Vật Liệu Học - Dư NG Lê Công

Ch bin L CNG DNG
NH XUT BN KHOA HC V K THUT

H NI - 2000
Tp th tc gi
Ts. NGUYN VN CHI (chong 3)

Ts. NGUYN KHC CNG (chng 7 v 10)
Ts.K.H. TRN VNH DIU (chng 11 v 12)
Ts.K.H. NGUYN ANH DNG (chng 9)
Ts.K.H. L CNG DNG (chng m u v 13)
Ks. NGHIM HNG (chng 2 v ph lc)
Ts. TRNG NGC LIN (chng 6)
Ts. MINH NGHIP (chong 4)
Ts. L TH PHI (chng 11)
Ts.K.H. NGUYN VN THI (chng 7)
Ts. TRN QUC THNG (chng 1)
Ts. T VN THT (chong 3)
Ts. NGUYN VN T (chdng 3)
Ts.K.H. NGUYN VN TR (Chng 5)
Ts. NGUYN KHC XNG (chung 8 v 12)
Ban bin tp
L CNG DNG MINH NGHIP
NGHIM HNG NGUYN KHC XNG
TRN QUC THNG NGUYN VN T
6.604
KHKT -2000
Li ta 9
Ngy nay, s pht trin ca tt c cc ngnk k thut nh ch to c kh, xy

dng, cng nghip ha hc, luyn kim, k thut in v in t, ffiao thng vn ti,
cng nghip thc phm, ... u gn lin vi vt liu, du cng cn n cc vt liu
vi tnh nng ngy cng a dng v cht ng ngy cng cao. Pht trin vt liu
tr thnh mt troi nhng hng mi nh.n ca cac nc. Trong chin lc pht
trin kin h t chung ca t nc, pht trin vt liu l mt trong nhng vn then
cht ccng nghip ha v hin i. ha nn kinh t. Do , trong chng trin h o
to i hc, kin thc v vt liu tr thnh yii cu quan trng i vi cc ngnh
k thut: Cn trang b cho ngi k s tng lai nliig hiu bit c bn v vt iu
ni. chuTi, cc tn h n n g v p h m v i ng d u n g ca t n g n h m v t li u ri n g b it, t
d c tk l a chn mt cch hp L loi vt liu rn thit cho mt mc ch c th,
p ng cc yu cu k tht v kinh t mong mun cng nh t ninh c th tham
fia trc tip vo qu trin h ch to v s dng chng.
Ba nhm vt liu, dng p h bin trong cng nghip l vt liu kim loi, vt liu
v c-ceramic v vt liu hu c-polyme. Trng tm kin, thc trong ln h vc vt liu
l s h i u b i t bao q u t rn q u a n h g i a cu tr c v tn h ch t, i v i v t li u k t
cu th ch yu l c tnh, cn i. vi cc vt liu chuyn dng th i c th. l in
tnh, t tnh, tnh chng n mn... D l vt liu kim loi, v c hoc hu c th
chng u c kho st trn c s cc nguyn l chung ca vt liu hc, mt mn
khoa hc s dng cc thnh tu ca ha hc, vt l, ha l v nhiu ngnh khoa
hc khc 'nghin cu cc i tig vt. liu rn.
Nhw p ng cc ch trinh o to mi theo inh rng, mt tp the cn
b khoa hc nhiu ngnh khc nhau ca Trng hc bch khoa H Ni son
tho cun sc/ Vt li u hoc d. phc v îng dy v hc tp cho cc ngnh k
thut, cc trng i hc. Cun sch gom hai phi chnh sau y:
1 . Cc kin thc c s v cu trc v tnh cht ca vt liu gm cc chng:
Cu trc tinh th : kho st sp xp nguyn t trong vt cht ni chun v
vt liu rn ni ring, cc trng thi tinh thcn nh p h i tinh th (v nh
/linh), cc dn^ sai lch mng tinh th, c im sp x]} nguyn t trong vt
liu kim loi, v c cng nh hu c;
Gin pha : kho st kh nng hnh thnh cc pha hoc t chc khc
nhau ph thic vo thnh, phn ha hc, nhit v p sut;
Khuch tn v chuyn pha : cung cp cc kin thc c bn v qu trin h
khuch tn, chuyn pha lng-rn, tiu biu l qu trin h kt tin h t th lng,
cc qu trin h chuyn pha th rn, l c s ca cc phng php x. l nhit
khc nhau;
Bin dng v c tnh ca vt liu : nu khi qut bn cht ca cc qu trin h
bin dng n hi, bin dng do v ph hy, l c s kiu mi quan k
gia cu trc v c tnh, nhm tnh cht ph bin nht ca nhiu vt liu
thng dng, cng nh nm c xu th ch to vt liu c bn cao;
4________________________________________________________________________LI TA
L tnh : trin h by bn cht ca cc tinh cht vt l thng dng nh in,

n h i t, t v q u a n g ;
n m n v bo u v t li u : nu b n c h t q u tr n h n m n h a hc v in
ha cng nh cc bin php bo v chng n mn.
2. Cu trc v tnh cht ca cc nhm vt liu c th s dng ph bin trong
cng nghip, gm cc chng:
Thp v gang : loi vt liu quan trng nht trong cng nghip;
K im loi v hj) kim mu : gm nhm, ng, magi, titan, thic, km, nken,
coban v cc hp k im ca c h n g ;
Vt liu v c - ceramic : gm cc ceramic k thut, thy tinh, btng v cc
vt liu kt dnh;
Vt liu bt : loi vt liu hin nay c xu th pht trin nhanh cho cc i
tng kt cu nh chi tit my, dng c,
Vt liu hu c - polyrne : gm cc loi polyme, caosu, sn, kco v g;
Vt liu kt hp (compozit) : mt nhm vt liu mi nhiu tim nng, gm
c o m p o z it nn k im lo i, nn c h t do hoc c e ra m ic v i cc c h t g ia c d n g si.
hoc ht.
Ngoi ra, chng cui cng "Xu th p h t trin, la chn v s dng vt liu"
cp n cc nguyn tc la chn v s dng vt liu c ch n cc yu t cng
ngh ch to, hiu qu kinh t (gi thnh) cng nh yu cu bo v mi trng u
xu th pht trin vt liu trn th gii hin nay.
Phn ph lc gm cc phng php th c tnh ( bn, cng, do),
phng php kim tra t chc t vi, nguyn tc k hiu vt liu cng nh bng i
chiu mt s'loi thp thng dng ca cc nc.
Sch ny nhm thay thCUT "Kim loi hc v nhit uyn" trc y cr clQ
cc ngnh khc nhau ca Trng i hc bch khoa H N i v c th s dng '
ging dy hoc tham kho t i cc trng i hc k thut khc trong nc.
Trong qu trin h son tho, cc tc gi c gng s dng nhng hiu bit v
kinh nghim cng nh thc t Vit Nam tch ly c trong hng chc nm cng
tc ging dy v thc tin, ng thi tham kho chng trin h ging dy cng nh
cc sch gio khoa v vt liu hc cc trng i hc ca nhiu nc tin tin xut
bn trong nhng nm gn y.
Tp th tc gi xin chn thnh cm n B gio dc v o to, Ban gim, hiu
Trng i. hc bch khoa H N i cng nh nhiu nh khoa hc trong v ngoi
nc h tr n h i u m t x u t b n cu n sch ny.
Nhm ngy cng hon thin chng trin h ging dy cng nh cc ni dung c
th ca m n hc, c h n g t i m o n g n h n xc n h i u g p c a c g i , x in g i. theo
a ch: B mn vt liu hc v nhit luyn, Trng i hc bch, khoa H Ni.
Ch bin
Gs, Ts L CNG DNG

TNG NH GIO s, TIN S, NH GIO u T
J l G H , '^ i& n c
S hnh thnh cun sch ny l bc di u tin nhm thc hin tng

xy dng mt ngnh o to rng v mi nc ta - ngnh Khoa hc vt liu
v cng ngh m Gio s L Cng Dng l mt trong nhng ngi khi
xng v c nhiu tm huyt.
Tic rng sau mt tai nan him ngho Anh d ra i khng bao gi c c
hi c chng kin s ra i ca cun sch na.
Trong khi hon thnh nhng cng vic bin tp cui cng do Anh li,
chng ti c gng gi ng nhng nguyn tc m Anh a ra ban u v
ni dung v b cc ca cun sch.
Chng ti cng xem vic hon thnh cun Vt liu hc l mt k nim su
sc v khng th qun v mt thi gian cng tc rt hiu qu gia Ban bin tp
\/ tp th tc gi cng Gio s L Cng Dng VI t cch l ngi Ch bin
u tin ca cun sch.
H ni, Ma h nm 1996
Thay mt Ban bin tp v tp th tc gi
MiNH NGHIP
VT LIU HC
CHNG M u
0.1. KHI NIM

V VT
LIU

Theo cach hiu pli bin nht t.h vt liu l nhiis vt. rn Ii con Iigii si
cliig e ch to dne: r. liy inoc. thit b. xy dng cng trnh, nh ca. thay th
c:no b phn c he hoc cle th hiii c;u' do u.sh tiuit ni chung.
Da theo cc tnh cht c tru ii. co tho phii bit, bn Iihii v t liu chnh sau
cly; vt. li\i k im loi, vt liu v c-revam' v vt liii hu c -polynie.
V t liu k iiu loi i Iihiig vt the (lan diu tt. J)liii x nh sang vi mn sc
c triiig , c kh uiig bin cliig do tt ngay c nhit thp v thng l km
ben vng ha hc. c im cau trc ca vt liu kim loi l s sp xp tr t t ca
cac; nguyn t. to t.hnh miig tiiih th vc'n xp cht cao. liu kt vi nhau nh
k h in tiV t do, Trong mng tm l\ tlie lun hin tn ti cac khuyt tt. trong mt
s (i\i kin c the chuyn hon ton suiii rng thi kling trt, t (v nh liiih ).
Vt li ii k im loi t.linK cliniR li tl\) v gang, ng. Iihii, tita u , Iiike ii. ... v cac
hp kim ciia cl)iig.
Vt, li ii v cci-ceraic l cac chiVt dn (tin kin. thng l t.roiiK siit. khng
liin dng do, r i gin, rt bf*ii vng hii lic v noiiK chiy nhit rt cao.
T li n li phn c\i to d ii cliing l c;ir h|) c:luVt giu kim loi (Mg. Al, Si, Ti, Zr, ...)
v phi kiin loi (iii clii cc oxvt. Ciichit. n itrit. ... vdi lin kt bn viig kiu ioii
hoc ng ha tr. c si) xp tr t t (t;u) tlinh niii tinh th) hoc khiig tr t tit
(tr iig th i th v t.inli. v cnli hinli). T ('^11 ^fi ceraiiiic c Uiin gc t ti ii Hy Lp
"keraiiikos" vi Iiglia "vt. innig" hdi khi cli to t,ln(iiiK pHi qua niuig thi\i kt..
Cac ceramic truyn t.hi^f l thy tin li. gni, s. t.hiiig v gch chu la.
Ngy nay ceraniic cl\c hixi vi ngha klia rng, bao gni ton b cc vt, li\i v cd
nh cc ceramic truyn thng, ceranii' cng nghip v cerainic c bit, s ciig
trong ciig nghip ctin. in t. hng khng v trvi. v.v.
V t li ii h ii c - polyine l n li iig cht dn cin kni. gin nhit thp v
c kh nng bin cliif co nhit cao. bn vii lia hc nhit phng v
trong khng kh. Iiiig cliy hoc phn liy nhit (t t\fng l thp. Hai nguyn
t th nh plin ch yu ca nhm vt liu Iiy l cacbon v hyro. c th cha thm
oxy. clo. nit, ... lin kt vi nhau trong cc mch phn t kch tlntc ln sp xpp
tr t ti (trng th i tinh th) hoc khng trt t (trng thi v nh hnh). Ngoi cc
vt liu hu co t nhiii nh caosu. xenliilo. ... phnn lii v t li\i hu c s dng
rng r i hin nav l cf polvnie tng hp; chng l sn phm ca qua trn h trng
hp (polynie ha) cac phii t n (iiioiionie) v (1( (t. t y tlieo ngiiii gr cluVt
8 CHNG M U
trng hp, chiiis c c( tn gi khc nhau uh polyetyleii (PE). poly)ropylen (PP).

polystyreii (PS). v.v.
Ngoi ha nhm (' bn trn, r th b R\uig thm mt Iihn q iia ii trng th tii :
vt liu cunipozit. (vt. lixi kt. hp). Dy l sit kt. hi) gia hai hoc Iihiu loi vt
liii vi oac tnh ch<t c triiiK khac hii Iihau nhn ic inl vt liu vi t
t.iih clit hon ton nii m mi vt. liu thnh I)luui nii ng riiiR l khng th('
c c. V cl in hnh
l btiig ct. tlip ; s
kt hp gia kim loi
(thp) v vt liu v co'
(btiig) to cho vt li ii
va cliii \c ti trng
ko tt (c tnh ca
thp) va chu dc ti
trng Iiii tt (ctc tnh
ca btng). Kt hp
gia kim loi vi
polyine. gia polynie vi
ceraniic. gia cerainic
vi kim loi. ... l c s
to ra cac vt liu
conipozit kliac n lia ii vi
nhng tnh iKiig rt
hp dn.
Hnh 0.1. S minh hoa cc nhm vt liu
Cng can lii k
v quan h gia chung
n cac Iihii vt li\i 1) bn dn, 2) siu dn;
khc lu v tnh niig 3) S ilic o n , 4) polyme dn in
v thnh phn c Iih iig
'c im ring so vi bn nhm d Iiii. l ;
- Vt liu hn dn v siii dn:
- V t liu polyme dn in:
- Vt liu Silicon.
S in in li ha cc nhm vt. liu v quan h gia clning n\i trn huh 0.1.
0.2. VAI TR CA VT LIU TRONG PHT TRIN x H

V K THUT
S phat tri ii ca nn vn m inh nhn loi gn lin vi phat tri n cng c lao
ng v k tlnit, ni chung. Cc vt. li\i t nhiii nh dt. st. a. g. si thc vt.
da. ... ng vai tr q iia ii trng trong s tin ha x hi loi ngii thi tin s. S
ra i ca cc cng c v sn phnni bug ng tlia ii (trc 2 OO Ii iii tnc cng
nguyn) v bng st hii nit thin nin k sau nh dii nhng mc quan
trng tro iig lch s plit tri n Iili ii loi: thi i ng v thi i st. S ra
VT LIU HC 9
di c;i vt li\i h;iii troiiL Iiluni;.' n MII I.ini in<i ciia th k nv CII li Iiit
IIIC aii . 1:' <<< dt' IriiMi Iihiii.h <';ic Iiuiih ky tlu i t. ulit l (tin t
v liu h (K '. l m lli;i\ (lo i (() l>;Hi mt X I lio . ( ; i c k v l . l i u t Cio l c v s i u t r I i y
1)I>
n a y k h i i o t h t a c h i'o i S I t i i ( i) C.IC v t li ' i ( t c h i t k c v t . l i u c : o m p o z i t .
Troii' tai c;i cac vt liii llii kiin loi (( v;ii 1r (|uy't (iih (p'n s phat t.rin x
hi v k hut. 'l' Uhi thri (hn (! (1;| cliuvon -aiiK' tlui dni ii. cac k iii loi (t
plu.u: vu (irc lc cho 1011 uî. UII) 1-(111 ii.'U'ii x:'iy cluu' v sai to. klia in pli cc
l) n iit ca tliin Iihin. i'h tac ra nliu^ re, r;m. may mr v nhii CIIR trnh
tuyt (liu. Nh nli l):ic hoe l.oinonoxoN (l; irii:" Khi4 ml lnh vc k thut no.
k li iis mt liili vtc ngh tluul liao, khn.i; Iiit iiiiP llii cng (tn gin no li c-()
th tra n h ct\r vir s (lu: kim Idii" Car iu Trinh Iioh thnt. li t.iiig nln
fh a |) E ^ i l c l ('i P a n s . t i r H ; ' ( t i N t l u i i i ! i (lu ('( N ( n v Y o r k . ... l i n l u i i ; ' CIIK t r n h
Iniiio kiin loi.

S pht trin khii; uuii.t <'(ia Iiia> (lii.L- l. CII^ v cua mi cng' c. gn lin
vd i s p h a t tri n v ; l l i u k i i i ) l o i V(ii i i l ) i i : t n h I i v c i i i c a o : n u S I r u
(('li ca tn.i cci '.ll lion,<; lm n.iMii liaiii; IIUOC (li hi vt liu kiin loi chii
Iihit (t (ln li')!) tli ((i V(ii CI l;'mt n.uui hanti khii kli. c;(' hp kim pluii
rliu iMi Iilii t (l li(Ui :?()() " ( \ CII (In V( (lnti plin ir: (il) "C. T lih iig k
thut thii;' IhiiK nh clu' lt) t('i. X;v (liim Iili (Ma (ii iihnK k Umt II
di nh Iiiiy bay v;iii t;ii S1('U tc. tu VII ti ii s (lii<^' Iihiu h'ii. ... (ti hi rnc vt
liu kim loi ny cii.u 1k'ii liii v Iihi; liii.
('IIK V(ii vl liiMi kim Idi. vt liu cli;it (|p() xtlyiiK' lu ia t.li k ny t.ni
tli iili int Iili iii vt liu liuin tront. klioiii; nliii' 'h<) plip Miay th vt liu kiiu
loi clu) nhiu i lciiiii s' (liiii liMiic (l;iv in;i Iidii!^ Iiliipu tr<<iu h(p. l loi vt
liu kh ii tlio Ihnv ili iii l Iilu clitmi (<> Iv troi; tluV]), chn^- :in niii v (tiu
(uaii trn> l (lo to h iiili l)nn^ |)ln(ini; |)li;i|) I'|) lio:i' (hic |). (lo c h s s (liii
v l l i \ i r t t ' ; i n ( 0 , H ( l - ( ) . ) ) V;'i ^ i a l l i ; ' m l i rcV N . y I i ; i y . c l i t d o t i c s f i i f p h
b i n c h t o ( l i i ^ c .>ia d i i h , l i j n . n t r n i l l i i i l VI c o t l n ^ y c u X t n n g t r o i
cc thit b. may nioc. Iilm t l i'0 iifi Iiliii<^ trdn^ hp khi iiini tr ii ln^ vn
,e,iin y i l i i i i i s ; u i p l i i i i l;'i I i l i u , ^ (-h IKMI ( |U ;||| t r i i i l i i i ; ( t u .
Vt liu v C(i - roraniic ('<) lch s l lliiii k (t (t;i. Trong sut (Hi trn h tin
lia Iili ii th k. lnh v\c s (lii ri;i ctMHiiic kliiiu n.ng dc ni riis vi tnh
nii s (lii, u.uny ('ii tc luin.q' cao. Ti cnc 1huin v; th Iili iii. lii iihu (t
in Iigli trans sc tin ii xo. t. <irh v lliuy t.mh Ihiig thii (l iif tron^' xy
dn^ cho (ii cac vl liu r;(h nliit i hu l;i rlio l riif Iihip. thy tinh siu
sch lm cp (uan.u cho (ln (';U' ceraiiiic kt chu lii ii (ti c bn cao cliic
ng rc( my n. kho co th(* lit k litcac linh VIC m;'i vt liu v co-rerniic I)hr
v c lc cuc cnch muK k t hut v cuoc sny con nuidi ni clmnt.
0.3. V NT V LCH
s s DNG
V PHT TRIN v t l i u
Qii t.riili s (lii vn pluit. trin vt liu trmiK qua kh c Ihe chia thnh ba
thi k 1(11 s'nu (ty;
10 CHNG M U
Thi k s ( cc vt ii c sn trong t nkic ; Dy l tli i tin s ca lot

nîi. hng chc nghn (tii hng nghn Iini tntc cng nguyn (TCN). C\c vt
li(Mi (liiii I)h bin thi hny ici l:
- Vt liu liiii c : (la. g. sdi tiic vt. ... :
- Vt liu v ccj ; (at spt. . coc loi khong vt;
- Ivim Ini ; vng, br v ug t nhiu, st thin thch.
Phaii ln (-:u vt liu c s du (lng nguyn thy, khng (pui (-'h hin.
C;ic vt clnt dc' h iili thnh bhng cch ct. i). ini. nghin..... c hil Iigi c
Ai (^.p. Babylon. La M. T rung Quc bit I)hi at st. ngoi nng lni gch
xy.
Thi k chlo v s dung r t liu theo hinh ighiin : Con Iigi phi nit mt
thi giaii kha (li nliivi Iig h ii Iini tch l y cc qiiuu sat Iig\i nhin v kinh
Iighiin. thc hin cac th Iifhini ri rc cng Iih\ c h thng Iih a iii to ra cc
vt liu caii tliit. kliiig c sn tro iig t nliin. Nhng s kin qviaii trng ca tlii
k Iiy l:
- T (i 000 n 2 000 Iini TCN con Iigi bit, ch to cac VI kh vn vt
(liiR bng {tng t.i q\ing. N luug cc x ng vi uin cli kliong 8 000 nin pliat
hin Tli Nl K ni ln s xut hin r l sni Iigh luyn ng t ti\ing tru
hnh tinh, ('ac trns (tng, c Iic ta c Iii ii i t .'-5 000 cin 4 000 liii.
- Con Iigi an (lii Iih ii thc (hc rng cc dii c bang st c tnh iiiiK
s dug t.t h(in so vi ng. N lnng "st tri" (st thin thch) khiig the (tp ii
cac Iiin i rau thiig xiiyn, V vy. COII ngi phi tm cch ly st. ra t quiiK-
Nhng l hivn st u tin xut hiu T n m g Qiic v Ai Cp hn 3 000 Iini
TC-N. Car (lii ' haiiK thp (st cha cicboii) xut hin vo khong th k XV
T ( N v hn tli k SHI Iigui Hy Li v La M bit ti th) tang ciig. k
Miul ny (t nh cao vo thi trving c vi cac tlu iiih kim ainascus (Syri) II)
li^ ii; Iii cho ii ugy hi\) uav vii CII l mt b au cng' ngh. Ngi ii D co
(li C' h (uy ch to st khng b oxy ha dng ct tng uini New Dehli
Iiiis G. tu vo th k th nm snii rng uguyn (SCN) ni cho n ngy nay vn
khiip, b g nic d khng c ljp SII bo v uo. K th u t ch to thp q\iy m ln
xiuVt hin vo <:\ii t.h k XIX. nh Iig\i ta ct s (lng J)h bin ct cli t.o may
hi mr. tu thy, xy dii (tiiig st. cau ciig. Iili ca. ... T li j) Ei'fel hang
thp cno ;20 111, nng 7341 t.ii. hon thnh Paris Iini 1889 l Iiit ft kin ni
b t.
- Xim iig. loi vt. liu xy dng quan trng Iigy nay. c lch s t th k XV
TCN. n tin di dng hn hp n g lii ii v vi ti, s dng Ai Cp. Babyloii
v La M: mi (tn u th k X IX SCN mi x\it hin xim ng portlancl (1 Anh. My,
Nga v sau l k tlu i t cc' btiig ct thp, sii dng c\i ti ii M trong xy
(lng vo Iini 1875.
Tki li ch.to v s d nf vt liu theo kin thc khoa hc: Cuc cch luitg
cng nghip vo cui th k X IX thc y pht trin nhiu Iigiih klion hc khc
nhau, trong c ha hc v v t l. nhng ngnh c nli liiig trc tip n phat
trin vt liu. Con ngi i su tm hiii bii ch^t ca vt liu, nguyn nhn ca
s hiih th iili cc tnh cht klic nhaii. Nh nhng kin thc khoa hc . COII
VT LIU HC 11
IILM (t CO kliii nnna (l;inli liii (liili Iinli (1 ) '11 lntc.im phai t.rin vl liii, (iili
l i i c iiii' c : i c OU IIIH,' ( i i ( ' l o VII t u l i ( i i i i I l o i , I i m o i i . .S x u a t h i n c n iiR li
c h To h ]) k i i t n l i o i t i c i i v ; '1>i v ; i ; i l i/O i i i I k ( | u :i I i n l i l i a I n i i c n g , cng
Ii^h ch to chat (P(I ixdvmi' tilxi (|U:I tn iil) lip (1940). cng Iih ch to
l);:n ( la n ( ) l):n i k y th ii;n tin li Itiv iM i v n - ; 1(I ln'|) c h u y n ti p . ... l nhng s
kin ni l)t. 'ri-('u (<> s<) iii; (lim ( ;it' ki '11 niiic' klioii hc. liug lotc;ac vt liu
khac- CIIO- (hfc rliP to v:i im tiiv; n.iiu. r Jiln illip kliig t> austeiiit (193).
li) kim lit iii (U)(-i()). vl li(Mi 1(1 |)1|;U1 lnu Kit nhan (lXiO). thi) xv(lng vili])
Isim . l i n ( 1 9 ( ) ) . t l u ' | ) kt'1 <; u i ( l i i l u ' i i (;ii> v ;it I k n i o o i n p o x i t S( (U lH ). hp
kim Iilui h iiili (llT) V;'i kiin hn.ii tliiiv 1II1 (1'.IS0) Oii l cha k' rat n lii ii loi vt
iiMi dang t ioii (un Iriiih uu;luoi) CIU (|11V I l plioni'. th n^liiin. c Iihiii t.rPii
vong s J11R' ri trou^ Iiln ii !\,\' Iii Str l.rien nlianh ca tin hc v
ky th iu it vi tin li trdii.u iilnu; nam (l;iv I< (luMi kiu th\in li t phat trPii
Viit iu ire ii Ci sn inh lo iii; ! :!;r.v('i
0.4. I TNG CA VT LIU HC
MT 'lii'(' in;iy (lc (MU to )uC;u cln Vii (liini (uaii trng l iiKi tlii t k
l i i t l u I ' l ) n t :u- v l l u ' u I h n l i i i ; i l i i l P t t u u i u i i i v i c c y \ i c u c a n c v
l u i i (I n i i ( i i a i i lu.' t ' h ; i t c h v<ji f l u ' la n (ti ( li; k i i i p l n d n g ) ) li i) c u g u g h ^
s a o c h o v ;it, l i u ( l t (l c c a c l i n l i c lia t iiK u m im i ii. N l n f cn n u d t r u , q u a tr iiih
rh t' l o v si'r ( l i i i ' , v:,J li(, u lu ' l l u ' k y X IX l iV i V(> t.r<)c c h vu ( a th e o k in h
iiK lin ^ n i T n h h n h I i y ( l l l i a v ( l i V(' v l);'in v d l a i i I h k X X V (i s i p l i a . t . r i o n
n lu iili cua n liie ii iii iili kho;i lidc. tao r;i Iiliih i^ c S(t cho mt. nji'uh khoi
li(H- l u i : V t U u h c .
V t l i i i h c l m n l< I)o ;i l i o c k l i ; t ( i s ; i i l ) ; u i ( l i : i t c i i a v t h \ i . m i ( |\U J 1I h g iV a
( 'a u t n c v t i h c l i i l c l n i i i i ' , . t i fl(i d (' i ; i | l n t ( f i i ' p l i a p c l i t o v s ( l ii> ' t l i c l i
h(|).
K iiai Iiim V(' i ;ui In ic vi luMi l);m c;in tnic vi m v vi m. Thpo ngia
< ' l i l l i i " c n u f n u - " lli ii. ^ (h t l i i i M i la c a c l i l) I n cac t l i n l ) p l i a i i b n tr o n g . C u
tnU' vi ni ini;
- C u t o n t , ' u y i i tiV; l i i n l i l h ; n s ) X(') v a t i i l.:i c i i p li n t b n tro iiR
I i \ i y i i t . k l i i l n a n ,t l o l i i i k o t;
- Cnu to |)lici : cncli s; ) x|) v;i l);lii ch;it lieii kol uia cac; nguyn t (ion) e
to thnh ('c h|) C'hal (plia) nhat;
- Ci to tin h th: lih ili Ihai s;|) X(') v liriii tK' gia cac nguyn t lioc
p h i i t(' t r o i i s k h i m i i a i i . I ' a c ( l i i k l m y r l l t n i i i ^ t i n l i M i ;
- T o c li c v i m ; l i i i i l i t h a i ^ ; |) x t '] ) c t i a c a r n l i o j i ) I i u y i i t h o c p h n t VI
k i c l ) t l u c c i n i ( ' r f ) i i u 1 I n i x u n u h o c CIKI c a c h t l i u l i t h ;
- C a i i t . n ic v n i . c n ^ i l to c li c t h o (t i; l i i i l i i h a i s p x p c a c c p h n t
t r o n g v t . l i u ( k (;i t p ( ' l i a l v V ('l i n 'r i ) v i k i r l i t . ln r c q u a n s a t r ti c h n g n i a l
t h i i ; ' l i o c v i (l p l u u i i ( t i n h .
Khai Iiini v tnh t'hat vt Jiu hiKi uni (';ic (Hi. . lia tn li. tnh cng' Iigh v
tiih s c i n .. l i i i l ' I:'i n h o m tn h ( IK II I r i i y I i h t . i v i v t . l i \ i k t r;Vu,
]'2 CHNG M U
khi yu cnu rci han l;i (l 1)(M1 c hc, ('ne (( tiiili thiiy dii iii ; r ii. mfhiii
(lii lii, î(i hii chy, îdi liii l)n, li ii mi. d (lai va (lp. ('ac l v hoa tnih
ln ii luan tn ii h diii tn li (d (laii (tiu. (liii t.n'i s\uVt). Iilii t tnh ( dn Iihit.
ulii t (lung, rl in nliiT). t tiili (d t tli.iu. ( t ha, lc kh t), lia t.iiih
((tiii th (liu {'c. kh:i IKIIIK l iiis :1I1 I I I I I , . . . ).
Vt li u ( tu c s d i i (l<)i d n <4 I i h n ^ sn ) h : i i i (MI l i P V('li l i i u l i (la iii xa c
c t i i h . C'h t o b i i ' (' (' c n n t U l i k h n c I i h ; n i . K l u 11011^ t h c h i i i c i i ' I i y h c h
to san phain tliP liii ipin <ac tinh CII^- Iili ci'ui vt lin. V tl. i V(i vt liu
k iin l(i i t l i d l t i i i l i (h ic . tn l) h i i i (l n .u I11\1 l i o c l ) i u nn^. tiih r t s t-
tinh hu. tiili ti ( ns:...... tv tli('n tMii: lr\(ciny Ik. ) ni xeni xl .i.
T n h s' ( l n ^ b a o K i i i m i s n ( l c I r i i i y h ). tliP lii ii k l i i i ii ii s {l n
vt liu ('ho nil Iiii' (hvii c tlu'\ Tni llid l tiili s (iiau t.rii ctau di
vi Iihipu sn phaiii. 1'nh si (lnt ('on th hin (t tin cy, mt ch ti\i (luaii
t.rii^' kliac I'ii (anh iiii. Dn l kha Iian^' si' liis' vt liu kl)iig c i c trong s\it
thi giau (l kiii. i)i V(S) s:n phnni liiii tlii iu tli n li. hn thn l Iiit t.h
l i \ i k i u l i l . (ii.u ' t h c i i c i i ;' n o i l e i i k l i i I i i i s i ( ( l n g r H i' r i t . r i i t h t r i i g .
C'c' linh cht CIU vt kliii.u, Iihii; |)h tlnic hiii cluVt (thnh |)liau
ha lic) m cn |)h tluic Iilii ii vo |)lnt(n^ |)h;|) ch to v ,;i V (l cui
m t [o i Ih p V ('li tli iih p h a ii xac (n li. tiiili c lu V t s Iih a u sau kh i f lio c
SUI khi saii i;i ('n. C(i. s;iii x l Iiliil . hoa lioc rd-iihit. lia-nhit.
Vi, liu lic îii liai h jhn chnli sau :
- Vt litMi lic C() S(. kiiiio s;it ("U- ii,uuy(Mi l ('liiuiK nlit VP mi (]\1;J11 li
<"ni t r iir v tnh ch:il rlio moi v;i 1 liu nln crn; In r iiili th. (ua trin li (i phi l.
th 1(J11K v th ran. tr ii^ t.h;)i to chc. (ii Irn li liiii dii; v plia hy. (]\in tr iili
n m n . t i u t a c V ( ii v;'i l u t.n ( in .u . ... V t liMi l i c C(i Sf s d n ^ ' c a c t l i i i h
tu ca Iiliipu mn klio;i hoe k lia r Iih vt l cht r:n. liiili th hc. lin l. Iiliit
np hc. klnirh tan. ... ;
- Vt li \i h (' vt li u c tli , k lu io s n t ( u a iih ^ i ;i c;Vu t . n c , t c li c v
t n h c lu Y t < 'lio t i i i n h o m v l i i l o i v ; i f l i r u V(i r ; i ( ' CU I i . u i i c h t o v g i a ('IIP
kluu' nhnii. t, (l (t I';i plim vi iifiln. cnhi

S i h n t tr i n ca v t li u li(' kh iii' ta('h ri SI t.rin r n cac p h io n g
l)liap ngln o\i. CII nli kiiii t.r;j v:i cnnh îa rlniii:. S ro rti cac I)liu |jlia)
phn tch cmi tn u ' hin (ti v) Iia (au co th' k XX (t thc (tay s pht trie n
nhi;! loi vt liu indi t (to fln Iiay. Cac phiiiio )hn|) kiiti tra uhinih tli iih
plin. )h;n tch t olic (liih hiiK <' kiiii tr;i uhniili CC1 tiili v kliuyt tt.
... c lio i) t h i n t r o n ^ uhny Ii iii u .m (t y t o n h i u th u n l i c h t o c ;n '
v t li ii co r \i tn c v t iih cha't in o n i tim n.
S clii.u lip l vt liu l mt troni' uhiig' mc ti ii (]uan triiK ca vt liu
hc. Ni dung Ii y k h iis ' tlie ta c l) r ( ii t i u c lm a n ha v k h i u vt li u ; ti \i
c liiia n hn VP th iili phnn ha lir. r. rhc te vi. t.iili rliVt. phrins phap kipni t.ra
iih i. ...
N ln v<y. vnt liu hr In mn klin hc [)hc V\1 cho plirit. trin v (iiK vt
liii. N lin quan tr r t.ip dpi ta t ca I\hiix ni lin vic trniig: cc lnh vc ch to.
in cii v; s (lii VI liu.
P hn /
VT LIU HC c s
1\ Ch,i I CU TRC TINH THE CA VT LIU
Chng
CRU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
Ph tluic vo diu kin to th nli (iihit (t. a|) stil. ...) v t\tng tc gia oc
phn t cu thnh (li.r lin kt yia cc )lin t, uguyii l ), vt cht c th tn ti
trng thai rn. lns hoc kh (lii). T iih cht, ca vt rn (vt liu) ph thuc ch
y\i vo cach sap xp cn cc piian t cau t.hiili v li: liii k l gia chng. Trong
chdng ny uhug k lu ii nim C bn s chrc (t cp l ; cii to nguyn t, cc dng
liii kt v c\i trc: tin li t.lu\ khuii' tiiih th (v (tih liiiih ) ciui vt X'n.
1.1. CU TO V LIN KT NGUYN T
Trong nic ny s trnh by mt s khi nim rc bn VP CIU t.o iigiyn l vn

