuous galvanised lacquer coating (75 HV) coupled with the low coating
thickness indicates that these coatings will not have the same ability to withstand rough
handling compared to conventional hot-dip galvanised items."

Poor Performance from Plated Coatings

Zinc plated coatings are not suitable for exterior exposure applications. Zinc plated bolts and
hardware fittings such as gate hinges will not provide adequate protection from corrosion,
and will rarely last more than 12 months in exterior exposures in most urban coastal
environments.

Zinc plating has been used in industrial coating applications from time to time, with very
poor results. Industrial Galvanizers joint venture galvanizing operations in Bakasi, Indonesia,
PT Bukit Terang Paksi Galvanizing (BTG), was commissioned in March 1998 to reprocess a
large tonnage (approx. 400 tonnes) of cable trays that had been electroplated. The zinc
electroplated coating had failed prior to delivery to the project resulting in the rejection of the
entire consignment.

The client requested an extra-heavy hot-dip galvanised coating to replace the zinc plating,
and BTG was able to apply a 100 micron coating to the 3 mm thick cable tray sections - this
is around 50% above the required minimum standard for hot dip galvanised coatings applied
to steel of this thickness of and over 10 times the thickness of the zinc plating.

Zinc plated products have an attractive appearance when new as the zinc coating is bright and
smooth, where a hot dip galvanised coating has a duller and less smooth surface. There is
typically about 10 times as much zinc applied to small parts in the hot dip galvanizing
process as with zinc plating. A bright, shiny smooth zinc finish on builders hardware (bolts,
nuts, hinges, gate latches, post shoes) indicates a plated coating that will not provide adequate
corrosion resistance and will rarely provide more than 12 months protection in most of the
coastal population centres.
Galvanising - Reliability Factors for Hot
Dip Galvanising and Paint
Topics Covered
Background

Relative Importance Scale

Reliability Parameters

Why is Hot Dip Galvanising so Reliable?

Summary
Background
There are two types of coating failure; predictable and unpredictable. All coatings are
designed to provide a certain level of performance in a specified environment. If failure
occurs prematurely, something has gone wrong!

If failure occurs, it is generally the result of a problem associated with the selection or
application of the coating. It is possible to evaluate the chances of a coating failing
prematurely using statistical methods to determine the Reliability Factor of a particular
coating system. This work was done initially by Dr. J.F.H. van Eijnsbergen in the
Netherlands to develop simple statistical methods for evaluating the reliability of any applied
coating.

Relative Importance Scale

Dr. van Eijnsbergen developed a scale of Relative Importance in which a factor (I) can be
allocated to each and every element in the coating process. This factor is logarithmic and
rates the importance of a particular element in relation to the coatings performance.

Factor Importance
8 Very high or dominating in comparison to all other parameters
4 High or dominating in comparison with all other parameters
2 Significant over other parameters
1 Equivalent value to other parameters
0.25 Of minor significance over other parameters
0.125 Of no significance in comparison to other parameters

By allocating Relative Importance Factors (IR) to the elements making up a coating system, a
Total Reliability Factor (FT) can be obtained from the sum of these. The lower the FT, the
higher the reliability of the coating system.

By applying Relative Importance (IR) factors to such elements as steel surface condition,
weather conditions, presence of soluble salts, surface preparation and other elements to
whatever level is deemed necessary for a particular analysis (there are more than 100 factors
to which Relative Importance (IR) factors could be applied in relation to coatings), the
particular coating system's reliability can be given some statistical significance.
To assist in logically rating performance, a Degree of Reliability (RT) factor can be produced
using the formula RT = 100 / FT. The higher the Degree of Reliability (RT), the higher the
level of coating reliability in relation to other coatings.

Reliability Parameters
There are six basic parameters that impact on coating reliability. These are;

1. Steel surface and shape

2. Pretreatment of steel surface

3. Coating or coating system

4. Application of coating system

5. "Youth" period of system

6. Service exposure period

Each of these parameters has its own set of parameters which is important in determining the
reliability of a coating system.

Why is Hot Dip Galvanising so Reliable?

Factory applied coatings will always be more reliable than field applied coatings. It is not
possible to exercise the same control of an application in the field. A simple test is to observe
the performance of coatings that are in service. There are very few examples of galvanised
coating failure on the literally millions of items that are in service. Signposts, fence posts,
guardrail, mesh fencing, trailers, transmission towers and countless other hot dip galvanised
items are still rust free with the coating intact after 20, 30 or 40 years.

Look around at painted surfaces. Almost everywhere, failures are evident. Flaking paint, rust
and other signs of paint failure support a major maintenance painting industry. There is no
maintenance galvanising industry.

The reason field applied paint coatings are far less reliable than hot dip galvanised coatings
can be shown statistically by applying the Reliability Factor analysis to each system using the
parameters that are relevant to the application of the coatings.

Parameter Relative Importance (IR)

Paint Galvanising
Surface condition 4 1
Surface preparation 8 8
Humidity/dew point 8 0.125
Coating Composition 8 1
Applicator skill 4 0.25
Curing conditions 1 0.125
Trransport/handling 8 1
Total reliability (FT) 41 10.5
Degree of reliability (RT) 2.44 9.5
Summary
This analysis illustrates that hot dip galvanised coatings are almost 400% more reliable that
paint coatings in a typical application. This analysis does not do justice to the true reliability
of galvanised coatings as it deals only with the application stage of the process. Once the hot
dip galvanised coating is present it will never fail from application related factors as the
galvanised coating will not form on other than perfectly prepared steel surfaces. Any paint
can be applied to any surface to give a satisfactory initial appearance.

