Accidents: Undesired act

1. Direct Cost

2. Indirect Cost

Four parts of the structure of an accident

1. Contributing causes

2. Immediate causes

3. Accident

4. Results of an accident

1. Contributing causes

a. Supervisory Safety Programme

i. Safety instructions inadequate

ii. Safety rules nor enforced

iii. Safety not planed as part of job

iv. Hazard not corrected

v. Safety devices not provided

b. Mental Condition of Person

i. Lack of safety awareness

ii. Lack of coordination

iii. Improper attitude

iv. Temperamental

v. nervous

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 c. Physical Condition of Person

i. Extreme fatigue

ii. Deaf

iii. Poor eyesight

iv. Physically inadequate for job

v. Heart condition

vi. Crippled

2. Immediate causes
a. Unsafe Act
i. PPEs provide but not used

ii. Hazardous method of handling (wrong lifting, loose grip etc)

iii. Improper tool used although proper tools available

iv. Hazardous movement (running, jumping, stepping up, throwing etc)

v. horseplay

b. Unsafe Conditions
i. Ineffective safety devices

ii. No safety device used

iii. Hazardous housekeeping (material on floor, congested aisles etc)

iv. Defective equipment, tools, machines

v. Improper dress or apparel

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 vi. Improper illumination or ventilation etc.

c. Accident

d. Results of accident
i. Annoyance

ii. Production delays

iii. Reduced quality

iv. Spoilage

v. Minor injuries

vi. Disabling injuries

vii. Fatality

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Major Disasters
1. June 1974: Flixborough, UK
a. Explosion in a Nylon Manufacturing Factory

b. Death toll: 28 men & extensive plant damages

c. Materials damage cost: $750 million

2. Dec 1984,: Bhopal, India

a. Leakage of over 25 tones of Methyl Isocyanides

b. Over 2000 people killed and about same injured Need of loss prevention training arose

c. Compelled others like ICI to improve their standards

3. April 1986: Chernobyl, Russia

a. Escaping of several tones of fuel & Fission products due to overheated water-cooled
Nuclear Reactor

b. 45 people killed, 100,000 evacuated

c. Loss of public confidence in nuclear industry

4. July 1988: Piper Alpha: North Sea

a. Explosion followed by massive oil gas fire

b. Killed 167 men, many by the inhalation of CO gas

c. New regulations for the offshore oil & gas industry

d. Mandatory requirement of offshore risk assessment

5. Nov. 1987: King’s Cross U/G Train Station, UK

a. Fire due to lighted match dropped on an escalator

b. 31 people killed and many more injured

4
 c. Substantial expenditure on fire prevention

6. Jan. 1986: US Space Shuttle Challenger, NASA

a. Destroyed by fire soon after its take off

b. All 7 crew members were killed

c. The prestige of NASA suffered a serious blow –their space programme had been delayed for
several years.

Causes of accidents:
Most death due to heart diseases, cancer and stroke but limited to old age people

37 or younger – prime cause of death is accident at work place

According to National Safety Council (USA)

From 1912 to 1982 accident at work death per 100,000 population reduced by 81% i.e. from 21 to 4

Statistical data indicates that in one particular year, the causes of accidents in USA were as under;

Accidents 27,484

Motor vehicles 16,405

Poison (Solid/ Liquid) 2,649

Drowning 1,526

Falls 1,138

Fire related 899

(Age group 25 to 44 years)

Work accident costs:

1. Arco Chemical Co. ordered to pay (1990) $3.48 million in fine

5
 Failing to protect worker4s from an explosion at its petrochemical plant in Channelview,
Texas

2. Steel-making division of USX paid $3.25 million to settle numerous health & safety violations

3. BASF had to pay $1.06 million to settle an explosion at Cincinnati Chemical Plant causing two
deaths & seventeen injuries.

Death rates by Industry (Computed on the basis of 100,000 workers in a typical year)
1. Mining / quarrying

2. Agriculture

3. Construction

4. Transportation

5. Manufacturing

6. Services

7. Trade

Parts of Body
1. Back

2. Legs & Fingers

3. Arms

4. Trunk

5. Hands

6. Eyes, head & Feet

7. Neck

6
According to W. Heinrich, an official of Travelers Insurance Company.

88% accidents due to unsafe Acts

10% due to Unsafe Conditions

2% due to unavoidable circumstances (Natural disaster etc.)

Human Factors Theory of Accidents Causation

Overload

Inappropriate Human Inappropriate

Activities Factors Response

Overload
Imbalance between person’s Capacity at any given time and the load

Person’s Capacity is the product of factors such as natural ability, training, State of mind,
fatigue, stress & Physical Condition

Added Burdens

Environmental Factors (Noise, distraction etc)

Internal Factors (Personal problem, emotional stress, worry)

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 Situation Factors (level of risk, unclear restrictions)

Inappropriate Response:
1. Person detects hazardous condition but does nothing to correct it

2. Person removes safeguards from machine to increase output.

Inappropriate Activities:
Person does not know to operate or perform certain activity

Classification of accident

1. Struck by
Worker unexpectedly struck by or contacted by moving object, vehicle, hammer blow, foreign piece of
material in eye

2. Struck against
Moving worker contacting//strucking against any object, Sharpe edge/corner, hot pipe, another person

3. Caught in, on or between

a. Worker’s part of body (foot) caught in somewhere (broken board on floor)
b. Worker shirt sleeve caught on fire
c. Worker leg etc caught in between two moving objects (gear)

4. Fall from above

5. Fall at ground level

Slipping, sliding

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6. Strain or overexertion
Carrying, pushing or pulling objects beyond their physical limitations/ capabilities

7. Electrical contact
Contact of body with an electrical current or any electrically charged equipment

8. Burn
By fire or chemical

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 Unsafe Act / Condition

1. Congestion or restricted action

2. Defective tools, equipment or materials

3. Failing to use personal protective equipment properly

4. Failure to warn

5. Fire and explosion hazards

6. Hazardous environmental conditions; gases, dusts, smokes, fumes, vapors

7. High or low temperature exposure

8. Horseplay

9. Improper lifting

10. Improper loading

11. Improper placement

12. Improper position for task

13. Inadequate guards or barriers

14. Inadequate or excessive illumination

15. Inadequate or improper protective equipment

16. inadequate ventilation

17. Inadequate warning system

18. Making safety devices inoperable

19. Noise exposures

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 20. Operating at improper speed

21. Operating equipment without authority

22. Poor housekeeping; disorderly workplace

23. Radiation exposures

24. Removing safety devices

25. Under influence of alcohol and/or other drugs

26. Using defective equipment

27. Using equipment improperly

Automating or Updating the System

o May improve one aspect of the system but increase the risk from another side e.g. Fork Lift

o Machine driven by Hydraulic, electric power introduced new hazards

o Safeguarding to be provided against source of mechanical injuries (cutting, shearing,

crushing etc.)

Requirements for Safeguards (recommended by National Safety Council)

1. Prevent Direct Contact

2. Be Secure & Durable

a. No body may render them ineffective by tempering with or disabling them

b. Must be durable enough to withstand severity conditions at workplace

3. Protect Against Falling Object

a. Objects falling onto moving machine mechanism increases risk of accidents

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 b. Property damage

c. Shield between moving part and falling object

4. Create no new hazard

a. Sharpe edges

b. Unfinished surface

c. Protruding bolts

5. Create no interference
a. Should not interfere work

6. Allow Safe Maintenance

a. May some time lead to modification in the machine

Types of Guards
1. Point of Operation Guards

a. Fixed Guards

i. Permanent Barrier between worker & point of operation

ii. Suitable for specific applications

iii. Can be constructed within plant

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 iv. Require little maintenance cost

b. Interlocked Guards
i. Shut down the machine when guard is not securely in
place / disengaged

c. Adjustable Guards
i. For multiple purposes

2. Point of Operation Devices

(Does not protect against mechanical failure, require frequent
calibration)

a. Photoelectric Devices
i. Shut down the machine whenever light field broken

b. Radio-Frequency devices
i. Capacitance stop the machine when the capacitance
field is interrupted

c. Electromechanical Devices
i. Contact bars

3. Restraint Devices

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4. Safety Trip

5. Two Hand Control

a. Protects worker but not the passer-by

6. Feeding & Ejection System

a. No manual feeding and ejection

b. No direct contact

c. Usually limited for individual operations

d. May sometimes invite other safety related problems

e. Size of stock is limited

f. Pneumatic ejectors can be quite noisy

Robot Safeguards

Main hazards include

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 1. Interruption of a worker between robot arm and solid
surface

2. Impact with an moving robot arm

3. Impact with object ejected or dropped b y robot

Solution;

1. Physical barrier around entire perimeter of robot work envelope.

2. Should withstand the force of heaviest object the robot could eject.

3. A guard containing sensing device that automatically shuts down

if any person or object enters the work envelope.