CiJC t l n g l i n k t , c i a c l i n . n l i u y u v a i t r ( | i i n n tr ii i' d v i c ; u t.r c
v tiili i-luVt cu vi rnn vii vt liii.
1.1.1. K H I N I M C N V (' U TO NGUYN T
Nûvn tiV l lit h thn. h;i<) < 4ni lu.it Iihn iiKini' (Hii (hoiig v cnr din t
(electroii) inan. din ni chiivii (iitj- xuiii' (uniih. Mi I\han ii.uyn t. i';Vu to t
nhiii j)rot()ii v Ht iu)ti'()ii khHK innii in rn )r()toii ninu in
(htoiig, c in tch luiii.c: din lch ciu3 (tiii l. ci triiK tlia i biiih t.hvrii. Uriiyn t
t r u n y ha ii v 80 lii; prot.oii h aii s liiK {tin t. S (t ic c t riii hiii
s th ut nguyn t (Z) l.roiig bii t.iin lion Meiicleleov. V khi liig ca prot.oii
v iKltrnii ln hn rn iihPii so Vi (tin t. (klioii 1830 lan) cho lin khi hii
uffiiyoii t \c xac' nli haii' khi liii hi nhn rn n.vi cVing: khi liig in
t v prntoii. ht. uhii c th cha s ln. Iidtroii khc nluni v to tlin iil) nli iig
(lng v ca cii mt iiuyii t la hc.
Tlioo c hc liig t. xc s\it tm fh;Vy cin t trn nil (uy (lo no clo xnng
quanh ht Iih ii \fc xc nh bng bn thum s. gi l '^ if'i>g t. Ni int cach
khac. tr ii tlia i Iin'; liiig cio mi tPii t t.roii ngiiyii t ifdr xc u li hi lin
s'h(n t saii (v :
- S()'liiy t chinh II : r rar i t r bng' 1. 2. H. 4..... xac nh nnp; lnX clici
php cua in t. N liriiy ctiii c oii' s ;) lid) thnh inl l) (iii t. K hipu
cac' l(]) in t ln li \ K. L, M, N, ... ng vi 1 . 2. '4. 4. ...
- S i tpri r : xc tln li cc gi I r cho ph]) ca mmen xuug hiig
q u o. c t r fi ]iut> 0. 1. 2. ... (//-1). C r dicMi l V(ii / k h ;ic n lu u i c;! CIIII Ici)
VT LIU HOC 10
l.o l.hiili nhng pli ii lp t U R iig. f\(c k liic\i lan lt, l .S-, p. d, f, ... ng vi
/ 0. 1. li. 3.
- S ii^ t i I/ : xao nh kha nai (tiih lnM cho php ca vectn innien
XUII liig qu o di vi chiu ca tn' trn;' Ii^ni, c t r s biiK 0. J .l. 2.
.... 7:
- S'/'if t sj)in : xac dnli khTi u:in,u (lih Iniig Iigic chiu nluni ca
vect ninien xung hng spiii ca (tin t. //^ ~ + 1/2.
Ngoi ra. SI. phn b in t theo cac mc t.riis thi (kh nng c mt ti mt
)lii) lp no vi mt tr n i thi Iiaiit lun x;u' (liih) rn plii tun l)eo iuyri
/y P a i/li : nii tr iig thi vi ha liii t II, L //// xac nh ch c tli ('ha hai
liii t. voi .spiii iigit' cliiii Iihaii. Da vo Iiiiyn l ny. c tli (l (toii s
(tin t cho php tr ii cac bc niit luiiK (n V('i CIIC lp v phn lp) khac nhan
(bii 1. 1).
Bng 1.1. S lng in t (s trng thi nng lng) trn mt s' lp v phn lp
S lng K hiu K hiu phn S lng trng S' lng in t c th

t chnh lp in t lp in t thai c th trn trn lp
phn lp
M 18
d 10
N 32
10
1 14
V d. nguyn t (tng (Cu) vi .s th l nguvn t z - 29, c phn b iii t.

nh sau;
s - 2s-2p' 4s'
K L M N
T ro ii s d phn b in t ny (cn ,i l cii hnh (tin t) ct cli rn ; s
liig t chuli (cac s Iigiiyii 1.2.3...). k hiii pli ii lp (cc ch N. }), (/), s iu l
thuc phn lp (s im trn k liiu |)h;in lo|)) v k hiu lp in t. (hii ch lioii
K, L. M, N p h in dii ). c n hni theiii rnug, rt mt (iii kin xc iih. in t. c
th chuyn t trng t.liai Iiy sant .rii; thc kh;u' (thay i li ii lp lioc lp), khi
do n s p li t. r a lio c lia j) t h I i i i y h i i A E d i i i ( l n g c a c h i i g t i i l i s a i i C(J
tan s V ;
/.V. ( 1. 1 )
'i - hii s Planck (/ (i.(i27,10 ' ec-.-).
16 Chiiug i. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
1.1.2. CC DNG L I N K T N G U YN T TRONG C H T RN
1.1.2.1. Lin kt ng ha tr
Lin kt ny to ra khi hai hoc nlu nf\iyn t g|) olniii;' nliau lit s (iii
t. c d lam in t. ]p ngoi CU (ctin t hi tr), Vi (l. tif\iyn t. ra cnc
Iisiiyii t ha hc tro ii; Iihni V II R (l)iii tiu in hon Meiieleev. bnns 1.2) r CiVu
trc in t lp nfoi cii l s p ' (by ctin t). D c cl tam (tin t. cn kt lip
hai Iig\iyii t li bii cacli ) clnuiR' hai in t lp ngoi, do vy to r;i mt
lin kt ii ha tr. Lin kt (lng hoa tv a luii Iie\iyii t.i clo (Cl) trong phii
t Cl (idc m t tr ii hnh 1.1 ;i . Lin kt ha tr troiiR vt r ii itc llic
hiu Iih(i s tp th ha ctin ti' gia nit nhii) cac Iigiiyn t ln cii. Tru huli
l. lb Ii\i ni hnli lin kt iii' ha tr d]) tiP lia in t ca bn in t 1('<1)
ngoi cng s~jr) t.roiiR iniiR tinh thp Ge.
N hii ct' (tPin c a li n kt iiK lia t.r l ;
- Lin kt. c tnh ctuh liii. Iigha l xar sut tn ti cac din t tha 111 iia
li.ii kt ln Iilia t theo phrtu.; ni t.in cac ii\iv\ t. (hinii l. l) :
- C\Wiig (t lin kt. ph l.hur rt mnh vo (tc t.iili lien kt i:ia cc (tin l
ha tr vi ht Iili ii. V (l. cacbon (1 (lng th hinh kim cdnK (f li<Mi kt ii^ h(i;i
tr rt mnh v bn in t hM tr (tro iit tiiK s s:ui in ti) lin kl haii nlnr tr(
tip V(i ht nhn, trong khi (to. Sn tliP hin tnh lin kt. (iig hoa t.r ra t vii vi hii
i n t li a t r ( tr o n g t iig K O (ti n t ) n m x ;i h t I ili i i. do (t co l c li n k(M
y\i di vrli ht iiluii.V vy kim cng c nhit cl Iiiig chy tru 350"C trouf khi
Sn nng cliy ( 'J70"C;
- Lin k l ( t i i f h o a t .r (() l l i p x y r a I i s ; u y p n l t f r n f l o i ( c a I i i l
nguyn t ha lic trong rac uhin t IVA (lu VUA). O l irn ht (oi hd n
l t c c , v i t l . t r o i i . ^ p h n l ( !. l i o o v v t . i i i l i t h k i i n (ntcUK- t e c i i K i i i i . L i t '11
kl ii^ hoa tr ia cac nguyni t khac' loi (CU' n yiiy ii t hii hc uhiii l l A V(i
VA hoc ulini IIA Vi VIA), v (l OaAs. ... ti l iri hr ( ha tri (
cc.
Hinh 1.1. ur\ kl ng ha tri trong khi CI2 (a) v tinh th Ge (b)
Lin kt ion ,!
y l loi liu kl niiih. oac niiy ii t cho bt. iii l. lp ngoi cimg. tri'i
thnh 1011 ditii (catioii) hoc nhn Uiin in t (t ctiii y lp ngoi cng v tr
thnh ioii jii (aiiion). Hnh 1.2 ni t lin kt. ioii gia Li v F cte to thnh LiF ;
VT LIU HC 17
ug\iyn t Li cho nit in t tr l l i i i l i uguyn t F nhn nit in t

tr tli iih F~ ; kt qii l to thnh hr) ('ht IjiF. Lin kt ioii thng to thnh
gia cc nguyn t c uhivi in t lia tr (nhm V IB. V IIB ) vi cc Iig\iyn t'c
t i n t h a t r ( i i h n i I B . I I B ) . C a r o x y t k n i i loi ( A l . , 0 M g O . C a O . F e . P ( , N i O ,
c lin kt ch yn l lin kt ion.

Cng giiig lin kt ng lia tr, lin kt. ion ciig mnh (bn vng), khi cc
npiivn t cha cng t iu t. tc l cac (iii t cho hoc nhn nm gn ht
nhn. V d. hyro (H) to V(3i F. Cl. Br. 1 cac: lip cht. HF. HCl. HBr. H I bng
n iis li ii kt ioii tdiig ng l .81; 4.44; 3.7; v 3.06 eV/mol. cn lu
rng, liu kt. ioii l loi lin kt kh^ dih hi.
Hnh 1.2. Lin kt lon ca L|F
1.1.2.3. Lin kt kim loi

Cac ion ciig. to th iih int. niiiK x:c (tnh, t trong khng gian in t t
clo "cluiiiK". D l hnh iih lin kt. kim loi. Niig liiig lin kt l tng hp lc
cty v ht t iili in gia cac ioii (htru v niy (in t t do (hnh 1.3).
Lin kt kiin loi thng chc to nn l. nhng nguyn t c t in t ha tr.
(^-dc nguyn t Iiliin lA trong bii^ tunn hon Meiireleev. vi mt in t ha
tr. c tnh k in i loi in hnh. Cng dch sung phi hng tii ii hon, tn h cht ng
hn tr tro iig lin kt ca cc Iigiivn t tdn ng cng tng v n b ism iit (Bi)
xut hin lin kt hn lip " kim loi-iig ha t r . C\i trc tin h th ca cc cht
vi lin kt kin i loi c tnh cti xng rt cao.
1.1.2.4. Lin kt hn hp
Thc ra. lin kt. ng ha tr t.n ch c c trong trng lip lin kt
ng cc (gia cc Iiguvn tt ca cn. mt Iiguvn t
THONG 1N>TH v i ^
2 - VLH
Bng 1.2. Bng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc v mng tinh th ca chng
^ \^ m
lA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIII 1B II B III B IV B V B VI B VII B 0
Chu
(H) H 1 H* 2
1 K HIU MANG TINH TH :
l.OOB 4,003
K hiu ss 1 nu l
B Lp phng tm khi Chnh phng n gin nguyn l nguyn t
L 3 B 4 H Lp phcVig tm mt g Chnh phng tm khi ^ B 5 c 6 N 7 o 8 F 9 N* 10
> 26
II 6,94 (3 9,02 0 B3 Lp phcng phc tp g Chnh phng tm mt 10,82 <5* 12,01 O 14,01 o 16 a 19 20,18 H
Cc
55,85 D o
Su phong ABAB_ I Trc thoi ^ 8 . kiu ffi
mang o A
Na 11 Mg 12 o Su phng ABAC.. o Mt thoi Nguyn linh
th
AI 13 S 14 p 15 s 16 Cl 17 A r 18
III 22.99 0 2^,32 Q A Kiu kim cng Mt nghing 26,98 B 28,09 A 10.98 ffi 32,06 g 35,46 c> 39.94 BI
0

o
K 19 Ca 20 Sc 21 Ti 22 V 23 Cr 24 Mn 25 Fa 26 Co 27 Ni 28 Cu 29 Zn 30 Ga 31 Qm 32 As 33 s * 34 Br 35 Kr 36
IV 39.10 0 40,08 B 44.96 ^ 47,90 0 50,95 a 52.01 0 54,94 13 55,85 Q se.94 B 58.71 H 63,54 a 63.38 0 69,72 3 72,60 A 74,92 o 78,96 o 79,92 o 83.80 a
B s 8 &
0 s 0
Rb 37 Sr 38 Y 39 2r 40 Nb 41 Mo 42 Tc 43 Ru 44 Rh 45 Pd 46 Ag 47 Cd 48 In 43 Sn 50 Sb 51 T 52 1 53 x 54
V 85,48 0 87,63 0 88,91 0 91,22 tE 92,91 0 95,95 0 99 101,1 ^02,91 B 106.4 B 107,87 B 112,41 114,82 g 118,70 Q 121,76 o 127,60 o 126,90 o 131,30 H
A
Ci 55 Ba 56 57-71 Hf 72 T 73 w 74 R * 75 Os 76 Ir 77 P t 78 Au 79 Hg SO TI 81 Pb 82 Bi 83 Po 84 A t 85 R n 86
VI 132,91 0 137,35 0 xem 178,50 0 180,95 0 183,85 0 186,22 190,2 192,2 H 195,09 B 197 B 200,61 gi 204.39 0 207,31 B 209 o 210.0 o 210 222
i s
Q
Fr 87 Ra 88 89-103 Ku 104
VH 223 226 xem 260
di
La 57 c 58 Pr 59 Nd 60 Pm 61 Sm 62 Eu 63 Qd 64 Tb 65 Dy 66 Mo 67 Er 68 Tm 69 Yb 70 Lu 71
L a n ta n it ( t h i m ) 139,92 0 140,13 0 140,92 H 144,27 0 1I7 150,35 o 152 0 157,26 158,93 0 162,51 o 184.94 o 167,27 o 168,94 173,04 3 174,99 o
a i B
o o
o o
Ae 69 Th 90 Pa 91 u 92 Np 93 Pu 94 Am 95 Cfn 96 Bk 97 C l 98 E b 99 Fm 100 Md 101 No 102 Lw 103

A e tin it 227 B 232,05 B 234 Q 238,07 B 237 0 242 (5 B 243 o 247 249 251 254 253 256 254 257
B D D
0 u la
VT LIU HC 19
liii kt d cc (gia cc Iigiiy ii t ca cc uuyn t khc nhau), in t ha t r

tham gia lin kt chu lia i nh hiir tri ;
- b h t bi ht Iili ii "ca mnh";
- b h t bi li t nhn nguyn t tli hai d to (tin t "chuiig".
nng ca ht. Iili n h t in t ha tr irc gi l tnh m. in ca nguyn
t. S khac Iilia ii v tn h in (tin ia cc nguyn t trong lin kt ng ha t r
lni cho ni my in t "chung" b bin diig v to thnh ug\i cc in, ti ii t
ca lin kt 1011. "Tnh ion" ca lin kt cng ln Iiii s khc nhau v tnh m
(tiii ca cc Iiguyn t cng ln. V d. Na c tnh m in bng 0.9 cn C1 bng
8 .0 . Do vy lin kt gia Na v C1 trong hp clint NaCl gni khong 52% lin kt
ion v 48% lin kt ng ha tr. Tt c nlng lirn ht d cc u mang tnh cht
hn k p g i a li n k t ion v o n g ha tr i.
1.1.2.5. Lin kt yu (lin kt Van der VVaals)

Lin kt ng ha t r cho php l gii to thnh nhiig phn t nh nc
(H;;0) hoc polyetylen (C^Hi),,. nhitng khng cho php l gi<i s to thnh mt s
vt r ii t nhiig phn t tru n g ha nli intc a, polyme, ...
T roiig nhiu phn t c lin kt, (tng ha tr. do RI khc nhaii v tnh ni iii
ca cac nguyn t. trng tni in t.cli dng v in tcli m khng tr n g nhaii,
ug\i cc in s to th iih . phn t b phn cc. L i ii kt Van der Waals l lin
kt clo lii ii ng In it nha\i gia cc: ufuyen t hor )hn t b phn cc trng th i
rn (hnh 1.4). Lin kt ny l loi lin kt. yu. rnt li pha v do ba ng uhit
(klii tng nhit ), v vy nhng r a n trn rd srt lin kt Van der Waals c
nliit IIII chay thV-
0)
b)

H 3
c)
d)
Hinh 1.4. M hinh lin kt Van der VVaals Hnh 1.5. ng cong xc sut tim thy
nguyn t P(cf) trong cht kh
(ly gc toa l mt nguyn t bt k)
20 Chiing I. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
1.2. SP XP NGUYN T TRONG VT CHT
1.2.1. KH NG TR T T HON TO N , CHAT K H
Chai klii chiin toii b th tch ('ha 110. o the Iiu (tic. C-ac Iigiiyii t, (phaii
t) trong c h a i kh Ivin lun chuyn (tii (lo ha dng Iihil.. S Iiy\iyii t (phn t)
trn nit n v tch Muiy i. ph thuc vo Iihit (l v ap sut. v tr i t.idug'
ng gia chiiiig hiii t h a y i tlieo qiiy hit Iigu Iiliin. Tnu it bnh ini nguyn t
(plin t) chim mt t h tich tdiig ng hnh cii. clns; kiiih trung' bnh 4nin.
Ly t.ni nguvii t (phn t) ('a mt t ht k li uo d lni c ta . v ddng
cong xac sut tm tli y mt Iiuyii t (phn t) khnc. ti khoiiiR cch c k t gc
ta (hnh l.n). T h y r n g vi 0 < / < ( (tdii ng (hoiig knh nguyn t, phn
t) x(; siuVt d bang' k h n g . T ii t r ( "('/ xnc siuVt P ((i) s t n g li n t c . biis'
mt ti gia tr (i tiii '"ii cnM knh tr \iii hiih nn khiig gian hnh c\i b
ugiiyii t (phn t) cliini ch.
1.2.2. TR T T L TNG, V T RN t i n h TH
Tron^ vt r ii tin h tli, mi n<uyen t co v tr i lioii toii xar n li khiiK chi

so vi Iih ii^ Iigiiyii t piUi nht in c; nhng t kliac bt k xa li(Ji.
Kliiig gian xuiif (]iia iili cac iiuyu t c cu to hon toii (tng nht. Ni carh
khac. tin li I h co t.r t xu .
Coi rc nguyii t In nhii; (]iia ca\i ran Kng Iiluiu. xp st Iilu n i lin tip theo
b a Ir i.u - V I I I I ^ ÔC x , y ,2 t r o i i L k h i i t K a n . N i ( ' c t . i i i c ; ! c a c ( p K i C u n g \ i v i i t s
(iitr liiiili nh c;i in nini ^p picin d) cni (hnh ].()). H in li l)

phdug Iih nht vi tam cnh l t.ni c\"ia tam iiKuyt !! l (htc ii In c s. Mi
uguyii t l inh chuns (UIJ 1;nn C(1 s. gi l nut tnti. KhoaiiR cch Kn nlil
gia cc nt. (faii hau (t\iiK k iili khng gian h iili ( iu l) Uiiyn t chim rh)
cliiih hH ('iih a ca rr( s. iiK V(i tr nh uluVt ca uaiiu liig liii kt..
trong mang tinh th

VT LIU HOC________________________________________________________________ ;n
H iih 1.7 l c th xc sual lm thy Dtuyr-Ii l t;ii khong cch d so vi nguyn

t chn lm gc ta . Kliac vi I'ht khi. IroiiK ' luVt r:ui tin h th. P(d - 1 (cc pic
trn th), ti nhng fi t.r ( hon ton xac (iili. (to h : d = a , a y / , a-J'?> tng
ng khong cch gia cac: ntiiyn t theo ciih. rtn clio m t v (tîig cho
khng gian ca c s (hnh l.G). rn<]; ca cr |)ic trn hnh 1.7 c trin g cho
(lao ng ciia cc Iigiiyn t (]\ianh v tri' cii baiiR (v tr nt niiig), hi\i ng cia
ba ng nhit.
Do s sp xp c tr t t c;i cnc Iigiiyn t. nn trong v t rn tin h th x\i't
hin c tn h qiian t.riig; ih ( hts. tcli s khac nhau v tnh cht (c, l.
ha tnh. ...) theo cc hii kliac uliau ca tiiili tho. p Iiiiih ha. nimi Yoimg
{E) ca ng (Cu) biig 67 OPa v l )2 OPa tiii n theo cac Inng cnh v
iiig cho khng gian ca Cf! s.
Ciii ciiif l\u rng, s sp X?J cac Iitiyn t trong v t r ii theo mng
tinh tli ph thuc vo nhiii yu t nh ; lin kt <-r Iiguyii t. s liig cc
nguvii t gii nht, hoc l s .s|) x) in ini nûyn t c th ch'p nhn.
1.2,3. CHT LNG, VT RAN VI TINH THE V v NH HNH

M t cch gn (tng, tli tch cui nit khi l(ii.i cht lng l i hiig khng
(i. Ging Iiliit troiig v t rn. c-ac Iigiiyii l liiu c xu th tip xc vi Iihaii v
chim mt khng gian hnh cou kch thitc khoiii 0 .2 Uin, nn cht lng kling c
tnh chu nn.
S khc nliau gia cht lnt v vt riii th liin ulut saii :
- Cc nguyn t luii hin clmyii dns d< ba (UR nhit, v vv v tr ca
rin g khiiR c xc iili. Trii liiili l ,<S:i hie\i (lin S(1 (t ni t v tr cc ng\iyn
t ca mt cht lng ti mt thi (Pin Irou^ khiiK iiii liii chiu. Nhn thy
rng, trong mt vng khng iaii nli ( c kch Iiuyn ti). mt. s* nguyn t
sp xp C' trt, tv (gii hn hi (h((nf (ht lon trn h in li 1.8a). nhng khng n
nh, lun lun b ph v (lo ha rtn^ Iiliil.. Nln vy (7> on.ff c trt t gn. c
dini "tr t t gii" c th hin tru (hiig coii; x:- su't p(d) ph thiic vo
khong cacli d (hnh 1 .8 b) : P(d) -- 1 ti d in ii ii vi khong cch trun g bnh giia
cc ngiiyii t. trong vng "t.rt t. fn". ( xa h<Ui Iia. f tr xc sut P(d) hin
bang int. tc ging Iiliit trou cl kh. Ngrtc vi tnh d hng ca v t rn. cli't,
liig c tnh ng ki v troii^ cht lnf K lii nguyn t (phn tt) trun g
bnh trn mt. n v chiu (li v lc lin kPt gin rliiig: nh nh aii theo nii hing
troiig khng giaii;
- xp cht, (t l gia the tch (lo car nguyn tt chim ch trn tng th tch)
ca cli't lng km hn so vi vt rn. vi vy klii vt cht chuyn t trng th i lng
sang tr iig thi rn (qu trnh kt tiiih hoc (liip: rn) th i iig km theo s gim
th tch.
Mt cci gn ng c th niinh ha clit kh. ('luVt lng, cli t rn bng hiih
nh tng ng vi : hi trii liu nhc cht, klian i khi ci bo ng (kh), khi
kt thc b\ii ha nhc (lii) v hng ng b (ti chiuii b diivt binh trn mt
qung trng (rn).
Chng . CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
Hy lm q\ieii vi nit dc trin g na ca cht lng l tnh lin h dng cii i ;i(
Iiguyn t. (phn t), anh gia bng st. Cht, lng c st, thp nn tu li cluiy
(kh uug in y th tch cha n) cao. Thc nghim chng minh, trong
ch\iyii biii pha lng - rn ( Iiliit nng chy) st. khug thay i.
i vi mt s cht, trng thi lng c st. cao. cc nguyn t (phu .i)
khiig liiih hot sp xp li theo "tr t t xu" khi chiivii pha lng - rn:
vt rn to thnh khng c c'ii trc tin h th v c gi l I't rn v nh hnh. V
d, thy tin h c c'\i to bi cac phn t SiO.,. c c\i trc hnh khi bn Iii t ta 111
gic u (hnh 1.9). troiig cc nh l cac 1011 0 '. cn tm khi l ioii S i'^
(3 iu kin ch to thy tin h bnh tlutng. khi bn nit [S iO ,]'* (n v caii
trc ca SiO., c chung nh o (hnh 1.9b) v cho cii Inc v n h . k i n h . Nu giam
tc ngui ca thy tin h lng, sao cho cac phn t SiO., c tli i gian sp xp
theo tr t t xa, s c thy tiiih c cii trc tin h th (hnh 1.9c).
Ging nh cht lng, vt rn v nh hnh c tnh ng lutng.
Hinh 1.8 s phn b nguyn t trong Hnh 1.9. Cu trc khi bn mt [Si0 4 ]'~(a)
cht lng (a) v xc sut tim thy v m hnh hai chiu ca thy tinh SiO^ (b),
ngyn t theo khong cch (b) linh th S1O 2 (c)
Cn h ii rng, nu lm ngui kim loi hoc hp k iji liig vi tc lu (ln

hn 10 - 10 *' c/s). vt rn nhn c s c cu trc v n li hnh hoc c'u trc
tin h th vi kcli thc r t nh (khong Iianoniet). gi l vt. rn v nh kinh hoc
vi tinh th(fi trn h by mc 3.1.6).
VT LIU HC 23
1.2.4. Q UAN H G I A CU T R r V T N H C H T
T nhng trn h by cc phn trn v s dc lni r thm cc chng tip

theo . c th thy rng yii t quyt, (tuli t.nl) cht ca vt. liu l diig lin kt v
cau trc ca n.
Hnh 1.10 ni t cc dng lin kt a cac nguyn t (phn t) v bng 1.3 cho
nhng gi tr minh ha mt vi c trng tnh cht, crt hc, v t l, ha hc ca int
s vt rn.
Tnh do v gin ca v t liu c th gii tlicli d ciiig thiig qiia dng lin kt
tng iig. i vi vt liu c lin kt (tng lia tr. vi gc nghing c nh gia cc
Iig\iya t (phii t), kh nng bin (lng (lo rt km: dvi tc dng ca ngoi lc.
v t liu b ph hy (tch t) khi ng sut ct tr s pha v lin kt. T\tiig t nh
vy i vi vt, livi c lin kt ioii.
N hit nng chy r t cao v tr ha hc ln ca vt liu gm trn c s cc
oxyt kim loi nh MgO. Al.,0 (. SiO., c gii thch biig nng lng liii kt ng
ha t r (hoc ioii) r t cao ca Iihng vt liu ny so vi vt li\i kim loi.
Trong vt li ii kin i loi (lin kt kini loi), cu trc niiig ca cc ion dng
trong khng gian in t t do chung cho php cc ion x dch di tc dng ngoi
lc: vt li ii kim loi c tnh do cao. Ngoi ra. cc din t t do trong mng tinh
tli kim loi vi tn h lin h ng cao, cl (lng chuyn ng theo hng tc dng cxia
in trng bn ngoi v graient nhit . K iiii loi do vy c dn in v dn
nhit cao hn so vi
cc v t liu khc.
Nh triih by
IIIC 1.1.2.4 v hnh D/> ho r ( Kim r.dng , S i, 6e, GaAs)
1 . 10 , trong thc t
phn ln cc vt liu
c dng lin kt hn
hp (kim loi - ng
ha tr; kim loi -
ion; ng ha t r -
loii; V.V.). v vy tnh
cht ca v t liu s
l tng hp ca cc
tnh ch't c trng
cho cac dng lin kt
nu trn. c im ( NaC, MO, AI2O3 )
lin kt v tnh cht

ca mt s' vt liii Hinh 1.10 S m t cc dang lin kt trong mt s
liu bng 1.3. loai vt liu thng gp

24 Chng 1. CU TRC TINH THE CA VT LIU
Bng 1.3. c im lin k't v tnh cht ca mt s vt liu
Dng Cht v nng lng M hinh Tinh cht (*)

lin kt lin kt, (eV/nguyn t) lin kt
T, E tx 1^ tinh do
ng Kim cng (7.0) Cao Cao Thp Cao Thp
ha tr,
lon NaCI (3,3) - Cho (hoc nhn)
in t ha tr Cao Cao Thp Cao Thp

- Lc ht. y
tnh in
Kim Na (1,1) Mng ca cc ion Trung Trung Trung Trung Cao
loi Cu (3,5) trong khng gian binh - binh - bnh- binh-
Ti (4.8) in t t do cao cao thp thp

chung
Van der H2 (0 ,1 )
VVaals CH4 (0,1) Lc ht ngu cc Thp Thp Cao Cao Trung binh
thp
CI2 (0.3)
(*) T, - nhit nng chy; E - mun Young; IX - h s gin di; p - in tr sut.
kt thc phn ny. xin lu rng tnh cht ca v t li\i CII ph tluic r
u lii \i vo cu trc ca chng. Nhiig Iigh i ii cii nii nht tro iig tiiib th hc. cho
thy, bng cch to ra hp k iiti v nh bih v vi tin h th c th nhn \(c Iili iig
vt liu c c. l. ha tnh r t c bit, khc hn Iilu'tng tnh cht thng thug Iii
cc vt liu ny c, vi cu trc tin h th q iie ii thuc.
1.3. KHI NIM

V MNG
TINH TH
nghin CII s sp xp ca cc nguyn t (ion. plin t) trong v t rn tinh

th v so snh cc kiu sp xp khc nhaii. cn a ra khai nim v li iig khng
gian tin h th (mng tin h th). Mng tin h th l i tng nghin cu u tin v
q iia ii tr iig ca v t li ii hc v n r t cn th i t nghin ciu nhiu v ii khc, (
mc ny s triih by nhng khi nim c bii nh't v mng tin h th.
1.3.1.TNH I XNG CA T IN H T H E
i xlng l nit trong nhiig tnh ch't qiian trng ca tin h th. n th hin
h ili dng bn ngoi, cu trc bn trong cng nh cc tiih cht.
Tnh i xng ca tin h th c c tr ng bi cc yu t i xng. Mi y\i t
i xng tng ng vi mt thao tc xng, tc l vi mt bin i hnh hc xc
VT LIU HOC 25
d iih mt li thng im, (ting. |)lian t. ... t Ir iig lp vi chnh Iiiiih trong
klinpr gion.
Nhnt yu t i xiig quan triii: l.>:
- Ti i xng (tni nghch o. k hiu c hoc /); (lc im a,] a-j, a,(, ... gi l
4i xiig qua tm vi l/, b, h;i , ... liMug ii IIPVI (linK trin g lp n lia ii tng cp
Iiit. bng php nghch o qua tm c (hinli 1.1 la);
- Mt chiu g\Miig (k hiu p hoc n): , 0-j, (1;,, ... c gi l i xng gng
vi 1>I, b-j, hji, ... tiig ng nu chmif 1r\inf l]) uliiiu tiiK cp mt bng php chiu
'4rng qun mt phang p (hnh 1.1 II)). T hp cia (UC ini ; c gi l i xng
svng vi t. hp ca , qiia p nn tu: (lioiii o, di XII^ giiig tild iig iig vi tng
(tin 6 , qua m t phng P:
- Trc i xiig (k hivi L hoc Y. (';ic (liiii a c t.lje tr n g lp nhau bng
php qiiav quanh trc L )it gc . khi (f chiig ((' gi l i xiig nhaii qiia
r.rc L. s nguyn // = gi l bc ca trc (ti xn^f. chng n iiiih chc rng

ch tn ti trc dl xng vi I - 1. 2, 3, 4, G (khns t)ii t i trc i xiig bc v
hc cao hdu 6 (hnh 1.1 Ic):
Hnh 1.11. Cc yu t i xng tm i xng (a), mt 'i xng (b) v trc i xng (c)
- Php tn h tin (k hiu t) l nit trong Iiling yii t i xng q iia ii trng ca
cii trc mng tin h th, 1'ng vi tliao tac tiih tin mng t iiili th theo mt hng
no trong khiig gian i mt s nguyn ln tru cl di xc iih tin h th
t.ring vi chnh n. S tr n g lp y cii hiii l tr u f lp cc u t hnh hc gii
hn tin h t.h v c cc tnh cht, kliac D di n v tnh tin (a) ic gi l chu k
tun hon, ca mng tiih th theo hng kling an (t cho.
Ngoi Iihrtng yxi t i xi'tiig- ii. cn tn ti Iihiig yu t' i xiig phc hp
iin lia i hay Iihiii yu t. i xii> n, (l l: trc: (I\iay chiu gng, trc quay
26 Chng 1. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
chin tm. trc xon, m t iih trt. c gi quan tni c th tin hi\i tlim
nhng ti livi chuyn sii v tiiih th hc.
1.3.2. C S , H T IN H T H E
c Iihrng khi u i iii u tia v mng tin h th. hy xiit. pht t k lia i nini
n gin v c s nh nu ri uc 1.2.2 v hnh 1 ,6 . Thy rng, do tn h i
xng ca tin h th. t int c s, bng cc thao tc i xng, tn h tin theo ba
chin trong khng gian s nhn ic ton b mng tin h th.
c s c xy dng trn ba vectd n v LI, h . c ting ng ba trc ta
Ox, Oy v Oz. Tm cac nguyn t (ion hoc phn t) nh l cc nt. mng.
Mmi ca ba vect = |/ 1. 6 = /? |. .- = |c I l kch. thc c s, cn gi l hng s
mng hay chu k tun hon (chu k tn h tin) ca mng tin h th theo ba chiu
tng ng. Cc gc to bi ba vect . h . c . khi hp tng i nt k hiu l a, (3. y
(a l gc giia h v c . i gia v c . cn Y gia a v h ).
W .^S 9S iS S l S i
'B g K S S S m
i>)
Hnh 1.12 Cc loai c s c th (a) v c s n gin (b)

ca mng tinh th
Thy rng trong cng mng tin h th, c th chn ic nhiu kiu c s khac
Iihaiv (hnh 1 . 1 2a). T iiy nhin, v c s l n v tviii hon nh n h t ca mng
tin h th cho lin vic la chn phi tha nin nguyn tc sao cho II i din y
ii cho tnh cht v c\i trc ca ton b tin h th. Cc nguyn tc l:
-T ili xiig ca c s phi l tn h i xng ca tin h tli (v hnh dng bn
ngoi v cc tnh cht);
- S cnh bng n lia ii v s gc (gia cc cnh) bng nhau ciia phi Iih i ii
Iiht;
- N\i c cc gc vung gia cc cnh th s gc phi Iilu nht;
- C the tch nh Iih t lior cc cnh bn Iigii Iiht.
VT LIU HOC________________________________________________________________ 2.
cd s c th tich Iili nh't v ch c tm Iigiiyn t (ion, phn t) Iini iih

(nt. mng) gi l c s n gin (hnli ] , l 2b).
Ph tliiic vo tit iig qiian giita ba vectd a . h . c\ ba gc a, p. y Iigi ta phn
bit, by h tinh thckh c nhan (bng 1.4j.
Hng cch t iili tin, ia cc phn t. (nguyn t. ioii hay phn t) ln tm cc
lit bn. tni y hoc tm cc c s (tu gin, hay ni cch khc, nu khng
q\ian tm n tnh i xng ca cc phn t ti nt iniig tin h th. ch kho st v
tr ca chng, thy rng ch c nui bn cch tnh tin cc phn t trong khng
gian e n li ii chtc nuri bn kieu mng tiiih th khc uhaii tluic by h tinh th
Iii trn. l im i bn kiu mng tinh th'Bravais. Tt c cc mng tin h th ciia
cht rn \i biu diii biig mt trong nni bn kiu mng Bravais (bng 1.4.).
1.3.3. PHNG V M T T IN H THE
Phng piiap biu din tin h th bng c s nh trnh by trn c u im l

tin h trc q iia ii cao Iih \iig khiig phi lc no cuig d thc hin. Iih t l i vi cc
ning tin h th phc tp ca Iilu Iigiiyn t (nhiu Iiguyii t. io ii hoc phn t
to thnh). N cng khng thun tin khi cn xc iih v tr tng i gia cc
phn t liiih hc (iii. ng, mt) trong mng.
Mt phng php khc cing r t thng dng trong tin h th hc l biii dtn cc
phn t hnh hc cua mng tin h th bng cc k liiii ton hc - phng php gii
tch m t tin h th - s ic nhc n phii ny.
p dng thun li pliKiig phap bi\i din Iiy, tlung clin h trc ta
vi ha trc Ox. Oy, Oz tng iig ba vect a , h . c cvia c s, nxt o l gc ta
(iriu h l . 13). n v o trn ba l.nic l ia li hii^ s illii a, 6 , f.
1.3.3,1. Ch s ca nt mng
V t r i m t mng c k hiu bng ba R. tng ng ta ca m t iniig troiig

h trc ta chn, t tro iig ngoc viiug kp ([[...]]): gi t r ni ca cc ta
c k hiu bng du (-) trn ta tng ng. V d m t A trn hnh 1.13 ic
k hiu [[111]]. Do tnh i xng ca niiig tinh th nn ta ca lii n t mng
c th s\iy ra bng php tn h tin cc nt trong c s vi cc bitc biig s' nguyn
lu hng s' mng a, 6 , c. V d. nu ta ca nit. nt. trong c s l .x, y, z th
ta ca nit nt khc s l :
.X) = ,r + ;? ,a
.V i = ,V + n-b (1.28)
2 = z + l ^C _
trong i, ri2, n - . - cc s nguyn.