Paint coating reliability is heavily dependent on application and they are statistically 400%
more likely to fail than galvanised coatings.

Hot dip galvanised coatings never fail because of poor application and their performance is
not affected by transport and handling.

Zinc Rich Paint versus Hot Dip Galvanising

Topics Covered
Background

Making Valid Performance Comparisons

How Much Zinc Do You Get?

Reliability Factors
Background
For many years, there has been debate over the relative merits of zinc rich paint and hot dip
galvanizing. There has also been debate within the paint industry about the relative merits of
one type of zinc rich paint compared to another. This has generated a degree of confusion
with end users of these corrosion prevention products as much of the information requires
interpretation or may, in fact, be misleading.
Making Valid Performance Comparisons
Hot dip galvanised coatings have been widely used for nearly 150 years. The technology
involved in their application has not fundamentally changed in that time. The main coating
component (zinc) has also been a consistent component of the coating since its invention.

Thus, a hot dip galvanised coating applied to a piece of steel in 1900 is technically identical
to a hot dip galvanised coating applied to a piece of steel in 2000. There is no difference in
adhesion, metallurgy or durability. For this reason, hot dip galvanised coatings have
established an international reputation for consistent performance based on case history
observation of the coating in service for over 100 years.

Zinc rich paints were invented in Australia in the 1930s. Since that time, the technology has
gone through a number of manifestations in terms of binders, fillers and curing technology.
The original inorganic zinc rich paints were heat-cured products. This technology was
followed by acid-cured, lithium water based, potassium silicate water based, colloidal silicate
water based, lithium/potassium (high ratio) water based and solvent based ethyl silicates.

Each of these inorganic zinc rich paint technologies has its own characteristics for hardness,
durability, film-build and ease of application and comparison between them is not valid. The
zinc rich paint industry commonly uses examples such as the Morgan-Whyalla pipeline as a
long-term case history. The technology used on this project has not been used for forty years!

Australian Standard AS/NZS 2312:1994 Guide to the Protection of Iron and Steel Against
Exterior Atmospheric Corrosion, lists only two types of inorganic zinc rich paint of the six
mentioned in AS 3750 - Inorganic Zinc Rich Paint. It is thus important to verify that the type
of zinc rich paint being specified is the same as the type of zinc rich paint being used as a
case history example.

How Much Zinc Do You Get?

The most important anti-corrosive component in both galvanised and zinc rich paint coatings
is zinc. The mass of zinc present is the standard method of rating the durability of metallic
coatings and all international standards use mass per square metre (or mass per square foot in
the USA) to define coating durability for a wide range of galvanised products. The amount of
zinc in a zinc rich paint coating is not clearly defined and the method of specification is
misleading. Zinc rich paint specifications nominate the percentage of zinc by weight, in the
dry film of the paint coating.

Thus, inorganic ZRP may nominate 78% zinc in the dry film and a high quality organic
(epoxy) ZRP may nominate more than 90% zinc in the dry film. Because zinc is
approximately 7X as dense as the organic binder material, the volume of zinc in a ZRP
coating is much less.

The mass of zinc per square metre will thus be significantly lower than that of a galvanised
coating of the same thickness. Tests done by South Australian Roads Authority in testing the
zinc content of various types of zinc rich paint has found the following:

Inorganic Zinc Rich Paint - 75 micron coating

Solvent Based - 185g/m2

Water Based - 280g/m2

Organic Zinc Rich Paint - 75 micron coating

Solvent Based - 185g/m2

Reliability Factors
There is no question that properly specified and applied ZRP coatings give excellent
performance in many applications. However, as with most paint coatings, the quality of the
application is a major factor in determining the long-term performance of the coating. Using
statistical methods, reliability factors of coatings can be estimated, where factors affecting
coating quality are considered. With paint coatings, these factors include:

Initial steel surface condition (new, rusty, contaminated)

Surface preparation (blasting equipment, operator skill, access, design)

Weather conditions (wet, dry, dew point)

Paint application (equipment, operator skill, paint mixing, pot life)

Paint curing (humidity, temperature, time)

Handling (paint hardness, full curing time, handling methods)

With galvanised coating, the process involves chemical pre-treatments and metallurgical
reaction between steel and zinc which is process, rather than operator dependent. The
reliability of hot dip galvanised coatings in protecting steel in a given environment is an order
of magnitude higher than that of paint because galvanised coatings never fail in service
through application related factors.
Galvanised Coatings - Lifetime Estimating
Topics Covered
Background

Factors Affecting Galvanised Coating Life

Classification Of Environments

Coating Thickness Versus Coating Life

Background
Galvanised coatings have an unusual characteristic compared to other protective coatings in
that they fail by weathering and oxidation from the surface. Paint coatings, once breached,
deteriorate through under-film corrosion and can suffer rapid failure as a result.