4. Sensitized door/gates in the perimeter barrier shuts down robot

5. Robot is dangerous when it is at stage between cycles.

Lockout / Tagout system

1. Details of contact person

2. OSHA indicates 6% workplace accidents due to unexpected

machine activation while in service

Falls

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 • 16% of all disabling work-related injuries due to fall

Causes of fall

1. Foreign object on walking surface

2. Design flaw in wailing surface

3. Slippery surface

4. An individual’s impaired physical conditions

Walking & Slipping

Coefficient of friction between surface (floor) & Shoes

Very Slippery Slippery & Slippery but Good

& Hazardous Hazardous not Hazardous Traction

0.2 0.3 0.4

Factors that decrease traction:

When the surface is oily, wet

Coefficient of concrete drops from 0.43 to 0.37

(Which moves it one category down on traction)

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 Consequently Good Housekeeping reduces slip & Fall Hazards

Oil, Grease, Soap, Cleaning Solvents turn a safe surface into a

dangerous zone

To counter that;

Rubber sole shoe decrease slipping hazards

Preventing Slips:

Slip prevention should be a part of Company’s health & Safety

Programme e.g.

1. Choose right material for pathways

2. Practice good housekeeping (clear from oil, grease. When

mopping the area, rope off the area or erect warning signs)

3. Require nonskid footwear

4. Review & Acceptances of walkways

5. Reconditioning of Walkways

6. Employee footwear programme

7. Specify type of footwear on different type of walking surfaces

8.Inspection/Audit
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 Including test, report, suggestion by authorized safety officer)

OTHER REASONS
• Running and undue haste

• Supervisor should locate causes.

• May be due to;

o Bus and train schedule not coordinated with

company timings

o Bottlenecks at gate or in parking lot

o Inadequate restaurant facilities

o Long pay lines (Salary)

o Inadequate transportation facilities

o Unbalanced work load

LADDER SAFETY:

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Major potential source for falls;
• Should be strong enough.
• Condition of Ladder
o Cracks on side rail loose rungs
o Rails or braces corrosion.
• Check wooden ladder for moisture good electric condition
contact.
• Metal Ladder (For burrs & sharp edges)

Do’s & Don’ts.

• Check slipperiness on shoes & ladder rungs.
• Limit ladder to one person at a time.
• Secure Ladder firmly at top & bottom.
• Do apply four-to-one ratio at least.
• Face ladder during climbing up & down.
• Don’t lean too far to either side while working.
• Don’t lean ladder against a fragile, unstable surface.

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 • Don’t let other people to enter the premises of ladder (may
be by placing barrier).
• Should be standing at least three rung down from the top.
• Belt up during working on ladder.

STAIRS
• Stairs of same height & same width.
• Pitch of stairs between 30-390.
• Riser should not be more than 8” or less than 5”.
• Treads should not be less than 9½” high deep.
• Stairs ways should have landing at least every 8 or 9’ of
vertical height.
• Hand rails should be provided without sharp edges, burrs,
rough surfaces etc.
• No Mirrors, windows at head/foot of stairs.
• No poster, display, bulletin board be placed be placed near
the stairs.

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ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

• Short circuit

• Water

o Decreases resistivity of materials including

human

 Resistance of wet skin can be around 450 Ω

o Dry skin 100,000 Ω

Major causes

• Contact with bare wire

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 • Working with electrical equipment that lacks the UL
label for safety inspection

• Electrical equipment not properly grounded

• Working with electrical equipment on damp floor

STATIC ELECTRICITY DISCHARGE

• Using metal ladders

• With ensuring that the power has been shut off

• Lightning strikes

• Electrostatic hazards

• Rubbing nonconductive material over stationary

surface

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 • Moving large sheets of plastic, which may discharge
sparks

• Friction between flowing liquid and solid surface

 Rate of discharge of electrical charge increases

with lower humidity

 Electrostatic sparks greater during cold, dry

winter days

THE FIRE TRIANGLE

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 Fire Safety, at its most basic, is based upon the
principle of keeping fuel sources and ignition sources
separate.

Three things must be present at the same time to

produce fire:

1. Enough OXYGEN to sustain combustion

2. Enough HEAT to reach ignition temperature

3. Some FUEL or combustible material

Together, they produce the CHEMICAL REACTION that

is fire.

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 Take away any of these things and the fire will be
extinguished

Fire requires 16% Oxygen {21% O2, 78% N}

Stages of Fire:

1st:Incipient Stage: No visible smoke, no flame, very little

heat, combustion begins to take place.

2nd: Smoldering Stage: Combustion increases, smoke

becomes visible (as yet no visible flame)

3rd: Flame Stage: Point of ignition, flames begins to become

visible

4th: Heat Stage: Large amount of heat. Flame, smoke and

toxic gases produced.

Fuel Classifications

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 Fires are classified according to the type of fuel that is
burning.

 If you use the wrong type of fire extinguisher on the

wrong class of fire, you might make matters worse.

 It is very important to understand the four different fire

(fuel) classifications…

ℵ Class A: Wood, paper, cloth, trash, plastics—solids

that are not metals.

ℵ Class B: Flammable liquids—gasoline, oil, grease,

acetone. Includes flammable gases.

ℵ Class C: Electrical—energized electrical equipment.

As long as it’s “plugged in.”

ℵ Class D: Metals—potassium, sodium, aluminum,

magnesium. Requires Metal-X, foam, and other
special extinguishing agents.

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 Most fire extinguishers will have a pictograph label
telling you which type of fire the extinguisher is designed
to fight.

Types of Fire Extinguishers

Fixed: Water hose, water sprinkles

Portable:
Different types of fire extinguishers are designed to fight
different classes of fire.
The three most common types of fire extinguishers are:

1. Water (APW)

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

3. Dry Chemical (ABC, BC, DC)

Water (APW) Fire Extinguishers

 Large silver fire extinguishers that stand about 2 feet tall

and weigh about 25 pounds when full.

 APW stands for “Air-Pressurized Water.”

27
 Filled with ordinary tap water and pressurized air, they are
essentially large squirt guns.

 APW’s extinguish fire by taking away the “heat”

element of the Fire Triangle

 APW’s are designed for Class A fires only i.e. Wood,

paper, cloth.

 Using water on a flammable liquid fire could cause the

fire to spread.

 Using water on an electrical fire increases the risk of

electrocution. If you have no choice but to use an APW
on an electrical fire, make sure the electrical equipment
is un-plugged or de-energized.

Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguishers

 The pressure in a CO2 extinguisher is so great; bits of dry

ice may shoot out of the horn!

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 CO2 cylinders are red. They range in size from 5 lbs to 100
lbs or larger. On larger sizes, the horn will be at the end of
a long, flexible hose.

 CO2’s are designed for Class B and C (Flammable Liquids

and Electrical Sources) fires only!

 CO2s will frequently be found in laboratories, mechanical

rooms, kitchens, and flammable liquid storage areas.

 In accordance with NFPA regulations (and manufacturers’

recommendations), all CO2 extinguishers undergo
hydrostatic testing and recharge every 5 years.

 Carbon dioxide is a non-flammable gas that takes away the

oxygen element of the fire triangle. Without oxygen, there
is no fire. CO2 is very cold as it comes out of the
extinguisher, so it cools the fuel as well.

 A CO2 may be ineffective in extinguishing Class A fire

because it may not be able to displace enough oxygen to
successfully put the fire out

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 Class A materials may also smolder and re-ignite.

Dry Chemical (ABC) Fire Extinguishers

 Dry chemical extinguishers put out fire by coating the fuel

with a thin layer of dust. This separates the fuel from the
oxygen in the air.

 The powder also works to interrupt the chemical

reaction of fire. These extinguishers are very effective at
putting out fire.

 ABC extinguishers are red ranging in size from 5 to 20 lbs.

 The extinguishers are pressurized with nitrogen.

 Dry chemical extinguishers come in a

variety of types…

ℵDC (for “Dry Chemical”)

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 ℵABC (can be used on Class A, B, or C fires)

ℵBC (designed for use on Class B and C fires)

 It is extremely important to identify which types of dry

chemical extinguishers are located in your area!

 You don’t want to mistakenly use a “BC” extinguisher

on a Class A fire thinking that it was an “ABC”
extinguisher.

How to Use a Fire Extinguisher

It’s easy to remember how to use a fire extinguisher if you

remember the acronym PASS:

 Pull
 Aim
 Squeeze
 Sweep

31
Pull the pin…

Aim at the base of the fire…

32
Squeeze the top handle…
This depresses a button that releases the pressurized
extinguishing agent.

Sweep from side to side…

.. until the fire is completely out. Start
using the extinguisher from a safe distance
away, and then slowly move forward.

 Once the fire is out, keep an eye

on the area in case it re-ignites.

Rules for Fighting Fires

Fires can be very dangerous and you should always be certain

that you will not endanger yourself or others when attempting to
put out a fire.