Ta cn c th biu din dii dng vect :
/ = + //, + //, /} + //, c . (1.29)

Bng 1.4. By h tinh th v mi bn mng Bravais

VT LIU HC 29
1.3.3.2. Ch s ca phng tinh th
P liitiig tin h th l iiig th ii (1 (ua cac nt troiig mng tiiih th. cch
uhau Iii iig khong cch theo ciu hit xnc (iih v: c k hi\ bang ba s
I i g i i y i u , 1\ IV t l t h u i ) v i t a c ( ' n m t n t . ^ a n g c t a n h t . n n i t r n
pluiig . Ch s ni c k hiu (-) trii Tri) hnh 1.13 nii Iit s phng :
11 11 ]. [ 110 ]. [ 2 21 ].... vpct n v ca I)h\nf s l :
/ = ia ^ vh H' . (1.30)
Do tuh i xng. Iim ii tm ch s cia mt
phng no , cli cn tn i ch s' ca phng
song song vi II. i qua gc ta d. Nhng
phiiig song song nhng c tiili chat ging
Iilia ii to Ihnh h phng, k hiii [//rwj.
Nhng phcng khng song Roiig nhng c t.nh
cht. giiig Iihau to thnh h )hnff, k hiu
<I/VU!>. Cac pluidiig trong mt h f tr s
tuvt i u, V, w ging Iilia \i, ch (li cli cho
Iilia ii. v d (hnh 1.13) h pliKrtiig <10()> gm
Hnh 1.13. Ch s im v ng trong
sau plnrng : [010). 1001], [lOO, lO ()|. lOO ] mang tinh th
v [T 00 J.
1.3.3.3. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th

Mt phng tin h tli l m t plinii^ tronp khny fiaii Iiing tin h th ic to nn
Ixn nhng ni iiii. p xp theo uiol trt ti x;i(' nh
Ch s M iic r ca nit. pliiig tinh tho (IC k liiii hau ba s' nguyn /?., k, t
l Ulich vi nhng on thuf. ke t. gc ta n ^'io im mt. pliug vi
cac tn.ic ta d t.\ng i'ng Ox, ()y, Oz. C th xac uli nhng chi R /?., k, l ca mt
mt. phng tin h tli theo cc bc (v H mt phi p trii hnh 1.14) Iilu s a ii;
- Tm giao im ca m t pliaiig V('n 1)0 trc to (l o.v. Oy, Oz;
- Xc nh c fli on tli.auK t ta (ln cac giao im tng ng Iii
trn ( 1 ; 1/2: 1/3 trn h iili 1.14). Lny p[ia tr nghch (no ra ching ( 1 ; 2; 3;).
- Q\iy iig Iii ii s cln iiif cac s nglch o tn i (c. ba s^ Iig\iyii h, k, L trn
|)lin ( s^ s l cli s M ille r cua mt pling aii xt,. Vy nit phiig p trn
hnh 1.14 c ch s' (12.3).
Phdiig trn h ca m t, phiig tron^ khuK gian l .
l.\ kv
1 -
= . + - (1.31)
IKI Iih Ih'
Nu nit phng song song v d i trc ta (. ch s M ille r tng ng s t l vi
1//: Iigha l u hng 0 (v d,mt (001) l mt. ca c s song song trc Ox v
Oy). Gi t r m ic k hin biiK (-) trn ch s t\ng ng.
H uit tnh. th. k hin (/, /, /) l nhng Iiit. song song, c tnh cht ging
nhau, v vy imin xac ciih cli s ca mt mt bt k ch cn xc nh ch ca
mt pling song soiig vi u. luini cci i=Jcha trc ta . Cc m t phug tu y
30 Chng I. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
khiig- soiig sonp nlnrng c tn h cht. iig n lia \i to int h mt phng. ( h s

M iller cn cc mt pliniig trong li (l\tc k hin di dng \hk\. Gi t r tuyt (ti
/,/./ ca chng l nh Iihaii, ch i v tr cho nhnu. V i ch.i h 1100! troiig Iiiug tm li
th c c s l hnh lp plutiig gm : (100). (010). (001). ( 00). (O 0) v (OO ) l c
l cc mt bn v ay ca c s.
1.3.3.4. Ch s Miller-Bravais trong h su phdng

Cc ch s M ille r trong li ta ba trc t ro kliii thch hp i vi liP tinh
th saii phiiiy. v cc pliKiig hoc mt. cng h c ch s kliac nhon.
hipii lin plntiig v nit tinh th trong h sn phng, phi dii ch s'
Mier-Bravais. ting ng vi li ta gni bn trc : o.v, Oy, Oz v O! (liiili
1.15). Ba trc o.r. Ov, Ou Iini trn cng m t phng y ciia cd s. tng c<p hp
vi nhau int gc 120" vung sc vi trc Oz. Gc ta o l tm ca mt ;iy.
Cach xc uh ch s M ille r-B ra va is hon ton ging Iib it trng lip ch s M ille r
k hin nit. tin h th . cc ch s c vit, trong ngoc n c dng ki). Co th
chng Iiiiiih dc qiinn h ;
i --(/,+/,). (1,32)
Trn hnh l . l n ch s'ca cc mt BCIH. ABHG v AG LF tviig ng l ( O l )),

( lO 0) v ( l 00). Nhiing m t pliiig ny tluic cng mt h. vi tp hp cac tr s
tuyt i ra cac cli s l nh Iiliin i O llO . Nu dii ch s' M ille r. k hii car
nit pliiiK UtuK ng l (010 ). (100) v ( l 0). R rii ch sM ille r-B ra va is th
hin ng hn tnh i xng cua tin h th li s\i pludiig.
Hnh 1.14 Cch xc inh ch Hinh 1.15 Ch s Miller- Bravais

s Miller ca mt phng p trong h su phng
VT LIU HOC 11
1.3.4. M T
NGUYN T TRONG M N
m G T IN H TH E, r
H S X P CH T
1.3.4.1. Mt xp
Trong tin h th hc, vic xc nh mt xp theo nit ph\tng trn nit mt
hoc trong khng gian (trong c s) nhiu khi r t cn thit. V d. nii bit mt.
sp xp ca cc nit v pluiig trou.u .iiih th c th xc nh kh Iiiig biu
diig do ca tin h th: dii tc duf iiKoi lc bin dng do s xy ra tnc
t.in theo nhng m t v phitiig tin li the c mt xp ln nht (xem mc 4.2.1.
chng 4).
M t sp xp theo mt phiiig. trn Iit mt hoc trong mt mng tin h th
c trng cho kh nng chim cli rn iguyi t tronp kliiig gian mng, ln htt
\c xac ih theo cc biu thc :
/ V \
M,, (1.33)
' . s \'
tro iig M , Mj, - m t xp theo phng, mt., th tch (mng);
/, V, s - chiu di. din tch hoc th tch b chim cii bi nguyn
t (ioii);
L s. V - tng chiu di. din tcli. tli tch dang xt. trong tin h th.
[00J
[no]
------ a --------
{ 100)
s*s [m]
[ 0 ! 0]

Hnh 1.16. Cch xc nh mt sp xp M, ca c s

(mang tinh th)
H nh 1.16 l v d cch tnh M[, My, M , cho mt tinh th lp phiiig tm m t

(bng 1.4). Coi cc n t mng l Iig\iyn t hnh c\i. ban knh r, c s kcli thc
a. k h i :
M t xp t.heo phng [010] :
- - (1-34)
2 2 a ti
'2 Chng 1. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
Theo phniig l 10] ;
2*'*' W 2 "
Mt ( s|) xp l.iieo i i u t (100) :
f
2nr
/V/ - ^ 4. --1 TI. I '.
4 II Ii
Theo mt ( 1 1 1 );
I I , 1 4 V? . / -
M ^ + . - + \ ).nr . ; . (1.37)
2 4 ,1 3r/
M t tliP tch ciia mng lj) I)huring tui int :

.1 1 4 , 1 4 t/-
(1.38)
s 2 (I ^ ii
1.3.4.2. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong mng tnh th, s xp cht

Nh t.rnli b y trn, mt (t xp clc Iriiig kh Iing xp cht (kh najig x]i
st. tip xik' vi nhau) ciia cac nguyn t i. Ci s cc: nguyn t l nhng qu cii
rn cng kcli Ihc \t(' sp xp sao cho mi Iiuyn t tip xr vi sau nguyn t
xiing (uunh. cliiig s l.o ra mt. p iuy. t x]) cht (mt xp cht) (lp A treii
hnh 1.17). M iiii m bo tnh xp cli t (c Idi v nit niig lng khi to mng
tinh tho). l<i) iiiyn t tip t.heo chi c xp vo lni B (cho lp B) hor lm c
tng ng lp c (hnh 1.17). nh vy s c hai kh niig Iigiiyii t xp cht ; theo
Irt t ABABAB... hoc AB^-ARCABC.
o C
o moHf
0,3Snm
a)
. A/+
ocr
a)
o- moHf
t>)
02 -
o5^

</
^ K 6h motif
.
0,682nm
b) C)
Hnh 1.17 Cch sp xp nguyn t theo Hinh 1.18 Nt mang (a)
mt xp cht v nt phc (b, c)
VT LIU HC 33
S pli v tr t t xp gi l khuyt tt xp. Trt, t sp xp s ic cp l i

IIU.IC 1.4.1.
Hy qiiay l i khai Iiini nt m ig . ('ho n by gi n t mng vn c quan
Iiim nh int im trong khng gian niiig tinh th. t.\dng ng vi n ch mt.
ugiiyii t Ooc ion). l triig hp mng t iiili th cc kim loi nguyn cht vi
lin kt kin i loi.
Trong mng tin h th cc hp cht, gi nhiu nguyn t khc loi vi lin kt
ioii hoc ng ha tr, ng vi nit nt mng c th hai hoc nhiu nguyn t (ion),
to thnh nt phc. Cc n t phc hon toii tng iiig vi nhan v s" lng. s
loi Iiguyii t. nh hiiig v.v. Hnh 1.18 cho v d v cch sp xp Ii t mng
rong mng tin h th ng (Cu) v nt phc trong NaCl. cristob alit-B (SO 2).
1.3.5. L H NG TRO NG MNG T IN H TH E
L hng tro iig mng tiiih th l khng gian trng, gii hn bi h iih khi nhiu
mt. mi nh khi l tin Iigiiy ii t (ion) ti n t inag tin h th.
Hnh 1.19. Cc loai l hng trong mang lp phng tm mt (a)

v lp phng tm khi (b)
Kch thc ca l hng c aiili gi bng bu knh qu cu ln nht c th

t. vo l hiig . Hnh dng l hng ph tlnic vo cu trc ca mng tin h th.
V d. mng lp phiiig n gin c l hng lp phng, ih l n t mng c s.
Ngoi ra, l hng hay gp c dng khi tam mt. hn nit. Trn h n li 1.19 m t
hai loi l hng ny tro ii^ Iii ii lp pluiig tni mt. v lp phng tm khi.
3 - VLH
34 Ching I. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
Bng 1.5 cho thy cc dng v s liig l hng trong mt vi mng tin h th in
hih.
L hng c vai tr qiia n trng trong nhiii trng hp. v d trong qu trb ih
to thnh lip kim hoc chuyn pha (xein chng 3). Trong nhng in kin xc
mh, mt s' nguyn t ciia nguyn t' lip kim chim ch trong cc loi l liiig
khc nhau ca mng tin h th k iii loi nn, Ii ii chng c kch thc tAng thch,
kt qu s cho nhng hiu ug mnh thay i cu trc v tnh cht ca v t liu.
Bng 1.5. Dng v s lng l hng trong mt s mng tinh th
Cu trc mng Dng S lng l hng S lng l hng trn

tinh th l hng trong c s mt nguyn t
Lp phng Khi 4 mt
tm mt Khi 8 mt
Su phng Khi 4 mt 12
xp cht Khi 8 mt
Lp phng Khi 8 mt 12
tm khi Khi 4 mt
Lp phng n gin Khi lp phng
1.4. MT s' CU TRC TINH TH IN h n h c a v t RN

phn ny. nit s' cu trc tin h th in h iih ca vt. rn vi cc diig lin
kt khc nha\i s c cp .
1.4.1. CU TRC T IN H T H E CA V T RN v i l i n K T
K IM L O I
Lin kt kim loi l liu kt khng iil hiig (xeni n\c 1 .1.2.3). cc nguyn
t (ioii. phn t) lun c xu hng sp xp st cht, vi Iih i ii lin kt ngn, mnh.
iii ny gii thch ti sao v t rn vi lin kt kin i loi (phn ln cc nguyn t
kim loi troiig bng tun hon Meneleev) c cu trc mng vi m t ct xp M^, M,.
v tnh i xng cao so vi nhng v t r ii khc.
Ba c\i tn c t iiili th iii h iili ca lin kt kim loi l lp phing t n i khi A2
(Iptk). lp phidng tm n i t A I (Iptni) v sii plutng xp cht A3 (spxc) (hiih 1.20).
1.4.1.1. Mng tinh th lp phng tm khi (A2; Iptk)

0 c s l hnh lp pliirng vi cnh bng a. V vy niug ny ch c int hng
s' mng. Cc nguyn t n<ni nh v tn u ig tm (hnh 1.20a). S^ nguyn t n
ca c s itc tnh nh saii; mi nguyn t nh iig thi l ca tn i c s
nn tluic v mt ch c 1/8 nguyn t. nguyn t tni hon ton thuc c s.
nh vy:
VT LU HC 35
// = - .8 + I - 1 nguyn t .
8
Trong ni t tin h th. thng q\iy KC ngviyn t nh c s trn g vi gc ta
l int trong nhiig nguyn t gc. nh vy ta ca cc nguyn t gc trong
mng A2 l [[000]] v
Mi nguyn t trong mng A2 \ c bao quanh bi tm nguyn t vi khong
cch v su nguyn tit khc xa hn vi khong cch i a. N liit vy s sp xp
ca mng K - S (hoc K - 8+ 6 ).
I
I
I
1
L---A
r < r iz ^
-L.
Hnh 1.20. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong c s mang A2 (a) .

A1 (b) v A 3 (c)
T hnh 1.20a c th thy trong iniig A2. theo phng < 1 1 1 > v theo mt
1 101 inl xp cao Iihat. D tnh c mt xp ap dng cng thc ( 1 . 33):
A/, (theo ( 1 10)) ------- (1.39)

(/. </
II. nr
M y (theo r f() - - ^ (1.40)

V i
trong n, n - s nguyn t trong n u t ( 110 ) v trong c s;
r, a - bn k iiii niiiyn t v kc:li tluc c s.
36 Chng
o
I._ CU TRC____TINH
_____
THE CA _VT

LIU

Cho rang, theo <111> cc nguyn t xp st. nhau (liiih l.2 0 a ), ta c quan h
gia r v o l ;
^ r - u 4 . suy ra r~ . (1.41)
4
Kt. lip (1.40) VI (1.38) v (1.39) tnh c :
M,, (theo (110)) = 83.4%; M (theo mng) = 68 %.
C hai loi l hng trong mng A2 (xem mc 1.3.. h iih l.1 9 ). L hng khi
tam mt, kcli thc 0.14rf {d l ing knh Iigiiyn t), Iini tin m t v gia
cc cnh bn. s" lng n, (liig 1.4) :
U m ,,. = ( 1 / 4 ) . 1 2 + ( 1 / 2 ) . 6 = 6 .
L hng klii bn m t nin trn 1/4 on th iig ni im gia cc cnh i

din ca cc mt bn. kch thc 0 .221 (i vi s lng (bng l.);
( 1 / 2 ) . 2 4 = 1 2 .
Cc Iiguvn t kim loi Iih Mo. Cr. w . a - Fe, ... c cu trc mng A2.
1.4.1.2. Mng tinh th lp phng tm mt (A1; Iptm)

Troiig cd s niu A I ngoi tn) ngiiyii t nh cn su nguyn l tn i
nit bu ( l iilil. 20 b); s lng ng\iyii t trong int c s l :
/ , = 1 8 + - . 6 = 4 .
8 2
Ta d cc nguyn ti gc l I ()(){) |.||llo ||.||l( ) l||j|( ) ll|| .
S sp xp ca mng A I l K ~ 12 v mi nguyn t bao quanh bi 12 Iiguyii
ln cn V('li khouH cach - -- (hiih 1.20\)). Cho rang cc nguyn t xp sil

1
uha\i theo plntn. < 1 10>. c th n t ra quan h hn kiih n fiiy ii t r v kch th\tc
c s a l : r-
4/- - </V2 suv ra . r = . (1.42)
4
Kt. hp (1.42) vi (1.3H). (1.34). (1.35). (1.36). (1.37) v (1.38) chng m inh
\c rng trong mng A I phng xp cli t l <110>. m t xp cht l l l } vi -
92%, mt xp ca mng l Mv = 74%.
T r t t. xp cht, (xem inc 1.3.4.2) nguyn t trong niiig A l l ABC ABC ABC
(hiihl.21a). M iig A, cng c hai loi l hng (hnhl.19); bn l hng k li i tn i mt
(bng L) kch thc 0 .4lf / nm trvmg tm khi v im gia cc n i t bn, tm l
ling khi hn nit. uni trn 1/4 cc dng cho < 1 11> tnh t nh (hnh 1.19a) c
kch thc 0.225(.
Cc Iigiiyii t 'kim loi Cu, A k . A u . Ni. A I..... dc tn n g bi trc mng A l.
1.4.1.3. Mng tinh th su phng xp cht (A3; spxc)

0 c s ca niiig sti phitrtng xp cht l klii l iig tr lc gic: vi hng s
mng l a vn (\ cac nguyn t nani 12 gc, tm hai m t y v tm ca ba khi
liig tr tam t-cli nhau (hm hl.20c). S hiig nguyii t gc n l
VT LIU HC 37
// = .12+ .2 + 3 = 6 . Cc nguyn t xp st. nhau theo [ 2 0 ] v [202 ], v vy c

6 2
th suy ra. trong mng A3 quan h gia r, a v c l ; / = r - tc l
1,6333.
C
Vi c /a ^ 1,633. s' xp xp ca mng s l K = 12. (v d, nguyn t tm y
cch u su nguyn t cng y v sau ngiivn t hai pha trn v i). S^
xp xp K s thay i (K ?:12) khi d a 5^1.633. v vy t i d a l ch tiu nh gi
xp cht ca mng sii phitiig. Trong thc t, mng su phng c coi l xp
cht nu c /a nm trong khong 1,7 ^ 1.64.
Hnh 1.21. M hnh sp xp nguyn t theo trt t ABAB ... ca mng A3(a)
v BCABC ca mang AI (b).
Bng 1.6. cu trc mng tinh th ca mt s kim loi
Kim loi Kiu mng Hng s mng, nm
a c
Mo Iptk, A2 0,3147
Cr Iptk, A2 0,2884
a-Fe Iptk, A2 0,3165
w Iptk, A2 0.2866
Y-Fe (950 C) Iptm, A1 0,3656
Ni Iptm, AI 0,3524
Cu Iptm, AI 0,3615
AI Iptm, AI 0,4049
|^Ti(>880C) Iptk, A2 0.3306
a-Ti spxc, A3 0,2951 0,4679
Mg spxc. A3 0.3209 0,5210
Zn spxc. A3 0,2664 0,4945
Mng A3 thc cht c to th iih do cch sp xp cc lp xp cht theo trt, ti

ABABAB... (hiih 1.21b), ch khc so vi m iig A I tr t t tviig ng l
ABCABCABC ... V vy. mng A lv A3 c nhiu c tnh ging nhan, v d K - 12.
theo (111) trong mng A I v (0001) trong mng A3 u bng 92%. Mv = 74%.
v tr v kch thc cc l hng tro iig nhng niiig Iiy cng tng t (bng l.).
Cch sp xp ging nh aii gia mng A I v A3 cho plip chng c th thay i trt
t xp cht chuyn t kiu mng ny sang ki ii iing kia trong i\i kin xc
nh. l nit trong nhng kh nng chuyn pha q iia ii trng trong v t liii.
M t xp cao (Mv = 74%) ca mng A l, A3 cho php hai mng Iiy c kh
nng bin dng do cao hn so vi mng A2 (xem mc 4.2).
Cc nguyn t kim loi nh Be. Mg, Ca..... c cn trc A3.
Trong bng 1.6 gii thiu mt s kiu mng tin h th ca cc k in i loi iu
hnh.
1.4.2. M N G T IN H T H E CA V T RN c l i n K T NG
H A T R
Trong v t rn ng ha t r s sp xp K xc nh theo nguyn tc;

K=8-N , (1.43)
trong N - s in t tham gia lin kt ng ha tr.
Nh xt mc 1.1.4, cc cht ca cc nguyn t ha hc thuc cc nhm
IVB. VB, V IB. V IIB trong bng tun hou Meneleev c to nn bi lin kt
ng ha t r thun ty. sau y kho st cc cu trc tin h th tin bin ca chng.
1.4,2.1. Mng kim cng (A4)
K in i cng l mt dng th h iih ca cacbon. Phn b in t trong nguyn t

cacboii l ls^2s^sp^, nh vy s in t ca lp L tham gia lin kt l bn {N - 4).
S sp xp trong mng (theo mc 1.4.2) s l / = 4. Mi nguyn t cacbon troiig
mng kim citiig to li ii kt ng ha t r vi bii nguyn t xiin g qiianli
(lim h 1.22a). C bii uguyn t cacboii to nu mt khi t diri tam gic u. Cc
khi sp xp chung iih, to nn mng kim cng Oinh 1 .22 b).
c s mng kim cng to thnh trn c s mng Iptni c thm bn nguyn
t bn trong vi cc ta [[ ]]. [[ ]], [[ ]]^ [[ 1 ]] Hoc c
444 444 444 444
th hnh dung bng cch chia mng Iptm thnh tm khi u nhau v tm ca
bn khi nh nm cch nhan c thm b'ii nguyn t (liiih 1.22c). M i nguyn t
cch u bn nguyn t khc gn n h t vi khong cch /V3/4. Gc c' iih gia
cc lin kt ng ha t r tro iig mng kim cng l 109.5" (lin h l. 22a), vi Iing
liig lin kt l ii cho nn kim cing c cng r t cao.
VT LIU HOC 39
Hnh 1.22. Lin kt (a) v c s ca mang kim cng (b, c)
M t s* kim loi Iiliit Ge, Si. Sn trng (cng Iilim vi c trong bng tun hon
Menleev) c cii trc kim cing.
1.4.2.2. Mng graphi

G rap hit cng l mt dng th hnh ca cacbon khi ba in t lp L ca nguyn
t to lin kt ng ha t r vi cc nguyn t khc trn mt m t phang. Gc gia
cc liu kt l 120 ", cc nguyn t to lp gii Iihiig lc gic u. gia cc lp c
lin kt yu Van der Waals. Nh vy c s ca mng graphit l su phng lp
vi a - 0.24 nin, c - 0.68 nm (hiih 1. 23a); trn mt y. mi nguyn t c bao
quanh bng ba nguyn t khc cch Iilia ii 0,12 nni. Niig lng lin kt ng ha
t r mnh trong m t y v yii (Van fler Waals) gin cc m t y lm cho graphit
c bn r t thp, d tch theo lp. dn in khc nhan gia k iin cng v
gra ph it c th gii thch bng s khc nhau trong c\i tric tin h th v s' lin kt
ng ha tr.
Hnh 1.23. Cu trc mang ca graphit (a), si cacbon (b) v tulleren (c)
1.4.2.3. Cu trc si cacbon v tulleren

Si cacboii v ulleren l hai dng th hnh na ca cacbon, th ni t ii mi ca
cc cng trn h nghin cu trong ln h vc v t liu trong nhng nm gn y.
Si cacbon ic s dng lm "ct" trong vt liu compozit vi "nn" l nhii^-
v t liu khc (xeni mc 12.4). Cu trc sdi cacbon c th ting tiig Iih nhrtiiR
lp "v" nguyn t cacbon, sp xp theo hnh lc gic, c lin kt ng ha t r niiih
(ging nh lp y c s mng graphit). cun xim g q iia n li trc si (hiihl.23b).
Nng liig lin kt ng ha t r mnh trn cc lp v ca si cho php to c
nhng v t liu conipozit c bn gp ba ln Iih iiig Iili hdn bn ln so vi thp.
Phn t cacbon C60, gi l uleren, do hai Iili bc hc Iigii A iili H. Kroto v
M R.Smalley tng hp c ln u tin vo nm 198. Tuy nhin gi th i t v s
tn t i cu trc l ca phn tv cacboii c cc nh vt l thin v ii xing
k h i nghin cu c'u trc v th nh phn cc vt th v tr t nhng nm by mii
ca th k ny.
Cu trc phn t fulleren (C60) trn h by trn h iili 1.23c : 60 Iigiiyii t
cacbon sp xp trn mt m t cu theo nh ca 12 ng gic u v 20 lc gic \ i .
cc ng gic liu kt Iih a ii q\ia lc gic. M t phn t ulleren c h iih dng ging
nh qu bng nhiii mi. Lin kt gia cc nguyn t cacbon trong [ullcrcn lun
hin l ng ha t r thun ty.
Cu trc i xng trn, cng cao ca nhng "qu bng IDII" - ullc.ren ang
l t i nghin cu hp dn ca cc nh v t li ii hc khng nlnng trong nghin
cu c bii m c nhng ln h vc ng dng trong k th u t v cng Iigh.
1.4.2.4. Cc cu rc mng tinh th lin kt ng ha tr khc

Ging tntng hp kim cng, cii trc mng tin h th cia cc lip cli t c lin
kt ng ha tr mnh ph thuc vo gc gia cc lin kt. V d, mng tin h th
ca SO2 c cu to bi nhng klii t din tam gic u O inhl.9) trong ini
mt ion c bao quanh bng bn ion O"^". ni bo tru n g ha in, mi ion
0 ^~ l iih chung ca hai khi t din.
M 2 +
Hnh 1.24, Sp xp khi t din (Si0 4 /'tr o n g thch anh (a), cristobatit (b) v orsterit (c)
VT LIU HOC 41
Ph thuc iu kin to tlinh, caci) xp xp cr khi t din, SiO.; c th cho

tinh th tlich aiih vi c\i tnc sa\i |)hdiig ho.c f-cristobalit vi cii trc lp
pluiig (lin h l.2 4 ). Trong iii kin Iilianh :? nhn \c th y tin h (cu trc
v rtiih hnh) (xem mc 1.2.3, hnhl.91)).
Cu trc klii t in \tc m t tru lun luii l c s ca cc niiig tin h th
îirat. T tiv nhin, ph thuc vo thnh phn ha hc v in kin to thnh,
khng phi lc Iio cac khi t din cng lin kt. vi Iiliau bng mt iih chung
nhi trong tin h th SiO.^ .V d, trong tinh th brsterit. Mg.^SiO^, khi t din
(8104 ) '" khng lin kt bng iih chung in bng ioii lm trung gian
{liiihl.24c).
Silicat l "\i vo" q iia ii trng trong cng ngh ch to vt liu g111 (ceramic)
Iilii s trn h by chng 9.
1.4.3. M N G T IN H T H E CA VT RAN c L I N K T lO N
Cu trc tin h th ca v t rn (hp ch't) lin kt. ion ph thuc vo hai yu t ':
- T s ca m htiig ioii m (aion) trn s' lng ion dng (cation) ; t s" ny
c nh di vi tng hp ch't. ph thuc vo s lng in t tham gia lin kt,
ni bo tn h tn m g ha v in ca li thng;
- Tng q\ian kch th\lc gia anioii v cation : lin kt io ii l loi khng nh
hiig (xeni nic 1.1.4.3) v vy trong mng tin h th. cc ioii lun c XII hing sp
xp t. xp cht, v tnh i xig cao nht.
Sa\i y Iiii mt s kiu mng cien hiiih.
1.4.3.1. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX

Aet. n iiig T-Iiin tne cua I\a u i va Uiiih 1.25). Mri tin h th N a C l (kiu B )
lO v ^ri on I i i r m r r r^nr* o i i n \ r r r ' \ *I ri l lA tr r
(hu D2 t\tc to nn trn c s iiiiiiL; lp phiuy (Itiii y ia ii ca ion c r . iun Cs

nm l hng khi lp pliing ( tm khi lp pluug) (hnh 1.25b), t s s lng
ioii c r trn ioii Cs hin l 1 uh\t trong mng NaCl. ini ion Cs* bao quanh bng
t.ain ioii c r v ngitc li.
1 ! i
Hnh 1.25 Mang tinh th ca hp cht Mx . a) NaCl, b) CsCI, c) ZnS

S khc nhaII v cu trc mng tin h th gia NaCl v CsCl (mc d Na v Cs

c ciiig ha tr) l do s khc nhau v tiiig quaii kch thc gia cc ion Na^ v
Cs^ so vi ioii c r . T s tng ng l d^Jdr.\ - 0,4 v d(Jdc\ - 0.91: cc ion
troug niiig CsCl xp xp theo kiu B2 s c m t xp M v = 68 % cao hn so vi
sp xp theo kiu B I ca NaCl (Mv = 53%).
M t mng tin h th tiu bi\i khc ca hp cht kiu M X l ca ZnS (kicu R3).
to bi mng Iptin ca cc ion s^". io ii Zn^' chim v tr trong ca mng kin i ciiig
^
(hiih 1.2C), t s' s liig ion = = . s' io ii bao quanh ioii Zn^' bng bn
v Iigirc li .
1.4.3.2. Mng tinh th hp cht dng MX2 (hoc M2X)
-o
- T '-
L_ l -
mi^^ B a ^ *Q o ^ -
Hnh 1.26 c s mng tinh th ; a) Cap, b) CU2 O, c) TO2 v d) BaTi0 3
Cc iu kin v iiTxM lun ic iT bo trong

mng tin h th hp cht ny. in hm h c ba kiu mng sau :
- Mng tin h th A iio rit CaP^ (kiii C l). to bi c s mng Iptm ca Ca^'.
tm ion F" nm tm ca tm hih khi nh 1.26a), c th tnh \c d
dng M|.'- = 2 - 8 v K F.(-; = 2K - 8 , t s' 1 : 2 tho mn;
- Mng tin h th cu p rit CH2O (kiii C3) : cc ion 0 ^' to mng Iptk, bn io ii Cu"*
chim v tr ging nh i bn nguyn t bn trong c s k in i cidng (hnh 1.26b).
= 2n,:t = 4; = 2X, = 4. t s'2:1 lun lun tho mn;
- Mng tin h th r iitin TO 2 (kiu C4), to thnh bi mng bn phing tm khi
ca Ti vi a = 0.4 Iin i ; c - 0,29 nm. Cc ion 0 " ' chim v tr m t trn huh
1.26c. S io ii trong c s l - . 8 + 1 - 2 , ca 0 ' l - . 4 + 2 = 4. Mi ion T i 1 +
8 2
ic su ion 0 " gn n h t bao quanh (i().Ti = 6), cn mi ion 0 ' c bao quanh
bi 3 ion Ti' . T s 1 : 2 tho mn.
VT LIU HOC A
1.4.3.3. Mng tinh th hp cht dng Np Xp