Because of the electrochemical protection provided to steel by zinc (galvanised) coatings, no

corrosion of the steel will occur while there is any zinc present, regardless of the thickness or
condition of the galvanised coating. Galvanised coatings, in atmospheric exposure conditions,
corrode at an approximately linear rate. Once this rate has been established for a particular
environment, the expected life of the coating can be defined by relating the rate of corrosion
to the thickness of the coating.
Factors Affecting Galvanised Coating Life
The durability of galvanised coatings depends on a number of environmental factors. These
include:

Time of wetness

Ambient temperature

pH of moisture

Chloride levels in atmosphere

Sulfate levels in atmosphere

Contact with other chemicals

Contact with dissimilar metals

Orientation of exposure (vertical, horizontal)

Nature of exposure(sheltered, open)

Ventilation conditions

Corrosion engineers take these factors into account when assessing the life-cycle
performance of galvanised coatings. Organisations such as the CSIRO have developed
environmental assessment techniques based on atmospheric computer models that facilitate
the accurate assessment of metallic corrosion rates.

A number of international (ISO) standards have also been developed that use combinations of
the parameters listed above to tabulate corrosion rate data for zinc (galvanizing) and other
metals.

Classification Of Environments
Most standards and documents associated with coating performance use exposure
classifications to define corrosivity of the atmosphere. For metallic coatings such as
galvanizing, factors such as UV exposure do not impact on coating life, where with paint
coatings, UV levels are an important factor in their durability.

For galvanised coatings, common Australia exposure classifications are arid/rural,

mild/urban, industrial, marine and tropical. Much exposure testing has been done to obtain
corrosion rate data in these environments, and this work is ongoing.

Testing done in a number of long-term case studies has indicated that hot dip galvanised
coatings in service may have lower corrosion rates than those of zinc coupon samples
exposed in test facilities.

Reasons for this apparent lower rate of in-service corrosion have not been quantified, but are
thought to be related to the quite different characteristics of a hot dip galvanised coating
compared to pure zinc, typical of the samples used in exposure testing.

The hot dip galvanised coating contains alloys of iron, aluminium and sometimes nickel, each
of which may modify the way the coating reacts with the environment.

The following table shows typical corrosion rates of hot dip galvanised coatings in the
various environmental classifications.

Table 1. Corrosion Rates of Hot Dip Galvanised Coatings

Environment Corrosion Rate microns/year

Arid/Rural <1
Mild/Urban* 1-3
Industrial 3-5
Marine** 5-15
Tropical 1-3

* Metropolitan and urban areas within 25 km of the Australian coastline outside the ocean
surf spray zone.

** Within the ocean surf spray zone from 0 1000 metres from ocean surf, depending on
topography.

Coating Thickness Versus Coating Life

All continuously galvanised and after-fabrication galvanised steel products have coating
thickness specified in various Australian, New Zealand and international standards. By
relating this coating thickness to the corrosion rates in the table, an accurate estimate of
galvanised coating life can be obtained.

Hot dip galvanised coatings that comply with AS/NZS 4680 1999 are those that will give
the longest life, as they are typically 3 5X the thickness of zinc coatings applied to
continuously galvanised products.

On structural steel sections, 50 years life before first rust in other than marine or heavy
industrial environments is a reasonable expectation. Case history studies of existing
installations in tropical and industrial environments indicate that 100 year life is achievable
with galvanised coatings applied after fabrication.
Galvanising - Grey Coatings on Hot Dipped
Steel
Topics Covered
Background

Why Are Some Galvanised Coatings Grey

What Causes Some Steels To Produce Grey Coatings?

Chemical Composition

Section Thickness

Bath Temperature

Cooling Rate

What Effect Do Grey Coatings Have On Coating Performance

Background
A common phenomenon with hot dip galvanised structural steel is the grey appearance of
part or all of the coating after galvanising, where the expectation of the customer is for the
galvanised steel to be shiny. Grey coatings are often a cause of contention between
galvanisers and their customers as a result. This document has been produced to explain the
phenomenon of grey coatings, their cause and effect on the performance of hot dip galvanised
steel.
Why Are Some Galvanised Coatings Grey
Hot dip galvanised coatings are the result of a metallurgical reaction between the zinc and the
steel. This reaction forms a series of zinc-iron alloys in the form of needle like crystals that
grow from the steel's surface. With conventional galvanised coatings, the alloy layer makes
up about 80% of the coating and the upper 20% of the coating is zinc. This surface layer
gives the shiny appearance.

Where this surface coating of free zinc is not present, the zinc-iron crystals are visible and it
is the appearance of these that gives the coating matte silver or grey appearance. When the
steel emerges from the galvanising bath, the coating is always shiny. The appearance of the
coating changes to grey as the residual heat from the galvanising process allows the reaction
between the steel and the zinc to continue until all the fee zinc on the surface is consumed,
leaving the coating with 100% alloy layers.

What Causes Some Steels To Produce Grey Coatings?

The reaction between zinc and steel in the galvanising process is a function of a number of
factors. The most significant of these with respect to grey coatings are:
 The chemical composition of the steel

The steel section thickness

The galvanising bath temperature

The cooling rate of the steel after galvanising

Chemical Composition
Of these, the chemical composition of the steel is the most important. Two alloying elements
in particular, silicon and phosphorus, will increase the reaction rate of the zinc with the steel.
If the silicon content exceeds 0.20% or the combination of the percentage of silicon plus 2x
the phosphorus level exceeds 0.25%, then the likelihood of grey coatings forming is
increased. Most Australian-made steels are galvaniser friendly in this respect with silicon
and phosphorus levels controlled within acceptable limits. As about 35% of steel used in
Australia is now imported, the variation in steel chemistry makes control of grey coatings a
more difficult issue.

Section Thickness
The steel section thickness is a factor with relatively thick sections (over 20 mm) because the
greater mass of steel retains heat longer. The zinc-iron reaction will continue even when the
zinc has solidified (at 420 degrees C) as a solid-state reaction until the temperature falls
below about 390 degrees C. For this reason, heavy plate fabrications will produce thicker,
grey coatings regardless of the steel chemistry.