33
For this reason, when a fire is discovered…

ℵAssist any person in immediate danger to safety, if it can be

accomplished without risk to yourself.

ℵ Call fire department or activate the building fire alarm. The

fire alarm will notify the fire department and other building
occupants and shut off the air handling system to prevent
the spread of smoke.

 If the fire is small (and only after having done these 2

things), you may attempt to use an extinguisher to put it
out. However . . . .

 . . . before deciding to fight the fire, keep these

things in mind:

 Know what is burning. If you don’t know what’s burning,

you won’t know what kind of extinguisher to use.

 Even if you have an ABC fire extinguisher, there may

be something in the fire that is going to explode or produce
toxic fumes.
34
  Chances are you will know what’s burning, or at least have
a pretty good idea, but if you don’t, let the fire department
handle it.

 Is the fire spreading rapidly beyond the point where it

started?

 The time to use an extinguisher is at the beginning

stages of the fire.

 If the fire is already spreading quickly, it is best to

simply evacuate the building.

 As you evacuate a building, close doors and windows

behind you as you leave. This will help to slow the spread
of smoke and fire.

 Do not fight the fire if:

 You don’t have adequate or appropriate equipment. If you

don’t have the correct type or large enough extinguisher, it is
best not to try fighting the fire.

35
  You might inhale toxic smoke. When synthetic materials
such as the nylon in carpeting or foam padding in a sofa
burn, they can produce hydrogen cyanide and ammonia in
addition to carbon monoxide. These gases can be fatal in
very small amounts.

 Your instincts tell you not to. If you are uncomfortable

with the situation for any reason, just let the fire department
do their job.

 Always position yourself with an exit or means of escape at

your back before you attempt to use an extinguisher fire.

 In case the extinguisher malfunctions, or something

unexpected happens, you need to be able to get out quickly.
You don’t want to become trapped.

Three key concepts in an effective program of industrial

hygiene:
1 Recognition: Knowledge of stresses arising out of
industrial operations and processes.
2 Evaluation: A judgment or decision involving
measurement of stress and based on past experience.
36
 3 Control: Isolation, substitution, change of process, wet
methods, local exhaust ventilation, general or dilution
ventilation, PPE, housekeeping, and training.

RECOGNITION

Types of Stresses
Chemical

Fume:
 Substance composed of solid particles formed by

condensation from a gaseous state

 These particles are microscopically small (odorous

gases and vapors are not fumes).

Gas
 Substance that will diffuse to evenly occupy the space in
which it is enclosed
Vapor
 Gaseous form of a substance that is normally a liquid
or Solid
Mist
 Suspension in air of very small drops usually formed by
mechanical (atomization) or
37
  By condensation from the gaseous state
Dust
 Substance consisting of solid particles that have been
reduced to a small by some mechanical process
Physical
 Noise: unwanted sound
 Temperature: either high or low extremes
 Illumination: level of intensity
 Vibration: motion condition
 Pressure: atmospheric, either high or low

Biological
 Insects, molds, fungi, and bacteria create
biological stresses

Ergonomic
Exposure
 Entering into the body as an health hazard
 May affect the nervous system by entering
ℵ through the eyes, ears, and breathing area of the
mouth and nose or
38
 ℵ absorbed through the skin on contact and
possibly find its way into the digestive tract
 Except for skin diseases, most occupational diseases
are acquired by inhalation.
 Certain chemical agents that reach the lungs can pass
into the blood stream and over a long period of time
can be absorbed into various other parts of the body
ℵ Other agents may stay in the lungs - cause
damage in this organ only
ℵ Lung tissue most efficient medium the body
possesses for absorbing materials

Potentially Hazardous Processes

 Any process involving combustion should be inspected
for by-products of the combustion released to the
environment.
 Any process involving high temperature, with or without
high combustion, should be examined to determine if
workers are exposed to excessive heat and noise.
 Any process involving induction heating, including
microwave heating, should be examined with regard to
39
 effects of the heat on employees and also to the level of
heat, if it is suspected to be in a high range.
 Any process involving the melting of metal should be
studied to determine the toxicity of the metal fume and
possibly of dust, if any is produced in the process.
 Any process involving an electrical discharge in the air
should be studied to determine whether ozone and
oxides of nitrogen are produced.

EVALUATION
 Degree of exposure,

 Concentration of a contaminant determined according to

the terms, units, or percentages which appear in the
standards on levels of exposure

Threshold Limit Values

 expressed in parts per million (ppm)
 parts of vapor or gas per million parts of air by volume
 approximate milligrams (mg) of particulate per cubic meter
of air (mg/m3)
 Threshold limit values refer to time- weighted
concentrations for a 7 hour or an 8 hour workday and a
40 hour week.
40
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE HAZARDS
Thermal Comfort
 Function of different factors like;

ℵ Temperature, humidity, air distribution, personal

preference, and acclimatization
 Determining optimum conditions is not a simple process.
ℵ Conduction
ℵ Convection
ℵ Metabolic heat
ℵ Environmental heat
ℵ Radiant heat
The Body's Response to Heat
 Human body equipped to maintain an appropriate balance
between the metabolic heat it produces and the
environmental heat to which it is exposed.
 Sweating and the subsequent evaporation of the sweat are
the body's way of trying to maintain an acceptable
temperature balance.
 According to E. L. Alpaugh, (Fundamentals of Industrial
Hygiene)

41
 H= M ± R ± C - E
where H body heat,
Minternal heat gain (metabolic),
R radiant heat gain,
C convection heat gain, and
E evaporation (cooling).

HEAT STRESS AND ITS PREVENTION

A) Heat Stroke

 Occurs as a result of a rapid rise in the body's core

temperature
 Very dangerous and should be dealt with immediately

 Can be fatal

Symptoms
ℵ Hot, dry, mottled skin
ℵ Confusion and/or convulsions
ℵ Loss of consciousness
42
 Factors making individual susceptible to heat stroke
ℵ Obesity
ℵ Poor physical condition
ℵ Alcohol intake
ℵ Cardiovascular disease
ℵ Prolonged exertion in a hot environment.
Treatment/prevention

 Core body temperature to be reduced

 If not, wrap the victim in a wet thin sheet and fan
continuously, adding water periodically to keep the
sheet wet.

Prevention strategies
 Medical screening identify applicants having one or more
susceptibility characteristics
 Gradual acclimatization to hot working conditions spread
over at least a full week
 Rotating workers out of the hot environment at specified
intervals during the work day
 Use of personal protective clothing that is cooled
 Monitoring employees carefully and continually

43
B) Heat Exhaustion

 Occurs as a result of water and/or salt depletion

 Body becomes dehydrated, decreases the volume of
blood circulating
 Various body parts compete for a smaller volume of
blood causing circulatory strain
Symptoms
i. Fatigue ii. Nausea and/or vomiting
iii. Headache iv. Lightheadedness
v. Clammy, moist skin vi. Pale or flushed complexion
vii. Rapid pulse viii. Fainting when trying to stand

Treatment and Prevention

Victim should be moved to a cool but not cold environment
Fluids should be taken

Prevention strategies
Gradual acclimatization over at least a week

C) Heat Cramps
Occurs as a result of salt and potassium depletion from
profuse sweating as a result of working in a hot environment

Symptoms
44
  Muscle contraction- typically felt in the arms, legs, and
abdomen
 Salt is lost, water that is taken in dilutes the body's
electrolytes
 Excess water enters the muscles causing cramping

Treatment
 Replenish body's salt and potassium supply orally

 Can be done with commercially produced fluids that

contain carefully measured amounts of salts,
potassium, electrolytes, and other elements
Prevention
 Acclimatize workers to the hot environment gradually over
a period of at least a week
 Ensure that fluid replacement is accomplished with a
product that contains the appropriate amount of
ℵ salt,
ℵ potassium, and
ℵ electrolytes

D) Heat Rash

 Small raised bumps or blisters that cover a portion of the

body
45
  Give off a prickly sensation that can cause discomfort
 Caused by prolonged exposure to hot and humid conditions
 Sweat gland ducts become clogged with retained sweat that
does not evaporate
 Sweat backs up in the system and causes minor
inflammation
Treatment
 Remove the victim to a cooler, less humid environment
 Clean the affected area,
E) Heat Fatigue

 Temporary sluggishness, lethargy, and impaired

performance (mental and/or physical)
 Employees not acclimatized to working in a hot
environment are especially susceptible to transient heat
fatigue
 Degree and frequency of transient heat fatigue is also a
function of physical conditioning.

Ei) Chronic Heat Fatigue

 Employees experiencing chronic heat fatigue should be
moved into positions that do not involve working in a
hot environment

46
  Prolonged chronic heat fatigue, if not relieved, can cause
both physiological and psychological stress

BURNS AND THEIR EFFECTS

Human Skin
 Consists of two main layers
ℵ Outer layer known as epidermis
ℵ Inner layer known as the dermis which is connected
to the underlying subcutaneous tissue
 Skin serves several important purposes including:
ℵ protection of body tissue;
ℵ sensation; secretion; excretion; and respiration
ℵ Protection from
 fluid loss
 water penetration
 ultraviolet radiation
 infestation by microorganisms

 Skin helps regulate body heat through sweating process.