Mng tin h th mt s v t li ii gm (ceraiiic) cng c th \tc to thnh trn c
s mng tiu li th ca hai hay nhiii loi cation (M, N). Bari tita n a t c c hai loi
cation Ba""^ v T i'^. Hp cht c cii trc iDiig lp phng 120"C. (liiili 1.26).
Nh\ vy. c th hnh dung mng tinh th hp cht ioii c to thnh trn c
s c s ca anioii, cc cation chim mt phn hoc ton b l hng ca mng
aiiion . Bng 1.7 l c trng cu trc ca mt s hp cht ioii in hnh.
Bng 1.7. Mt s hp cht ion v cu trc mng tinh th ca chng
Dng hp Mng tinh Dng l hng T l s

cht th ca do cation M l hng Hp cht in hinh
anion X
chim b chim
Iptm Khi 4 mt 1/2 ZnS,SiC.ZnO.CdS
spxc Khi 4 mt 1/2 ZnS, ZnO
MX Iptm Khi 8 mt NaCI.MgO.CaO,MnS,TiC
spxc Khi 8 mt NiAs,FeS
Ip n gin Khi lp phng CsCI
MX2 Iptm Khi 8 mt 1/2 TO.CdC2
Ip n gin Khi lp phng 1/2 CaF2.Zn02
M2X Iptm Khi 4 mt Na2 0 ,L20
M2X3 spxc Khi 4 mt 2/3 Al203.Fe203.Cr203
MNX3 Iptm BaTi0 3 ,SrZn0 3
MN2X4 Iptm MgAl204 ,FeAl204
1.4.4. CU TR C CA PO LYM E
Klic vi cii trc tin h th cc vt rn xt. trong mi n v cu thnh ( c

s) to nn t int vi nguyn t (ion, phn t), polyme c to nn t r t nhiu
p li ii t. nii phn t l i c th to bi hng triu uguyn t. Ly polyetylen
(C.,H|) lm v d ; mi phn t ca polyetyleii cii to bi cc lin kt ng ho
t r mnh v c hing gia cacbon v hyro:
H H
c - (1.44)
I
H
Liu kt theo (1.44) cho phn t polyetyleii mch kn. Nu lin kt kp gia hai
nguyn t c "m" sang hai pha:
H H
-c - c - (1.45)
H H
44 Chug I. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
lc c th s c v hn cac phn t (1.4) liu kt vi nhau, cho mt mch h

dng:
H H H H H H
I I I I I I
... - c - c - c - c - c - c - (1.46)
I I I I I I
u H H H H H
Mch polyiiie to thnh theo (1.46) gi l mch thng. T \iy nhin, kh i Iiini
"thng" ch In tng i bi v gc to bi giia c:c lin kt ciia nguyn t cacboii l
109 ." ging nh trong kini CIHK (hili 1.27 a v 1.27 b).
Cn liii rng, kli iig phi lc no iiicli poline cng thng, gi t r n troiig
cng thc phn t t t. 10 ii l o '. v vy c uhiig m ch di n 10 |0.ni.
Lin kt gia cc m ch trong Dolynie t.liic hin hng lc Van der VVaal.s,
Thiig thng polynie l vt liu v nh hnh (hnh L27b), tu y Iih i ii khi cac
mch sp xp tlieo mt tr t t xc nh s c polyme tinh '(hnh 1.27d). Qua
trn h "kt tin h " ca polyiiie ph thuc vo tng iii kin c tli v cu trc cia cc
mch thnh phn (xem mc 11.2.4).
vnbhinh
mc H
c) d)
Hinh 1.27 Cu trc ca poletylen
a.b) mach thng, c) m hnh polyme bn tinh th. d) polyme tinh th
VT LIU HC_________________________________________________________________40
Trong thc t. khng c c polyine hon ton ti-l t (tinh th), giiia cc viig
trt t bao gi ciiR tn ti nhng VU khng t r;it t {v nh hnh). Ic j)olyme
bn tin h th (hnh 1.27c). ViiR sp x) tr t t troii polyine ciiig c'u to t cc
cd s (hnh 1.27d).
1.4.5. DNG T H H N H
l s tn ti lia i hay nhim i cu trc mng tinh th khc Iilia u ca cng nit
uguyii t' hoc int. hp cht ha hc. Qu trnh thay (i c'u trc mng t dng
th hnh Iiy sang dng th hnh khnc gi l chuyn bii th hnh. Cc dng th
h iu li thng c k hiu bng cc ch cai Hy L) nh ; a. p. y. ...
Cacboii l mt trong nhng nguyn t c nhiu diiR th liiih r"t khc nhaii.
k>i)ig nhng v c;V\i t.nr )iiiig m rn t.nli (iin t; h (v iil) hnh) raphit
(iniig A9), kin cng (iiiiig A4), SI OiUl)Oii (cu tn u l()p cuii), iilleren (cu trc
cu C60, CIOO. ...) (xem nicl.4.2).
S t ii ti cc cliig th h iili ph thuc vo hai yu trVcd bn l nhit cl v ap
s\i't.. V d, grai^liit. c ti to ic iu kin biili tlnrring, trong k lii chuyn
biii th i liiih g ra p liit sang k in i ci/ng rli xy ra nhit (t v p sut rt cao.
Cc dng th hnh ca st (Fe) cng c th dc coi l mt v d in hnh, c
nhiu nglia trong k t.luit. Cii trru' mng A2 cn (X-Pe tn t i nhit thp
hdn 9 i r C, a-Fe l v t liu st t in hnh nhit (t (li 769"C. T 9 n " C n
1392"C l 7 -F<-.\ mng A l. N hit 1932"(^ l nhit ( chuyn bin th h iiili y-Fe
-Fe (n i ii A2 ging a-Fe).
S khc uhaii v cu trc iniif tinh tli (s htdup, kch thc l hng, xem mc
1.4.1.1. 1.4,1.2) cho php y-Fo c kh iiiiK lioii taii dc nhi\i hdn (tang k
cac nguyn t ca int s Iigiiyn t ldir (v d. 2.] 4% c (truR htiig) 1147"C) so
vi a-Fe (tng ng 0.02%c (trng h(iiiK) {i 727"C). )o clin li l c s<l ca cc cng
Iigli nhit hiyii nlivt ti, ram. ha-nliit liiv ii Iiluni iii c liiili tnh cht, ca
thp theo yu cii v i kin lni vic c MiP (X(M11 mc v 3.4).
1.5. SAI LCH MNG TINH TH
Cc cii trc tinh th trn h by rt t.rii ci l cu trc ca ti.rih. th' l tng v

khi xt b qua dao ng nhit, v oai' rf;ii hiif t.roii trt t sp xp ca cc
nguyn t (ioii, phii t). Nhug' soi (l dxc gi m i lch mng tinh thiOiy
hhuyt tt nt v ni chiu ca I)lin uy nmn (P cp dii iu .
Mt. s tnh cht ca vt. rn tin li th nhif Iiiun Yf)inig (E). li R gin n
nhit., tn li chi. t.. ... ch ph tlu i r ch y\i vo (lns v lc lin kt. ni hu nh
khng thny i do Rai lch iniig. Ngc li, di vi nit s t.iih cli t khc nh hnh
vi ciia tin h th chri tc diig ngoi lc (l)iii cii, biPii (liig do. xeni clntng 4).
dn in ca cf cluVt cach ctin, bui (ln. ... th sui lch Iiiiig ng vai tr rt
quan trng.
46 Chng l CU TRC TINH THE CA VT LIU
Ph thuc vo kch tlii c theo ba chi\i trong khng gian, sai lch mng chia
thnh; sai lcli im, iiig, m t v khi.
1.5.1. SAI L C H I M
l loi sai lch c kch thic r t uh (c kch thc nguyn t) theo ba chiii
khng gian (hnh 1.28). M t so sai lch im in hnh l n t trng, nguyn t xen
k, Iigiiyn t tp cht.
o o o o o o o o o o o o>^
O O O O O o O O 0000 + oo o 0 o 0
o o o o o o o o
000 + 0 0 0 0
o o o cK q ^ ^ o o o o o o o o o o 0
O o O O O o O O Oo + 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 ^ 0
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 0
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
e)
0) b)
o ^0
@ 0
@ 0
0 o
f)
c) d)
Hinh 1.28 Sai lch im trong magg tinh th

a) nt trng Prenkel. b) nt trng Schottky;
c,d) nguyn t xen k v thay th ,
e,f) sai lch im Schottky v Prenkel trong mang ion
1.5.1.1. Nt trng v nguyn t xen k

Trong tin h th. Iig\iyn t, hiii tham gia dao ng nhit qiianh v tr cii hang
ca n t iniig. () Iilii t T xc nh, nng liig dao cng ca mi Iig iiy ii t tii u
theo l thuyt thng k M axw ell-B oltznian nn khng ging nhau. K hi mt
nguyn t no c nng hng cao. vi bin dao ng lii, chng c kh Iiaiig
bt khi uiit iniig, li nt khng c Iiguyn t. gi l nut tr ii (hnh 1.28a.b).
Saii k lii ri khi mt. mng. Iigiiyn t c th chuyn sang v t r i gia cc in it (C6 ch
to nt trng Prcnkcl) (hnh 1.28a) to ra sai lch ini dng nu.yc.n t xc.n k. ( rs
ch th hai fci l c ch to n t trng ca Schottky. kh i ngiiyii t ri v tr cii
bng ra b mt tinh th (hnh 1.28b).
VT LIU HC_________________________________________________________________47
S x ii t hin Iiiit. trig v ngiiyii t xen k lun lm xu t hin trng ng

suat liiih cu (tn t iig ng sut -ko xung quanh Iiiit trng v nn xung quaiih
Iiuyn t xen k). Nng iKng to Iig\iyii t xeii k ln hn Iihiu so vi to n t
trng (trong kin i loi tiiig quan ny vo khong 7: 1) v vy nng thc t
nguyn t xen k t hn nhiu so vi nt triig (bng 1.7) v chng t nh hng
n tnh cht ca mng tin h th.
Mt n t trng c tli biu din theo cng thc;
t rong n, N - s n t trng v s n t mng;

Q - Iing hng to n t triig;
k - hng s" Boltzmaii;
T - nhit tuy t i.
Nhir vy nng (t n t trng ph thuc vo nhit theo hm m. tng nhanh
theo nhit, v c gi tr ln nht kim loi lng.
N t trng c nh hiiig ln n cd ch v tc khuch tn ca kim loi (hp
kim) tr n g th i rn. V vy n c ngha quan trng trong thc t, v d, khi
ng u ha thnh phn hp kim sau khi nu hiyn hoc k h i ha gi dung rn
qua bo ha (xeni mc 3.3, 3.4). Ngoi ra n cng nli hiig n chuyn ng (leo)
ca lch trong qu trn h biu dng do nhit, cao (hiu tiig do nhit cao.
xem mc 4..4).
1.5.1.2. Nguyn t tp cht
Trong tli c t khng th c v t liu hoc kim loi sch tuv t . Cc cng ngh
luVu hiyn lii ii i nht trong phn^r tli Iifhiin cng ch cho php t. \(c
sch khong 99,999% hoc cao hn mt cht. Ph thuc vo kch thc cc nguyn
t tp ch'! c th thay th nguyn t nn ( nt mng (hnh 1.28d) hoc xcn k gia
cc nt (h n li 1.28c) (xen k ca nguyn t tp chi klic so vi cc ng\iyn t "t
xeu k" IIIIC l. . l. l) . y cmg l sai lch im v luii kin theo trit iig ng sii,
hnh cii xung quanh.
Ng\iyn t xen k d kli\ich tn lin so vi nguyn t thay th v khng cn
mit. trng lm tn n ig gian (xem mc 3.4).
Cac nguyn t tp cht, trong iu kin xc nli c th tng tc v cn tr
clm yen ng ca lch, v v y chiig c nh hitcing (tn c ch. hnh thi qii trnh
bin dng do, ha bu (xein inc 4.2 v mc 1..2).
Trong tin h th ng ha tr. Iigiiyii t tp cht nh hng n tnh cht in.
V d. trong mng Ge. ln in t lia t r to liii kt gia cc m t, nu nguvii t
t.p cht As (nni in t lia tr) tlia y th ng\iyn t Ge. in t ha t r th nin
(tha) ca A s s ic t do chiiypii cng' di tac (lng in tn n g ngoi. Ngic
li. liu nguyn t tp cht, l Ga (ha in t ha tr) th s thi \i mt in t cho
liu kt. chnh l c s ch to cac cht bn (lii (cliig p hoc n) t Ge hay Si.
Sai lch im trong inug ion luH mang tnh phc hp. C\i trc mng ioii
lun phci ii) bo tru iig hn iii trli. v vy mt Ii t trng catioii hiii tn ti
song song vi mt nt triig aiiiun bn cnh, l sai lch im Schottky
48 Chifng I. CU TRC TINH THE CA VT LIU
(hnh 1.28e) hay mt catioii xen k s cnh int. nt trng cation (hnh 1.28D; sai
lch ioni Prcike.
Nng ct sai lch (tiiii trong inii 1011 nh liiig' ctn dii in ca vt ran
ioii.
Ciii cng can ni thm rang, trong thc t rt t. k lii s (ng k ijii loi linh
k h it m thng c h t.o hp kim h n g cch lia ta n mt. s ngviyn t kh c ("ti)
cht c ") vo kim loi Iiii. Nguyn t ca nguyn t hp kim s fi]) xp theo carh
xcn k hoc thay th'nhu trn t.rong mng tinh the. to (lung (lch ran xeii k hn;i('
tliu y th (xem ino 2 .2 ).
1.5.2. SAI LCH NG - .CH
Sai lch ctiig. v sau s dc gi l c / i ( l i s l o r a t i o n ) l loi sai lch co kh
tlnc nh (c kch tlc Ii,niyn t) theo hai chin v rt Irtii theo cliiu th l);i
trong tinh Mit'
L tln iy t lcii l c s l thuyt. bn. b phn quan triiR ca vt l cht nn
ni clums v vt l kim loi Iii rinp:. Da vo l tlniyt, lch iiKy Iiay n c th
giai tlicli n h iii vii f v c tnh, l tnh CIUI kim loi v hp kij)i ni trc (tny
khii gii thch r bng l t.huyt, r ctin. Hdn na l thuyt, lch cho php mc
ra tn ii vng mi. t.o ln troiig vic ch to kim loi v hp k in i c nhng tnh clia
c bit (v rl, ct bn cao. tnh siu do).
1.5.2.1. Nhng khi nim chung

n) Lch hin
C th h iik dung bang cach chii thm mt na int phng ngviyn t ABC'l)
vo na phaii Ir ii ca tin h th l Ung (h iili 1.29a). S x ii t hiu t.hni na int
c
D
1 1/
'*s y'
V
1 A t----
\
X
V y
<=>)
Mt iri
p
C) d)
Hinh 1.29. M hinh tao lch trong mang tinh th
VT LIU HOC 49
lain chd cc m t pliniip Iiuyii t kliac Iiaiii VP liai |)]i;i tr n n k h n g h on to n

soiiy soiig V(i Iiluni na. Nu tinli Mi pha trn ciis AB s chii nit ng sut,
nn. Iia di - iig RiuVt. ko (hnh ].20ci.b). itns AB c chin di hng vn hng
so mng-, gi l ir c lch, l bin gii pha trong ra nn m t ABCD. v vy gi l
ch birn. N\i Ii;i mt uiii plia trn, lch bin clr gi l lch dng, k hiu 1
(hnh l . J9b). T roiig trit iig hdp Iigc li. s c lcli iii. k hiu dn T.
Ciig co th hnh chiiig lch bin chtc: to bii cch tn t p. m t trn hnh
l U) Iilii sau: ct tin h th theo mt phang p (hnh 1.29c). p phn pha trn int p
s;io cho pha pliii cIcIi i m t ocTii hu^- lin g s n i ii. pha tri v n gi Iiguvii v
tn c. Kt q\i nhn c (hnh 1.29(1) cng giiig li hnh biu din hnh 1.29b.
Mat phn^^ p. cha trc lcii gi l tt trt,
h) . c h x o n
C Ihe liiiili ( l u n g hii III irmh nt p (h iili l.IiO). ct. tin h th l tng theo
iMt na int ])hniif ABCD (hnh 1.3()u). x dch hai ini) ngoi Dgc chiu nhaii
sao ('ho cac nriiyn t mt ngoi x dch int coii bau iiig s' iniig theo ng
Cl); nh vy cc nguyn t s sp x) li quanli AB theo ing xoii c (hnh
1 .;^)0h). AB gi l trc ca lc/ xon.
?
/ B
1
1k / tc
D
1
l

-I
J .
Hnh 1.30.Mhinh tao lch xon (a) v ssp xp

nguyn t xung quanh ng lch xon (b)
Lv.h xoi phi ic k hiu 0 nu tng xon c iiRiiyn t- xung quanh trc
lrh theo chiu kim ng h. ngc li s c lch tr i (0 ) M t ABCD l m t trt
cii:i lch xon. Xung quanh lch xoii cng tn ti tntng ng sut u hi. C th
so s a iili v tr cc m t phiig tin h th trong mng l t ng, chita lch biu, v lch
xon trn hn li 1.31.
c ) . c h h n h p
T roiig thc l. r t uhiii t.rn.y h]) lit lch ; c trng ca c lch bin v
lch xon, l lch hn hp. Hnh 1.I-52 biu din cach to lch hn lip bng trt
)). ng AC l tr r lch, car t.hnli pluii bin (CC) v xon (AA) cng Iih m
liiih xp x]) Iiiivn t XIIIIR quanh trvir lch c biii tUii trn hnh 1.32b.
4 - VLH
O Chng 1. CU TRC TINH THE CA VT LIU
fc:
c)
Hnh 1.31 M hinh sp xp mat phng tinh th trong

a) tinh th l tng, b) khi c6 lch bin; c) khi c lch xon
Hnh 1.32 M hinh tao lch hn hp (a) v sp xp nguyn t xung quanh ng ch hn hp (b)
d) c tr n g v h n h t h i c a lch
C th ting tit iig d dng r iig do tr t t sp xp nguyn t b ph v. tinh
th xim g quanh lch b bin dng, cng gn iiig lch, bin dng cng lii. Vng
tin h th xung quanh ing- lch (trc lch) vi bn knh c hiig =. niiig S l> î
lch (tm lch). Vcct Burgers (/?) l vect c trng x lch niiig. xac' (tnh
phn nng hiig ti do gia tng k h i c lch (xem mc 1.5.2.2a).
C th xc nh vect Biirgers Iih i sau; trn mt Iigoi tin li th l tiiig rhii
n t A bt k lm im xu t pht, ln ht nl vect t A n cc n t khc. theo
chiu ty to mt viig vect kp kn xiing quanh xtng lch, gi l vig
Burgers (hiih 1.33a).
Nii v li vng Burgers ny trn mt Iigoi t iiili th thc cha lch (hnh
1.32b. c). n s khiig khp kn. Vect RA = b l vect cn tlii t khp kn VIIR
B\irgers gi l vect Burgers.
Lch bin c vect Biirgers vung gc vi ing lch, cu vect Biirgers ca
lch xou song song vi ing lcli. Vect h ca lch hn lip s c c hai t.liuh
phn.
Gi t r ca vect Burgers chc tn h bng:
h - n.a (1.48)
VT LIU HC 51
hay (lng v h\fii^;

i /? I = . a y n T v ' 4 II - (1.49)
trons (t a - liing s' mng;
/, I\ IV - cli s phng tiui) tlip (;h;i b.
Nni; n ~ 1 . ta c ch v :
n - s i i n y n : lch o chi/i;
I T s'nguyn : ch hhii hon c/i/.
T
4i--
:
T

o)
Hnh 1.33. Vong Burgers trn tinh th ly tng (),
tinh th c lch bin (b) v tinh th c lch xon (c)
M t d ch, k liiu /7. l t n g chin (li trc lch troug m t dn V t h tch ca

tinh th, th n guyn [cni. cnr'1 hoc [cni ]. Baii l . s cho gia tr m t lch trong
mt s kiin loi v tinh th ioii.
1.5.2.2. Nng lng v chuyn dng ca lch

n) N n g l n g ca lch (l<)
N iig lng ca lch l phn gia t.]ij nng lii ti do ca mng do tnng
hiii dng n hi xiuat hin xm ig quanh lch, tiili hng:
E = (.G.bL . (1.49)
tr(jug d - h s c gi t r t o. (n 1;
G - nicu)! trt, c tn iig lin kl. (kh Iiaii^ li tn t t) ca mng
tin li tlie:
b - fa tr ca vectd Btirpers;
L - chi\i di lch.
T (1.49) c Iiliu x t :
- Klic vi sai lch ciin, nng lng ca lcli khng ph tlmc vo nhit ;
- E t l vi clii\i di lch, v vy liiii tn ti lr cng T tcc dng theo iiig
lrh vi:
7 = -â(,/y (I.O)
nham ko duithang chng lch. gi;m nnng lrng t do. H iii iig Iiv c ngha
quan trng t.roiig tdug tc gia lrl) V.I clnng Iii klii nchuyn ngdi tc
diig cn iig s\it bn ngoi (xem miH' l.D.. 4.2.3 v 4.7);
- E t l vi biiih ihdng vertn BiirRer^ (6 ') v vy lch vi vect. nb lun c xu
h n g p h n ly th n h I lch voi vertd h/ ce gim nan; lng t do v n b f > n b ] ).
52 Chng I. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
vi d: h\ = h' + h\ hor /j|-t h' - hx- lu . ... K (]ii rn cac plin ng lch plin ly
J i o c t n g l d ) c t h e t o r a I i h i i g li .rh t r o n g i n i i K tlip ;
- Lch c th t.ug tc ln nliau (h iit nhau khi kliac (i'u. y nhau k lii CIIR
du) v vy chung c th hy Inn uhau (khi cng vect.d Iilnng khc du) hor to
r a n h n g t n g / c h , ch, b c l c h , v n ff ch:
- C\ii cng, lch cng c tng .C vi cc loi klm yt tt khc (xeni mc l..)
Iiii c nh hing ln n tiih (lo. bn ca tin h tli.
b) C huyn n g ca l ch
Mt khc bit gia lch v khuyt t t im l lch cn bng v nhit ng km
hn. v vy n hiii c xu lung cluiyii ng.
Gi fi c nit lch bin (hnh l,34a) trong tin h th. (liti tac diig ng suat
Iigoi T. lch s cbxiyn ng tlieo c ch tn t trn )iit tnt H. Lc nn mt
phng tha (A trn hnh 1.3a.(l) s ln ht. i ch clio nhiiug Iia m t khc ii
trc n d pha trn m t p . th e o crt c h "tip sc" (h nh 1.34b. e. f) clio n khi ra
n m t ngoi, t.o nit. b c b in d n g biig gia tr b (hnh 1.34c.g).
A B c D A B c D
T rrr O X X X X t
d) e)
Hnh 1.34. Chuyn ng co lch theo c ch trt v s so snh
VI chuyn ng ca con su o
Ngoi trt nlu trn, lch cn c th /co. khi n thay i m t pling cha n
(mt trt). Chuyn ng leo c ch xy ra vi lcli bin.
Gi s trong tin h th cli c lcli. chng tn ti c lp. khng iili lung ln
Iiha ii v khng c cc khuyt tt khc l.h lc t r dng ti thiu iff^ ) cn cho lch
cliuyii ng (tinh th bt du bin dng do) l ;
VT LIU HC 53
2 t
(1.51)
I - L 1 -l /'
troiig 6 - vect Biirgers;

G' inchiii trt;
- h s* Poisson;
a - khong cch giia cc mt iituyii t. song song vi m t t r t:
b'- khong cch gia cc Iioiiyii t tlico hring trii t;
lc Peierls-Nabarro. co ngha tviiK t lc ina st trong chuyn ng
ca lch.
T ( l. l) thy rng, theo nit v phng xp cht nht ca tin h th, t i
a b' t gi tr i niax. /,, l n iiii. lcli cluiyAi ctng d (iiiR nht, tin h th d bin
diig nht, (xem mc 4.2).
T nhiig ni dung trn h by c th rt. ra ruK t'o bin dng do()ph
tlnic vo chuyn i i g ca lch. Theo Orovvan, quan h nhit saii ;
= p.b.v , ( 1 .2 )
trung /7 - in t lch;
b - gia t r vect Burgers:
V - t c . c h u y n n g c n l c l i .
N lin g k h i Iiiin c b n v lch va ni t l C(1 5 ca l t h u y t bn. cho
php gii th ch n h n g tn h c h Iihi tnh do. bn. ph hviy, do. ... s c
cp t in chng 4.
1.5.3. SAI L C H M T
Sai lch int l loi sai lch c kicli thtc ln lini cii\i v nh theo chi\i
th ba. Trong t.inli th, sai lch nit. chu yii la liin fi( lit. bin gii siu ht. sai
lcli xp, lut. i tinli v m t ngoi tinh t h.
1.5.3.1.Bin gii ht v siu ht

a) B i n g i i h t
Hnh 1.35. M hinh sp xp nguyn t trong bin gii hat (a).

m hinh bin gii hat mang hai chiu tao nn t nhng vin bi (b)
v nh t VI bin gii hat cCia vt liu a tinh th (c)
Bin gii ht l v iig tip gip gia cc ht trong a tin h th (xem n i u ; l

Cc nguyn t bin gii ht khng sp xp theo trt, t mng v c th cni l
vng c\i trc v rliih lin li. Sc ci biii gii ht. (y) c t.rins phn gia tang
nng lng t do vng bin gii so vi cc vng pha trong thiy t r i svt cii l)nf
nguyn t b nit. H iih 1.35 l II liu h sp xp ngiiyii t trn bin gii li t (liih
1.3a.b) v nh chp t vi bin gii ht trong vt li ii a tiiih th (hnh 1.3C),
Chin dy bin gii ht ph tluic vo sch ca kim loi hoc vt liii. c tlip
t gi tr hng trm ln hng s* mng. K in i loi cng t iiili khit, biii gii lit
cng mng.
c c
B
A
Hinh 1.36. Bln gii siu hat tao nn Hinh 1.37. M hinh sai lch xp sai lch xp
do tng lch tha (a), thiu (b), gii han bng lch khng
hon chnh (c)
Do cu trc khng tin h th. tn h clit ca bin gii ht so vi ci trc tin h th

nh I5au :
- C nhit, nng chy th<'p hii so vi vng bn trong, v vy nhit cao
bin gii h t d b chy do. g y hin ting "b nng";
- Hot tnh ha hc cao hn. d b n liii hoa hc. Da vo c tiih ny, cliig
phng php tm thc pht hin bin gii ht trn k iili lii vi quang hc hoc
knh hin vi iu t qiit;
- Bin gii h t c tng tc mnh vi cc loi sai lcli khc (ng\iyn t tp
clit. n t trng, lch), v vy qii trn h klmch tn y xy ra mnh hn so vi
vng bn trong. T roiig clm yii pha, bin gii ht. l ni d to t n i nini Iiht;
- Bin gii ht nh hng n iii tr sut v n tn x in t dn. Ngoi ra.
lch r t kh vt qua bin gii h t Iilii t tli p v vy k in i loi c kch thic ht
cng nh (bin gii h t cng nhi\i) in tr sut v bn cng cao (xem 111r
1...3).
b) B i n g i i siu h t
Siu ht (boch) l nhng vng tin h th nh (kch thc tn iiig bnh
10 -1 0 ' Iiin), vi cu trc tin h tli kh hon chnh ciih hng lch Iih a ii nit gc
nh. ngn cch bng hii y siu ht.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________ ___________________________ ^
Bin pîi si\i ht. thc cht l nhut t.ing lch, to Iin do cc lch ciig du.
tid iig t.ac l ii nhau khi chng trt trii nhiig int trt song song (xem mc
l..2.2b) v fii nhau v tr cn bng (hnli 1.36). Hai Kii ht ln cn iih hng
lch nhau mt gc :
(1.53)
troug D - khong cd trung hnh gia cac lch bin cng du trn trng lch.
Bin gii siii ht thiig xut hin trong qu trnh kt tin h l i (xem mc
4,2.6). c tc dng cn tr lch trt v tiiig tac vi cc loi sai lch im khc
Iiii ciig ii vai tr trong tnh do cu vt liu.
1.5.3.2. Sai lch xp, mt i tinh

Sai lch xrp (SLX) (cn î l klniyt t t xp) l RI ph v tr t t xp cht ca
tin h th (xem mc 1.3.4.2). Gi s mng A I c tr t t sp xp l ABCABCABC. v
l do no . trt, ti b pha v. v cl tha mt lp xp cht c SI.X tha
ABACA... (hnh 1.37a). Nu trong tr t t sp xp thin nit lp. s to SLX thiu
(v d ABCABABC. hnh 1.37b).
Sai lch xp c triiig bng nng liig gi l nng litiig S.x (phn gia
tng Iiiig liig t do do c SI.X).
SLX lun gii hn vi vng xiuig quanh bii Iiliug lch kling hon chnh
/?:,/>; (hnh 1.37c). () iu kin cn bng, rng ( d j ca S l.x l :
t / = ^ . (1.4)
trong G - Iiiiin trt;
h^.hx - vect. Biirgers ca c;ir lch khiig hon chnh gii hn SI,X;
X,,,. - niig lng SI,X.
SLX c vai tr rt ln tronp ln li vf: ha bn vt liu (xem nic 4.6). v vy mt
trong n h ng phitiig hiig quan trng nng cao l)u l hp kini ha, lm gim
.tng rng d. tc l tng cn trr) cliiiyn n{ ca lch bng SI.X.
M t tinh thng to thnh trong chuyn pha lng - rn hoc trng th i
rn (xem chiiig 3) ciig l mt clug ca s.x. V d. tinh th mng A I vi tr t t
ABCACBAC... (hnh 1.38) gni hai na tinh th liai pha m t A (lp A) i xng
ging vi nhaii (hnh 1.38a). Nlu vy chng s nli hng lch nhau mt gc 0
xc nh. Mt. A l Iit i tinh, cing c tc dng cn tr chuyii ng ca lch.
Trn t chc t vi. cc m t i tinh th hin bng cc (tiig song song (hiih 1.38b).
1.5.3.3. Cu tr c mt ngoi tinh th

M t ngoi tin h th c lin h thi tn ti khc so vi nli iig mt. phng tin h th
bn troiig. C th tng tng d dng rng i vi cc nguyn t m t ngoi (mt
gii hn tin h th) khng c s sp xp nh\t cac nguyn t bn trong, v vy
nit ngoi chng-khng s}) xp theo trt, t "q\i iili" ca tin h th (hnh 1.39) v
to thnh vng sai lch. Sc cnff it tinh th (nng lng b mt) c trng
p h n gia t u g n n g liig t. do gii cc n g u y n t b in t tr n g th i n iih.
Do c im cu trc sai lch cho nn lp m t ngoi tin h th cng c nhng

tng tc c bit vi cc loi sai lch khc.
100
A B c B 'c A 'c B A c B
0) ^'' 2^
Hinh 1.38. Mt i tinh (a) v nh t' vi ca i tinh trong Hnh 1.39. M hnh sp xp nguyn t
ng (cc sc tng phn song song) (b) (vng trn en) mt ngoi tinh th
1.5.4. SAI L* C H K H I
Nhng sai lch c kch thc ln theo ba chiu trong mng tin h th gi l sai
lch khi, Sai lch khi v m l nhng sai hng sinh ra k h i nu, c hp kim nh
r co. tp tru n g tp cht, x trong v t c. T kha cnh "vi m" c th k nhng
sai lch khi nh cc pha th hai tn t i trn nn hp kim , v d, gra ph it tro iig
gang, cc pha th hai to th nh k h i ti t pha t dung dch rn. y l nhng sai
lch "c ", c to ra vi mc ch nng cao bn. ci thin tnh clit theo
mun. Ty thiic vo c\i trc, hnh th i tn ti, kch thc (hnh 1.40) in hiu
qu ho bn ca nhng pha th hai ny s khc nhau (xeni mc 1.5.5.4 v
mc 4.7.3).
1
n 1

o
[ o ko J1 n
L\.
o o 1 o/
''lo o
Hnh 1.40 Sai lch khi do pha th ha i. lin mng (a),

bn lin mng (b) v khng lin mng (c)
VT LIU HC bl
1.5.5, V A I TR CA SAI LCH l VI T N H CHAT
Sit c m t ca sa i lch niiig tiiih th v tAng tac gia c h n g n h hiiig ii

tnh clit ca vt li\i.Vai tr ca chng (itdc gii thiu s b k lii m t tng
loi trn. Quan li gia sai lch v cac tiili ch. c hc. vt l v ha hc ca vt.
liu s c trnh l) cac cliitng -1 . v B,
gii thch liih cht, c hc; (tinh do, (t bn, ( cng....) cn phi da vo l
t h u y t bn. tron g cc ni hiili rii tn ic vi ni c p d n g l gii k t q\i
thc t,. Nhng vn d s dvc (l cj) c clung 4. dy. mun Iili ii niiih lt
v d in hnh v tng tac ia lch vi nhau v V('li cc sai lch khc trong
liiih vi tnh cu v t li\i.
1.5.5,1. Tng tc gia cc lch v khi nim v ha bn
Xt c ch biu (lng dc thug' diig l tnr t oiin lcli (xein mc 4.2). iic
ng, tc bin dng do . r th xc nh theo biu thi'c (1.2). Trong bin
(liiK co hai hiu iig Iigc nhau xy ra:
- Mt lch (p) tng do c(' ngun klic nhau hot, ng Iih\ bin gii ht.
Frank-Read (hnh 4,9b). ... lm tng f.;
- M t khac khi p tng, titng lac gia lch vi uhaii v vi cc sai lch khac
t. u l u i i h . l m V g i m n g k . n u n ( lu y t r = c o iis t. c n t n g ng su t bn
iifoi nit cti lng d. chiiili l hi\i ng ha bn biii dng s \c xt mc
4.2.3. H s ha bn bin danf (tc triiR hi nghing ing cong - e trn
gin ( th ko.
C-ii s ca lt. cc i)h(Jii}4 plu) l>n:i 1)^)1 vl. liu iiu li Ui l lm gim tc
clmyn iig (v) ca lch.
T\dng tac gia cc lch xy ra tili tnng siut. (tn hi ca chng. K lii mt
lch tr t gp cc lch troug mt tr\dt giao uliau khc, trn mi lch hnh tli n h
int bc lch. Bc cn tr chuyn ng lch lioc khi rmg chuyn ng vi lch s
sinii ra k ln iy i t t im hoc cac vng lcli plia saii II. gy ha bn (hnh 1.41).
o Nt trng
Hnh 1.41 Lch chuyn ng cng mt bc lch

8 Chi/ng 1. CU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU
1.5.5.2. Tng tc gia lch v sai lch im, ha bn bng dung dch rn
Kt qua t u t.c gia lch v sai lcli im lm cho cc nguyn t tp cht

(lioc mt. trng) tch t x u n g q\ianh ing lch, to ra Iihrtng "m my ngiiyn t
tp cht" (kh quyn C ottrell, Siioek, Suziiki. ...). chuyn ng, lch cn ic b
sving thm nng hng t bn ngoi (da) nlini gii thoat khi Iiliiig m my
(hnh 1.42).
6.,MPa
3 .% M
Hinh 1.42. Khong chy Piobert-LUders Hinh 1.43, G ii han bn ca dung dich rn
trong tinh th cacbon Al-Mg phu thuc vo hm lng Mg
Hinh 1.42 l gin d th ko thp t cacboii. Gi.i. hn chy trn t i im A.

tng ng vi ug svit lu gii ta lch klii kh q\iyn C ottrell do cc
nguyn t cacbon to nu. Sau kh i gii tliot, lcli itc "chuyn ng t do", bin
d n g do x y ra vi viig s u t Iih hn b a n (tu (im B. gi l gii hn chy di).
Don BC l klioiig chy Piobert-Liders. Bt dii t c. qua trn li bin dng do
xy ra cng hi\i ng ha bn bin dng.
Troiig cc hp kim dng ciiing dch rn (thay th hoc xen k. xem nic 2.2.1)
cc nguyn t hp kim c th coi Iih it nhiig sai lcli im 00 . hi\i qu ha bn
s mnh hn r t nhiu.
Trn h n li 1.43 l th gii hn bu ph thuc vo hm lng Mg trong d\iiig
dch rn Al-M g. saii k h i . Klic vi Iiguyn t cacboii trong thp. Mg trong A l-M g
c tnh linh ng lidn v vy sau khi gii thot khi kh quyn C ottrell ny. lch s
li b "bao vy" bi cc kh quyn khc, chnh l Iignyn nhn tn t i ca nhng
khong cliy Portvin-c-Chattclier vi t tt. l PLC vi cc rng c\ta trn gin th
ko ca hp kin i A l-M g (linh 1.44).Trong thc t PLC xut hin vi mt tc
bin dng thch hp (chm). Bng nhing pluiig php thc Iigh i iii hin i c th
quay video s cliuyii ng ca khong chy Piobert-Lders v PLC.
Ng\iyii t hp kin i lin thay i rng ca sai lch xp (SLX), mt trong
nhng ch\tiig ngi r t mnh i vi chuyn ug ca lch (xem mc 1.5.3.2 ).
Trong tin h th iniig A I v A3. lip kim ha s lm gim Iiiig lng 7 trong
biu thc (1.4). ugha l l 111 tng chiu rng ca SLX. do vy lm tng hiu qii
ha bn.
VT LIU HC 59
Hinh1.44 Khongchy Portevin-le-Chattelier trong dung dich rn Al-Mg khi th ko

(mi rng ca AB. BC, . tng ng VI mt ln lch i xuyn mu )
1.5.5.3. Tng tc lch v bin gii ht, ha bn bng bin gi ht

K h i trong ht c nit Iiguii Fraiik-Reacl liot ng s c v s^ lch tnt cho
dn kh i diig li cnh bin gii ht. to ra mt, tp hp chva n lch (hnh 4.3). Tp
lip ny s to ra tring ng siit n hi va tac dii ngic li, pliong ta Iigiin
lch trong h t. va kch th ch cc ngun cc ht ln c n hot, n g trong qu
trnh biii dng. Bin gii ht c tac dng lini lch vi liai l do :
- Bin gii c cn trc; khng trt, t;
- Hai ht tiiih
Bin gii h t ------. Q Q
t.liP lin Iilia\i trong a
tinh th c nh o o o o o oo\
lu(ug klic nhau, v 0 o oo o o o
vy lch r't kh thay o o o ^ o o o
Mt
i "t ngt" m t f-rt 'o) 0 oo \ o o
t.r i t khi v ir t (u a o o o o o o o V qO
bin h l (hnh 1.45). oooo oooo
Kt q\i l, lch ch c
th chuyu ng t do Hinh 1.45 M hinh cn tr ca bin gii ht i vi chuyn ng
trong ht; kch thc ca lch
ht ciig nh. qung
iiig cluiyii ng t do cng Iign. hiu qu ha bn cng cao.
Gii h n n hi ca vt liu ph thuc vo kch thc h t d theo biu
tlu'tc :
-n
(l. )
trong Q . , n - nhng liiip s ph t.liiic vo bn cht, cu tn ic tin h th.