Bath Temperature
The galvanising bath temperature will only have an effect where it is possible to operate the
galvanising bath at above the normal 455 degrees C level. This can only be done in special
ceramic lined galvanising baths, as high operating temperatures will damage conventional
steel galvanising baths.

Cooling Rate
The cooling rate of the steel after galvanising can affect the coating appearance. Galvanised
items that are air-cooled are more likely to develop grey or partly grey coating than items that
are quenched immediately after withdrawal from the galvanising bath. This occurs because
the quenching halts the solid-state zinc iron reaction before all the free-zinc on the coating's
surface is consumed.

What Effect Do Grey Coatings Have On Coating

Performance
Without exception, grey coatings are thicker than shiny galvanised coatings on equivalent
steel sections. Australian and international galvanising standards require that on structural
sections over 6 mm in thickness, the minimum galvanised coating thickness is 85 microns.

Grey galvanised coatings are more typically almost double this thickness, and on heavier
sections will frequently exceed 200 microns in thickness. As galvanised coating life is almost
directly proportional to coating thickness, a significant increase in service life can be
expected from these heavier coatings.

The main problems associated with grey coatings are their aesthetic acceptability and the fact
that the zinc-iron alloy layers are hard and inflexible, and may be prone to mechanical
damage if subjected to impacts during transport and erection, where conventional shiny
coatings have excellent resistance to quite severe impacts.

One fringe benefit of grey coatings on galvanised steel is that they provide a good substrate
for painting, because of the matte surface. BHP produces a galvanised sheet product called
Zincanneal where the mill produced shiny galvanised coating is converted to a 100% alloy
layer coating by post heat treatment to improve the paintability of the product for whitegoods
manufacture.

Galvanising - The Effects of Coating

Thickness
Topics Covered
Background

Coating Thickness Counts

Coating Thickness

Coating Hardness

Coating Integrity

Coating Mass

More Coating Thickness = Longer Coating Life

The Cut Edge Factor

Comparison of Galvanised Coatings

Background
There are many types of coatings that are specified as hot dip galvanised. The process
involves immersing steel in molten zinc. The zinc reacts with the steel to form the galvanised
coatings. The time the steel is immersed in the zinc along with post-galvanizing treatment
controls the coating thickness, appearance and other characteristics.

Hot dip galvanised coatings are applied to steel to improve the anti-corrosion performance of
the steel to ensure that it lasts as long as possible with a minimum of maintenance.

Standards currently being developed for the housing industry have set a benchmark of at least
50 years as the acceptable life of structural building products. Only hot dip galvanised steel
products with the heaviest galvanised coatings are capable of meeting this requirement.

The Australian Standard AS 4680-1999 , Hot Dipped Galvanised Coatings on Ferrous

Articles, includes galvanised coating standards on sheet, wire, tube and general articles. A
great deal of confusion exists through the inclusion of galvanised coatings with significantly
different coating characteristics within the same Australian Standard.
Coating Thickness Counts
All sheet, wire and many tube products are continuously galvanised. This means that the
coating is applied at high speed and the coating thickness is controlled by the process.
Immersion time in the zinc is measured in seconds. Alternatively, in the batch hot dip
galvanizing process steel items are immersed for periods ranging from 3-10 minutes,
depending on the mass of the items being galvanised.

These completely different methods of applying galvanised coatings produce different types
of coatings. There are 4 main differences that impact on anti-corrosion performance of batch
galvanised steel compared to continuously galvanised steel. These are thickness, hardness,
integrity and mass.

Coating Thickness
Batch galvanised items of the same section thickness are typically at least 3 times thicker
than similar continuously galvanised coatings on sheet and tube.

Coating Hardness
Batch galvanised items have much thicker zinc/iron alloy layers in the coatings which gives
batch galvanised items 5 times the abrasion resistance of continuously galvanised coatings.

Coating Integrity
Batch galvanised coatings apply a uniform heavy coating to all internal and external surfaces,
edges and cavities. Continuously galvanised coating will always have exposed bare steel at
cut edges. Continuously galvanised hollow sections are fully galvanised on the external
surfaces only.

Coating Mass
The cathodic protection of exposed steel by zinc depends of the mass of the zinc in relation to
the area of exposed steel. Because of the drainage characteristics of batch galvanised
coatings, the coating mass on batch galvanised products is significantly higher (typically 3-5
times) in proportion to thickness than continuously galvanised coatings. Hot rolled medium
structural sections commonly achieve coating mass levels exceeding 1000 g/m2.
More Coating Thickness = Longer Coating Life
150 years of field testing has determined that all things being equal, galvanised coating life is
equivalent to galvanised coating thickness. When comparing batch galvanised coatings to
continuously galvanised coating, all things are not equal.

The Cut Edge Factor

All continuously galvanised sections have exposed steel at cut edges and rely on the adjacent
zinc in the coating to provide cathodic protection to the bare steel. This requirement
accelerates the rate of corrosion of the galvanised coating at cut edges. The thicker the
continuously galvanised section, the faster the rate of coating corrosion at cut edges because
of the greater area of bare steel exposed. Even if it was possible to apply a continuously
galvanised coating to a steel item to the same thickness as a batch galvanised item, the cut
edge factor gives the batch galvanised coating a life typically 1.5 times greater.