Burn

 The deeper the penetration, the more severe the burn.

47
Severity of Burns

Depends on several factors;

 Depth to which the burn penetrates (Most Important!)
 Location of the burn
 Age of the victim, and
 Amount of burned area

Most widely used method of classifying burns

First-degree burns
 Minor and result only in a mild inflammation of the skin
 Sunburn is a common form of first-degree burn
 Recognizable as a redness of the skin that makes it
sensitive and moderately painful to the touch.

Second-degree burns
 Recognizable from the blisters that form on the skin
 Approximately 210°F (99oC) can cause a second-degree
burn in as little as fifteen seconds of contact.

Third-degree burns
 Very dangerous
48
 Can be fatal depending on the amount of body surface
affected
 Penetrates through both the epidermis and the dermis
 Deep third-degree burn will penetrate body tissue
 Can be caused by both moist and dry hazards
ℵ Moist hazards include steam and hot liquids
 Burns appear white
ℵ Dry hazards include fire and hot objects or surfaces
 Burns appear black and charred.

Body Surface Area

 Also a critical concern
 Expressed as a percentage of body surface area or BSA
 Burns covering over 75 % of BSA are usually fatal
Right arm………. 9% of BSA
Left arm………… 9% of BSA
Head/neck……… 9% of BSA
Right leg……….. 18% of BSA
Left leg…………. 18% of BSA
Back……………. 18% of BSA
Chest/stomach….. 18% of BSA

Minor Burns
49
  All 1st degree burns
 2nd degree burns covering less than 15% of the body
 3rd degree burns covering 2 % or less of BSA
Moderate Burns
 2nd degree burns that penetrate epidermis but cover 15% or
more of BSA
 2nd degree burns that penetrate the dermis and cover from
15 to 30% of BSA
 3rd degree burns covering less than 10 % of BSA and are
not on the hands, face, or feet.

Critical Burns
nd
 2 degree burns covering more than 30 % of BSA
 3rd degree burns covering over 10 % of BSA
 Small area 3rd degree burns to the hands, face, or feet due
to greater potential for infection
 Burns that are complicated by other injuries (fractures, soft
tissue damage, etc.) are considered critical

CHEMICAL BURNS

The severity of the burn produced by a given chemical depends

50
on the following factors:

 Corrosive capability of the chemical

 Concentration of the chemical
 Temperature of chemical/solution in which it is dissolved

 Duration of contact with the chemical

Primary hazardous
 Infection
 Fluid Loss
 Shock

First Aid for Chemical Burns

According to the National Safety Council, the proper response
in cases of chemical burns is;
 To wash off the chemical by flooding the burned areas
with copious amounts of water as quickly as possible
 In the case of chemical burns to the eyes, the continuous
flooding should continue for at least fifteen minutes. The
eyelids should be held open to ensure that chemicals are
51
 not trapped under them.

COLD STRESS FACTORS

 Temperature of the air surrounding the body

 Body temperature
 Air movement around the body
 Length of exposure
 Normal body temperature 98.6ºF
ℵ Below 86ºF control system becomes ineffective

52
ℵ Below 59ºF body begins to experience impairment of
many functions
 Most hypothermia results when ambient temperature is
between 30º and 40ºF

 Increased heat loss to the environment

 Body’s attempt to Maintain Body Temperature

ℵ Muscle hypertension, resulting in shivering

HYPOTHERMIA

 Prolonged exposure to cold causes the body to lose energy

faster than it is produced

 Body temperature drops to lower than normal

 Can happen when temperatures are above freezing

53
 Conditions affecting Hypothermia

 Aging, allergies, poor circulation, & illness

 Self-imposed conditions, such as drinking, smoking, &

taking sedatives also increase risks
 Wet clothing, windy conditions, & poor physical condition

Hypothermia Symptoms

 Numbness, Stiffness, Drowsiness, Poor Coordination

 Slow or irregular breathing and heart rate

 Slurred Speech

 Shivering and teeth chattering

 Mild pain in extremities

 Confused & disoriented; memory lapses

 Worst-case results can cause death

Safety Procedures

 Get victim to where it is warm

 Get them out of wet, frozen, or tight clothing

54
 ℵ keep victim dry

 Give warm (room temperature) liquids

 Do not give alcohol or substances containing caffeine

 Warm center of body first

FROSTBITE

 Most serious, and second most common, cold exposure

hazard

 Nose, ears, cheeks, fingers, & toes most often affected

 Affected area doesn’t get enough heat & freezes

55
 Freezing causes blood vessel constriction

 Results in lack of oxygen, excess fluid buildup, blistering,

and tissue death
 Skin goes from white or grayish yellow, to reddish violet,
to black
 Usual feeling of being really cold, then numb

 May get a tingling or aching feeling or brief pain

 Can cause permanent tissue damage

 Victim can become unconscious

 Death may result from heart failure

 If necessary, seek medical assistance

Care of Frostbite

 Don’t rub affected part

 Don’t use hot baths, or heat producing devices

 Don’t break blisters

56
 Warm the frozen part with clothing, blankets, or with room
temperature water

 Once warm, exercise the part

 Exception: do not walk on frostbitten feet

NFPA Diamond

57
 i. Fire Hazard Red
ii. Health Hazard Blue
iii. Reactivity Yellow
iv. Special Instructions White
Sound
Caused by vibration produced in air
Noise
ℵ Unpleasant & unwanted sound

58
ℵ Can act on the body very much as other stresses do
No exact point where sound becomes noise. Depends upon
ℵ Person to person
ℵ State of mind

Types of Noise: - (measured by sound level meter)

1. Steady level noise

Constant level of sound for long time

2. Mixed Noise
Varying level noise is made by sound layers of steady level
noise
ℵ Machine operate intermittently or employees moved around
at different areas of plant
ℵ Measurement is more complicated

3. Impact Noise
Overwhelming noise produced for short time
59
 Forging (Press operating at 21Cycles/minute)
21x60x8=10,080 cycles/day
OSHA allows 10,000 cycles/day
Sound is measured in decibel
ℵ One decibel is the lowest sound one can hear
ℵ Weakest sound that can be heard by a healthy ear in a quiet
setting is known as threshold of hearing (10dBA)
ℵ 120 threshold of pain
Sound Level meter used to measure sound pressure level
Consists of microphone which detects sound converts it
into electrical signal & amplifies

Source dBA
Whisper 20
Noisy Office 60
Normal Conversation 80
Power Saw 90
Grinding operation 100
Jet Aircraft 150

60
Permissible Noise Exposures
Duration / Day Sound Level
(Hrs) dB(A)
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1/2
1 102
1 105
½ 110
¼ or less 115
Exposure to excessive noise can damage inner ear
ℵ Ability to hear higher frequency sound diminished or lost
together.
ℵ Additional exposure can increase the damage until
even lower frequency sound cannot be heard
Decibel Calculations:-
1. Two described levels are equal or with the difference of one
decibel
Add 3 db to the higher level
2. Two decibel are 2 - 3 db apart

61
 Sum 2db at higher level
3. Two decibel levels are 4 – 9db apart
Sum 1db at higher level
4. Two decibel levels are 10 –more db apart
Sum 0db to higher level
Or take higher level

Hearing Losses:-
ℵ It is impairment (damage) that interfaces with
understanding of speech measured as a function of
frequency or the number of vibrations in cycles / sec of a
sound wave called hertz (Hz)
ℵ Normal hearing detection ranges from 16 -20,000 Hz
ℵ Understanding of speech ranges from 500 -2,000 Hz
ℵ Loss of hearing generally occur at 4,000 Hz
ℵ Excessive Noise can cause physiological problems
ℵ Researcher shows that it causes;
o Quick pulse
o Increased blood pressure

62
 o Contraction of blood vessels

Factors affecting the risk of hearing loss

1. Intensity of the noise
2. Duration of daily exposure
3. Total duration of exposure (no. of years)
4. Age of individual
5. Co-existing of hearing disease
6. Nature of environment in which exposure occurs
7. Distance of individual from the source of noise
8. Position of ears relative to the sound waves

Types of hearing loss:-

Temporary Loss
Permanent Loss
Due to short term exposure to loud noise after a rest period
normal hearing return although it is not compensable under
workers compensation laws.

63
Types of permanent hearing loss
a) due to aging
b)due to almost constant exposure to loud noise
It involves deterioration of tiny nerve cells within the ear.