Dl vi nhiu kin i loi /! c gia t r bng o. (xeni biii thc Hall-Petoh IDI.IC
4.2.4).
1.5.5.4. Tng tc gia lch v pha th hai, ha bn bng pha th hai

(ha bn cu trc)
Pha th lia i to ra trou hp kim (lo qua triu h cliuyn pha (xem cliing 3) cng
c th coi l dng sai lch c ' (mc 1.5.3,4). Ty thuc vo han chYt. nng d,
kch thtc ca pha th hai. hiu qu ha bn ca chng s khac nliau.
a) Pha th hai khii lin mng, ciig hdii Iiii: Miin lch vt, qua loi chng
Iigi ny. ng s ii l tip cn tc diif lu II plii c tr i
T 1 2 G b I L . (1 . 7 )
trong G. b - cac i lng (lueii tlmo;

L - khong cch tru n g bnli sia rac phau t pha th hai.
Sau khi c gii tlio t. lch (t l i viy .ch d xiuig quaiih pha t.hi' lia i (hnh
4.46b).
])) Pha th hai lii wng, Iiiiii liii Iiii; TroiiR trng lip Iiy lch s "ct"
pha th hai baii| cch "i xuyn (iia n to ra sai lch xp hai mp (hnh
4.46a). Nh vy. sau nii ln lch vt, qua. sc cn ca pha th hai tng tli iii do
cac vng lch fh hoc SLX. T roiig mt. s tn iig hdp R to thnh Iihng^ tng
lch, bi lch, ni gia cc pha th hai to Iiii cu trc lch trong mng
t iiili th.
1.5.5.5. Tch t lch v ph hy
K iii lch b h iii l i bcn chiiig Iigi. clnng s tch t dn. lm tng Ctng sut
cc b clio n khi t. gi tr cao hn gii lin b n ca m n g, lin kt. b ph v, V
tiH t V n tin x\uVt. hin. Cac lch tip theo trt cii v gii th ot trn b nit
vt nt t VI lm n ln dn ln v kch tliitc trd thnh cc vc nt v m. ph
hy s xv ro. Cc c ch ph hy s citc trn h by t in n\c 4.5.
1.5.5.6. Th bn (hiu ng ha mm)

Trong uh iiig iu kin xc nh (nhit . gi tr iig siit bn ngoi,.,.), kh
nng hm lch ca cc loi clniig ngi gim i, bin dng clo tr nu d rliig hn
so vi xt trn. D l hin ting thi bn hay CII gi l hiii ng ha mm.
Nhit c l nit trong nhng yu t' qiian trng nht trong hin ting th i
bn. nhit d cao, kh nng kliuch tan ca sai lnh im tng, chng s phn
b ii troiig mng, lcli ctc gii ta khi cc kh quyn tp cht. Hn na,
khuch tn s ini lch leo d hn. Nu nguyn t tp cht khuch tan n trc
lch (hnh 1.29) th y l leo xung (na m t ABCD c tli ii) mt dy nguyn t
na). N\i d l n t trng th lch s leo ln (ABCD mt i lit dy Iigxiyn t).
Nhit cao cng lni thay i ng k c\J trc bin gii h t v SLX lm
chng gim dn liiu lc cn lcli.
kt thc phn ny bn c c th tlia n i kho d bng 1.8 mt a c tn n g
ca cc loi sai lch niiig v nli liug ca cling n tin h cht.
VT LIU HC 61
Bng 1.8. c trng mt s sai lch trong mng tinh th
S kch Dng sai Mt hoc kch nh hng

thc lch thc c trng n tinh cht
Nt trng Khuch tn th rn
Nguyn t
xen k 10
If' 10
, 11'
Khuch tn th rn
0 Nguyn t Tinh cht c hc, tnh dn in ca cht
tp cht cch in v bn dn
Sai lch
Prenkel v
Schottky Tinh cht in ca tinh th ion
Lch cm/cm Tinh cht c hc ( do. dai)

trong kim loi
10' cm/cm'
trong tnh th on
Mt i tinh Kch thc Tinh cht c hc ( do)
Bin gii ht 1^171 -r1cm
Pha th hai Kch thc Tinh cht c hc
5nm ^ 0,1 mm v tinh cht t
1.6. N TINH TH V A TiNH TH
1.6.1. N T IN H T H , CC C T N H , N( DNG
Nn vt tin h th c mng thii Iilil. v phdii^r khii i trong ton b th

tcli th gi l n tinh thc (hnh 1.4(a). e d tiii t.ii. hy ly mt c s.
tn h tin n theo ba trc ta vi nl)ufi (toii hii chu k tu ii hoii mng, s
dc n tin h th.
Trong thc tp i vi mt. s khoaii vt. c th tn t i cc n tin h th t
nhin. e c ic n tiiih the kim loi, phi a|) tliig nhug cng ngh c bit
"iiui" n tin h th. M t s' ii tinh th. nht l khong vt. c b n i t ngoi nhn,
hnh dng xc iili. l nhng nit ])iiug nguyn t gii hn (tlnug l nhng
mt xp cht Iiht).
Tnh cht, tin biu ca ii tin li tliP l tnh d hng v theo cc hing khc
nhau, xp cht nguyn t i khac nhaii (xeni mc 1.2 .2 ).
Dn tin h th ch yii ic s dii t-roiig c.ng nghip bn dn v vt liu k
th u t in.
1.6.2. A T IN H TH E
n tin h th gm rnt nh iii t.iuli th Iih (krh t.hc c nni). gi l ht t.iiili tlu.
c cng cu trc m ng n h n g vi nh hiif khc Iihn\i m ang tnh n gu nliii.
liu kt bng bin gii ht (hnh 1.46b). T roiiff thc te. phn ln v t rn tinh tlu'
c s dvuit c cliig a tinh th.
1.6.2.1. ht ca a tin h th
T nh ngha, thy rng cu trc- ca o tin h tli l)ao gm liai phn chnh :
- Cac tin h th nh gi l ht. c ctnh hiig khac nhau;
- Bin gii ht. c\i trc khng tr t t. l i i i kt cc ht vc5i nhau, (tc COI l
nit. dii ca sai lch mt (xem nii.ic l.n.3.1a. 1.5..,S).

Do c (tini to tli iih {kt tin h t plin lns, kt tin h li. ... xem nu.ic '..\ v
4.2.G). c.nc li tinh tliP khnufr bao kch thc Iih nliau. N u c t Iigaii.t I111
a tinh th, nii Iilu ni v t.ani thc (cho ii mn haii axit. loiig). hin gii hi HP h
n iiAn niiih hn v to phn tr ii nh t chc t r i cua knh hin VI quaui
hc (hoc k iiih liin VI ctin t qut). nh t chc t vi ca cta tn ih Ui thc: ('lit l
mt ct ngang q\ia cc ht theo quy lut ng\i nhin (hnh 1.46c).
T nli iig l do trn, tro ii nghin cVii kim loi t.hng clng khi niii vo (
ht. hiii (lin kch thc tru n g hnh co ht. tiiih th.
H ti ii chiiii rO C T (Lin x ci) chia thnh 10 cp ht. mt cp ng V(i s
hng ht tin h th xc iili t.rn mt (trtn v din tch. D ht cp ciig cao, lin h th
cng nh. H ASTM (M) c 8 c'|) ct ht. cp 1 iit vi li li t t iiili tli tr ii In in i ^
cp 8 c 2 0 4 8 lit. c n g ('. tliP siiy ra c'p 0. -1 hoc 9. 10... n Ki i Vi CIC (Ui
tin h th c lit lii lirin hoc nho hrtn Ii;i.
Ngoi ra. ht cn c th biu din q\ia kch thc tru ii hnh ra ht hoc
Iih iig biu r phn b kcli thc ht.
b)
Hinh 1.46 M hinh n tinh th (a), a tinh th (b) v nh hin VI quang hoc
mu a tinh th sau tm thc (c). ng en trn nh l bin gii hat
VT LU HOC_________________________________________________________________63
1.6.2.2. Tnh ng hng ca a tinh th

Tnh d hng triih by nic 1.6.1 ch ctiig vi ddn tin h the. Do si; phn b
Iigvi nhin ca cc ht. trong a. tinh t.h. phng niii ca ch n g sp xp bt k.
nn tnh d hiiig khng cn th hin na. Ng\i ta ui a tin h th c tnh ng
hng f. S d "gi" v trong p li iii vi tng ht nh ca a tin h th tn h d hng
v 11 th hin "tht".
Nh vy. t iili cht, ca a tin li th ging nhau theo cc plntug khc nhan, tr
tnng hp gia cc ht c Utiig quaii nh hiig c bit, v d cvi trc lextua,
\tc gii th i ii dii y.
1.6.3. T E X TU A
Textiia l cu trc ca da tin h th. trong o cac ht iili lung u tin theo
mt phiiig Iio trong khng gian.
Text\ia l kt. qu s sp xp li cac ht tinh th theo nit h\ng lii tiu, c
gi l trc nh hng hay trc textua. V d, khi ko si Iihni vi bin dng v
tc' ko tlich lip. cc ht tiiih th nliiii s nh hiig sao cho phiig [111]
song soiig vi hng ko. l icxtua bin dng, (iup si. trc tcxtua l [111]
(linh 1.47). Ngoi ra, c th xut, hin tn x tu .a khi kini loi kt tin h t pha lng vi
vectrt ngui lu tiu theo mt. hiig hay trong qiia trn li kt tiu li l i (xeni mc
3.1.4. 4.2. v 4.2.6).
Da tiiih th c textiia s m t tnh ang hng v tr nn d hng.
V t liu c text.ua tluiig c s cliit trong k thut in. M t trong Iilivitiig
v d in hnh l thp k th u t in (thp Si). Tnh cht, in, t ca loi thp Iiy
(it cc i theo chiu cn (trc t.extiia) v cc tifni theo chiu vung gc. v vy
c dng ch to li bin th nhiii gim tn tlin t (iii Iiug ca biu th (xeii
im.ic 6.7).
Hinh 1.47 M hinh textua trong dy nhm sau khi ko s
- hng ko. truc textua l [111]

6 4 _____ _______________________________________________ Chng 2. GIN PHA
Chng 2
G I N P H A
i vi vt liu, c bit l cc h hp kiin. vic nghin c\i gin pha c tm

quan trng c bit, v c nii ting quan clit. ch gia t chc v tn h cht (cd. l.
ha tnh). Ngoi ra sin ii plin cng cho bit, cc thng tin si tr v s nu rliy.
kt tinh, ctic, cac chuyn pha c quan h ii nhit luyn, hu. tii cng ap lc. v.v.
2.1. CC KHI NIM c BN

2.1.1. CU T, H, PH A
Cu t l cc nguyn t (v d. kim loi Iigiiyn cht) hay hp c h t ha hc bii

vng cu to liu v t liii. V d. latiig ('< liai cii t l Cu v Zn. N hi\i khi rn
phn bit cxn t ha tan v dniig mi (xem mc 2.2.2).
H l t dng ch nit t]) hp vt tho ring bit ca vt li ii troii^' iu kin
xc diih hoc l m t lot lip kini khc nh aii vi cc cii t giiig n h au .
Pha l t phii ctng uh't rin h (hp kim) c cu tn c v t.nli rh t vt Iv. ha
hc. c hc xc nh, gio cac pha c b nil phn cch. Cc ctn cht, cc chiii (lcli
rii. lng, kh l cac plin klic nhau.
V d:
- Nc 0"C l h mt. c\i t (hp chVt. ha hc bn vng H;>()) v c hai plui
(pha rn-m c . pha liig-nc);
- Chi ti t bng h]) kim ctiig-nikeii l h hai cu ti (C\1 v Ni) song ch <0 mi
pha (dung dch rn rn hai kim loi).
2.1.2. TRNG

T H I CN b n G
V mt nhit ng hc trng th i c;ni bng gn lin vi khai nim v nany

lng t do. Nng lng U do l (ti htng |)li tluic vo ni nng ca h cng nh\f
inc sp xp trt, ti ca cc Iiguyii t. phn t. H trng th i cu biiK n
nh khi cc pha ca II ii c n n g hiig t (lo nh n h t trong iu k in Iihil (l.
p siit v th iih phn xc nh. in Iiy cng c ngha l tro iig cc cti\i kin (t
c tnh ca h hon ton khng biii i theo thi gian.
VT LIU HOC 6
Khi t.luiy (ti ]) sut v nhit

so ko theo s t ii; l iii^ liiig t
clo. hc rt c the h c biu i
d ngt saii t r i i g thi r n liiig
ni(i vi Iiaiig liig t do nh hn.
t.(' l c clmyn ilia.
Ni c l m n g t r n g thai (t chc)
kliu.q; cn iKiii l k h n g 011 nh,
lunii co XII h n g t hin (ti s a n g
Irus t.liai ( l chc) cu hng, n
(hiili, uht l khi b in in g nng, s ong
tid iiK Iilii ii tn iit hp (Jii trn h Hinh 2.1. S biu th| v tri n nh (1), khng
iu'iv ha\i ih \t khH.o- nhn thny c n inh (2) v gi n inh (3)
hay (loi k h n g a n ^ ke nhit
cl thiig. T c h c (trug- tiiai) kh ng cn hii c n g h a qiiaii trng trong thc
t v thng" (t;ip ii c y\i cii v cd t.)h cao hii.
('ii tn l.i k li i Iiini V P trng thai (t chc) gi n nh v trng th i cn
liaut; hay n c!nli tiiy t i ch tn ti treii l thuyt, kh i cn phi lni ngui r t
cliiii. (liu t.roiiK thc t r;Vt. kh (tt. (hr (v d. hp kim Fe-C. mc 2.6).
He plin liit la t.rn.c tli i (t chc) t.r(n c the cng s ca hnh 2.1: trong
t Iilii ii vin hi ( v tr I l ( t.rii tliai n ctnli nht v c th nng nh nht. V
tn 2 l khii n nh v c th nng ln nht, cl dng chuyn sang v tr 3. V tr 3
(<1 tlu' coi l Lii (n (fuh. Uli ('huyii v tr i v plii vt qua mt hng ro
u a u IU u :'.
2.1.8. QUY T C PH A V NG DN(;
Trns t.luii c:n hut ca h rl(' XC (hnli bi c{' y\i t bn trong (thiih phn
ho:t ht;) v bn Iiôi (iilii t (t v ap. siint). t\iy n lii ii trong s cc yii t* c
nhii )h ll m c lan nhau.
Bc t do l s lng cac yu t dc l|) c th thay i c trong tli i hn xc
(lnh in khnfi lm thay cli trng thi cui h. tc l kli iig lni tlia y cti s pha
i(K
(ûan h îa s pha p (phase), s c:au t c (coiii)onent) v s" bc t do F
(troodoiii) chtc xac cliih hng nh hit KV quy tc pha ca Gibbs.
Vic ughin c\i v s diig vt liu tliitiig din ra trong kh quyii nn nh
luiig ca p siuVt ic b qiia. s yu t' bii ngoi chi cn li m t (l n h i t ).
Iiii (Hiy l.;r I)ha c dii snu;
F =c l .
Nu sn bc t (o F 0. h l v hiii. khiig c ypu t no c th thay i c.
p = (r f 1 (R )ha nhiu h(iii H c:!!! t l 1). V d. kim loi nguyn cht
(( : 1) khi nng chy hor kt tinh tn l.;ii liai phn (lng, rn), s'bc t do bng
5 - VLH
66_________________________________________________________ Chng 2. GIN PHA
khng (F = 1 - 2 + 1 - 0). i\i ny chng t kim loi Iigiiy ii cht kt tin h hay
nng chy nhit kli u f cti .
N\i s bc t o F ~ L h l n bin . tc l ch c mt y\i t ( hoc l nhit
lio*c l thnh plin ) c tli thay i c, do p = c (s pha bng s' cu
V d. hp kim ca Cu vN i nh i t thiig c t chc l dung dch ru. k lii
n \iiig nng s cliy tli iili diuig dch lng, vy trong qiia triih nng chy sphaca
hp kim l hai (diiiiK dch rn. lng) v s hc t do biig Iiit (F = 2 - 2 + 1 l).
in Iiy chng t qua trn h trn xy ra troug mt khong nhit (nhit bin
i), hoc l t i int n h i t ct no tron^ (iia trn h nng chy ta c th thay i
cht t. thnh phn (thm ht C\ 1. Ni) m van gi cho lip k iin trng th i lia i pha
Iiy.
Nu s bc t clo F ~ 2. h l nh bii. lc l cng mt lc c th tlia y i c hai
yu t nhit v t.hiih phn, lc (l p = c - l (s pha t. hn s cu t l nit). V
dvi. phn ln cc h hai c\i t tr ii^ thi lng u ha ta ii v hn vo nhau nu
hc ch c nit phn l dmig dch lng v s" bc t do bng hai (F = 2 - 1 + 1 = 2 ).
in ny c liiig t tr iip Miai lng ca li c th thay i ng thi nhit v
thnh phn kh d cliig ni vn ch tn ti nit phu.
Cc tn iig hp k trn rt. t.hiig gp khi kho st. gin pha.
Cn ch riig s hc t do khng th c gi t r ni. gi t r nh Iili. l bng
k h n g , d o v R p h a n h i u I i l i t . c a h t r n g t h i c n b n g l p,,y = c + 1 t c l
khng th ln hn s cn\i t qu mt. dii v. N ln vy :
Trong h mt cu t - 2;
Trong li lia i c^l t = 3;
Trong h ba c\i t = 4.
i\i ny p p ch rit nhiu cho vir x:'ic tiih cc pha ca h. V d. c th thv
rng khng th c cn baiig gia ba plia rn , lng, kh (xt. troug ivi kin a])
siit ca kh quyn), troiiR h hai ci t t mt. pha ch c th to ra t.i a hai pha
khc. v.v.
2,1.4 G I N P H A V CNG DNG
Gin pha ( hay CII ffi l siii trng th i hay gin cn bii) ca nit
'h l cng c bin th mi quan h gia nhit, . thnh phn v s lng (t l)
cc pha (hoc t chVc) ca h trn g th a i ci) biig-
Cc h khc Iihai c gian pha khc Iiliau v chng c xy dng ch yii
bng thc nghim. Trong thc t, khiig c hai gin pha no ging Iih a ii hon
ton v cc t\tng tc gia cc cii t x.y rn rt. ])hc tp t k i ii pha. cc phn ng
cho n nhit to tli iili, Hin nay Iigii l.a c Xcy liiig ic hu ht ca(' h hai
cu t (giia kim loi vi kim loi, kim loi vi phi kim loi) v cc h ha cu t
th\fiig gp.
H mt. c\i t klino c s bin i thnh phn Iiii gin ct pha ca n ch
c mt trc nhit d. trn ghi nhit (t chy (kt tinh ) v cc nhit, chuyn
bin th hnh (iiii c) n ln lin h 2.2 cho tn t iig hp ca Fe.
VT LIU HOC (57
Clii) (t ) l ) ; i r;i h hai c"Vu t co h;ii Irc ; tr r tuii l)iu th nhit (. trc
lio iili bin t h th iih |)h;'n (theo 'i) khi hiiy' lioc % Iitiu y rii t) vi Iih ii^ (ing
|)hn rlna cac khu vc plia tiu'o Uîiyn l;ic xen KW> ;i<' kim vc iit pha l kliu
vc hai )iin toiii ii^ Mi (tini t.rii trc hoaiili l)i\i th mt thnh phn xc
( l n h . T h e o c lK M i t i I r ; n s ;n i,u ' | ) h ; i i t h n h [ ) l in u c a u t i'f B t a i i ; l n , c n t h i s a n g
lr;ji thnh |)hnn cmi li i A taii.u hai (lan imi1 ii.< v<'ii hai c\i t iiiiyi cht ; A
( tv .ii) . B ( p h i) V i ( l . I r c i i h n i t i n i ( n i : V ii t h n h p h a n c 3 0 % R ( t l r n
l th hai l |>1ki) cn li . lc 70% A). (PII n . <S()%B + 20%A. itiig' tling

(tirui b;i1 k hiu t.h Ii\nt. tlu in li nhVt (lnh nhiip o I':u' Iiliit. khc Iihau .
V ( l . ( litc ii.u t h a u i ( n y ( IU I I ) h i u t l i s t h a y (t i u l n t (l c a t l i n h phn ny .
Nh vy. hni 1riu' t uu chnli In uin ftn |)h;) tiiim <1" tiW ii ng .
- L ( lng )
539
I
- -Fe(A2) I
I
Ij92 I
I
I
I
I
U -l'F e(A ,)
I
I
I
I
9I c \d
t
__
-<x-FeM2) 0 to 20 30 '<0 50 60 70 eo 90 100
A Thn.h phn ,%B B
Hinh 2.2. Gin pha co st Hinh 2.3 Cc truc co gin pha h

hoi cu t
D o rh c ])1011 t h t r o n m t p h a n . n i l c a c li r l u i i l i x ; ic 1U'M t g i a n p h a c a li
l i ; i i C ii tiV (1p (l ii.u x ;ic ( ln h (l c c ;ic l.hii}.; t i i i s a u (l y < 1)0 m t th<nh p h n x ('
(tiili (') Iih i l (l nn (d .
("at' plui lo ii t;ii ; c;in (' v : i o (lint (l;i (t) nliil (l - thnli phn d ('lio nii)
-
trong vnu,u lc) ra .<i;n (to ph;i co t. ( li( pha tdiic: vi vn^ co ;
- T h iili | ) h ; i ; Iiii (liin Iiliit (l - tl)nli |)li;u nam vng mt pha
t . lii t . h n l i p K U i c i i a I> h ;i c 'ii t.i.Ki I i i i v l l i u ( n i i ; c h n h l t h n h p h n c a v t li u
( l c l i o i i . K h i ( l i i n I i l i i t ( l - I h i i l i | ) h : u i 11:1111 tn ) ii> v i)f> h a i p h a v i c x c n h c
) li c t ) h n . K t ' q u ;> ( l i n i I i v ( h t i i ; I i a m I iu in . u n h i t . ) . h a i g ia o ( t i m c ; i
110 vni hai (htcMiK iii iiin Iihat S('> chi r lli iili |i1k'u ca tu plui :
- Tv l (vt' sn hi-u) .ui:i c;ic |)li;i lio.ic (';ir tn rhiVc : theo c th xc nh
(ln'c t l gi;i . nlii (1(1 ( 1) il(' SIIV (toaii fh(,((' c lnh v tnh cng ngh (gia
rn . hii. ...) l Iilin.u' (1;,1C tnh (';)I1 1))M k lii s (lun,li v;i tro iig qua trnh ch to
vl liu .
Nooi rn. t.' (t pha cii;i lit li;ii ( ;'U t cniit; h ir l (c :
- Nhit}t (l (-h;'iy (ki'i tin li) : thnu' V;|| liu kf tiiih ti'f)ii mt klioiig nhit, (t
(l);l (hiu v Ih iii i.
t)8 Chng 2. GIN PHA
- Cc cliuyn bin pha ; s xut hin v bin mt. ca cac pha (khi nung v
ngui chii) cng Iiln nhit, xy ra; .
- D c U i n c c l c h c l o I h n h i r n g I h i k h n g c n b a n g ( k h i la m n g u i n h a n h ) .
V v y g i n ' p h u l c a n c k h n g I h c I h i u k h i n g h i n c n v i l i u , k h i h a I r n
c c c u l v i n h a u , ' r y t h e o i o n g l c g i a c h n g , c I h c g p c c I r u x m g h n p s a u ;
- t r n g I h i l n g c h n g h a la n v h n v i) n h u u l o n c n l i u n g ( l c h l n g ( im V m ii
h t t p I h i n g g p ) h o c h a la n c h n , I h n i c h k h n g h a ta n v o n h a u , l c s c s
p h n Ih n h h a i l p r r l ( I r m g h p l g p v k h n g k h o s l I r m g h p n y ) .
- tr n g Ih i ra n c Ih c g p b a k ic u sa u y :
c c c u l k h n g l u u n g l c g v i n h a u , v l li u l h n h p c i i a c c l i n h I h o ( h l)
c a c c c u l n g u y n c h a i, g i ' l i c h a i c u I r c ;
c c c u l i n n g l c v i n h a u h n g c c h h a t r n v o n h a u t o I h n h ( lu n g ( ic h
r n . k h n g l i n n c u I r c m i . g i ' l i m i c u I r c . l in m l i c u i r c k ia ;
c c c u l i m m g l c v i n h a u h a n g c c h l i) n n c u t r c m i v i l n g i la cac
p h a I r u n g a n v i l n h c h t k h c x a v i c u l I h n h p h n .
C c v l li u k l c u i h u i r n g g p k h n g c li) i c h i c I h u n p h a I r u n g g ia n m c h i
c lo i k l h p c a h a i p h a : t l u n g ( l c h r n v p h a I r u n g g ia n h o c I h u a n t l u n t : ( i c h r ;m .
t ) l o n n c c p h a v h n h p c c p h a c c c p h n Tii! : c i i e lin h ( c iilc c t ic ) . h au
t i n h ( p c r i t c c l i c ) . c n i: l c h ( c u l c c l i t l ) v b a i l c h ( p c r i lc c U ) ic l ) .
S l n l ir i k h a o s t c c t r r n g h p I r n .
2.2. S HA TAN TRNG THI RN v c c g i n PHA
2.2.1. CC LO I DNG D C H RAN
N u iR M ig t l u n g c lc h l n g c u l n n n h i c u h o n ( l c g i l t l u n g m i v t h ( m l 'i
c h l la n , I h i I n M i! d u n g d c h r n cng vy. 77?y M '
N g o i r a n g i l a p h n b i l c h n g t h c i) c c h :
c u l n o g i l i c k i u i n i i ; (1u\vc g o i l
i l u n g m i , c n c c n g u y n lu ' h a ta n s p x p
l i I r o n g m n g c i a c u l ( .lu r ii m i m l c c h
u n v n g u n h i n .
T h e o k i u s u p x p c a n g u y n l ' h a la n
t n m g m n g c'u l ( lu n g m i , c h a i lo i c iu n g
d c h r n : Ih a y t h v a x c n k ( h n h 2 .4 ) .
T r o n g l u n g t l c h r ii n I h u y I h c . c c n g u y n
en k
Hinh 2.4. S sp xp nguyn t ha
l h a la n c h i m c h h a y I h a y I h c t n g c c v i
tan thay th v xen k vo dung mi
I r ( n i m n g ) n g u y n l c a m n g ( lu n i m i
c mng lp phng tm mt - v cho
l c l k ic u m ng v s ' n g u y c n l ir o r i
mt (100)
m ng vn clLng n h c a c .V u l c lu ii m i.
( ' n I r o n g d u n g d c h r u n x c n k , c c I i u y c n l h a la n l l h a y x c n k c v t) c c l h n g
g i a c c n g iiy c M i l ( lu n g m i . l c l iL iy v n g i n g u y n k i c u m n g d u n g m i . s o n g s
n g u y n l l n h c h o m i s la n g Ic n c h iu l.
VT LIU HOC______________________________________________________ __________ 69
S xm nhp ca cc nguyn l ha lan luy khng lm Ihay i kiu mng linh Ih

ilung mi song s lm x lch mng linh Ili' xung qjanh cc v tr chng chim ch.
Nh bi. khng c hai nguyn l n(' c cltng knh nguyn l ging hl nhau ncn
di vi dung clch rn thay Ih, mt trong cc yu l quan Irng l s gn ging nhau v'
rng knh nguyn t ca hai cu l c din hi) cho mng linh th dung mi khng b
x lch qu mnh dn n ml n nh, S sai khc ny cng nh cng l, ln nht
cng khng Ih' v(.n qu 15
Cn Irong Irtrng h<rp lo Ihnh dung tlch rn xen k th yu l kch thc i't y s
l nguyn l ha lan c kh nng nm gn Ircmg l hiSng. Nh ni chcTTig 1; tt c
cc l htit! u rl nh. nn dung dch ran xcn k ch hnh Ihnh t trng hc;rp nguyn
t ha lan c cmg knh nguyn l rl nh nh C,li.N JI vi nguyn l' dung mi c
Cmg knh nguyCn t krn nh cc kim loi chuyn li'p ; Fc, w , Cr, Ni, Mo,
V. Ti.
ITicii nng ha tan ln nhau c tlung tlch rn v hn hay lin lc (t gp) v c
hn (Ihrng gp).
f)i vi (.lung ilch rn thay Ih Ih s ha lan ln nhau c Ih l v hn hoc c hn.
Klii ha tan v hn hai cu t c ih tao nn inl cly lin lc cc dung dch rn c nng
Ihay i l 1()()%A + (K/rB qua 5()7r A + .MK/.li dn 07. A + 1{K)%B (nh h Cu-Ni
hnh 2.5a)
Ngi la nhn Ihy c my yu l' anh hng n kh nng ha tan v hn hay c
hn ca mt cp nguyn l' ( fly ch l cc yu t cn m chii v khng phi cip
iu'io ht nn bn yu l ny cng lo ihinh tlinig dch |;I1 v hii) l;
- T u x m g q u a n v ' k i u m n g : n u c n g k ic u l i n g c Ih c h a ta n v h n , k h c k i u
m ani ch c th ha tan c hn
- T t t n g q u a n v c k c h I h c : n u r m i k n h n g u y n l s u i k h c n h a u l ( n h h (n
) c I h h a ta n v h n . s a i k h c n h a u n h i u (X cln W 7ti) c h c Ih d h a ta n c h n .
.sai khc nhau rl nhiu (ln hn 15%) C(') kh nng khng ha tan ln nhau.
- Tinnig quan v nng in l : nii Iiii: ciin l (s in t ha tr lnh cho
int nguyn t) vt qu gi tr xc dnh di Vc'i loi duii: dch rn chn Ih s (o
thnh pha khc:
- Ti-tng quan v lnh m in: irung hiui hc lnh m din thmg c tlng '
hiu Ih kh nng itTng lc ha hc li) Ihnh phn l. Nu hai nguyn l c lnh m
in khc bit nhau th th rn ti tii nn cc h(.rp ch ha hc v cc pha Irung gian,
lm hn ch kh nng ha lan vo nhau Ihnh dung dch rn v ngc li. S ging
nhau vc tnh m in Ih hin chng cng hoc gn nhm Ining bng tun hon, cc
nguyn l ny c c lnh l ha (c bii l nhit chy) ging nhau.
Chi cn khng t ml Irong bn y'u l trn (.lung tlch rn to thnh ch l c hn,
lc l kiu mng ca tiung mi ch ln ti tluy nhl Irong nng cht tan gii hn. Khi
nng ( ny vl qu gii hn n( it (c gi l gii hn ha tan) s xu hin thm
pha mi (dung dch rn khc hay pha irung îin). Tri vi loi Ihay th, loi xen k ch
c th ha lan c hn bi l l hng lun c s lijmg hn ch v kch thc lun nh
70 Chn 2. GIN PHA
hon rng knh ngiiyC'n l chl lan ncn h x lch rt mnh, ct ha lan li (la l Ih!
( k h n g q u l(H /f n g u y n l c h la n ) .
M c cl x l c h m n g p h lliL i c v o lo i v ' . l n g ct c a l i u n g ( l c h r n . I . o i \L 'H
k l m x l c h m n g m n h lu m lo i t l i a y i h v r m n g c n g c a i) , x l c h c n g m n h .
D () c lu n g t l c l i l n v n g i t l c k ic L t m n g CIUI c u l t lu n g m i nn vn d u y in
c cc itc lnh CI c;t ilm ii! n i i. Si) vi ( liiiii; m i n c bcn hn

b c ii, i l i i c h i l I;'| t i i i h ii i l ; i n h o i . c h y ) L<K) l n r n , i r o i i i ! k h i ( t c l t). l d a i i h i n e l I ii
e i m i c h i t ( m l s t r u n i i h ( tp u i n u u y i , th n i c h l i u ICm i ). V v y I i o i i i : h(f|
k i m , c liin u cI l Ii n u i h ;io Iii(' c n e c L l n h iT m e La o h i i i k i m li) i Iiu u y t> i) c Ik I VI lii
i h ih i h ii c h n h , c M i: l l c ii) h ([) k i m c l c ( l m i : l n i i r i n h m l vi l i i i k i
L-fi.
2.2.2. G I N D PHA V I DNC; l) ( H RN h a t a n v h n
ic n h iih Iih cii k io ii Iiy I;'| h (lu - N i v) A l, ( ) , - CYO, (h iih 2.5) vi cliiiii: tli-h
r n h i la n v h iin ( l n l i SUI c:'i c h i c i i n i i i i e c i'i;i I i i i i i i ( ) . ( i i i ( l c t l i i i : I i h ir h .ii
t lir r r n a C D III: k h |) k n (V h a i ( h r i'tn e l i c n d c u i l c U r n u h ')n e ( l i c i u i d i i s ) . ilii iiL '
d i l iir < n i: t l c ( s o l i t l i i s ) . h it n i i i t i i i : liM i:, h ( | i k i i n (V t i n u i h iu liS iiii h ii ii ID II.
ih ) lu m ii i : - h t|) k i m tV i i i H i i : i h i r a i i h o n U i. iii , n h v y k h o i i i i : iih i i i: i ; i
h ii l i i e - ( t c n u v i s k l i n h h iy n iiL c h y v.'i l i k ' d l i i l i c ;i h iii p h a ; i l ii i i . '
d c h l a i i (o<) v l i i e ( L ) . ( ^ I i: i (1;'iy i h y r , q u l n h k l l i n h , I i i i e c h ; iv CIKI k i m lo iii
neuyC M i c liA ,x;'iy i; i ('< I i h i l ( l k h i i i : i . L n c a h |) k i m - x y l i t i i i n i : n i l k h o ; i i i i:
n h i l ( h i u v ;i kC l I h c ) .
c Liuius x
1500 2300 2T57S
Lfc^ 2200
1000 SoHdus
2100
oc
m sis
500 (Dung dch r n hoa fan
2000
(Dung dch rn hoa ton
vo hn ca Cu v N i)
v bn AlO^-Cr^)
- -
C 20 uo 60 80 Ni AIs 20 80 Cr23
%Ni
i>)
Hinh 2.5. Gin pho h Cu - Ni (a) v Al2 0 3 -Cr2 0 3 (b)
c x c n i s h n h i h i i i l i l c h c c l i i i r a n h I h c I IU ) , h y X I q u i l i i i h l m I iu n i m i
lnrp k im hl k, v cl, N i + 65% C\i (hnh 2.<S).