Comparison of Galvanised Coatings

Continuously galvanised coatings comply very closely to their specified coating mass. Batch
galvanised coatings on hot rolled steel sections almost always exceed their minimum
specified coating mass.

Galvanising - Electrochemical Protection

for Steel
Topics Covered
Background

The Electrochemical Series of Metals

Electrochemical Corrosion and Galvanised Coatings

Acceptable Bi-Metallic Contact

Electrochemical Protection and Coating Mass

Background
The derivation of the term galvanising has absolutely nothing to do with protecting steel
from corrosion. The name comes from the Italian physiologist, Luigi Galvani, who identified
the effects of electric current on the nervous system of dead frogs. In the formative years of
electrical science, zinc was the most widely used metal for producing galvanic electricity. In
1837, French scientist Sorel took out a patent in France for a process of dipping steel in
molten zinc and provided the process with the name galvanising in honour of Galvani, who
died in 1798.
The Electrochemical Series of Metals
When metals are in electrical contact, one metal will give up electrons and oxidise (the
anode) while the current generated will prevent oxidation of the other metal (the cathode).

All metals have an electrochemical pecking order that determines whether they will act as an
anode or a cathode to other metals in the Series. Table 1 illustrates the relative position of the
common metals in the electrochemical series.

Table 1. Relative position of common metals in the electrochemical series

Metal / Alloy Potential (Volts) Reactivity

Magnesium -1.55 More Reactive
Zinc -1.10
Aluminium -0.86
Cadmium -0.77
Cast Iron -0.68
Carbon Steel -0.68
Stainless Steel -0.61
Lead -0.57
Solder -0.52
Tin -0.49
Copper -0.43
Aluminium Bronze -0.41 Less Reactive

All voltage values with respect to copper sulphate half cell

Electrochemical Corrosion and Galvanised Coatings

Tables of electrode potentials are of value in drawing the attention to the dangers of
electrochemical corrosion between dissimilar metals but such tables can be misleading. While
the potential difference between metals is the prime driving force providing the corrosion
current, it is not a reliable guide to the rate and type of corrosion occurring at a particular
point of contact.

The severity of bi-metallic corrosion also depends on the ratio of the areas of metals in
contact, the duration of wetness (bi-metallic corrosion can only occur in the presence of a
conductive solution) and the conductivity of the electrolyte. The presence of oxide films on
the surface of one or both of the metals can greatly inhibit bi-metallic corrosion.

Acceptable Bi-Metallic Contact

In general, galvanised surfaces may safely be in contact with most aluminium alloys,
stainless steel 304 and 316F, chrome steel (>12% chrome) and tin, provided the area ratio of
zinc to metal is 2:1 or higher and oxide layers are present on the aluminium alloys and the
stainless steels. Bi-metallic corrosion rates are greatly reduced if electrical resistance is high
due to the presence of insulating films or other non-conductive membranes.

Where the points of contact between galvanised coatings and other metals are not subject to
wetness, no bi-metallic corrosion will occur. This is important with galvanised reinforcing
bar in contact with uncoated rebar. The points of connection are inevitably deep within the
concrete mass and after curing of the concrete, are maintained in an inert environment.

The use of stainless steel fasteners on hot dip galvanised items in well drained atmospheric
exposure conditions will also cause minimum stress to the galvanised coating, because of the
very high zinc/stainless surface area ration and the short periods of wetness to which the
assemblies are exposed in Australian weather conditions.

Electrochemical Protection and Coating Mass

In any situation where zinc is corroded sacrificially to protect exposed steel, the mass of
available zinc will determine the anti-corrosion performance. Corrosion rates of zinc coatings
required to cathodically protect uncoated steel in aggressive environments (saltwater/marine)
may be 25 times as high as the normal zinc corrosion rate. Table 2 shows the mass of zinc
available on both sides of a 2 mm thick hot dip galvanised steel item compared to Z275
galvanised sheet and continuously galvanised tube.

Table 2. Coating mass required for various galvanised products

Coating Class / Item Total Coating Mass g/m2

Hot dip galvanised plate (AS1650) 900 g/m2
Z275 pre gal sheet (AS1650) 275 g/m2
Continuous gal tube (AS1650) 180 g/m2
Continuous gal tube (TS100) 100 g/m2

As this table illustrates, batch hot dip galvanised coatings have up to 9 times the mass of zinc
available for electrochemical protection. There is the added advantage that post fabrication
galvanising eliminates the unavoidable exposed steel areas on pre-galvanised products that
place high corrosion stresses on the zinc coating in the first place.

Galvanised Steel With a Powder Coated

Surface
Topics Covered
Background

What Are Powder Coatings?

What Are The Problems With Powder Coating Over Galvanising?

Pinholing

Poor Adhesion

Incomplete Curing
Specification For Powder Coating Over Hot Dip Galvanising

Summary
Background
One of the most durable protective coatings for steel is provided by applying a polyester
powder coating over hot dip galvanised steel to provide a high grade architectural finish to
steel items.
What Are Powder Coatings?
Polyester powders are thermosetting resins that are applied electrostatically to the steel
surface and stoved at temperatures around 180 oC. This technology produces very
uniform coatings that have an attractive architectural finish with excellent atmospheric
weathering characteristics. In combination with hot dip galvanised coatings, the powder
coated product ensures maximum durability for steel components, which will generally
provide 50 year+ rust free life spans in most architectural applications.