Engineering controls:
ℵMore complex than administrative controls
ℵFirst approach to reduce the sound at its source through
engineering design & innovations in equipment
Possible Steps:
ℵ Machine is in good repaired condition and properly oiled.
ℵUnbalanced & worn parts are replaced.
ℵMount machine on rubber or plastic to reduce vibration &
noise
ℵSubstitute a quiet process for a noisy one
ℵConfine sound of machine within as acoustical enclosure.

64
ℵIsolate the operator within an acoustical booth.

65
Administrative control:-
Reducing the amount of time an employee is subjected to
excessive noise
i.e. by dividing noisy jobs among two or more employee
OR
Performing very noisy operations at night
Or on shifts where few employees would be exposed
When Engineering Control doesn’t work, administrative control
to be used to adjust the exposure duration of noise
Danger Zone (105-150 dB) Jet engine, drop hummer turbine
generator
Risk Zone (90-100 dB) Weaving mill, portable grinders
welding equipment, milling m/c
Providing Hearing protections:-
If engineering & administrative control doesn’t work
ℵ P.P.E are to be used
ℵ Cotton is not regarded as compliance to OSHA
ℵ Glass wool acceptable
ℵ Earplugs reduce noise level by 25-30 dB
66
 ℵ Earmuffs reduces sufficiently
Hearing Conversations Program
Audiometry:
ℵ Audiometric testing determines hearing level in each ear by
means of an audiometer
ℵ To be performed for an environment where Noise level is
above 85 dB.
Lighting
No lighting – No seeing – No safety
Lighting but not proper → No Safety
Lighting Faults
1. Insufficient light
ℵ Although some light is better than complete darkness but
not very safe for proper work
ℵ Emergency lights essential for safe exist

Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) recommendation

Task Group Type of Task Std. Service
illuminance

67
 (Lux)
Storage areas with no
----- 150
continuous work
Rough machining and
Rough work 300
assembly
Offices, Control
rooms, medium
Routine work 500
machining and
assembly
Demanding Inspection of medium
750
work machining
Colour discrimination,
fine machining and
Fine work 1000
assembly,
textile processing
Hand engraving,
Very fine work Inspection of fine 1500
machining or assembly
Inspection of very fine
Minute work 3000
work
*Recommended values in neither minima nor optima
but represent good current practice.

2. Shadow
ℵ Obstruction between light and worker e.g. worker is in
between light source and machine

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ℵ may sometimes appear with stair case as well
ℵ Little price to pay for consumed energy than a fatal
accident may lead to huge indirect cost.

3. Glare
ℵ Disability glare caused by bright and bare lamps (falling on
eyesight)
ℵ Discomfort glare caused by too much contrast of brightness
between object and its background (due to poor designing).
 No immediate problems but may lead to eyestrain,
headache and fatigue.
 This may be a contribution to major accident
Remedies
 Changing to luminaries which adequately screen
the lamp at all normal viewing angles
 Using light coloured decoration on the walls and
ceiling
 Proper designing to ensure that the orientation of
light is suitable from the point of view of glare
reduction

69
ℵ Reflected Glare reflection of light falling on shiny wet
surface, may use light source of low brighten or change the
design
Best of all → Avoid using shiny materials

Standard values may be increased if required

 May be due to the reason that expensive or critical
components to be observed or
 Older (50 years of age) people are working
No replacement of natural light
Sufficient no glare no harm
Modern Health and Safety Team

Health & Safety Manager

Safety Industrial Health Occupational

Engineer Hygienist Physicist Health Nurse

Environmental Occupational
Engineer Physician

1. Health & Safety Manager

70
Duties of Health and safety Manager:
ℵ Establish and maintain Health and Safety Programme
ℵ Risk assessment and analysis in each department
ℵ Ensure compliance with all applicable laws standards
and codes
ℵ Maintain all records related to Health and Safety
ℵ Conduct accident investigation
ℵ Develop and maintain Companywide Emergency
Action Plan (EAP)
ℵ Establish and maintain an ongoing safety promotion
effort
ℵ Analyze the company’s products from the prospective
of Health and safety

Qualification:
Bachelors Degree in Industrial Safety, Industrial
Engineering, Chemical Engineering with experience

2. Industrial Hygienist
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 Industrial Hygiene defined as Science and art devoted to;
a. recognition,
b. evaluation and
c. control of

ℵ those environmental factors or stresses, arising in and from

the workplace, which may cause

 sickness,

 impaired heath &

 well being or

 significant discomfort and

 inefficiency
ℵ Among workers or among citizens of the community.

Concerned Hazards:
Solvents, radiations, temperature, toxic & biological
substances ventilation, ventilation, gas and vapours, noise

72
Qualification:
Degree in Chemistry, Physics, or Physical / biological
Sciences

3. Environmental Engineer
ℵ Hazardous waste management
ℵ Atmospheric pollution,
ℵ Indoor air pollution,
ℵ Water pollution,
ℵ Waste water management
Qualification:
Degree in Environmental Engineering

4. Health physicist

ℵConcerned with radiation in workplace

73
ℵ Employed by companies that generate or use nuclear
power
Duties:

ℵ Monitoring radiation inside and outside the facility

ℵ Measuring radioactivity levels of biological samples

ℵ Developing radiation components of Company’s
Emergency Action Plan

ℵ Supervising decontamination of workers and workplace

when necessary

Qualification:
Degree in Nuclear Engineering or Physics

74
5. Occupational Physician
ℵ Medical doctors with postgraduate work in industrial
related injuries/casualties
ℵ Bernardino Ramazzine is 1st occupation physician

 His study of work related problem of workers in

Modena Italy and his book “The Disease of
Worker” (1700)
ℵ Alice Hamilton, 1st US occupation physician
ℵ Companies may have their own in house occupation
physician or
ℵ Sometimes they may contact with private physician,
clinic, Hospital to provide specific medical services.
ℵ Should be familiar with OSHA health mandate
ℵ Should understand the workplace and chemicals used
and produced
ℵ Appraised maintenance, restoration and improvement of
worker’s health through application of the principles of

75
 preventive medicine, emergency medical care,
rehabilitation and environmental medicine

6. Occupation Health Nurse

Usually work under occupation physician but if contract
occupation physician then reports to the H&S Manager

76
Investigation of Accidents:
ℵ Act of Fact Finding and not Fault Finding

ℵ To find the root causes

ℵ To make sure it doesn’t reoccur

ℵ Near accidents should also be investigated,

Who should investigate?
Supervisor (In charge of injured person’s activities) as he
knows best

 The nature of the work

 How it should be done

 The best people who do it

What happened?
Big Six (Questions a report must answer)
1. Who was injured?
2. Where did the accident happen?
3. When did the accident happen?

77
 4. What was the accident cause and what were the
contributing causes of accident ?
5. Why was unsafe act or unsafe conditions permitted?
6. How can this accident be prevented next time?
ℵ Investigation should not stop after an unsafe act or condition
identified.
ℵ May go deeper!! For example

 How much knowledge the injured worker had for the task
he was performing

 Did the worker have problems with machine, co-worker

and family?
Report
Two aspects of a report
 What caused the accident / property damage

 Recommendation / correction
Poorly written report shows
 Poor attitude of supervisor part

 Lack of interest of company

78
  Supervisor have no idea from which desk report goes to
Therefore Report;
 Should include only fact
 from the people who are remotely involved
 Should be impartial and objective oriented
 Should be accurate, concise and unemotional
 Should include description of injuries, mechanism, processes
and interpretation of facts accurately and concisely
 Report be not data collection rather fact finding

 Should be understandable by OSHA inspector

SAFETY COLOR CODE FOR MARKING PHYSICAL

HAZARDS AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF CERTAIN
EQUIPMENT

79
1. GREEN–shall be used as the basic color for designating
“Safety” and the location of first-aid equipment:
a. Safety bulletin boards
b. First-aid kits
c. Stretchers
d. Personal-Protective-Equipment supply cabinets
2. RED–shall be the basic color for the identification of:
a. Fire protection equipment and apparatus
i. Fire-alarm boxes
ii. Fire-blanket boxes
iii. Fire-hose locations
iv. Sprinkle piping, etc
b. Danger
i. Safety cans and flammable liquids containers
ii. Red lights at barricades
c. Stop
i. Red lights at barricades
ii. Stop buttons
3. YELLOW–shall be the basic color for designating caution:
80
 a. To mark aisles and direct the flow of traffic
b. Construction equipment such as bulldozers, tractors, etc
c. Caution signs
d. Handrails, guardrails, barricades
e. Marking for low beams, pipes, projections, etc
4. ORANGE–basic color for designation dangerous parts
of machines or equipments:
a. Inside of transmission guards for gears, pulleys chains.
b. Safety starting buttons
c. Exposed parts (edges only) of pulleys, gears, power jams.
5. BLUE–shall be the basic color for designating machine and
equipment controls such as:
a. Electrical controls
b. Valves
c. Breaks
d. Disconnects
6. PURPLE–shall be the basic color for designating radiation
hazards:
a. Radiation warning signs
b. Containers of radioactive material
81
 c. Signal lights to indicate radiation machines are in operation

7. BLACK OR WHITE–or a combination of black and white shall

be the basic color of housekeeping markings:
a. Stairways (risers)
b. Location of refuse cans
c. White corners for rooms and passageways
d. Food-dispensing equipment

RISK ASSESSMENT

Five Steps Process for Risk Assessment

1. Identify the hazards
2. Identify who can be harmed
3. Identify the current controls and decide if more is required?
4. Record your findings
5. Review as necessary

82
 Identify the Hazards
• The first thing you need to do is identify the hazards
associated with the task or activity.
– One way of doing this is by using “PEME”
• People
• Equipment
• Materials
• Environment

People Hazards
• People hazards cover a number of issues
• hazards are to do with the individual themselves;
• When thinking about people hazards, words such as
» training,
» capabilities/restrictions,
» supervision,
» communication,
83
» adequate numbers and
» human error
should come to mind.