1300 "C' iiu vi ili in / ( lu iin hon lon Irone vnu l iiu ), hp k im (V (lim iIkI
l n e ( c h n k l l i i i h ) , l i n e I h i n:'>y l n l i c h o ir r i i c m 2 .
VT LIU HC 71
Hnh 2.6 S biu din s hnh thnht chc khi kt tinh trang thi cn bng
ca hp kim 35% Ni + 65% Cu
o 1270 "(' ag vi im 2 ( cliin vo Dg loiig). li(p kim bt u kt tin h ra

(lung dch rn a vi nng iiR vi (tim 2" (klioiin 4)%Ni + l% C\i). Tip tc
l n i ngui. hiig (X ciig nh iu lu v L c iii t CI v th n h p h ii ca ch ng bin
i t\ iig n g t h e o r t i t n g c v i i i g l i i t h e o c h i e i i t n g CQ h n g c u t d
chy hn. C th d (lng tnh t l Ka hai pliu ny nhit chiiig cng tn ti

t l i e o q u y t c c l u b y b i c h n h c a c o n t o n n h a n g b a i m b i n d i n h a i p h a v
lip kim. V d. 1250 "C lip kim ii^ vi im 3 (35%Ni) c hai pha ; pha L iig
vi 3' (30%Ni) v pha a ng vi . "(43% Ni). Ni dung ca quy tc n by l : vi
l)a im tru ta s c hai on thnng (33' v 33"). in ct di ca mi on biu th
lng t\ng cti cvia pha i diii (tc 3'S t l vi htiig plia a, t l vi htiig
plia L). Troug v d (tang xt litii vn t l cac pha s l ;
33 38
v (Xv = ------
3 3 3rr
L.x 33"
hay lia y L V . 33 - a V . 33 .
a.v' 33'
M t cch c th lii pha liig L v pha rn a s l ;
72 Chig 2. GIN PHA
43 - 35 8
- 0.615 hay (51. %
43 - 30 13
35 - 30 5
a.r = --------------- --------- = 0.38 hay 38.0%
43 - 30 13
n 1220 "C ng vi im 4. d\uig dch rn a c thnh phn ng vi (liom 4

tc ng' biig thnh phn ca lip kim. on bn phi bng khng ti'c khnfi rn
pha lng (c th coi lc cn nit git L ng V(i ctiiii 4' vi 23% Ni. k lii git ny
kt tin h xong, s kt tinh coi nh kt thc). Nh vy lc ii c khac xa. .song khi
kt thc kt tiiih d\mg dch r ii to thnh vn c tli n li phn ng biig tliiu ili
phn ca hp kiin. iu Iiv
ch t c k lii kt tinh cn
bng tc khi lm ngui v
ciig chm, lc kp xy ra
s khuch tn lm \i thnh
phn, nii khng trong ini
ht dung dch r ii to thnh
s c nhng lp vi t.liiih
phn khc nhau; tn m g tm
c t l cao ca c\i t. kh
chy, cng ra xa c t l thp
dn . Hin lAiig Iiy \ic gi
Hnh 2.7. Gin pha h Cr - V
l thin tch (segregatioii). e
trnh II phi tin h iili Iigiii
clim kh i kt. tinh. Ii ii khng sa\i phi khucli tn vt c t i uhit >n
ng c.
Lm ngui t im 4 ctn nh i t phng khng xy ra chuyn hin no.
Hnh 2.7 trn h by mt dng gin pha loiny nhng vi ng liig v (lc
c cc tiu.
2.2.3. G I N PH A V I DNG D C H RAN c HN
iu hnh ca loi ny l H Cii - Ag ( hnh 2.8) . Pb - Sn (hnh 2.9).

Trong gin ngoi dving dch lng L, c hai dung dcli rn c hn a v [5 nh o
h Cu-Ag: a - dung dcli rn giii Cu. p - dung dch rn giii Ag, c hai tu y ct\i co
mng lp phiiig tni Iii t song vn l hai dmig dch rn khc nhau (xeni mc
2.2.1; bn iu kin ha tan v hn ) v nm hai vng u mt. ciia gin .
y:
ACEDB - ing c:
VT LIU HC 73
AEB- (tni lug,

trong A.B l nhit rt
chay ca Cu . A.
S iiii y l:'i vi Iihn
xt, cti vi kiMi îan (t
ny;
- Nhil (l chy tiia
c;V\i t bt. k (Ipii (ti
IHMI tlini r:Vu t i kliac (vf
(l. nhit (l cluiy (a ( \1
iaiii i theo (tiiK AE khi
tho tii in Ag) v dt rti
ia tr th]) ulKt () dini E.
Vy ( (tay iihiH (l chy Hnh 2,8. Gin pha h Cu-Ag
cua li]) kin i cn nh lin
Iilii l cluiv c\ia cnii t cl cliiiv hdn;
- Dini E \(' yi l ctiiii eutert.ic' (vi ngha (le rh) hay cng tin h (cng kt
tinli). I.i xy ra I)hn iis eiitectic : t nit )lui lii^ (L|.; vi 71,9% Ag) kt tinh
lnn.i' lli i ra liai |)lui ran (a,- V(i 7.)% Ag v pi) vi 91.2% Ag ) :
/v|.; > (c + (i|) ) .
pliii Viig x a y ra vi s tn t.i ca l)ii pliu VI bc t (lo F - 0 . u'c x y ra n h i t
kling i;
- Cac diint (ich rau y fu l co hn vi cc (hng CF v DG ch r gii hn
lioa tan trn. tlKi rnn. Ni (l ha tan lii Iihat nhit, cng tin h v
Iitnli khi h th;Vp nhit, ct;
- C t.li chiu cac h]) kim cu li t.htil) ha ulim sau;
nhm cha rt t r;Vu t th hai (l)'n t rai F\ bn phi G) sau khi kt tin h xong
ch c mt. (lun^ (lrh rn (X lioc |i ro (lf t.inli nhu loi (j h nh 2.4;
Iiliin ohn mt ldup: hn chC;i t t.li hai (t F ctn C v t D ii G) han
au kt tiiih ra (liiu (lch rii. son^ khi h tluap nliit xuiig di ng CF v
l)( n t.it ra Ini (hmg (loh rn tlicp;
nhm vi mt hii nhiu c;Vu t th hai (t c (tu D). baii \i kt tin h ra
nit (iuiig dcli rn v ])lia lii cn li thay i thnh phn theo itiig lng n
iiii E. ti y c s kftt. tinh CIR T.iiih. Cc hp kim ny \c chia lm ba loi;
* lip k ijii cns tiu li c thiih phan iig vi Piii E;
* hp kim tnc cng tin h c tli iih pliii bn tn ii im E;
* hp kim saii cng tiu h c th iih phn bii phi im E.
Hy xt lip kim diii hnh iiluV. v d. lip kiin tnc cng tin h vi 40% Sn ca
h Pb - Sn (hnli 2.)).
( nhit cao hn 245"C lip kini hoii toii trng th i lng.
Ti nhit, 24fi 'C. lip kim ht ii kt. t.inl) ra dung dch rn a-s . vi
13.3% Sn. Khi lm Iiui tip tc (luiig dch rn chdc to thnh nhiu hn, lng t
i v c hai \i biu i theo chiu tng Sn. V d. 200 c. pha a cha 18.5% Sii
(a' v L cha f7% Sii (r/ ). t pia rlin g l
14 Chtg 2 GIAN O PHA
a,,- i) I - 40 17
L.r 40 - is.f) 21.n

Du nliit d CUIIS uh 1H;-5 "(^ tntc klu kPt tiu h ciig t.inli t l gia hai |)li;i
(. - 40 21.9
L,, 40 - 19.2 20.8
Hnh 2.9. S biu din s t chc khi kt tinh

trang thi cn bng ca hp kim 40% Sn + 60% Pb
Cns ti nliil. ( Iiy sa\i )luui iii cin^ t iiili L.; (a,- + [3(1 ) c t l ;
G
i rtii iiK l 21.9 / 20.8 .
( c * Î> )
0 (ty co hai lo; (hiii.i (lt l) n u i (X : loi k t tinh ftr lp r troiig v i i g a + L
(cao hn IH.S "C) v ]<n,i r iii kt t.iiili vi fi rt uliit. ct khnp i (nhit ('ng
tiuli),lo i sau c tn l u cint' tinh.
Nii tiih t l (ch c t.rf)ii ciif tinh) v a (gm c loi c lp ln loi
cng t.inh) th c ;
\ 40 - . 20.8
(/ 97.5 - 40 57.5
c iein ciia to chr CIUIK t iiili l cac tinh the ca cc pha Iini xeii k. p li ii
b ii n v kha nh inu ( (lo to th n li f) Iihit. c thp ).
K lii lm Iisiii tij) tc. cc (lung dch rn \i gim ha tan. Dm ig dcli rn
a ili i ti t bt. rht tn ii l Su (liii (liig l yivi Sii. theo chng CF. t\iig t chiiig
clch nn fi phi ti. hnt cht tan l Pl) (hi (ng cx (giu Pb) t.hec) iug DG v tt
VT LIU HOC T")
u liiP ii (P\1 nv rM^ (l;in (tt'11 SI tKiv li Iih;)t (liili vo t l c-(' ])Ik v t chc t.o
th iih (xem m t L.-l. 1).
2.2.4. (I N D PHA CA (^( CU T

KHNC; H A T A N LA N NHAU
')u''ii liili cn;i lKii Iiy l h 1*1) - Sl) (liiiili 2,10) . unnK nln loi tru, song cli
k h a c (1 c h k h n t co h a i (Ivin.u (c li ]-;n t'(> h ;in n lia i I iiii t c a K II (t. y oac |)h ;j
i ;ln l CU c a ii t Ii.m iy n c liM l. khiiL!: (l i th n h p h a n m i n h i t .
Hnh 2.10. Gin pha h Pb - Sb
2.3. s TO THNH PHA TRUNG GIAN V GIN PHA
2.;.1. ( (' p h a 'l'K L IN (i ilA N
Thii Kp loi <<"' pi;' Iilu h C\1 - Ag (Innh *2.<S). Pl) - Sii ( hiih 2.9)
uiiinu plir lp litlii (lo (o nu mt loi |)li;i khar. ")o l Iioi hai chuig dch rn c
liiu i hai (tau m l ca iau (l. (' VUH Iru iiK inn liin g xiiat. lii ii i;c plia C(\
cu triic khac. < t.li liPii t.li (li (u thc: ha hc A,B (chng c tli t.ii
li ( mt thn iih phaii r (tnh IIPII (' khi i rin îaii l cc hpcht ha hc, hoc
C(| th thnv fi t.liih phan t.roii phm vi hp Iihi l rlm ig (lchrn).Chiis: cc
('h m is l ca<' |)li:i Iru iii' iian (iiK lia li'i nam t.nuif ia ii gitn cc d u iig clcli r n
treii gian c).
(" c c p lu t n i i i i 'ia ii h n h s ;n i :
- Ph(j ci t ( h a y cii i la |)lia Huiiie-Rntlierv) l hp clit c niig' ct ctiu
t (s ciii t h(ia tr tlnf(' tinh rlio mt Ii}\iyn t ) xac nh ;
' M l (21 / M). 21 / 13 . 7 / 4 (21 / 12)
I ii m i t l ii i' V('i I111 1-:V\1 I n u - lu ii. t I i l i t ( t n h , V fl t.r o iiy li Cu - Z ii
(hiih li.lH ) nKo:i (0 C ilch ri) ('0 hn cx ( gi\i ( u ). ( giii Zi ) CII c l);j phu
76 C hng 2. GIN PHA
in t nam vng ia ca .uiii ( l Cu Z ii ( plu i vi 3/2 ), CiiZiiH ( pha 7 vi

21/13) v ('\iZ n -, (pha K voi 7/4);
- p/) \r ii h l I)lia to Iiii cc kim loi cliiyii tip ( c (titiig kiih
nîyn tV Irtn ) V(ii roc phi kim loi fji c. N. B. H ( c ng knh nguyn t Iih )
to nii cacbit. Iiitrit. hont. hy(trit nnt W (\ TiC. WvC . Mo^c . Fe:;C. Fe.,N.
Fe|N. ... Cii lu pliii l)il )li:i xen k V(i (hins (ich rn xen k cn to nn
gin rac kii lfi v phi km i ((iii hnh troiig h Fe-(. im.U 2.(i);
- Pha Larr.s to nen l)'i liui nguyn t A. B o t. l {iiR knh Iigiiyn t ( \l(ly.
khoiiK 1.2 vi cii; thv A li, . Vi (l CuAL. iVlgZii; . MkNi: .
b) %Al23
Hinh 2.11. Gin pho h Mg - Ca (a) v h SiOp - Al?0;j (b)
Ni chuu^ ra r |)li;i tr\in ^ .iiin (T) (t (lo. (l clai thiVp (gin), mt s oi C' co c
cîig rnt cuo Iiln t pha xen k co l.iU' cluii rat lii cte 11.111^ CH) ct bu, d cii^, t iili
chu mi nin r;j vt liu.
2.3.2. G I N PHA v l PHA TR U N G G IA N N N H
Pli;i t.niiig Kiaii nu nh l loi khng b pha hy tnc khi nng chy, n c
Iihit chy c ciih. iig vi dii; th iig ng clo ti vng lion ton lng trn
gin I)ha. Iih it h Mg - Ca. SiO;, - ALO.i (hnh 2.]1) . V d, xt. h Mg - Ca.
ng thng ng k ln i vc ia giii l ng vi hp cht Mg| Ca:. Gin pha
ny c liai cng tin h : tra i - (Mg + M i Ca.) v phi - (MgiCa. + Ca), nh\ gm hai
gin ; Mg - MîCa.i v Mf|Ca:i - Ca hp li. h) kim c thnh phn Iini vo
giii pha no s \(c xt theo ian pha .
H SiO-. - ALO.; (silica-ahiDin) l h q iiu ' triig v n l c s ca Iihiu gm
chii la (xem mc 9.3,5). C ristolalit l dng th bnh 011 nh ca silic (SO 2) nui
cn tr r iiinK trnh by mc 9.31. Silica v aliuin khng ha tan l ii Iihuu nn
khng c (lung dcli r ii gia rliiin g , song li lo nn hp c;h't. ha hc l niulit. vi
ciig thc 3 A I 2O:; .2SiO:i Mulit. hnh thnh t phn iig bao tin h gia pha lng' cn
li v Alv.0,1 to tli iih t. tntc theo p li ii ng :
t
VT LIU HOC 77
L:,. 4 AIX).; > 3 A 1 .0 .. l::Si(), .

Cii tin li (hiy nht rn h Iiy l (cristohalit I inulit) to thnh 187"C vi
7 .7 % A 1 ,0 , .
Hinh 2.12. Gin pho h Pt-Ag (a) v h Na - K(b)
2.3.3. G I N PHA V I PHAN NG BAO T IN H (P E R IT E C T IC )
Phn nf hao t.inli l phan ns x;iy n\ i;j )h;i lii CII li (L) vi pha rn (\o
II sinh ra tnc (t (S|) ctp to thnli I>l>a ri]) kliU' (S;.) :
L t s, < -> s, ,
lltMir
Iro u g Si c th h'i (liiiig dch rd n (VI (,pha (X. iiiili L.lla). cu t th iih p lu in (vi
d. Na. h iili 2.121)). )lia triuiK ())h;i \ liiiih fn c th l (huig dch
rn (pha p. hnh 2.12a), pha tn in a 4an (h|) rlia l Na;;K. hn li 2.]2b. pha K, hnli
2.13).
V d. i vi h
^t-Ag. cac hp kim c
thnh phn t ctiiii c
n im p dn\i tin
s kt tin li ra d iiii
dch rn a (gin Pt).
khi n ing IKIII
Iiang (1185 "O pha
lng CII li vi 69 %
Ag s phn iig vi (X
giu Pt. (12 % Ag) t.o
Hnh 2.13. Gin pha h Cu - Zn (phan gia)
IS ______________________________________________________________C h ,it,g 2. GIN PHA
t l i i l i c h . n g clcli r f n y i i i A (4(i % A ^ )
1.,;| + a,;; > Mi
P h ii i;'tn s , I;> s ;in I^thriiiii I. ;i p h it ii i i i i i i i ii t c lin h ili S| VI l . h m ) q u i i i i h . n c ii
c n t i c t l i i n e h (K ' l: y S| ( v v_v i ii( c u o i li hU ) l i i i l i ) v ( l n l i i i n l ; ii l;i m i i i : n i,';in
L"ch iiiiii S| v:i L (tc |)li;iii ni; lic-p lc; v vv |)h;in ii: liiU) liiih i;l kln hon ihiih \;|
l chc l;io Ih iih kh n e lu iiiu iii: Vti e iiii (l iha Iiiiiiy c;i k h i Iiu ii i klK L-hm.
2.4. GIN PHA c CHUYN b i n t h h n h

V CHUYN BIN TRNG THI RN
2.4.1. G I N PHA V I T I T PHA K H I DUNG I)(:H RN
Tii'v hii eiiin il |ih;i h Ph-Sn (hnh 2>)) liTiv xom ttiu i: x;iy r;i v(Vi cliiiii: iI l i 1'III
h in V (ri n i i i : c h ;i I;in khi I i i : i i i . '1 'iv ii i : i ; i n ( l ( t h ii ta n c ii Sn i i o i i ' j
P b d c h i i i ( l i i b ;m i: d i i i : L i n i i : ' l ; i i I i h i l ( t c im : l i n h (.l li ; t la n c i i i i S ii 1I 011!J
a 1^1 '/, n ui;'ini ili khi ha lh;Vp iihiC'1 it v chi CI) 2 'X tV Iihii il liui; (20 '
V i lnr) k i m - 10 "/' Sm s k c l l i n h biit cliUi 3 1 0 vi k i i h i k ' i< 2 6 0 "C viVi s I;m
I i ii I11I | ilia . t l u y ii I k ! . T r o i i u k l i o l n u l 2 ('t( c lc ii p h ;i n y l;i n t t i i h ( lo ( l h ii
l i i i i l n h(<n 10 '>/ S n . S im i: i l i ) l c ; k I i h i l ( l lh :'i|) h (n 1^0 " ( 'il h ;i I;||| lh;V p h iv it | ( I
Sii Iiii L s lil |)h;t i;i kln'>i a. Dimu (lich i;in lic- i;i linni^ Sii lh;i Iiani (lutti tl;iii!
i l i i p i i i u S n [\C'\ li p k i m ih u i ! \ I c h ; |ia (X v;' ( i n l i l p h i ! : . ih ;i (. I.H lM i
2 SiK L-n l i ii t n u IMt h; i I:in Iroiii; h a n i ; k l n u , Iin >-() ihC' c o i li Sn n u u v i i c h; ii .
Vy i'r nhii it phn! lng ph;i X l ; ( l()()-10) / (100-2) = 0.92 hay 92 ;
lini; pha |n ; i : ( 1 0 - 2 ) /( 1 0 0 - 2 ) = o.ox hay X ' / .
)ng ch y la ili' Xiiy ra ' irn i ihai ran, IV nhil it Ihp s khuch lan khi khan
ncM p h a I h h u i ( l i i c l i c ra c i l n i p h n l n . n h i') m i n . p h n b (LI I r o n g 11011 p h a HH'
v c vai Ir r ln Iro ii; co' ln h ca cc h'i kim .
2.4.2. ( il N PHA ( ' PHN N (; (JN(; T ( H (E T E C T O ID )
Phan iili; cnj: lic i l;i Iih iiii n! l ni l pha liin lU) ra cng ihi hai phu ran khiic :
s, |S :+ S ,|
c v i im g l n h p h a n n g c n g l i n h , c h i k h c (' t i ; i y p h a h a n ( ii ( k h i l m n g u i)
khng phi l pha i iii Iii lii iia ran, hdii na clo ld Ihnh l Irng Ihi rn. nhil cl
Ihp nn cc linh Ih litin g in hivp hai pha ny nhi'i m n hon nhicii so vi iri cliv ciiii.'
linh. C Ihc i p plin Lii ny ' nii s h nh : Cu - y,n (hnh 2.1.'). I'C - C' (hnli
2 .1 7 ). T r o iii h ( ii- / , n ( li in (. 1111,e l c h i n g v i { li m l . l i n h i l ( l s s x " ( ( lu H ! ( lc h
ran irOn co' MV CIKI ih .i I r u iii ia n . phn ha ra 'ng Ih i h iii pha ran V v K :
<s, <-------^ Iy + K |.
VT LIU HC 7J
T a c iiii i a p t r i c h c C IIIIU l c l i I r o i i h I c - ( ' V(Y Ic n i o i i o c l i l , m l l c h i v r q u a n
I t t M i i viV i I h p v;'i Iia ii) : .
2.4.3. GIN n PHA (X) ( HYN I IKN th hnh
N h i c i i n i u y n l v h iv p c li t tn K i ln>L- C(1 c h u y c n h i n i h h n h v c c g i n i l o i I k i
r i a c h iin ii I h iii ( l i i i ih c l p [u m n h i ii. viVi viir x u l h i n n h i u r m g (V k h u v c
( l i ( l u i i i d c . ( i i ; i n ( l p K t liK ii n y CI> l o ih a m ! j (l c ( l n l p h b i n h i n n .V .
nh' h l ' c - ( CI) ( le h a I h v l i r l |(vn s i' tl n v k l i i i i ' sal (V m c
2.5. QUAN H GIA DNG CA GIN PHA *
V TNH CHT CA VT LIU
2.5.1. T N H CH T CA CC PHA THNH PHN
P h u Ih a n h | t li; n la p li ; i t o n n ItS c h c e iu i v l li u . 'I r i h p lo c h c l m t p h a
i h p h a ih n h it i n ( l n j : n h i V(V| l cfuL-, l n c lK it CIKI p f ia I h a n h p h n c lu y n h ii (I1
c n ; c h n h la l n i c l i l CIKI v i li u . '[ r n g li p l o c h c li h n h p c i i a n h i u p h u lh 'i
ln h c h c u ;i v l li u l ii s l o i i ! hp
hay kcl hp c iia ln h chi c :ic ih a
Ih n h p h a n . N h u k lK U s l iV C';C' plV in
lin. cac pha llinh phViM lo I11 iri

chc CIKI vi li ii C ii Ih i' la c a ii lu
n i u y c i i c h i. ( lu n u ( li c h i ; i n . i l i . i i r u n
i u i n \ .1 I h u o H : Ii p I i l i l I.'| VI li ii v u i
l o c h c h n [n r p g iiM d iin . ( l c l i r ;in V '1
p h a I r i i n i g ia n . I l v x c n i h a i p h ;i n y
LD l n h c h i p h ii i h u c v i u i cac' c ;'u i lu
Ih a n h |) li;in n h l l ' naciV
N h ir ( l n iM . t l u n ( l c h r a n m iiH ;
( l c l n h c o ' b a n c u a c u t c h n h ( ( l u i i i
m i ) s o ii ! c h u nh u iV v n i r rl CKI
lh i.in h phn cu lu h . i la n . Khi (1;i
I h m c u l l l u h a i v u t . l i n l l Ik h ic n
i k h n g c ii : ( l ii l i i I h i i <1i r j l
m n h , c iii vV' sa u iiu V c ( l Ih a y ( lu i
c n i i ; i m ( ti (s i l . i l ik"'n c c i r i i r o i i :
li n h') h a la n v h i ) . V | Ih o .
n h h ic L i I h <v h n h 2 . 1 4 . l n h chiYt c ii; i

t ilin l clch ran sC' phu Ih ll c v i' lH! Hnh 2 .1 4 . s bin i tinh cht ca dung dich
( t ( c h i l a n ) i h o o ( l n c i M l i . ( I n c l n rn th e o th n h p h n (n n g c h t ta n ), v
hay XLlny. n h i u h a \ l l liiy lu l: tng ng VI dung dich rn c harl (/, (phn

liih chr VI Ih co l n : h. iia n h trn), Piv, P 'a l cc tinh cht ca cu tchinh
(d u n g m i)
8U C h n g 2. GIN PHA
l n h c h l - n n : i l I I I h c xv.- l i i n h h i t i i l n l i h ) n lh M u t h i i i : ih o T ig c l o L x a t iln h
b a n g I h u v n i h i m .
Khac vi (lu iii clch ran. plia irung gian chi XLil hin khi (lu cu uV Ih hai vn viVi
l n g a n g k c . h im nCni l i ci') c u I r c m r i! k h c h a n v i c c c u l I h n h p h n . nOn
p h a t r u n ! g ia n ih T i C('i l n h c h k h n g p h I h u c v o I h n h p h n v n i c h u n g k h .ic
h iin l n h c h c a c c c u lu n u y n c h . V c i , c c k i m lo i ih L v n i i l c o . t l a i v m m
c n c c p h a i r u n g g ia n ( h p c h t li n k im lo i) Ih m g g i n , n h i u Ir m g h p d ) ( l
c n g cao.
2.5.2. T N H CHT CA HN HP CC PHA
T iih ch cua hn h(r|) (.c |)h.i li s long hp hay kl h(ip ln h chi cc pha thanh
phn. N l l h c n h i v'\ l n h chiVi c ii l i i p h a v ;i s' l c n g c u a c h n g . V d , III I
v t li u c 1(1 c h c l h n h o 'p c a h a i p h a A v;'i R. l l i c o q u y I ; r - ( l i i h ;'y l n h c l iK - / '/f
R Ih l;i c (100 - />)/ A.

IMiii A Ov l n h chi il cli ( . h o
l v i |il ; i H l liic tt
l n h c h i c a v i l i i i /^^1 sC'
i:i ;
\ (10(3-)%p,\ +6%P|.
hay
/ \ | -- /\).
(^ u a n li m ;'iv c th
biii din bii; hiili 2.iri;

tnh cluVt. (a vt liu hin
(t i th e o ( u a n h l) c
vi tnh cIkI cu hai |)h;i

thnnb pluin (:ii thnh
Iiu vt liu lioc l)i)i i
theo tliiiu h |)h;ni V('ii (IIKIII
h citdii thnn^' (ni tiili
cht ciia liai pha (t). T iiy
Iihin t chc cni tch v
o iiL th c in <(') t
%B
chc ht uhr) (tu ftii liu
th\ng c (t cing. bn. Hinh 2.15. Tinh cht ca vt liu l hn hp ca hai pha, vng
gach cho x dich tinh cht vng phu cn thnh phn cng
(lo cao hn gi tr itc
tinh hoc cng tich
t ih theo quan h \fng
tlia iig . Cri tnh v mt s tin h clit ca hp kini hoc hp clit c; th khng: tun
:le(j (iiaii li (luoii.L; l i (lioin <n^ tiiili. CIII t icli vii VII; |)li cn.
VT LIU HC HI
2.5.3. Q U A N H ( il A I) N (; ( A (;i N D PHA

V T N H ( H T CA VT M U
'Prpii hiiili L.lCv. ra l)nii lYni yin ct pha (t(5n >u\n tlut ng gp v s tli ay
ln i l l i h c h t tlu H i l l i n l i I)h li c iia lii i (Jn, t;K in (t.
%fi
1 Pb
1 C:
1
1
i1
/ 1
/
/ \
(X 9 OC + H
Pa Pa
1
A 1 11
1
\ t1 1
1 i-
\ B H
C) d)
Hinh 2.16. Tinh cht ca vt liu vn qinn pha
Troii tiMdii; h<i|) h cac <-nu tt' ha la ii vo liHi v;'k) Iihau. tn h cht, bin i
thnh ])haii V('ii (uan h (l(n,i; coim' Cd cc tr (liiiili 2.1Ha l tr\f iif hp c cc
(li).
Tnoii.u h(j]) li ('\i l <(' yia ii (l )ha vi t chi' hn hp tli ty theo dng hn
h p co 1 ) > 1 kiiMi s a u ( 1 : 1 v:
6 - VLH
82________________________________________________________ Chng 2. GIN PHA
- Hnh 2.16b l gin pha vi hn lidp ca hai cu t nguyn cht; ri dy

tiih cht, bin i theo thnh phn vi q iia ii h ng tling: chy siit theo Iri.K
honh t p,\ u P n ;
- Hnh 2.16c l gin pha vi hn iip ca hai (ivmg (lch rn c hn. do vy
tnh cht bin i theo thnh phn vi hai (luy lu t : ing c.on^ hai ii mt ii:;
vi hai c\ing dch rn c hn v ctng thng nl iiii biu th tiih cht ca hai
dung dch rn c hn nng bo ha iP . P|I );
- Hnh 2.16cl l gin pha vi hn h|) ca diiiig dch rii ( c hn ) v )ha
tn iiig gian, do vy tn h ch't ciug bin i theo .linh ])hu vi hai qviy hit; (ii
cong ii m t tr i ng vi d \iiig dch rn c hn v ctiiig t.hn^ ni (ini hiou th
tnh cht ca dung dch rn c hn Iiy nng c bo ha v im biii th tnh
cht ca pha tn m g gian.
2.6. GIN PHA Fe - c (Fe - PeaC )
c
Gin pha Fe - ( ch xt h Fe - Fe^c ) kh ph\'tc tp. r t in hnh Iiiiuh
ha cc tng tc tlii iig gp v c RvV dng r t uhiii trong t.hr t . V vy hi(Mi
r gin Iiy f5 mang li nhiu iu b ch.
Ni l gin rt pha F e-C SOIIK troiig tlic t ch kho st mt phi (phii yiu
Fe) vi lng cha cacbon t 0 ii 6.67% (tiig ng vi lip cht xniontit Ft ,C)
tc h Fe - Fe.,c. Ngoi ra cn c pha Fe - graphit l h cn bii n dnli
nhat. soiig trong thc t kh t. t(i, nu gin pha Fe - Fe.;C CIII ic coi l ra ii
bng n nh ( ng hn l cn bng n ctiih gi).
2.6.1.TNG TC G I A Fe V c
Fe c hai loi mng tin h th vi ba dng th hnh ; mng lp plidiig tni Iiil
tn t i trong khong 911 - 1392 "C c k hiu y-Fe. cn ngoi khong l miiK
lp phng tm khi : dii 9 n " C c k hi\i a-Fe v 1392 - 1539"C (nhit f
chy) c k hiii -Fe. <Jn ia c vo. tntc tin n ha tan trong Fe to Iii c;it
dung dch rn xeii k v lm thay i cc nhit, clm yii bin th hnh, khi v\ti
qu gii Uii ha tan liis' cabon tha kt lip vi Fe thnh Pe.iC.
Kli nng ha tan c cn Fe r t khc nhau ty tlmc vo kiu niiig tin h th.
Cc loi l liiig tm m t v bn m t trong hai ki\i niiig d\c trn h bny r) hhih
1.19 (chiig 1). Bng Iihng tnh ton c th c th thy rng iniiR l|)
phng tm khi c nhiii l hng song mi l hng c kch thc (Iii nh (ln nht
l loi bn m t cng ch t 0.221 iig knh nguyn tiV Fe. tc khoiiu
0,062 - 0.074 Iim) so vi iig knh ugiiyii t c ( 0.142 - 0.154 Iiin). cho nn v l
thuyt a-Fe v -Fe khiiK ha ta ii c c . T roiig thc t vii c s ha tan rt
uh, ngiti ta cho rng liiig cacbon ha tan ny Iiin cc khuyt t t mng, c
bit l bin gii. Cn mng lp plung t iii mt c kh nng ha tan ng k C ,
do l ling tn i mt. c kch thc kh ln (0,102 nni ) c kh nng th ii xp
nguyn t cacboii vi t l tl a khong trn chti 10%.
VT LIU HOC 83
2.6.2. G I N PHA Fe - PegC
Gin pha Fe - c cl trn h by (tn th iili phn ca x n ie iitit ( Fe.,c ) vi

G.67% c.
200 ; -
g I I_______ I________I_______ I__ \------- 1------------1--------

Fe 0.8 1 2 2.U 3 ''.3 ^ c ^
------------ T hp ----- G o n j ------------------
Hnh 2.17. Gin pha Fe - c (Fe - Fe;,C)VI cc khu vc t chc khc nhau
ABCD - ng lng, AHJECF - ng c ES - gii han hoa tan c trong y-Fe ,
PQ - gii hon hoa tan c trong (<-Fe, ECF - ng cng tinh, PSK - ng cng tch
Cac t clic to thiih vdi tu I (y (t rhc t.riih l);\v hnh 2.17. Trong gin
pha ny c y (l ba cluiypii bin ciiii hnh d kho st:
- Clniyn liin l)iU) tinh xv rn H ):)"c ron^f cac hp kin i 0.1 - 0.%c (iig
H J B ):
iiiiM
h&iiM
ft|| L|.
L|> <-------- ^^ 77.1.1 ;
<---------
iiiiml;
* . *> _____ II ____ ____
- Cuiyii bin r n ^ t.iiih xy ra (1 1147 "C troiiK cac h|) kin i 2.14 - 6.67%c
(chtng ECF)
IILIIMI
L,- ^ <----
( y,.; -+ F ( y,.; + Fe ;( ) ; (2.1)
initn^
- Thug R) lu-iii f;n l clniypii hiii cng t
Lcli xy r;i 727 "C tro iig nii hdp
kiinI (\Mng PSK ) ;
V..
7s <- ( 4(/,- ^ ( 1 -4)- .
+ Fe:;C
2.2)
S4 C hng 2. GIN PHA
Hnh 2.18. T chc t vi ca ferit (a) v oustenit (b) (x 500)
2.6.2.1, Cc t chc m t pha