What Are The Problems With Powder Coating Over

Galvanising?
Hot dip galvanised surfaces have been acknowledged as difficult to powder coat since the
technology was first developed in the 1960s. The three main problem areas associated with
the powder coating of hot dip galvanised steel products are:

Pin holing of the coating

Poor adhesion

Incomplete curing of the polyester resin

Pinholing
Pinholing is caused by the formation of small gas bubbles in the polyester coating during the
stoving/curing cycle. These bubbles form small craters on the surface and are unsightly. They
also produce holidays in the coating that reduce its long term durability, particularly in
aggressive (marine) environments. The main reason for pin holing appears to be that the
discrete polyester resin particles in contact with the galvanised steel surface do not fuse at the
same time as those on the surface of the polyester powder film, because of the mass of the
galvanised steel*1, and the time taken for it to come up to fusion temperature. Specially
formulated resins with 'degassing' agents have been developed to alleviate this problem by
delaying the onset of fusion of the powder. Pre-heating the work in a pre-heat oven prior to
powder application allows heavier hot dip galvanised sections to be powdercoated and deal
with the problem of pin holing when used in conjunction with 'degassing' grades of polyester
powder.

*1 Note: Hot dip galvanised items tend to be of heavier section thickness than other steel
items, typically sheet steel, that are powder coated. These items thus take longer to reach
oven temperature because of their greater mass.
Poor Adhesion
The final stage in the hot dip galvanising process involves water quenching of the work,
frequently in a weak solium dichromate solution. This process cools the work so that it can be
handled and passivates the surface of the galvanised coating to prevent early oxidation of the
surface. The presence of a passivating film on the surface of the galvanised coating will
interfere with the zinc phosphate or iron phosphate pretreatment, and in many cases, render
these pre-treatments ineffective. It is essential that hot dip galvanised items are not
quenched*2 after galvanising. This ensures that the zinc surface is in a highly reactive state to
accept the pretreatment applied in the powdercoating process.

*2 Note: It is equally important that the unquenched hot dip galvanised surface is kept clean
and dry prior to powder coating. If wet with rain or dew, it will rapidly oxidise and again
cause coating adhesion and quality problems.

Incomplete Curing
Polyester powders are thermosetting resins that cross-link to their final organic form by being
maintained at a temperature (typically 180oC), for about 10 minutes. Curing ovens are
designed to provide this time at temperature combination. With hot dip galvanised items,
with their heavier section thickness, it is necessary to ensure that sufficient stoving time is
allowed to meet the curing specifications. Pre-heating of the heavier work will assist in
accelerating the curing process in the curing oven.

Specification For Powder Coating Over Hot Dip

Galvanising
The following specification is recommended:

Hot dip galvanize and do not water or chromate quench

Remove all drainage spikes and surface defects

Powdercoat within 12 hours of galvanising. Do not get surfaces wet. Do not leave outside

Keep the surface clean. Do not transport uncovered loads. Diesel fumes will contaminate
surface

If surface contamination has occurred or is suspected, clean surface with proprietary

solvent/detergent designed for pre-cleaning prior to powdercoating

Use zinc phosphate pretreatment if highest adhesion is required. Surface must be

perfectly clean. Zinc phosphate has no detergent action and will not remove oil or soil.

Use iron phosphate if standard performance is required. Iron phosphate has a slight
detergent action and will remove small amounts of surface contamination. Best used for pre-
galvanised products
 Pre-heat work prior to powder application

Use 'degassing' grade polyester powder only

Check for correct curing by solvent testing. Adjust pre-heat and line speed to ensure full
cure.

Summary
Properly applied polyester powdercoatings over hot dip galvanising will give exceptional
performance. Many architectural projects done with this process in 1988 remain in excellent
conditions today.

Galvanised Steel - How to Prepare

Structural Steel for Painting
Topics Covered
Background

Problems

Galvanised Coating Characteristics

Abrasive Blasting Factors

The Right Way To Abrasive Blast Galvanised Structural Steel

Background
There is an increasing use of painted structural galvanised steel as specifiers seek longer-life
solutions for steel structures or architectural requirements demand colour as designers use the
flexibility of steel as a feature in architectural design of major structures.

The performance of painted galvanised steel is well established, and the synergy that exists
between a galvanised substrate and a properly applied paint coating improves the
performance, typically by a factor of 2X, over the coatings if they were used independently.
Problems
A consistent problem in the painting of galvanised structural steel, is that the galvanised
coating is frequently damaged at the surface preparation stage when the coating is being
abrasive blasted prior to application of the primer.

This galvanised coating damage takes the form of flaking of sections of the coating, chipping
at edges or the formation of blisters in the galvanised coating. This damage is the result of a
combination of galvanised coating characteristics and the blasting technique used to prepare
the surface.

This article is intended to explain the causes of this phenomenon and provide
recommendations to eliminate this form of coating problem and ensure trouble-free
application of paint systems to galvanised structural steel.

Galvanised Coating Characteristics

The galvanised coating formed by hot dip galvanising structural steel is quite different to that
applied to continuously galvanised sheet, wire and tube products. Hot dip galvanised coatings
are made up of a series of zinc-iron alloy layers which make up 80% of the coatings
thickness. The top (shiny) component of the coatings is zinc, which makes up almost the
entire coatings with continuously galvanised products.

Zinc is relatively soft and malleable. Zinc-iron alloys are hard and relatively brittle. It is for
this reason that continuously galvanised products can be formed after galvanising without
damaging the coating while hot dip galvanised coatings can only tolerate a degree of bending
before the alloy layers in the coating will start to crack.