Equipment Hazards
• cover tasks associated with the
– repair,
– maintenance,
– handling,
– cleaning,
– storage and
– Operation of the equipment.
Material Hazards
• Cover any solids, liquids or gases associated with the task
e.g. Chemicals, Solid Fuel (Paper, wood etc)
• Along with the substances that are required for the specific
task
– also any bi-products or
– Wastes generated by the task or activity.

84
 Environment Hazards
• It’s all about the surroundings
• Depending on the location and the activity,
– hazards could include
• poor lighting,
• heating and ventilation,
• poor access/egress,
• tripping/slipping hazards,
• restricted space/visibility and
• other activities taking place nearby

What are the Current Controls?

What control measures are currently in place for each
hazard identified?
– There may be no controls,
• perhaps because the hazard hasn’t been considered
– There may be good controls in place
• because the hazard is obvious and easily controlled

85
Controls can be at three levels:
– Physical controls (e.g. a metal fence around a
construction site)
– Procedural controls (e.g. a safe working procedure for
the task)
– Behavioural controls (e.g. adequate supervision and
monitoring of behaviour)

Are Further Controls Required?

• Ask yourself
– Can more be done?
– What other control measures are necessary?
– Look at the hierarchy of control.
i. Eliminate the hazard
ii. Substitute the hazard

86
 iii. Contain the hazard at source
iv. Remove employees from hazard
v. Reduce exposures to hazard
vi. Systematic Withdrawal Plan (SWP’s)
vii. Warning signals
viii. PPE
ix. Disciplines
– Choose the best, most effective controls
– You may have looked at a particular task, identified the
current controls and may be thinking about adding
extra controls…but how do you know which controls
measures are best.

EVALUATING THE RISK

RISK EVALUATION MATRIX

Moderate injury

Trivial injury
Major injury

Minor injury
Severity

Fatal

Frequency of occurrence
Very common High High High Medium Low
Frequent High High Medium Medium Low
Occasional High Medium Medium Low Low
87
Rare Medium Medium Low Low Low
REGULAR REVIEW OF YOUR ASSESSMENTS
• Risk assessments must be reviewed on a regular basis
– at the very least once every five years.
• The period of review should reflect the hazards,
– the greater the hazards the more frequent the review
• Should also be reviewed
– if there is a significant change to the work or
– if you believe that it is no longer valid
• Risk assessment should be a living document –it should
change as the work changes.

HOW TO PLAN FOR EMERGENCIES

ℵ Developing an emergency action plan (EAP) is a
major step in preparing for emergencies.
ℵ A preliminary step to conduct a thorough analysis to
determine various types of emergencies that might
occur.
 A company might anticipate emergencies like:

Fires, chemical spills, explosions, toxic emissions,

88
 train derailments, hurricanes, tornadoes, lightning,
floods, earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions.

ℵ EAP should be collection of small plans for each

anticipated or potential emergency.

Components of EAP:
 Procedures. Specific, step-by-step emergency
response procedures for each potential emergency.
 Coordination. Proper coordination with
emergency responder agencies.
 Assignments/responsibilities. Every person's
responsibilities clearly spelled out and understood.
 One person responsible for conducting
evacuation of the affected area,
 Another for the immediate shutdown of all
equipment
 Another for telephoning for medical, fire, or
other types of emergency assistance.
 Always to have a backup person for each
area of responsibility.
 Accident prevention strategies. Strategies that
are supposed to be used on a day-to-day basis to
prevent the type of emergency being planned be
developed.
 Strategies can be reviewed, thereby promoting
89
 prevention.
 Schedules. Dates and times of regularly
scheduled practice drills.
 Vary the times and dates so that practice drills
don't become predictable and boring.

90
 Type of Emergency Being Planned for:
Fire Hurricane Chemical spill
Flood Lightning Toxic emission
Tornado Explosion Train derailment
Earthquake Volcanic eruption
Procedures for Emergency Response:
1. Controlling and isolating?
2. Communication?
3. Emergency assistance?
4. First aid?
5. Shut-down/evacuation/protection of workers?
6. Protection of equipment/property?
7. Egress, ingress, exits?
8. Emergency equipment (e.g., fire extinguishers)?
9. Alarms?
10. Restoration of normal operations?
Coordination:
1. Medical care providers?
2. Fire service providers?
3. LEPC personnel?
4. Environmental protection personnel?
5. Civil defense personnel (in the case of public evacuations)?
6. Police protection providers?
7. Communication personnel?

91
 Assignments/Responsibilities:
1. Who cares for the injured?
2. Who calls for emergency assistance?
3. Who shuts down power/operations?
4. Who coordinates communication?
5. Who conducts the evacuation?
6. Who meets and guides emergency responders?
7. Who contacts coordinating agencies and organizations?
8. Who is responsible for ensuring that alarms are in proper
working order?
9. Who is responsible for organizing cleanup activities?
Accident Prevention Strategies:
1. Periodic safety inspections?
2. Industrial hygiene strategies?
3. Personal protective equipment?
4. Ergonomic strategies?
5. Machine safeguards?
6. Hand/portable power tool safeguards?
7. Material handling and storage strategies?
8. Electrical safety strategies?
9. Fire safety strategies?
10. Chemical safety strategies?
Schedules:
Dates of practice drills:_____ Times of practice drills:_____
Duration of practice drills_____

92
Customizing Plans to Meet Local Needs
 Emergency plans must be location-specific.
 General plans developed centrally and used at all plant
locations will have limited effectiveness.

Location-specific EAP:
 A map in the plan.
 A map of the specific plant will help localize an EAP.
 The map should include the locations of exits,
access points, evacuation routes, alarms, emer-
gency equipment, a central control or command
center, first aid kits, emergency shut-downs
buttons, and any other important element of EAP.
 Chain of command
 An organizational chart illustrating the chain of

command - who is responsible for what and who

reports to whom.
 The chart should contain the names and
telephone numbers (internal and external) of
everyone involved in responding to an
emergency.
 It is critical to keep the organizational chart up to

date as personnel changes occur.

 It is also important to have a designated backup

93
 person shown for every position on the chart.
 Coordination information. All telephone numbers and
contact names of people in agencies with which the
company coordinates emergency activities should be
listed.
 Periodic contact should be maintained with all
these people so that the EAP can be updated as
personnel changes occur.
 Local training. All training should be geared toward
the types of emergencies that might occur in the plant.
 In addition, practice drills should take place on-
site and in the specific locations where
emergencies are most likely to happen.

94
Emergency Response Teams (ERT)
 A special team that responds "to general and localized
emergencies to facilitate personnel evacuation and
safety, shut down building services and utilities
 Work with responding civil authorities
 ERT typically composed of representatives from
several different departments such as:
 Maintenance, security, health and safety,
production/processing, and medical.
 Actual composition depend on the size and type

of company in question.

Emergency response network (ERN)

An ERN is a network of ERTs that covers a designated
geographical area and is typically responsible for a
specific type of emergency.