Cac t chV^' mt pha t.rii Rii l L. , 7 , u, traphit. DUi (tay c:hi
Iii v bn pha ciii;
Fcrit (a. F. CX-F(^ ( ( )) l (IviiiK (lfh rn xe n k ci c troii^ - F e vi nuui lp
phriiig t m khi (c/ - 0.28(i - 0 . 2 9 0 n n i ) soiii (lo lrns ha tan (iui Iili ( lii Iilinl
l 0.02% c 7 2 7 "r - ctiii) p. Iilii t thut 1'11 0.006% - (tini Q) nn c Mio coi
110 l a - F e . ('lii r tili sai t' (n 7(8"r. Trn îan (l vun^f t.n t.i ra n l (I^Q
(tip Rp vi cx Fe trn trc Fe). 0(1 tiih c;j ferit clinh l:' ca s;>t nt>\iyn ( lial :
do. dai. kha Iiieni v km i)0 n. Trong tli ' t ferif (' th ha tan Si. Mn. ( 'i. ...
n n s cn. v bn lun. clo cUii i. Perit l ml. trnii^ hai Iilui tn t.i () nhil
phng v k h i s (l iit. .soii V(i t l cao n h t. T chc t vi ru a fe rit tr n li l)y (')
hnh 2.l8a c (ln^ Iihiii.ti h;it <a ciih . su:-
Aisterit ( 7 . A. y-Fe (C) ) l;'i dung dch rn xen k ca r l.ront y -F f vi in;in^
lp phiiii tm nit { a ^ (),H(i4 nii ) vi lii h;i lan (taii k ( t.di 2.14% c
1147"C - iem E. 1'1TC cn 0.8% r - ctioin S). C t iili tliii ii t. Aust.enit ch tn
t nhit (l cao troiiK vng NJPjSG ( tip gia|) vi y-Fe trn trc Fe ) nn khii^
c quan h s (tn li]) kim (\r s (lu Iilii t (l |)hng. nh iit li fn^f vai tro
ch yu trong .tin cno v nhit hiyn. vi tiili (lo cao v c liii biii (iic, (lo tt.
II l t chc co tli) khi 1)PU diig Iiii. L m IIÎII a u s t e i u l VI t.c kh ac
Iiliau s n h n (c cnr t chc (ai> ng (c: cc yii C\1 (ta (lng khi s cliig v;i
gia cn^^ T chr t vi cn mist.tut t.rnli Ikv (1 linli 2 . 1 8 1 c rac lit a c n h
Rng', c t.li V(ii IIIU (tin Ih1 di cht (do (lnh liiig khi ta m t.lic ) v oac-
so n g tinh (SC)II^' sonf> ) ct Iigaii ht.,
X n ctit (X. Fe.C ) l pha X("11 k vi kPU m ii |)hc tp c: (II thc Fe ;( v
thnh phn (5.67% r . uf; vi (lii tlvu (tiie D F K L t.rn i;iii d. Dc t.iih ca
xcinent.it. l cng v in. cn. vi erit. n to nn t. clic ra h(]) kim
Fe - c. ch cn lnq: uli { trn (li 10% ) v |)hn li phn tan tron^ ferit lm
VT LIU HOC H5
lang Iii n li (l ( rng. Xmeiitit (t\(.c coi l )h:i cii baiig. n nh soiig khng
hon t.o;'ui v () nhil (l t (iri()"r c q\i;i I riiili phau h(')ii r:Vt chm ( troiig vi Iim )
thnh Fe v . tuy nhieii (tiu nay liiiii nlii khim i vi tlip (liiK c
k h n ^ can).
G r a } ) / i i t c l d i c ' to < ' t l i n l i t.r o u f h |) k i n i F f - { r a o v c h a h ii g S i c t a iig k .
la l i t p l i a ( l u n n t r o i i q t.r o n p ' t.o c h r c iia .UMII ( n i c 7.H ).
2.6.2.2. Cc t chc hai pha
P edit (vit tt ; P) l hn lup cng hVli ciia erit v xmt-ntit to thnh t dung
(l('h r n n n u s te n il v i 0.tS%(' v 727"C Iih ih ii iiK (2.2) .
Tron; |)pclit c 88% (X v 12% F('!(' v )haii l) (u trong n h a n , n k t hp
(r cat' (tc tnh ('iin lui plui t.hiili phau lieii kluj hni cng, d (lo dai, p iig
(!f car V\1 ta ii ca vt liu kt cn. 1;1 to' chr hai pha c nit. trong hu
ht i:nc loi vt liii - c . Ngit ta phau bit hai loi : peclit. tm v peclit ht.
P e c l i t t i i i i i ( h i i i l i 2 . 1 ) ; i ) C(I i ;Vu t r c l ) h n i ' t n i . t ( l i l i a i p h a n y d \ f i d n g l p
Iia iii xen k (lii V(ii n h ;iu , Iiii mt r;il iiiiH d li riu' vch theo cng int hiiig.
I.ronti' (ti) vch li Iiiiii t l<ii lii xmenlit. VUh saut> Iiii tng th c dng
vn. Peclit lit ( hnh 2.1)b) t. gp lidn. ('< cu tnic ht tc x n ie iitit dng th\i
gn nh't - ht phn 1)0 (u trn lin erit, So vi ieclit luit. peclit tm c bn.
('ii cao luln (ti cht v (l (lo. (t (lai thp luiu. Austenit rtiig Iiht d to tli iili
eclit iYni. cn aiist.eit k m (lii Iilit (It^ lo thnh pcclit ht.
a) b)
Hinh 2.19. T chc t VI co oeclit tm (a) v peclit hat (b) (x 500)
Lcdburit (vit t t ; L) l hn h(i) ciig tinh r a uusteiiit v xine ntit to

thcnh t pha lii V(i 4.3% c v (i n 4 7 " r iiIh pluiii iig (2.1). tu y n h i n khi lni
Iigui tip t.U' austenit li clmyen [)i('n t.hiili peclit nii t clic t vi (hnh 2.20)
cui ciig l lin h) riia |n'(lit. (l.iiiu) vti xiiientit. ljHiiirit. cng v gin (v c ti
jJ/3 l xnientit) v ch co lidiiL; hi.it k iiii Ft' - ( (1 (lii. UIIS trug'. loi t gp.
86 Chng 2. GIN PHA
Cac k liiu vn tn
tru gin |)ha Fe - Fe ;C
tli iig nht q\ic t v<i
cc nglia nh sau : k
Iiiin cac nh khoa hc li
lc trong ngnh l Robert
Austen (ngiri Anh) cho
pha aiisteuit, Ledel)\ir
(ngiti c) cho t chc
lbnrit. cc t ferr\ini
(st, ting latinh) cho pha
ferit, pearl (vu ) cho t
chc peclit , ceiient (cVng
Hnh 2.20. T chc t vi ca lburit
Iilu xiiiing) cho pha
( X 500)
xineutit.
2.6.3. K H I N I M V TH P , GANG - P H N LO I
Thp v gang \i l lp kim Fe - c ( Iigoi ra c th c t nhiu cc nguyn t.

khc ) trong phn hit : t hn 2.14 %c l thp, nhi\i hn 2.14%c l gang. Mt
cch gn ng c tli thay im E trn gin pha phn bit hai loi vt liu ny;
bn tr i E thp, bn phi E l gang. C liiih i\i Iiy îi thch r t r cr c I nl)
ch yu klic nhau gia chng.
N lii vy v nguyn tc nii thp (c liig c khc uha\i) k lii Iiiiiig Iiug cao IkUi
itng GSE titng iig \i ch c mt pha cuy nht l auRteiiit. vi clo rnt cno.
r't d biu dng Iiiig. Chiih v vy thp ! v t liu do. \c cung cp (li clng
ban thnh ])hani cn nng (thanh, ng, ta"in, hnh. ...) r t tin li cho si (lng,
ngoi ra cn kh nhiu thp c kh nng bin diig ngui. Thp cng t cacboii th
kh nng chu bin dng ca n cn g cao. tu h c cn g thp. t. (tvc s cliiti (t
c chi tit.
Ngic li vi thp, khi m n ig nii gaiig khng hao gi t ic t clio hon
ton austenit. Iiii khn^ tli chu biii (lng ngvii ln Iiiig. song b li IIO r
nhit chy thp hdn, trong t chc c ciig tinli th kh nng in y khun cao, v
th gang l vt li\i c ( cUic ca< vt. pliain iih liuh Iilnt clii tit, m y phc tj).
ng. ...). Gang c thnh phn cii^ gnii ciig tin h th tn li c cng cao. Ni cliunf
tnh do ca gan g rt tluVp. ic d Iiit s loi c tn h clo n h t ciili song chng
khng bao gi ftc (tein hin (iug do.
K lii hns cnrboii Iini tro ii^ vng giap ranh giia thp v gang ( 1.8 - 2,2% C)
c tnh xic lan tiih chu bin dng do ii kni v lc xp vt li\i vo nhm
no l tviy tlnic vo cac th iili phn khc v cng dng.
Cn c vo t. chc khc nhau f.rii iii pha Fe - Fe.iC (hnh 2.17) c bu loi
thp : trc ciip; trh . rng t.cli vn nu ciiig tch.
VT LIU HC 87
Tlip trc cng tch c hiig cacboii thp hn 0.80% (0.10 - 0.70), tc bn
t.ri im s, vi t chc fe rit - peclit (hnh 2.21).
b)
Hnh 2.21. T chc t VI ca cc thp trc

cung tch 0,1 0%c (a); 0,40%c (b) va
0 30%c (c) (x 500)
Theo tnh toii t quy tc n bay khi liig cac-hon tng ln th t l phn
peclit (iii ii ti) trong t chtc tng ln. f:i ferit { phn sng ) gim i. Nu khng
clia cacbon (hay qu t : 0.02 - 0.0%) c tli coi l st nguyn cht vi t chc hu
Iilu l fe rit ( hnh 2.18a), tc l mu sang hon ton, v i 0.1%c Oinh 2.21a) phn
ti (peclit) khong 1/8. vi 0,40%c (hnh 2,2Ib) l 1/2 v vi 0,60%c (h iili 2.21c) l
3/4. cu cng vi 0.80% ( hnh 2.19a) th ton b l ni\i ti. Vy i vi loi thp
Iiy htng cachoii ca n tnh b n g t l )lin t (peclit.) n h n vi 0.8%.
Thp cng tcb vi th n li phn 0.8%c (c th x dch mt cht) tc ng vi
ieii) s. c to clic ch în peclit. ( hnh 2.19).
Thp sau cng tch vi tli u li phan ln hn 0.80%c ( thng ch ti 1.50%, c
bit, c th ti 2.0 - 2.2% ) t(' bii phi im s c t chc peclit - xinentit th hai
dng hi siig Iih biu th tr ii hinh 2.22,
88 Chng 2. GIAN PHA
vi thp trc ciig tcli c t chc' ferit. - perlit cau )lin hi eril tnic { luiu
tch (to thnh tr\c klu xy ra pluui n CII tch) v eri cn^ tcli (l;i(i th a iili
trong phn ng' cng t.cli). r rii- loi ferit tnc In rtc lp c cliii' lit COII Kii
sau l dng hn hd) Iini xeii ln vdi xiiientit troiif |)eflit. Tdng' t. vri ilu 'i) .^;HI
cng tch n ii^ phn bit xiieiit.it a\i CH tch (tc xmentit th lia ii Viii
xnientit cng ticli nnii tron.u
peclii.
D ctii ha vir i
tn cc chuyn |)h;i tro iiy lidp
kini Fe - c (rli yu cho thpp )
ng\i ta k hiu tc (tii
trn gin pha IniiiR' ch A
(t nrrt tiii ^liap nfhi;i l
dng, v klu o chuyn hin
pha Iiliit. h (lii li ) vi
cnc s 1. 2. 3. 4 t.lieo tli tv t
d\i ln.
A| - iig PSK iiK vdi
Hnh 2.22. T chc t VI ca thp cacbon sau cng tich
chuyn biii aiist.enit < > |)t'clit
(1,2% c ) (x 500)
c trong ini loi thp;
A, - 768 "V - (tipiii Cun
(chuyii bin t tn li) cn'ia erit;
A,; - (t ng CS t.it r;i e r il 1.nc c iif tch , ch < tro n g t.li) tr c c ii t ic li:
A - d u ES ti t r;i x in riit.it. s;iu CUU 'l i tr o iit th p saxi n u i.u I irh ,
A| - ctiifi 'JN {.huytMi l)i ii 0 <r^ y,
C lniii itt' yi l cac (tini (hay Iihil l ) ti hn.
p ihn ciit mt. (fipm tdi hn t.roii' hai t.ntcing hp . mmg' iiiij: (cad
hdii) vn lm ngui ( tli p lidii nhil (t r ii hnt theo in ])lia ) uî ta k hMi
thm chi r cho tn iig h<) lm nsiii ( rooidissement) v c cho in in ^ IIOIIK
(chaiiffafe) it sau ch A. V (l ; Ar, . AC| . A rs . Ac;i . Ar,, . A c,,.
C nlii\i loi gaii! SOII^ ch t.ru Iiii co l. ('h(' I)h hdp vi în t )lia
Fe - Fe j(' ( dng ( (liis gnng Ii\iyn liu d luyn tlipp). Theo s klic nha\i v to
chc gp ba loi gaii t.riiK saii:
- Gang trng cii tin li vi khoaug 4,H%r, l i Piii c. ch c t ('hc lfpl>>int
(lnnli2.21);
- (ang trang tr(c CII vi lii (' < 4.3%. bn tra i riin C;
- Gang trng saii tinh vi litiii c > 4.H%. hn phi cini r .
T clr t vi cu gaiig trng' trc v sau cng' tin h trn h by h iili 2.23,
Cn ch . cc t chc t vi va trn h by iif VI iii ( )ha Fe - Fe.-,()^('h)
ph lip vi thic t khi lid) kim c hai nfuyn t ch yii l Fe - r (tr htiig
nguyn t ln vno nho) v trng tlin i ( lm ngui chm ). KJ lni IIII n h iiiili
hp kim c th c t chc khng <ii bauig, khng ph h]) vi plii-
VT LIU HC
0) b)
Hinh 2.23. T chc l VI ca gang ting tro cung tinh (o) v sau cng tinh (b) (x500)
2.7. s LC V GIN PHA CA H BA CU T
ll h;i (an t V(| iiliKMi Iiliiit 1);\ ypu t co lii llu iy (loi l nhit (t v hai thnh
| ) l i ; u i . 'I'1 k 'u i1 ) |)1km l l i l) a |)li I h i i c v i i o h a i t h n h | ) l i : i n <tu. v ( l . %c - 100% -
( oA t ). klin.u l.lu" 1)U'U (luMi tri.iu vn trPii ini mi phii;' Iii phi troiii
klioi^ i;ui vi mi (l;iy [)iu (lin thnh ]hnii , C I ) cliiu Ciio biu diii nhit
(to. '1 'n m i k h ii (1(1 co Iih n i m l ii.U iiii c ic li tr) ra c:ic v ii> ) l in khc: I iii a i i.
2.7.1. TAM ( I N N (; I)
M t : i i i i i;ic ('mi cr') t lu lii u t l t li n li |)h o n CIU' cu t ( h n h 2 .2 4 a) v i cc

(c t i n h s ;u i (la y;
- ( :U ' ( t n h l;U ) ) ia c ( A . I V C ') t \ ( ) u f n s V('ii CIC c i i t ] i ^ \ i v i i c h t , v d ,
in li iiL V('ii I 0 f ) 'o A l i a y c ; u i f i' A ;

- Cac cnh lam ( AB, B , A ( ) trin,' IIU V(ii cac h hai c:u t uh ('iil)
A l - h A-B. (lini I) t rtMi A ( iiir V('ii Mi;uili |)h;iii 7()%(' -t :()% A (khng c E^):
- ( \ i r (iii Iiaii <i trou tiiii nnn^ (l n^ vi cc li ha cii t. v (h.i,
(Ikmii K 10% A t 7()'oB > Oiin CH Uii d iili no th chVa cii^ nhiii cau
l.i'f n V ()i c n li (!('> ( n h u K g i i ( i l i B n lu V t. I i i i c h ; i iiliK M i c a u t. B
- ( 'a c ( l i i i i I K I I I I i r i M i ( l t i i i t h n u i s o n ^ s o u j' V("ii i n t c h l i SP r o th n h p lijn c n i
f ; i t t i i y V ii ( t i i i l ) ( l i d i n ( c iic li p k i m I i a i n t . r ii ( i t d n ^ a c i i c 2 0 % B ) .
( iiL co llie tinh l l c;ir ])lia l)nnu <l'iy t;jr (tn bay trong h ba r ii t. . ( t c s
v t li u M co h n i |)h; (I v h M i ha (li n i fl |)h n i t r n ( h t iig t h n g I ih i h n h 2.241)
l)ieu th v t l li.u pha Iiln s;ni:
Mh Ma
a - : h - -
(il) (il)
Khi vt liu M ' Cd l);i |)li;i (l , , () th ini M phi Iini tro ii tam îac
' t b C ( h n h ) Iii;'i l l t u i | j l i a u l n t S iu i;
90 Chng 2. GIN PHA
M 'a M 'b '

a = ----------- : 6= ------------; c -
| a 6, b ' C-I c
) b)
Hinh 2.24. Tam gic nng
2.7.2. M T S H N G I N v c c m t CT
Nu ba ca\i t ha tan v hn vo nhau trng th i rn cng nh lng th gin

pha ca II c dng nh i liiili 2.2.
Cac mt lng (mt cong trn) v r (mt. cong di) p vo uha\i v Ii'i vi
nhaii ba im A. B, c iig vi nhit chy ca cc cu t nguyn cht. . De d
dng xac nh ta ca cc m t lng . c Iigili ta dng cc m t ct ngaiig ( int.
ct ng nhit) ri chiii cc giao tiiy ii to tli iih xuiig tain gic Iiiig v s c
c cc iriig ng mc. V d. cc nit ct ng nhit vi cc iiig ng nic
nlu th ca h M n - C\1 - N i itc bi\i th h ili 2.27.
Bng cc ng ng mc Iilii vy cng xc nh vi chnh xc cho
php, nhit bt ii v kt thc kt tin h ca hp kim y l khong 920"C v
900C.
Troiig tnng hp cn Iighiii cu ? thay i t chc theo nhit ca nit loi
vt liu c thnh phn c trng (v d cia mt cu t khng i ) th c th kho
st mt ct ng tng vng ( song song vi mt ciih ca tam gic nng ) nlu
biii th hnh 2.26. Trng b Iigoi n c v ging nh gin pha h hai cu t .
song li kling c y cc tnh cht thc tli nn c tn l gin plia hai cii t
gi . Cc int ct Iiy cho bit chnh xc nhit chuyn bin pha v t chc tn t i
ca mi vt liu c thnh phn qiiy (iili ()iu th trn trc honh) , song cc iiig
trn (t khng biu th chiig tlia iil phn pha Iilii t tng ng lin cng khng
th p dng qiiy tc n bny tn h t l gia cc pha.
VT LIU HC 91
Thnh phn
Hnh 2.25. Dang khng gian ca gin Hinh 2.26. Mt ct ng ca h

pha h bo cu t hoa tan v han c %B = const
vo nhau trng thi rn v lng
Cu
% N
Hinh 2.27 H Mn - Cu - Ni VI cc mt ct ng nhit

(ng lin - mt lng, ng chm - mt dc)
Nti ba c\i t hon ton khng lia tan vo nhaII trng th i rn. to nn hn
lip ciia cc cu t ng\iyii cht, th gin ct pha ca n c dng n ln h iih 2.28. M t
lii c: dng ca l)a mt. rong Xit, pht t cc nh A,B,C v tng i nit ct
Iihn\i theo ba chtng COIIR E| E, EÊ. E;( E v ba iig ny cng hi t ctini
thp n h t E. M t (c l mt phiig ftiig I i h i t . A B C cha im E. Cc im E| .
E.. E i l cc Piii ciiR' tin h hai c\i t ; E| E. E2 E. E> E l \fiig bin i thnh
phn ca pha lii khi kt. tiiil) ra CIIS t.iiih hai c'\i t t.\ng iig. E l im ciiig
tiiih ba cnu t, ti d {' phn iii :
92 Chng 2. GIN PHA
ntMi'
Vi kiu i;n d |)l>a nv vir (lnf c.r mt rt ng Iihit rt tin li. vi c;\r
pha c thnh phaii c (tiih ( ou t ngiypii cht ). Hnh 2.29 tr iili by cac mt ct
cliig nhit c;i h Ph-Sn-Bi. () (ty khii biu tli mt rc vi II cng nhit ( vi
im cViiiK tinh bu cnn t (H "r ). V (l. xt h) kim D ; (50%Pb + 20% Sn + 20%
Bi. n hnt ct\i kt tinh ra Pl) <1 nhit ( khong; I9" c ( gixa 200"c v 17 " c ).
khi nhit, îm i cn 1:^0 r h()) kim lii cn li c.ho khong 40% Pb + 30% Sn
4 30% Bi ( iin a ) hi (taii kt tinh ra cii iiil (Pl'> + Sn ) vi 6% Sii + 35%
Pl). c\ii cng hp kim luR con li khi r) 9H C kPt tinh rn cng tinh ( Pb + Sii i Bi )
vi th iii) phii tiduK ng l 32. l(i. 2%.
P>
% Sn
Hinh 2.28 Dang khng gian ca gin pho h Hnh 2.29 H Pb-Sn-Bi vi cc mt ct ng nhit
ba cu t hon ton khng hoa tan vo nhau
trang thi rn
2.7.3. G I N PHA CA H x CaO - SiOg - A I2 O 3
K h i hiyii li) kim Fe thm i dmg x he CaO - Si0.i - A LO .i ni gin (t pha

ciia II \c trn li hy hnh 2.80. Cc cu t uy khng ha tan ln Iihaxi trng
th i rn. to nn mt lot, cac hp cht pliic tp khng uli iig ca hai trong s cc
cvi t trn (nln CnO.SiO^. 3 rn 0 S i0 2 . Al.O s.SiO:, . v.v.) ni rn ca c ba c'\i t.
(nh C a().A l.() ,.2Si():., jCa() Al.o , V V.)
VT LIU HOC 93
CaOSiOi
iCoQ SiOz
AI Os.S O
CaO. S O

jCaO.SiO
CaO AIÔ^
SCoOAIO]SCobMQ 3CaO5AIO
%Al203
Hinh 2.30 Gin x CaO - SiO;, - AljO-,
MSiOj
J0 %AI Oj
Hinh 2.31. Gc thng dung nht ca gin x Ca0-Si0y-Al20-J

94________________________________________________________ Chng 2. GIN PHA
Tuy ban u gin c dns rt, phc tp. Iihiig nu bit, chia thnh tng tani
giac Iih hn th i mi tam gic ny li c kiu gin pha kha n gin. V d, gc
gin h iih 2.31 qua thc nghim c th phn thnh ba gin pha c bn sau:
1) SiO^ - CaO.SiOv - Ca0.AL0:,.2Si02;
2) CaO.SiO^ - Ca0.Al20.5.2Si02 - 2Ca0.Al,,0;,.Si02 v
3) CaO.SiO^ - 2 CaO.Al2O i.SiO 2 - 2C a0.S i02.
T hai gin ny d dng tnh c nhit chy ( hoii t o ii) ca cc x vi
thnh phn khc Iihau. t xc nh c trng thi nhit luyn x cho
( kt. tin h cha, nii lng th b qu nhit bao nhiu v c th d on v chy
long).
VT LIU HC_________________________________________________________________ 95
Chng 3
KHUCH TRN vn CHUVN PHfl TRONG VT Liu
3.1. KHUCH TN TRONG VT LIU
Kliuch tn l s chuyn ch ngu nhin ca cc nguyn t (ion, phn t) do

dao ng n h i t . Kliuch tn ca nguyn t A trong nn ca chnh loi nguyn t
(A) gi l t khuch tn. Khuch tn ca nguyn t khc loi B vi nng nh
trong nii A gi l khuch tn khc loi. iu kiu c khuch tn khc loi l B
phi ha tan trong A. Kliuch tn ca c A v B trong nn A hoc B gi l khuch
tn tng h. Trong khuch tn khc loi v khuch tn tng h lun c dng
nguyn t theo chiu gim nng . Trong t khuch tn cng c dng nguyn t,
nu nguyn t khuch tn l ng v phng x (A*).
Kliuch tn c vai tr quan trng trong xihiu qu trn h cng Iigh ch to vt
liu nh kt tinh, thiu kt, to lp bn dn p-n, trong ciig ngh x l nhit
nh ng u thnh phn, kt tin h li, chuyn pha khi nung v lm ngui
chm, ha gi, ha Iih i t luyn. ... v trong s dng v t liu: qu trn h oxy ha.
(lo. ...
Nhng s' liu thc nghim khuch tn (nhn c ch yu t nh lu t Fick)
v nhng hiu bit v bn cht khuch tn (m c ch khuch tn l ni dung quan
trng) c th gp phn gii quyt nhng vn ca cng ngh v t liu.
3.1.1. N H L U T K H C H TN
3.1.1.1. nh lut Fick I v h s khuch tn

iih lu t Fick I nu ln quan h gia dng nguyn t khuch tn J qua mt
n v b m t vung gc vi phng khuch tn v gradient nng dc/dx:
dc
J = - > . ------ = -D .g ra d c , (3.1)
dx
trong du tr ch diig khuch tn theo chiu gim nng ;

D - h s' khuch tn, thng o bng cii^/s. Trong nhiu trng hp, D
ph thuc nhit theo quy lut:
D = D . exp (-Q / R T ) , (3.2)
y Z) - hng s, cm^/s;
96 Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN p h a t r o n g v t li u
Q - hot nng khuch tn.

kcal/mol;
T - nhit khuch tn, K;
R - hng s' kh,
R =l,98 cal/inol.
T nhng t r s' Do v Q c
th xc nh h s khuch tn D
Iihit bt k v c im ca
qu triih khuch tn (c ch
khuch tn).
Trn hnh 3.1 biu din s
ph thuc h s" khuch tn khc
loi ca Cii trong AI trong li trc
gD ~ 1/T. trng th i rn ( nh
hn 660 C) D tng r't nhanh Hnh 3.1 H s khuch tn ca Cu trong AI phu
theo nhit, ; cn trng th i thuc vo nhit
lng D^ thay i khng ng k;
trong nhiu trng hp Z)|, c xc nh theo biu thc: D - const.lT/n ), l l
st; gn nhit nng chy D\^ khong 1 0 cm^ls. H s'khuch t u tng vi c
s" kh i chuyn t trng th i rn sang lng. 0 trng thi rn dc ca ing
h x D ~ f{\IT ) l Q / /? . Do t t r sD hai nhit khc nhau, c th xc n li
c A> v Q. Trn bng 3.1 tru li by t r s A . v Q trong nit s' v t liu.
Bng 3.1. s iiu thc nghim Do v Q

Cht Trong Vng nhit Do. Q, D nhit , cm^/s
khuch tn dung mi , C cm /s kcal/mol 500^'C 2 0 0 "c
AI AI 450-650 1,71 34,0 4,5 10 -
Zn Cu - 0,34 45.5 1,5.10'^ -
Fe a-Fe 700-750 2,00 60,6 8,0 10'^ -
c (X-Fe 500-750 0,20 24,6 2.8 10 -
N a-Fe - 3,10'^ 18,2 9,0 lO '-' -
N Cr - 3.10^ 24,4 4,0 1 0 -
B ^^40^^40^20 - 1,1 10' 82,8 3,0.10'^ -
Ag Pdg,Sl,9 - 2.0 10' 29.9 1,2 1 0 ' -
Na* NaCI 350 - 750 0,5 38,0 2,8 1 0 " -
cr NaCI - 1,1.10^ 51,4 1,7 10 -
Ag* AgBr - 1,2 16,0 - 1,8 10' ^
Ag* GaAs 500-1000 2.5.10'^ 9,0 5,0 10 1,2 1 0 '
02 Polyetlen - 2,09 12,2 -
H2 Caosu tnhin - 0,26 6,0 - 1,0 10^

VT LIU HC_________________________________________________________________ 97
3.1.1.2. nh lut Fick II

Nu nng c khng nhng l hm ca X m cn ph thuc vo thi gian t th
thun ti n ngi ta s dng iih lu t Fick II. Biu thc ca iih lii t Fick II
t roiig tri n g hp h s" khuch tn khng ph thuc nng nh i sau:
rc c
------ = D . ------ = D .V c . (3.3)
dt ()x
Nghim ca phng trn h (3.3) trong trng hp khuch tn mt cht c nng

(V trn b m t vo bn trong Iiiu vi nng ban u Co (c^> Co) c dng:
d x ,t) = c, - (c,,-cj e r(x / 2 ^ ) l ) , (3.4)
trong erf(L) - hm sai ca i lng L. c tnh sn trong cc s tay ton hc.
T biu thc (3.4) thy rng c(x,t) t l vi {x 2ylD ) nu v c l hng s,
c ngha chiii su X ca lp klm cli tn vi nng c no t l thun vi V7x7.
3.1.2. C C H K H U C H T N
C ch khuch tn gii thch tr s v Q . tm lii ii bn cht ca nhng qu
trn h dch chuyn ngviyii t (ioii, phn t) trong nhng v t liu khc nhau.
3.1,2.1. Trong dung dch rn thay th

Trong loi v t liu ny, cc nguyn t khuch tn theo c ch n t trng, tc
ng iiyii t dch cluiyn n n t trng bn cnh. bic dch chuyn nh vy thc
hin itc. cn c hai iu kin:
- Nguyn t c hot nng G ', ph v lin kt vi nhng nguyn t bn
cnh. Iii rng khong cch hai nguyn t gia n t tr iig v nguyn t dch
chuyn (nguyn t 1 v 2 trn hnh 3.2a). S liig nhng nguyn t c hot nng
nh vy t l vi exp / k7^:
- C n t tr n g nm cnh nguyn t; nng n t triig t l vi exp (-A G 'f/ /T).
trong AG''f l n iig litiig to n t trng, tc nng hng cn tch nguyn t
khi n t m ng tro iig mng hon chiili; nng liig ny t l vi Iihit ha hi.
Nh vy kh nng khuch tn ph thuc vo xc sii't ca hai qu triih trn
v h s' khuch t n c th vit dii dng:
D = coiist. e x p ^ -A y / ^TJ. exp (-AG",H / kT). (3.a)
N ii tn h n q iia n h G - H - T .s . trong H l entanpi, s l entropi v biu
thc (3.2) ca D. c th xc iih Q v Do.
Q = A f) + T) ; (3.5b)
D = const. exp [{AS"f+ AS'\) / k] . (3.5c)

Bng cch so snh Q v tng A /r, + IT c th d on s c int ca c ch
n t tr iig tron g v t liu c th. Trong Iih i ii kim loi A fr, + ' - 1-3 eV/ngiiyii
t v (A*s'f + AiS',)// = 2 , t Ai = 0 , 1 - 1 0 cm^/ s.
7 - VLH
98 C hng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
Hot nng khuch tn Q lin quan n nng liig tch v dch chuyn nguyn
t khi Ii t mng, do ;
Q T
1 . (3.5d)
Nh vy t i nhit cho, v t liu c cng ln th Q cng ln v D cng

nh. Kh nng to n t trng cnh nguyn t khc loi v cnh nguyn t dung
mi l khc nhau; do h s khuch tn ca nguyn t khc loi khc vi h s
khuch tn ca nguyn t dung mi. Tuy nhin, trong nhiu tri iig hp s khc
nhau ny khng qu 15% i vi Q v mt c s' vi Dg.