Thicker structural steel or steel containing reactive elements such as silicon and phosphorous
will form heavier galvanised coatings with thicker alloy layers, which may exceed 200
microns in thickness and comprise 100% of the coating. This is easily seen on the finished
products as the coating will have a matte grey appearance rather than a characteristic shiny
finish common to most hot dip galvanised products.

While this thicker coating will provide superior coating life in service, its hard and brittle
nature needs to be taken into account when abrasive blasting the galvanised steel in
preparation for painting.

Abrasive Blasting Factors

Most abrasive blasting is done to prepare steel for painting. The most common blasting media
is chilled iron shot propelled with 100 psi air at right angles to the steel surface. This
combination is designed to deliver a high energy stream of abrasive to the to the surface to
remove rust and mill scale and profile the steels surface. This is inappropriate treatment for
galvanised surfaces.

The purpose of abrasive blasting hot dip galvanised structural steel prior to painting is to
remove oxides from the surface and lightly profile the surface to improve the mechanical
bonding of the paint to the galvanised surface.

This requires an entirely different approach in terms of blasting technique. The energy
delivered to the surface with conventional blasting media at standard pressures with result in
shattering of the hard zinc-iron alloy layers, resulting in their delamination from the steel
surface, and will also result in unacceptably high rates of removal of the galvanised coating.

While many hot dip galvanised items may be able to be conventionally abrasive blasted
without apparent damage to the coating, the increased use of imported structural sections and
the heavier coatings typically generated on this type of steel increase the likelihood of coating
damage with incorrect blasting techniques.

Another factor is that excessive zinc may be removed by incorrect blasting techniques.
Correct brush blasting of galvanised surfaces should remove no more that 5% of the original
coating thickness.

The Right Way To Abrasive Blast Galvanised Structural

Steel
The following specification is recommended for abrasive blasting all types of hot dip
galvanised coatings.

Use illmenite or garnet abrasive only

Use nozzle pressure of 50 psi (350 kPa) max.

Do not blast at right angles to the surface 45 degrees preferred.

Use a 12 mm venturi nozzle at a distance of 400 500 mm from the surface.

Blast only sufficient to produce a matte silver appearance on the surface.

Already grey coatings (caused by galvanising reactive steel) require an absolute minimum of
brush blasting. The matte surface typical of this type of coating has an appropriate level of
surface profile.

Galvanized Coatings - Delamination

Topics Covered
Background

Hot Dip Galvanising

Delamination

Minimising Delamination Problems

Background
Hot dip galvanised coatings have a reputation for toughness, and are one of the few industrial
coatings that can withstand the rigors of transport and handling without damage to the
coating.

However, on some fabrications, problems arise with delamination of the galvanised coating,
sometimes without any mechanical stresses being applied to the galvanised coating. The
delamination, blistering or peeling of the galvanised coating only occurs when a certain set of
metallurgical phenomena is present.
These phenomena are:
 Steel chemistry that is reactive with molten zinc and results in thicker than normal
coatings

A cooling cycle that induces mechanical stresses into the coating at the steel/coating
interface.

Mechanical stresses on susceptible galvanised coatings.

Hot Dip Galvanising
Hot dip galvanised coatings are formed by immersing steel in molten zinc at 455oC. The
coating formed will be dependent on the immersion time in the zinc, the steels surface
condition and the steel's chemistry.

The thickness of hot dip galvanised coatings is determined by the thickness of the zinc-iron
alloy layers that form when the steel reacts with the zinc. These alloy layers are typically
95% zinc 5% iron and are hard and inflexible.

Thicker galvanised coatings provide improved durability, but once the coating thickness
exceeds about 200 microns, the thick alloy layers become more prone to delamination.

Delamination
The most common cause of galvanised coating delamination is heat peeling. This occurs
when the steel, usually heavy section thickness, is cooled slowly or is not cooled sufficiently
in the quenching process, causing residual heat in the steel mass to reheat the coating.

The thermal stresses generated by this differential heating or cooling will create high shear
forces at the steel/coating interface, resulting in localised delamination of the coating. This
will take the form of blisters, or in the worst case, flaking of the coating from the surface.

Mechanical delamination will generally occur on edges or areas where the galvanised coating
is subjected to high localised pressure or impact.

On rough steel surfaces, galvanised coating delamination is generally less likely to occur
because of the better mechanical keying of the coating to the steel surface. Very smooth
surfaces on ERW pipe, RHS or other cold rolled sections are more likely to delaminate on
reactive steel and the presence of residual alloying elements like phosphorous increase the
risk if coating delamination.

Minimising Delamination Problems

The first step, which is beyond control of the galvaniser, is to use steels of appropriate
chemistry. Most Australian-made steels are acceptable in this respect and have steel
chemistry that is well suited to galvanising. A large percentage (about 35%) of structural and
merchant section steel is now imported and as a result, the steel chemistry and surface is
more variable. The important steps in minimizing delamination problems are:

Minimise immersion time to reduce zinc-iron alloy layer growth. This is a design factor
as well as a processing issue in the galvanising plant. Efficient design will allow the
fabrication to be handled easily through the galvanising process.

Cool the item as consistently as possible after galvanising. Ensure that the item is fully
cooled in the quenching process and residual heat in thick sections will not re-heat the
coating.

Where fabrications need to be air-cooled, ensure they are placed in well-ventilated areas
so the individual items are not subject to radiant heat from adjacent items.