95
OHSAS 18001:1999
Health & Safety Management Systems
OHSAS ELEMENTS
OH&S management system elements:
4.1 General requirements
4.2 OH&S policy & commitment
4.3 Planning
4.3.1 Hazard identification, risk assessment/control
4.3.2 Legal and other requirements
4.3.3 Objectives
4.3.4 OH&S management program(s)
96
4.4 Implementation and operation
4.4.1 Structure and responsibility
4.4.2 Training, awareness and competence
4.4.3 Consultation and communication
4.4.4 Documentation
4.4.5 Document and data control
4.4.6 Operational control
4.4.7 Emergency preparedness and response
4.5 Checking and corrective action
4.5.1 Performance measurement and monitoring
4.5.2 Accidents, incidents, non-conformances and
corrective and preventive action
4.5.3 Records and records management
4.5.4 Audit
4.6 Management review

TS 16949
1.1 General
1.2 Application
2 NORMATIVE REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
3 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

3.1 Terms and Definitions for the automotive industry

3.1.1 Control plan
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 3.1.2 Design responsible organization
3.1.3 Error proofing
3.1.4 Laboratory
3.1.5 Laboratory scope
3.1.6 Manufacturing
3.1.7 Predictive maintenance
3.1.8 Preventive maintenance
3.1.9 Premium freight
3.1.10 Remote location
3.1.11 Site
3.1.12 Special characteristic
4 QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
4.1 General Requirements
4.1.1: Supplemental – outsourcing of processes does not
absolve your company of responsibility to conform to
customer requirements. (see clause 7.4.1; 7.4.1.3; 7.3.6.2;
7.5.1.5).
4.2.2 Quality Manual
4.2.3 Control of Documents
4.2.3.1 Engineering Specifications
 Have a process to timely review, distribute and
implement all customer engineering
standards/specifications & changes based on customers
schedule

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  These reviews should be as soon as possible and
shall not exceed two working weeks
 Keep a record of the date that each change is
implemented in production. Implementation shall
include updated documents
Note – PPAP’s need to be updated for changes in specifications
referenced on the design record or for changes to PPAP
documents such as Control Plans, FMEA’s, etc. (see 7.1.4)
4.2.4 Control of Records
4.2.4.1 Record Retention
5. MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITY
5.1 Management Commitment
5.1.1 Process Efficiency – Top management shall
review the product realization & support processes to assure
their effectiveness and efficiency. Also see 7.5.1.4 & 8.2.1.1)
5.2 Customer Focus
5.3 Quality Policy
5.4 Planning
5.4.1 Quality Objectives
5.4.1.1 Supplemental Objectives

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 Top management shall define quality objectives and
measurements
These shall be included in the business plan and use to
deploy quality policy. (See IATF guidance)
Note: Quality objectives should address customer
expectations and be achievable within a defined time
period
5.4.2 Quality Management System Planning
5.5 Responsibility, Authority & Communication
5.5.1 Responsibility and Authority
5.5.1.1 Responsibility for Quality
Promptly inform managers with responsibility and
authority for corrective action, about products or
processes that do not conform to requirements.
Personnel responsible for product quality shall have
the authority to stop production to correct quality
problems.
Production operations across all shifts shall be staffed
with personnel in charge of, or given responsibility for,
ensuring product quality.
5.5.2 Management Representative

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 5.5.2.1 Customer Representative – top management shall
designate personnel with responsibility & authority to
ensure that customer quality requirements are addressed.
This includes –
Þ special characteristics;
Þ setting quality objectives and related training;
Þ corrective and preventive action
Þ product design and development
5.5.3 Internal Communications
5.6 Management Review
5.6.1 General
5.6.1.1 QMS performance – these reviews shall include:
5.6.2 Review Input
5.6.2.1 Review input - Supplemental
Shall include an analysis of actual & potential field failures
and their impact on quality, safety or the environment
5.6.3 Review Output
6.1 Provision of Resources
6.2 Human Resources (HR)
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 6.2.1 General
6.2.2 Competence, Awareness and Training
6.2.2.1 Product Design Skills
6.2.2.2 Training
6.2.2.3 Training on the job
6.2.2.4 Motivation & empowerment
6.3 Infrastructure
6.3.1 Plant, facility & equipment planning
6.3.2 Contingency plans
6.4 Work Environment
6.4.1 Personal safety
6.4.2 Premise Cleanliness

7 PRODUCT REALIZATION
7.1 Planning of Product Realization
7.1.1 Product Realization Planning - Supplemental
7.1.2 Acceptance Criteria
7.1.3 Confidentiality
7.1.4 Change Control
7.2 Customer-related Processes

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 7.2.1 Determination of Requirements Related to the Product
7.2.1.1 Customer – designated Special Characteristics
7.2.2 Review of Requirements related to the Product
7.2.2.1 Review of requirements relating to the
product - Supplemental
7.2.2.2 Organization Manufacturing Feasibility
7.2.3 Customer Communication
7.2.3.1 Communication Supplemental –
You shall have the ability to communicate necessary
information, including data, in a customer specified
language & format (e.g. computer aided design data,
electronic data exchange)
7.3 Design & Development Planning
7.3.1 Product design and development (d & d) planning
7.3.1.1 Multidisciplinary approach
You shall use a multidisciplinary approach to develop, monitor
& review:
- Special characteristics,
- FMEA’s, including actions to reduce potential risks
- Control plans

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TS 16949 7.3.2 Design & Development Inputs
Determine inputs to product requirements that include:
a) Functional and performance requirements
b) Applicable statutory and regulatory requirements
c) Applicable information from previous similar designs
d) Other requirements essential for d & d
Review the inputs for adequacy
Shall be complete, unambiguous, and not in conflict with each
other
TS 16949 7.3.2.1 Product Design Input
Identify, document & review inputs relating to:
Customer requirements (contract review) such as special
characteristics, identification, traceability, packaging, etc,
Use of information - have a process to deploy information
gained from various sources
Targets for product quality, life, reliability, durability,
maintainability, timing and cost
TS 16949 7.3.2.2 Manufacturing process design input
Identify, document & review mfg process design inputs relating
to:

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 • Product design output data;
• Targets for productivity; process capability and cost;
• Customer requirements if any;
• Experience from previous developments
TS 16949 7.3.2.3 Special Characteristics
Identify special characteristics in Control Plan (CP) and:
- Use customer specified definitions & symbols on CP’s,
drawings, FMEA’s, operator instructions
- Or Use Company symbols on above
7.3.3 D & D Outputs
You shall:
Provide d & d outputs in a form that enables verification against
d & d inputs
Approve d & d outputs prior to their release
Prepare design and development output to:
a) Meet d & d input requirements
b) Provide appropriate information (for purchasing,
production, and service)
c) Contain or reference product acceptance criteria
d) Specify characteristics of the product essential for its safe
and proper use

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7.3.3.1 Product design output – supplemental
Express product design output in terms that can be verified &
validated against product design input requirements
Product design output shall include:
Þ Design FMEA, reliability results,
Þ Product special characteristics and specifications
Þ Product error-proofing as appropriate
Þ Product definition including drawings and math based
data,
Þ Product design review results
Þ Diagnostic guidelines where applicable
7.3.3.2 Manufacturing process design output
Express manufacturing design process output in terms that can
be verified & validated against manufacturing design input
Manufacturing design output shall include:
Þ Specifications and drawings
Þ manufacturing process flowchart/layout
Þ Manufacturing process FMEA’s
Þ Control Plans (7.5.1.1)
Þ Work instructions

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Þ Process approval acceptance criteria
Þ Data for quality, reliability, maintainability &
measurability
Þ Results of error-proofing results, as appropriate
Þ Methods for rapid detection and feedback of
product/manufacturing process nonconformities.
7.3.4 D & D Review
You shall:
Perform systematic review of d & d at suitable stages as per
your plan (see 7.3.1) to:
a) Evaluate the ability of d & d results to meet requirements
b) Identify any problems and propose actions
Include representatives of functions concerned with the d & d
stages being reviewed
Maintain records of such reviews and any actions arising from
them
Note: These reviews are normally coordinated with the design
phases and include manufacturing process d & d.
Monitoring

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You shall define, analyze and report (in summary)
measurements at specified stages of d & d, as an input for
management review
Note: These measurements include quality risks, lead times,
critical paths and others as appropriate
7.3.5 D & D Verification
Perform verification in accordance with planned
arrangements (see 7.3.1) to ensure that d & d outputs satisfy d
& d input requirements.
Maintain records of the results of verification and any
necessary actions
7.3.6 D & D Validation
Perform validation in accordance with plans (see 7.3.1)
Ensure that the product meets requirements for the specified
application or intended use, where known
7.3.7 Complete validation before delivery or implementation
(wherever practical)
Maintain records of the results of validation and any necessary
actions

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Note 1 The validation process normally includes an analysis
of field reports for similar products
Note 2 Verification (7.3.5) & validation (7.3.6) apply to both
product d & d as well as manufacturing process d & d.
7.3.6.1 D & D Validation- supplemental
Perform validation in accordance to customer requirements
including program timing
7.3.6.2 Prototype program
When required by the customer, you shall have a prototype
program & control plan.
Wherever possible, use the same suppliers, tooling and
manufacturing processes as in production
Monitor all performance testing for timely completion &
conformance to requirements
Be responsible for, control and show technical leadership for
any outsourced design services
7.3.6.3 Product Approval Process
You shall:
Use and conform to the customer approved product &
manufacturing process approval procedure (e.g., PPAP
Manual).