A common cause of galvanised coating delamination on plate products is stacking plates on

top of each other while they are still hot. This can cause delamination to occur even in steels
that are normally not susceptible.

When galvanised coatings delaminate, there is always a thin zinc-iron alloy layer (the gamma
layer) remaining in the surface so corrosion is unlikely to occur in the short term.
Remediation of the delaminated area can be done with an approved epoxy zinc-rich paint
repair system.
Galvanising - White Rust Prevention and
Cure
Topics Covered
Background

White Rust Formation

Avoiding White Rust Formation

Treating Galvanised Surfaces Affected by White Rust

Light White Rusting

Moderate White Rusting

Severe White Rusting

Re-Passivating the Galvanised Surface

Conclusion
Background
One of the commonly encountered problems with galvanised coatings of all kinds is white
rust or white storage stain. It is manifested as a bulky, white, powdery deposit that forms
rapidly on the surface of the galvanised coating under certain specific conditions.

White rust can cause considerable damage to the coating and is always detrimental to the
galvanised coating's appearance.

The surface of galvanised coatings is almost 100% zinc. It is the durability of the zinc that
provides the outstanding anti-corrosion performance for steel, yet zinc is a relatively
reactive metal. It is the stable oxides that form on the zinc's surface that determine its
durability, and these oxides are formed progressively as the zinc is exposed to the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide in particular is a contributor to the formation of these stable
oxides.

With newly galvanised steelwork, the zinc's surface has been subjected to little oxidation and
is at its most vulnerable. For this reason, a chromate passivation should be used in
conjunction galvanizing operations to provide protection to the galvanised coating during the
youth period of the coating. This passivation coating provides short term protection to the
zinc to give the stable oxides time to form on the surface.
White Rust Formation
Pure water (H2O) contains no dissolved salts or minerals and zinc will react quickly with pure
water to form zinc hydroxide, a bulky white and relatively unstable oxide of zinc. Where
freshly galvanised steel is exposed to pure water (rain, dew or condensation), in an oxygen
deficient environment, the water will continue to react with the zinc and progressively
consume the coating. The most common condition in which white rust occurs is with
galvanised products that are nested together, tightly packed, or when water can penetrate
between the items and remain for extended periods.

Avoiding White Rust Formation

There are a number of simple steps that can greatly reduce or eliminate the formation of
white rust. These are:

Keep the packed work dry

Pack the items to permit air circulation between the surfaces

Stack the packed items to allow water to drain out

Treat the surface with proprietary water repellent or barrier coatings to prevent moisture
contact with galvanised surface

Treating Galvanised Surfaces Affected by White Rust

Once the galvanised surface has been attacked and the zinc hydroxide compounds have
formed, it is desirable to remove the oxide products from the surface because:

Their presence inhibits the formation of stable carbonate based oxides and

They are unsightly

The effect on the galvanised coating can range from very minor to extremely severe and
various levels of remedial treatment are available to deal with white rust problems at the
various levels at which they are likely to occur.

The following treatments are recommended to deal with white rust on galvanised products:

Light White Rusting

This is characterized by the formation of a light film of white powdery residue and
frequently occurs on galvanised products during periods of heavy rain. It is particularly
evident on areas that have been buffed or filed during quality assurance operations.
These treatments remove the passivated surface from the galvanizing and expose
unoxidised zinc to attack from rainwater. Provided the items are well ventilated and well
drained, white rust rarely progresses past this superficial stage. It can be brushed off if
required but will generally wash off in service with normal weather. No remedial
treatment is generally required for this level.

Moderate White Rusting

This is characterized by a noticeable darkening and apparent etching of the galvanised
coating under the affected area, with the white rust formation appearing bulky. The
galvanised coating thickness should be checked to determine the extent of attack on the
coating. In the majority of cases, less than 5% of the galvanised coating will have been
removed and thus no remedial work should be required as long as the appearance of the
affected area is not detrimental to the use of the product and the zinc hydroxide residues are
removed by wire brushing. If appearance is unacceptable, the white rust affected area can be
treated as follows:

Wire brush the affected area to remove all white corrosion products

Using a cloth pad wet with aluminium paint, rub the surface with the pad to apply a thin
film of aluminium paint to the affected area to blend it with the adjacent unaffected
galvanised surfaces.

Severe White Rusting

This is characterized by very heavy oxide deposits. Items may be stuck together. Areas under
the oxidized area may be almost black and show signs of red rust. A coating thickness check
will determine the extent to which the galvanised coating has been damaged. Remedial
treatment to reinstate the coating should be undertaken as follows:

Wire brush or buff the affected area to remove all oxidation products and rust if any.

Apply one or two coats of approved epoxy zinc-rich paint to achieve required dry film
thickness of 100 microns minimum.

Re-Passivating the Galvanised Surface

Where white rusting has occurred and the item may be subject to continuing exposure that
may propagate similar corrosion, re-passivating of the surface can be done by treating the
surface with a solution of 5% sodium dichromate 0.1% sulphuric acid, brushing with a stiff
wire brush for 30 seconds before thorough rinsing of the surface.

Conclusion
White rust is a post-galvanizing phenomenon. Responsibility for its prevention lies in the
manner it is packed, handled and stored prior to the galvanised products installation and use.
The presence of white rust is not a reflection on the galvanised coating's performance, but
rather the responsibility of all those involved in the supply chain to ensure that the causes of
white rust are recognised and the risks of its occurrence minimized on newly galvanised steel.