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Apply the same approved procedure to your suppliers
Note: Product approval should follow the verification of the
manufacturing process
7.3.7 Control of D & D Changes
You shall:
Identify and maintain records of changes
Review, verify, and validate the changes (as appropriate)
Approve the changes before implementation
Evaluate effect of changes on constituent parts and product
already delivered
Maintain records of the results of such reviews and any
necessary actions
Note: D & D changes include all changes during the product
program life (see 7.1.4)
7.3 Purchasing
7.4.1 Purchasing Process
7.4.1.1 Regulatory Conformity
7.4.1.2 Supplier QMS development
Develop your suppliers to conform to TS 16949. As a first
step, they shall be ISO 9001 certified, unless otherwise
specified by your customer.
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 Note: Prioritize supplier development based on their
quality performance & importance of product supplied
7.4.1.3 Customer-approved sources
Where specified by contract (customer drawing or
specification), you shall purchase products, materials,
tool/gauge and services from approved sources.
Using customer designated supplier, including tool/gauge
suppliers does not relieve your organization of the
responsibility to ensure the quality of purchased product
7.4.2 Purchasing Information
You shall describe the product to be purchased and include
where appropriate requirements for:
a) Approval of product, procedures, processes and equipment
b) Qualification of personnel
c) Quality management system
You shall ensure the adequacy of specified purchase
requirements before communicating them to the supplier
7.4.3 Verification of Purchased Product

7.4.3.1 Incoming product quality

7.4.3.2 Supplier Monitoring

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7.5 Production & Service Provision
7.5.1 Control of Production and Service Provision
7.5.1.1 Control Plan (CP)
7.5.1.2 Work Instructions (WI)
Have documented work instructions, accessible at work
stations, for all employees responsible for processes impacting
quality.
These WI’s shall be derived from sources such as the Quality
plan, Control plan and product realization processes
7.5.1.3 Verification of job set-ups
Verify job set-ups whenever performed as at initial run,
material or job change.
Provide WI’s to set up personnel & use statistical methods of
verification where applicable
Note: Last-off part comparisons are recommended
7.5.1.4 Preventive & Predictive maintenance
7.5.1.5 Management of production tooling
7.5.1.6 Production Scheduling
7.5.1.7 Feedback of service information
7.5.1.8 Service agreement with customer

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Where there is a service agreement with your customer, you
shall verify the effectiveness of:
Þ your service centres
Þ any special purpose tools or measurement equipment
Þ Training of service personnel
7.5.2 Validation of Processes for Production and Service
Provision
7.5.2.1 Validation of production processes - Supplemental
Apply the requirements of 7.5.2 to all processes for production
& service provision
7.5.3 Identification and traceability
7.5.3.1 Identification and Traceability – Supplemental
The words “Where appropriate” in 7.5.3 does not apply to the
automotive sector
7.5.4 Customer Property
7.5.4.1 Customer owned production tooling

7.5.5 Preservation of Product

7.5.5.1 Storage & inventory
7.6 Control of Monitoring and Measuring Devices (MMD)
7.6.1 Measurement System Analysis
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Conduct statistical studies to analyze variation present in the
results of each type of MMD that is referenced in the Control
Plan.
Use analytical methods & acceptance criteria that:
Conform to methods and criteria in customer reference
(MSA) manuals Or use other methods, if approved by the
customer
7.6.2 Calibration/verification Records
7.6.3 Laboratory Requirements
7.6.3.1 Internal Laboratory
7.6.3.2 External/commercial/independent Labs
8 MEASUREMENT, ANALYSIS & IMPROVEMENT
8.1 General
8.1.1 Identification of Statistical Tools
8.1.2 Knowledge of basic statistical concepts
8.2 Monitoring and Measurement
8.2.1 Customer Satisfaction
8.2.1.1 Customer Satisfaction - supplemental
8.2 Monitoring and Measurement
8.2.1 Customer Satisfaction

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8.2.1.1 Customer Satisfaction - supplemental
8.2.2 Internal Audit
8.2.2. QMS Audit
8.2.2.2 Manufacturing Process Audit
8.2.2.3 Product Audit
8.2.2.4 Internal Audit Plans
8.2.2.5 Internal Auditor Qualification
8.2.3 Monitoring and Measurement of Processes
8.2.3.1 Monitoring and Measurement of Manufacturing
Processes
8.2.4 Monitoring and Measurement of Product
8.2.4.1 Layout Inspection
8.2.4.2 Appearance Items
For parts designated by the customer as appearance items, you
shall provide:
Appropriate resources including lighting for evaluation
Masters for colour, grain, gloss, metallic brilliance, texture,
distinctiveness of image, as appropriate
Maintenance & control of appearance masters & evaluation
equipment

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Verification of the competence and qualifications of personnel
performing appearance evaluations
8.3 Control of nonconforming product
8.3.1 Control of N/C product - Supplemental
8.3.2 Control of reworked product
8.3.3 Customer Information
8.3.4 Customer Waiver
When your product or manufacturing process is different from
that currently approved, then you shall obtain a customer
concession or deviation permit prior to further processing.
 Keep a record of expiry date & quantity authorized by each
concession or permit
 Revert back to compliance with the original or superseding
specification, when the customer authorization expires
 properly identify each container of material shipped on an
authorization. This also applies to purchased product
 Approve any requests from your suppliers before submission
to your customers
8.4 Analysis of Data

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Determine, collect, and analyze appropriate data (from
monitoring and measuring activities as well as other relevant
sources) to:
Demonstrate the suitability and effectiveness of your QMS and
to identify opportunities to continually improve its effectiveness
Analyze data to provide information relating to:
 Customer satisfaction
 Conformity to product requirements
 Characteristics and trends of processes and product
(including opportunities for preventive action)
 Suppliers
8.4.1 Analysis and use of data
You shall compare trends in quality & operational performance
with progress towards objectives, leading to action that:
Þ Prioritizes and promptly solves customer-related
problems
Þ Determines key customer related trends to support
status review, decision making and longer term planning
Þ Enables an information system for timely reporting of
product usage

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Note: Compare data with competitor and/or appropriate
benchmarks
8.5 Improvement
8.5.1 Continual Improvement
You shall continually improve the effectiveness of your QMS
through the use of:
- Quality policy and quality objectives
- Audit results
- Analysis of data
- Corrective and preventive actions
- Management review
8.5.1.1 Continual Improvement of the Organization
l You shall define a process for continual improvement (see
examples in annex B of ISO 9004:2000)
8.5.1.2 Manufacturing Process Improvement
l You shall continually focus on controlling & reducing
variation in product characteristics & manufacturing process
parameters
Note 1 : Controlled characteristics are documented in the
Control Plan

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Note 2 : Continual improvement is implemented once
manufacturing processes are capable and stable or
product characteristics are predictable and meet
customer requirements
8.5.2 Corrective Action
You shall
Take action to eliminate the cause of nonconformities in order
to prevent their recurrence
Take action appropriate to the effects of the nonconformities
encountered
Define requirements in a documented procedure to:
a) Review nonconformities (including customer
complaints)
b) Determine the causes of nonconformities
c) Evaluate the need for action to ensure that
nonconformities do not re-occur.
d) Determine and implement corrective action needed
e) Record the results of actions taken
f) Review corrective action taken
8.5.2.1 Problem Solving

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l You shall have a defined process for problem solving
leading to root cause identification & elimination. Use
customer prescribed problem-solving format, where available
8.5.2.2 Error-proofing
You shall use error-proofing methods in your corrective action
process
8.5.2.3 Corrective Action Impact
You shall apply the corrective action and controls you
implemented to eliminate the cause of nonconformity, to other
similar products & processes.
8.5.2.4 Rejected Products test/analysis
You shall:
Analyze parts rejected by customer’s plant, engineering
facilities and dealerships
Initiate corrective action to prevent recurrence
Minimize the cycle time of this process
Keep records of these analyses and make them available to
customers on request
Note: Cycle time for product analysis should be consistent
with determining root cause, corrective action and
monitoring effectiveness of implementation

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8.5.3 Preventive Action
l Determine action to eliminate causes of potential
nonconformities to prevent their occurrence
l Preventive action must be appropriate to the effects of the
potential problems
l Define requirements in a documented procedure to:
a) Determine potential nonconformities and their causes
b) Evaluate the need for action to prevent occurrence of
nonconformities
c) Determine and implement the needed action
d) Record the results of action taken
e) Review the preventive action taken

ISO 14001:2004
4.1 General requirements
4.2 Environmental Policy
4.3.1 Environmental Aspects
ISO 14001 does not prescribe what aspects should be
significant, or even how to determine significance. However, it
is expected that a consistent and verifiable process is used to
determine significance.

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4.3.2 Legal and Other Requirements
4.3.3 Objectives, Targets, and Programs
4.4.1 Structure and Responsibility
4.4.2 Competence, Training, and Awareness
4.4.3 Communications
4.4.4 EMS Documentation
4.4.5 Control of Documents
4.4.6 Operational Control
4.4.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response
4.5.1 Monitoring and Measurement
4.5.2 Evaluation of Compliance
4.5.3 Non-conformances, Corrective and Preventive Action
4.5.4 Control of Records
4.5.5 Internal Audit
4.6 Management Review

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