/ L
V f r i
0)
Hnh 3.2. M hnh khuch tn theo c ch nt trng (a) v c ch' gia nt mang (b)
Bn di l ng cong thay i nng lng phu thuc vo v tri
3.1.2.2. Trong dung dch rn xen k

Cc nguyn t ha tan theo nguyn l xen k thng c ng knh nh (v d
H, o. N, c, ...) c th chuyn t v t r l hng (gia cc n t mng) ny sang l hng
khc. l khuch tn theo c ch gia n t mng. chuyn n l hng bn
cnh, nguyn t xen k phi vt c th nng AG, (hiih 3.2b). Bu cnh
cc nguyn t xen k lun lun c l hng v lng cc l hng trong mng l
xc iih v nhiu hn nguyn t xen k nn "nng " l hng khng nh hng
n h s* khuch tii.T rong tring hp ny :
D = const. exprAS'j / k). expr-A/irj / k.T); (3.6a)
nh vy Q= ; (3.6b)
Do = const. e x p C / k) . (3.6c)
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________________ ^
Q v Do ni chung c t r s nh hn so vi c ch n t triig. Q ph thuc ch

yii vo kch thc nguyn t xen k (nguyn t cng nh th D cng ln) v mt
xp cht ca k in i loi lin. V d, D ca cacbon trong a-Fe l 1,7.10'* cm^/s
800"C. cn trong y-Fe l 6,7.10'^ cin^/s ti 1000 "C.
3.1.2.3. Trong cc tinh th vi lin kt ion hoc ng ha tr

Trong tin h th ca hp cht ion (v d, tin h th NaCl) nu khiiv t t t Schottky
(nt trng) l ng k th khuch tn tlieo c ch n t trng, trong cation (Na')
khiich tn nhanh hn anioii ( c r ) v catioii c kch thc nh hdii. Nu nng n t
triig lii (v d. nhit lii hn 550*^0 vi NaCl) th cc n t trng s to
cp (nt triig kp) gim niig liig ca h. k h i eiitanpy dch chuyn c gi
tr nh. dn n D ln v khng c s khc nhau ng k gia D ca cation v ca
aiiioii. Tng t biu thc (3.d), hot nng khuch tn trong tin li th ion c quan
h:
( Q rtilio ii + Q aniaii) ~ ^ ir ÎIC
Trong tin h th ion kh i nng khuyt t t Prenkel (nt trng v cation xen k)
l diig k (v d. trong AgBr). cation xen k (Ag') khuch tu tlieo c ch gia n t
niiig khng trc tip (c ch ui): nguyn t xen k ui nguyn t cnh n t v
t,ri n t mng n l hng; entanpy chuyn ch nh vy nh hn entaiipy chuyn
cli ca n\t triig. H s" khuch tu ca Ag' trong AgBr c t r s c 10" cin^/s t i
lân nhit, nng chy.
Nu trong tin h th ioii c cha tp cht khc ha t r (v d. cc ion Ca^' thay
tli mt s nt mng N a ') th trun g ha in tch, cc n t trig catioii c to
thm v do d lm t ii h s kluich tn D ca Na'. N t trVig cng ctc to ra
t rong tin h th ion c cng thtc khng ng vi hp cht ha hc daiih nh, v d,
trong Ni 1.^0 do t ii ti N i*' nn trun g ha in tch, s to n t trng cation v
lo d tng h s' khuch tn D ca Ni.
Troiig cc t iiili th vi lin kt ng ha t r (v d, SO 2. Si. Ge) qu trn h
klmch tn ca nhng nguyn t thnh phn (v d. ca Si v o trong SO2) v
Iihiig nguyn t thay th (v d. Ag trong mng SO 2) l r t chm ( c 1 0 '" cm^/s
gn nhit nng chy) v n phi ph v lin kt r't bn trong mng v khuch
t 11 theo c ch n t trng. Nhng nguyii t xen k (v d, H trong SO 2) khuch
tn theo c ch gia n t mng v c t r s" c 10^ cm^/s gn T ,.,
3.1.2.4. Trong vt liu kim loi v nh hnh

T roiig loi vt liu ny khng c s khc nhau ng k gia nt. trng v l
hng v khiig c tiih chu k ca v tr nguyn t. Nng khuyt t t r t ln v
kni n nh, do chng d kt hp vi nhau hoc vi nguyn t ha tan. 0 y c
th tn t i cc c ch khuch tn sau :
- Cc loi Iigiiyn t kch thc nh (H. o . ...) khuch tn theo c ch gia cc
nt mng; Q c gi t r nh (0.25-0,0 eV/nguyn t). K lii ng kuh nguyn t v
ugiivn t lifiig cng nh th h s khuch tn D cng ln;
100______________________ Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
- M t s nguyn t nh Au, Pt. Pb. ... v nhng hp phc ca n (v d. hp

phc vi Ii t trng) khuch tn theo c ch gia n t mng trong nhng l hng ln
(khong 0.7 ng knh nguyn t). Q ph thuc vo niig lng lin kt ca
Iihng hp phc v c t r s 1-3 eV/nguyn t;
- Trong mt s" trng hp khuch tn xy ra theo c ch chuyn ch tp th
ca mt nhm nguyn t.
H s khuch tn D c gi tr tru iig gian gia c ch nt trng v c ch gia
n t mng.
3.1.2.5. Trong vt liu polyme

Trong v t liu cao phn t trng thi rn gn nh khng c chuyn ch
(khuch tn) v phi gi c' nh gc nh v t ra vi hai cao phn t bn cnh . Tuy
nhin, int mch cao phn t c th chuyn ng cng vi nhng mch cu trc
bn cnh. Hin tng ny gi l khuch tn lin kt. N ch xy ra gn nhit
nng chy.
Nhiig phn t nh )ih O 2, H 2O, ... c th chuyn dcli troug cao phzi t
trng tl i rn. Nhng phii t nh ny chim v tr gia cc phn t-. Nu mch
phn t c v i chuyn ng ngu nhin (thay i hnh dng phn t) th nhng
phn t nh pha ngoi c th i ch vi Iihng nhnh cao phn t . Kliuch tn
trong polynie nh hng n nhit thy tin h ha, nhit ha do v nhit
Iing chy ca polyme. ng lic Iihuiii niu ca polyme cng khng ch bi qu
tru ih kluich tii.
T nhng trn h by v c ch khuch tu thy rng h s' kluich tn D ph
thuc mnh vo T. cng nh th D cng ln ) v cc khuyt t t nh nt trng,
ngnycu t xcn k. ... gip cho qu trm h chuyn ch" ca nguyn t do dao ng
Iihit (khuch tu) d xy ra. Do . nhiig vng c nhiu khuyt t t (lch, bin
ht, mt. ngoi, ...) khuch tn xy ra r t nhanh (khuch tu on mch) v tng
ng c gi l khucli tn theo lch, khuch tn theo bin ht, khuch tn b mt.
... phn bit vi khuch tn th tch l khuch tn bn trong ht. Tuy nhin ,
phn th tch c khuch tn on mch l nh so vi phn th tch cn li, do ,
vng nhit ln (hn 0,5 T,.) khuch tn th tch c vai tr ch yii.
3.1.3. M T S V D K H U C H TN
TRONG CNG NG H V T L I U
Vai tr ca khuch tn trong Iihivi cng ngh vt liu c trn h by nhiu

phn khc nhau ca gio trn h nh kt tinh, nhit luyn, do nhit cao, m t n
iih ca v t liu compozit, ... y nu thm mt s v d cha trn h by Iihng
phn khac.
3.1.3.1. Cng ngh c
K lii c. Iigi ta tlia y i tc ngui iu chnh qu triih kt tin h ca vt

liu. Trong tng trng hp c th, lc th phi gim tc ngui tng qu triih
VT LIU HOC 101
khuch tn, lc th phi hn ch khuch tn to ra t chc v tnh cht theo yu

cu. Sau y l mt s" v d ;
- K h i nu chy kim loi, c thnh phn ng u, kh c tp cht c hi
Iim l lng trong kim loi lng, cn thc y qu trn h khuch tn bng cch
khuy trn, tng nhit , ... ng thi, chng bay hdi v chng ha tan kh vo
kim loi, k h i nu thng dng lp x che ph b mt.
- K lii c gang cn lm ngui chm c thi gian cho qu trm h graphit ha
xy ra. trnh to thnh x iie n tit (t chc gang trng).
3.1.3.2. ng u thnh phn

Trong v t c, do thin tch nhnh cy, nht l trong nhng hp kim c
khong nhit kt tin h ln, nng nguyn t^ hp kim hoc tp cht phn b^
khng u (xem mc 3.3.4).do sau khi c thng phi ng u thnh phn.
Nu coi phn b nng c dng sin vi chu k bug khong cch gia cc nhnh
cy th t c hiu qu /"(tm h bng gim bin nng ):
/= / [cJO)-cJ
th thi gian t c th xc iih theo biu thc nhn c t Iighiin ca phng
tru h iih lu t Fick II:
t - . In / ;
4 n^D
trong z- khong cch gia hai cc i (liiih 3.3).
0)
b)
Hnh 3.3. Phn b nng Hinh 3.4, Phn b' li ca c khi thm
khi ng u thnh phn Si (a) v Cr (b) vo thp
c cng hiu qu . thi gian cng gim nu D cng ln (tc nhit

cng cao) v khong cch gia cc nhnh cy cng nh (/ nh hng r t mnh n
D). gim l c th tng tc ngui kh i kt tin h hoc tin hnh bin dng do
trc khi ng u tliiili phn.
3.1.3.3. To lp thm b mt
To lp thm b m t l cng ngh thay i thnh phn ha hc lp b int ca
chi ti t (bnh rng, trc, bng cch gii nhit lu trong ini trng cha cc
nguyn t hot ca nguyn t"cn a vo (v d c. N. Si, Al. Cr. ...) Trong ba q\i
triih ni tip nhau kh i to lp thm b mt (to nguyn t hot, hp ph trn b
mt, khuch t ii vo trong) th khuch tn thng l qu triih cliin nht (trong
nhiu trng hp). N lii vy. khuch tn khng ch ng hc to lp thm b n t.
T chc ca lp thm ph thuc vo gin pha gia nguyn t' nn (A) v
nguyn t' cn thm (B). V d, th'm cacbon vo st ngi ta lum g mu nhit
cao hii 900c v theo gin pha Fe-C (hnh 2. 12) nhn (c pha austeiiit;
ty theo mc bo ha cacbon ca austenit, sau kh i ngui c th nhn c cc t
chc vi hiig cha x in en tit khc nhau.
K lii thm nit nguyn t' khc cacbon vo thp (lip kim hai nguyn Fe-C), do
tng tc ln nhau gia khuch tn ca cacbon c sn trong thp v Iiguyn t
thm nn c s phn b l i nng cacbon trong mu. Ty thuc vo c im
tdng tc, nng cacbon c th tng ln hoc gim i lp b mt, hnh th iih
vng cc i hoc cc tiu vng bn trong (lnh 3.4).
3.1.3.4. Thiu kt
Troiig cng n gh luyn kim bt. sa\i khi to hnh, sn phni (IC luug (tii
n h it cao to lin k t gia cc phn t v t liu, y kluich tu xy ra bn
trong ht, trn b Iit h t hoc gia cc ht. Kling ch l x"p (th tch, s lng,
hnh dng, ...) c th to cc tnh cht mong mun. co ngt tng i ca chi ti t
(A/ / /q) l mt trong nhng ch tiu quan trng, c th lc tnh theo biii thc:
Al / D..t
- const.
r\T /
trong r - bn knh ht;
- nng lng b mt;
T vi t - nh i t v thi gian thiu kt.
3.1.3.5. Oxy ha kim loi

y l qu tr iih c lin quan n khuch tn nguyn t hoc phn t oxy vo
kim loi v khuch tn ca ion kim loi t trong ra b m t to lp oxyt trn b
m t vt liu. Chiu dy X lp oxy ha ca kim loi ngviyn ch^t, t l vi V D . . tc
tng theo nh i t (D ph thuc mnb vo T) v thi gian.
T chc ca lp oxy ha trn b(' m t hp kim AB (A l kim loi nn. B l
n gu yn t' hp kim ) c th:
VT LIU HC________________________________________________________________ 103
- Nu A b oxy ha mnh hdn B (v d hp kim Fe-Ni) th trn b m t to lp

oxyt giu A. cn B lp b m t b y vo bn trong to vng dung dch rn
giu B troig A (oxy ha chn lc). Hiu ng tng nng B vng ln cn vi oxyt
c th t n hng nghn ln;
- Nu B b oxy ha mnh hn A th c hai kh nng; Nu Dii > Do (Do l h s
khuch tn ca oxy) th trn b =it to lp oxyt ca B (do B khuch tn ra b mt)
hoc lp oxyt hn hp ca A v B (v d, trong h Fe-Cr). Nu D < Do th oxy
khuch tn vo trong (oxy ha bn trong) v trn b m t cng c th to lp oxyt
ca k in i loi A (v d, hp kim Cu-Be).
3.1.3.6. Pha tp bn dn v thy tinh
Trong bn dn. t't c nhng qu triih ch to v s dng u liu quan n

khuch tn. Pha tp p, Sb, B, ... vo Si v Ge to lp bn dn p-n l mt v d,
tng nhng ch tiu ca bn dn (in dn in l thng s quan trng) ngi
ta thm bo th kh vo silic.
Pha tp thy tin h bng cch khuch t ii nhng io ii c kch thc ln nh K,
Rb, Cs, ... vo b m t ci thin tn h cht ca thy tinh, v d, h s gin n
nhit, kh nng chu va p nhit.
3.2. NHNG c s CHUNG CA CHUYN p h a

TRONG VT LIU
Nhng clm yii pha thng gp trong vt.liu l :

- Kt tin h t th lng (hiih 3.5, A). v d, nhm kt tin h 660 "c, hp kim
70%Pb + 30%Sn bt u 275 c v kt thc kt tin h 183 C;
- Chuyn pha th hnh (hnh 3.5,B), v d k h i lm ngui y-Fe (mng lp
phng tni mt) chuyn thnh a-Fe (mng lp phng tm khi) 910"C; [C 2p 4]
(m iig trc thoi) chuyn th iih [C.^p^] (mng su phng) 19 C;
- Chuyn pha cng tch (hiih 3.5, D). khi hai pha cn bng a v p c to ra
ng thi t y, v d khi lm ngui th p 0,8% c di ng AC|, t a u ste n it ti t ra
ng thi xm entit v ferit;
- T it pha (hiih 3.5, C). k h i gii hn Lua tan ca B trong A gim theo nhit ,
v i d khi lm ngui thp sau cng tch di nhit t austeiiit qu bo ha
ti t ra Xeii- Nhiu hp kim nhm sau k h i ti nhn c dung dch rn qu bo ha
v k h i nung tr l i nhit thp (ha gi), xy ra qu triih ti t pha vi s hnh
thnh Iihiii pha gi n nh hoc n iih khc nhau;
- Chuyn pha m acteiixit (n.ih 3.5, E); kh i nung thp ln nhit vng
austenit v lm ngui nhanh n nhit Ms , t austenit khng kp ti t ra cc
pha cn bng fe rit v xm e iitit m to ra pha gi n iih mactenxit, c kiu mng
khc vi austenit nhng vn gi nguyn nng cacbon . Ngoi h Fe-C, chuyn
pha m actenxit cng xy ra trong cac h khc nh Fe-Ni, Cii-Zn. T i-N i, ...
Hinh 3.5. Mt s dang chuyn pha Hinh 3.6 Thay i nng lng t
thng gp trong vt liu do theo nhit ca hai pha (X v Y
3.2.1. N H I T NG

HC

C H y n p h a
Nng liig t co G ca pha lun gim theo nhit , G - f - T .s, trong

entanpi H v entropi s t thay i theo nhit . Chuyn pha xy ra Ii ii plia mi
n mh hii, tc c nng lng t do nh hn. S ph thuc nng hng do gy_
(tnh cho mt n v th tch) vo nhit ca hai pha a v p bin din trn liiih
3.6. Ti nhit T^, nng lng t do ca hai pha bng nhan v vng T > T.; ci
tn t i pha p (v c nng lng t do nh hn), cn vng T < T ch tn t i pha a.
To l nhit d chuyn pha . Nu p l pha lng, cn a l pha rn th i T l nhit, (l
kt tinh. tha mn iu kin ga< g., chuyn pha p a ch c th bt u
nhit T no Iih hn T. Nh vy , chuyn pha cn qu ngui AT = T - T,
k h i ng lc chuyn pha s l liiu nng lng gia hai pha Iih i t d cho ;
g = g r, g fi < 0 .
c gi t r ; = AI/U, . T / T ; trong hiu entanpi gia hai pha ;

^ /tu = hfi - h gi l n nhit chuyn pha p -> a . A/ipa l n nhit kt tin h L,,
(khi kt tinh) hoc n nhit nng chy L,. (khi nu chy). n nhit chuyn pha
thng cho sn trong s tay nhit ng hc, v d, chuyn pha y-Fe -> a-Fe c
Ahyo, = 9.2.10^ J/mol, cn Lp ca Na l 3.1.10^ ca Si l 7,4.10^, ca NaCl l
1.7.10" j/m o l, ...
Trong cc h hai nguyn tr ln ;
Cu - c /(
= ---------- R .T. In {c / Cp);
1- c
trong f , c p v c - nng ca pha a, p v hp kim (xem phn gin pha hai

nguyn).
VT LIU HC________________________________________________________________ 105
Nu i\i kin nhit ng hc c tha mn (Ag < 0). chuyn pha xy ra bng
hai qii trn h ni tip nhau : to mm v pht tri n mm. Hai qu tru h ny quyt
nh t chc (s liig. Im ili dng, phii b tng pha. ...) v do quyt nh tnh
rh t ca vt liii.
3.2.2. Q U T R N H TO M M
Qu triih to mm xy ra theo hai c c h : t sinh v k sinh.
3.2.2.1. Mm t sinh (mm ng th)

Mm t sinh l Iihug nhm nguyn t c kiu mng v thnh phn ha hc
gn nh ca plia mi (pha sn phm) itc h iih thnh trong nn pha c (pha m)
v c th pht tri n (ln ln) trong qu trn h chyn pha. S hih thnh nhng
mm nh vy du n:
- Niig liig t do ca h (nim v nn) gim mt i lng AGv = V./Sgy, trong
(l V l th tch ciia mm;
- Xut hin b m t phn chia gia nn v nim vi nng lng b mt:
AGs = S. , trong s l din tch b m t mm v l nng lng b m t (sc
ciig b mt) tn h cho mt n v din tch;
- Xut hin niig lng n hi do th tch ring ca nn v mm khc nhau :
AG,11, = V. A^.ih. trong .iii l nng lng n hi tn h cho nit n v th tch
nm.
T ba y\i t^ trn, s thay i nng liig t do k lii to mm s l:
AG = - AG + AG^ + AG,h, = V (Ag. + Ag,n,) s . ; (3.7)
v chuyn pha ch c th xy ru kh i nng lng t do chung ca h gim, tc

dAG) / d r < 0.
Nu mm c dng cu bn knh r v khng ng k ( k h i mt trong hai
pha c th bin dng c. chng hn pha lng kh i kt tin h , tin h th c nhiu
khuyt t t khi chuyn pha. khi polyine kt tiiih . khi to g ra p liit cu trong gang. ...)
th biu thc (3.7) c dng :
AG = ( 4 l 3 ) w . A g + 4nr^. . (3.8)
T iig biu din cia G nu trn hnh 3.7 nhn th'y, nu mm c bn knh
r < r * , r * l bn knh mni ti hn. (tiig ng vi im cc i AG* ca ng
cong AG ) th inni khng th ln ln c ( v k h i AG tng), n s b tan i. Nu
inni c bn knh ln hn r* th s pht tri n thnh tin h th. T iu kin cc tr
hm AG, d dng tn h ic r * theo cng thc :
2 . 2. . T
r* -------------- = ------------- = const. (1/AT) (3.8)
A /i. AT
(cng c th vit log r * - - coiist. log AT), c ngha bn knh mm ti hn t l
nghch vi qu ngui, AT cng ln th r * cng nh. v d, k h i kt tin h Cu nguyn
106 Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN pha t r o n g v t li u
cht, vi AT r 0.3 T th r* = lO" cm v

khi AT - 30 "C tli r* - lO'* cm. Biu thc
G
(3.8) cng chng t. ti nhit Ta (tc
AT = 0) chuyn pha cha bt. u, v khi
r* = 00.
Nng lng b in t thng bao gni G'
liai thnh plin :
- Nng liig b mt. ha hc (|,|,). l r
phn nng lng b m t do lin kt
nguyn t khc nhau v hai pha ca
b mt; II ph tliuc nng : AG
0 |,|, = const.(c|, - c)"^; \
\
- Nng liig b m t c'!! trc (,.,), l \
\
do s khc nhau v cu tn c gia hai pha 6s
a v P; nn b m t lin mng th
,., = const.(6,j - c(i) / d.^. y d,j, v C| Hnh 3.7. Thay i nng lng t do ca h
l khong ccli nguyn t tro iig pha nn khi to mm
v mm dc theo m t tip xc.
Nh vy. = 0 |,|, + a,.( ; i vi b mt lin mng th b (khong 0,2 J/m^),
cn b int khng lin mng c lii (khong 0,65 J/m^). Do , inin lin mng d
to ra hn. nhing n ch c th tn ti vi kch thc inm nh. Nu cng kch
thic th niin diig cu c din tch b mt nh nht, do , AG^ c tr s'nh nht.
Nng htng n hi xut hin khi a v p u trng th i rn do th tch
ring klic nhau (s' hng hoc do hnh dng khc nhau (s* hng ) S'
hng xut hin kh i th tch nguyn t ca hai pha khc nhau, v d troiig
chuyr pha tli hnh y-Fe -> a-Fe. hoc do s lng nguyn t (trong cng th
tch) ca hai pha khc nhau, v d\i pha p v Y trong h Cu-Zii. ro ln
(khong l M J/m b th c xu th to mm khng lin mng. Mm dng cu c gi
t r AG.|1,= V. /o-,11, ln n h t v nu cng din tch b m t th th tch mm dng cii
s ln nht so vi th tch nini dng k in i hoc a.
Nhi vy gim AG*. nu rTt ln th mm c dng cu. cn trong trng hp
ngc li. tc r'! nh th mni c dng da hoc kim. "Mm" ca viig GP trong
hp kim A l-C u ( xem mc 8.6.3.2) c dng a v bn knh nguyn t Cu v AI
khc nhau nhiu ln), cn trong h A l-A g "mm" ca vng GP c dng cu
v bn knh nguyn t ca AI v Ag gn bng nhau.
Trong chuyn pha Iiiactenxit g-,11, xut hin l do vng th tch chuyn pha b
bin dng. A^di, ^ 80 M J /n i'l T biu thc (3.7) cn nhn thy nu cng lii th
cng kh to Jiini (v AG* s cng ln) v nu > ?v th chuyn pha b ngng
li. iu Iiy tlung xut hin trong chuyn pha mactenxit.
Nh trn trn h by. inin ch c th pht trin c nu c kch thc ln
hn /*. do tc to niin n {s mm ctc to ra tro iig nit n v thi gian v
trong mt, n v th tch) l tch ca :
- S mn N c kch thic ti hn trong n v th tch t i nhit T:
^ exp [-AG* / .
VT LIU HC___________________________________________________________________ 107
trong . - s nguyn t trong mt n v th tch ca pha nn;

- Xc sut p nguyn t t pha nn "nhy vo mm qua phn mt
niiii/nii:
p = exp [-AGjj / /T] ,
trong . AG|) - hot nng khuch tn qua phn mt, cng chnh l hot nng
khuch t n qua pha nn.
Nh vy biu tlic ca tc to inm c dng:
n = . exp {-(AG* + AG|)) / kT \ ; (3.9)
T biu tlc (3.9) nhn thy, khi qu ngui AT cng ln, mt r t tc to
n i iii n s cng ln v nng krng to mm ti hn AG* cng nh. I.hng trong
chuyn pha k h i ngui, s nguyn t khuch tn qua phn m t Li cng nh k h i AT
cng ln. kt qii l. t'c to mm n t cc i ti mt qu ngui trun g gian
no .
3.2.2.2. Mm k sinh {mm d th)

Mm k siiih l niin khng t sinh ra trong lng pha nn m da vo cc v
tn' c "khuvt tt", trng th a i lng, l nhng vt rn c sn hoc thnh
klmn. cn trng th i rn, l bin ht. lch. ...Trong triig hp ny, hiu ng
tng nng litng b m t As c gim mt phn do nng lng b m t c sii trn
Iihng khuyt t t . Mm k sinh cn c vai tr quan trng trong cc qu trnh:
to iniig Iiiiig t pha kh trn rn (v d, to mng Au trn M 0S2), to lp
bo v (gi, kim loi, ...) bng cch nhng vo pha lng. v.v.
Nii trn b m t pha l , v d^vt rn c sn trong kim loi lng k h i kt .inh
lioc phn t pha r t cng c sn trong pha nn trng tli i rn, ... (hiih 3.8a)
xiiat hiii niin a trong Iicn p (mm c dng chm cu bn knh r*) th Iing
hrng AG* ca mm nh\ vy nh hdn r't nhiu so vi mm t sinh hnh cu. T s
c = (ks: k sinli; ts: t sinh) plui thuc vo gc tip xc 0 th hin
cong chm cu (cn gi l gc th ii t), cn gc 0 l i ph thuc vo tiig quan
gia cc sc cng b m t ai, (^, ay:
cos 6 = ----------------- .
CO n g h a ph thu c v o b n c h t ca cc ph a a. p v Y . T h n g th ii g c < 1, tc
mm k sinh d to ra hn mm t sinh.
Hnh 3.8. Mm k sinh dang chm cu (a) v dng thu kinh li (b)
108 Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
Nu mm k sinh dng thu k iih li vc to ra tr n biu gii gia hai li t

(hiih 3.8b) th hiu qu gim nng lng c = A*ks / aG*i.s ph thuc vo t s
pp/ 2a() . Nu app / 2u(i > 1 th G* -> 0. Troiig triig hp |,|1 - th c = 1/8;
2 a ,x (
c cn nh hdn na k h i to mm t i mp ht. (bin gii en ba ht) hoc ti nh

ht (bin gii ca bii ht). Tuy nhin, s gim AG*ks khng phi lc no cng lm
tng tc to mm n v t r s " t r o n g biu thc (3.9) cng gim r t nhiu.
Nu Iili (khi qu ngui nh) hoc ln (khi inm khng lin mng) th
mm k sinh to ra v tr nh, nip v trn bin h t ( liiili 3.9a) v c dng c i
hoc thu knh li. K lii tng (tng qu ugiii), inin c dng t in xu t pht
t mt bin hai ht (hnh 3.9b) v nu z!v?v tip tc tng th to inm theo c ch
min t sinh l ch yu vi s' lng ln v plin b' khng u trong ht
(liiih 3.9c). v tr u tin l trn cc lch. V d v to mm t i sinh tr n g th i rn
l to vng GP trong hp kim nhm v to mm Iiia cte n xit tron g thp. Mm d
dng to ra cc vng c khuyt t t khng nhng v AG* c t r s nh m CII do
khuch tn trong Iih iig vng nhanh hii, lm cho th n h phn ha hc d t
gi tr ca pha sn phm.
To mm trong tin h th io ii (v d, h L iF -M g F 2) v ti t pha tro n g oxyt th y
tin h (N a^0-C a0-Si02) v trong polyme cng theo Iih iig quy lu t to m in nh
troiig kim loi. Trong nhiu trng hp (kt tinh), tc to m ni quyt nh tc
chuyn pha.
Hinh 3.9, Cc kh nng tao mm trong pha rn

a) mm K sinh dng cu hoc thu kinh li,
b) mm k sinh dng tm; c) mm t sinh
3.2.3. Q U T R N H P H T T R I N M M
Nhng mm c kch thc trn ti hn mt t (t ra c m t nguyn t nhiu hn

so vi mni ti hn) s ln ln gim nng lng ca h, v theo biu thc (3.8)
kh i kch thc ca mm tng, s hng nng lng th tch AGv gim nhanh theo
cn s' hng b m t ch tng theo r^.
Trong chuyn pha m miri v pha nn c cng nng . ch khc nhau v cu
trc mng (v d, kt tin h t th lng kim loi nguyii cht, chuyn pha th hnh,
kt tin h li. ...) th mm ln ln ch cn cc nguyn t nhy qua ph n mt mm
nn (khuch tn gn).
VT LIU HC 109
Tc p h t tri n m ni V ph thuc niiih vo hai yii l: s' nguyn t (phn

t. nhnh cao phn t) chuyn n b mt mm v kh nng iih v trn b mt
ny.
Trong chuyn pha khuch t n gn. s Iignyii t chuyn n b int mm N l
h i ii g i a s nguyn t t ph a nii "iihv" vo iniii qiia ph n m t:
exp f -i) IkT ]
(hnh 3.10) v s' nguyn t nhy theo chiu ngc li t mm vo pha nn :
exp [ -(/v?-|) + g,,) I k T \ ,
do :
N = exp I -AÎ) HT ]. { 1 - exp(-iV,\ / kT) } , (3.10)
trong AÎ) c th coi l hot nng khuch tn troiig pha nn v ph thuc
vo q u n g u i AT, do n u so snh cc i lng N i vi pha kiin loi. hp
cht v cd, polyine (k hiu ting ng l A^|. N-I. N.) ta c ti iig quan :
N, > N-, > N^.
Mm
Hnh 3.10. S thay i nng ing qua phn Hinh 3.11. nh hng ca hnh thi b mt n
mt mm/nn pht trin mm :
a) b mt nhe; b) c lch xon;
c) b mt phng,khng khuyt tt
KJi nng nh v trn b m t niiii ph thuc r t nhiu vo liiili th i b mt.
Nu b m t dng g gh. cn gi l b m t Ii (hnh 3.1 la), xy ra khi h / /eT<j * 1,
v d k h i k t tin h k im loi hoc m t s cht hu c (CBri). hoc kh i chuyn pha th
hnh, kt tin h l i.......k h i s" ch trn b int nguyii t (phn t) c th mh
v l nhiu v xy ra lin tc mi v tr trn b m t ntin. Tc pht tri n mm
V t l vi N v v N r t ln nn L'| lii v chuyn pha c th xy ra vi qu
ngui nh. Nu qu ngui AT r t nh th gy,- nh, do :
{ 1 - exp (-A^, 'r) I - g^.kT - AT .
T (3.10) nhn ic ;
, - K.
vi K ~ exp( -Ag) / kT ) tc tc plit trin iriiii tiig, theo AT. Nu qu ngui
AT r t ln th exp (-Ag^.kT) 1, do (3.10) c dng ;
110______________________ Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN pha t r o n g v t li u
N ~ exp (- A ^ i) //T )
v nh vy N gim mnh k h i T tng (nhit gim) dn n tc pht trin
mm gim. V d in hnh v pht trin theo in hnh ny l chuyn pha th
hmh. T r s' L>1 t cc i qu ngui AT'|.,x(v) no v ni chung;
^ÎI)HX(V) ^ ''>
V b m t m nn pht tri n c tn h ng hng v phn int nim /iin cli
knh hin v i c dng phng. Nu c tp cht t li t chc c dng r iili kha.
Nu b mt mm c dng phng (hmh 3.11c), kh i A/ / /T 100. v d khi kt
tin h ca polyme, th muli mm pht trin, cn to lp nguyn t (phn t) khng
hon thin (cn gi l mm hai chiu) nguyn t c th bm vo ic. Xc
sut to nhng mm hai chiu nh vy t l vi :
exp (a .r,, / h.T. AT) ,
do tc pht tri n mm u- trong polyiie t l vi:
V: ~ N: . exp {K :J AT) .
Trong trng hp ny do N: nh nn D.T nh. Chuyn pha ch xy ra k h i AT
ln (c 50 0 v r t kh t t l chuyn pha 100%.
Nu b m t mm c dng lch xon (lnh s .llb ) , kh i 1 < (A/ / /T,,) < 100, v
d khi kt tin h vt liu v c, bn dn. ... v m t lch tru b mt (s^ ch
nguyn t hoc phn t bm vo) thng l t l vi AT/2jrT. tc t l vi AT. l lii
T b, t (3.10) ta c N 2 gu AT, do tc pht trin mm 2 c quan h:
u -2 ~ K 2X AT)^ ,
y phn m t mm / nn c dng Iihp nh v n ph thuc vo nh hng ca
lch.
Trong cluiyii pha c thay i thnh phn ha hc (v d ti t plia, chuyn pha
cng t c h , ...) m m ln ln do hai qu trnh ni tip nhau; 1) nguyn t khvich tn
trong nn n b m t mm/nn v 2) nguyn t nhy qua b m t vo min, trong
qu tr n h kh u ch t n l chm li n . do n kh ng ch tc pht, tri n Iin i.
Nh vy y biu thc ca L) phi cha hai yu t' l dng nguyn t khuch tn
n b mt mm/nn ( . c/Ax ) v chiih lch nng trong inii v tru b
m t (Cp - Cau):
' Ac 1
V = const. D . --------- . ---------
C - CVf
Thay cc gi t r Ac c - Can v Ax J d . . ta c ;
V = c o n s t. ---------- . J7) . (3.11)
K lii tng AT th (c - ) / (cp - Cap ) tng, nhng m t khc D gim nn tc

pht tri n V s t gi t r cc i ti mt Iio . N lut vy, t'c pht tri n
mm V khng nhng ph thuc vo D v thi gian t ni cn vo dng ciia gin
pha (cc gi t r Cp - Cap, h iih 3.12).
Kch thc ht tin h th ang ln lu (r = v.t) c th tnh theo biu thc:
VT LIU HC 111
c - ca(i
V = coiist . ^ D / t - const.v Dlt ; (3.12)
c - c;r
Trong chuyn pha do khuch

tn nguyn t thay th th
V ^ 10"*, cn do khuch tn nguyn
t xen k: lO'*^ inm ^/s. Nu
khuch tn ch yu theo bin ht
th tin h th p c dng tm nm
v\ing gc vi phng pht trin;
nu liig p khng qu t th l
nhng t'm cch u nhau. y l
mt trong nhng nguyn l tao vt
Hnh 3.12 Gin pha v phn b nng
liu kt hp compozit vi phn b
trong vng ranh gii ca pha n ang ln ln
rt nin.
Nu tn h n cong b m t mm th -an trong biu thc (3.11) phi thay bng
vi
Cu(i(r) = cp. exp ( 2V,. / k .T.r) .
t.rong v,,, - th tch inol.
Trong Iihiu trng lip 2V,. / /e .T 1 do :
Caf(r) ~ Cafi - [1 * (const / r)] .
Kt qu l tc pht tri n s khc nhau ph tliiic vo kch thc ca mm
(ht), x u t hi n dng khu ch t n t v n g gip h t nh cln v n g gip h t ln. l m
cho nhng li t nh tan cti, cn ht lu pht trie ii ln .Dy l c ch ht lii "im t"
li l nh ihiig gp, v d khi kt Im h li (xejii^luiiig 4).Trong qutrn h uut
ht, ln ca ht ph thuc vo tl'.i gian theo biu thc;
^ Ca\ . a . {D / T ) . t. (3.13)
y l biu thc c s ch to v t liu c bn nng cao. M uii kch thc
ht tng chm theo thi gian (do c tnh gim chm) cn t nht l mt trong
cac iii kin sau :
- Nng lug b li t nh, 0.02 J/m^ . in Iiy c dc nu b mt
mm/nn l lin mng, v d h Ni - Ni.iAl;
- Gii hn ha tan Cotp (theo gin pha) nh. v d trong hp kim bt dung
dch rn - A I 2O 3 hoc dung dch rii-pha lin kim loi;
- H s' khuch tn nh. v d, trong thp c nhiu cacbit.
3.2.4.NG HC CHYN p h a
ng hc chuyn pha m t quan h gia phn vt cht c chuyn sang

pha mi v thi gian nhng nhit khc nliau. ng hc chuyn pha ph thuc
vo tc to mm (n) v tc pht tri n Iim (;) v thiing c biii din bng
biu thc Johnson-M elil-A vram i (JMA):
X = 1 - e xp R /.T )"] (3.14)
trong X - phn th tch c chiiyii sang pha mi;
k - hng s' tc chuyn pha, 1/s ;

n - h s".
Ly loga biu thc (3.14), t cc s liu thc nghim v mi quan h gia X v l
(v d bng phng php kim tng hoc o in tr. ...) d dng xc nh cc gi
t r k v n. Hng s k ph thuc vo tc to min v tc c pht, trin mm. Nii
s pht trin pha l do khuch tn v c tiih n hin tiiig tran h ch'p inni
(triig khuch tn n m m cho chu nh hng ca tritng khvich t n n
cc mm khc), ta c qu a n h :
k = D .n .
- C u ||
( y n l tc to mm!). H s' n trong (3.14) ph thuc vo hnh th i ca

mm: dng mm, v tr ca mm (nm trong ht, bin ht, ...). T i mi n h i t
chuyn pha, k c gi t r xc mh, t c th xc lp ng cong ng hc (quan
h X - t) nhng nhit khc nhau (hnh 3.13a).
Hinh 3.13. ng cong ng hc chuyn pha (a)

v biu ng hc chuyn pha (b)
Trong thc t, ngi ta quan tm nliiu hii n biu ng hc chuyn pha

khi ngui v trong h trc nhit -thi gian. Biu c triiig c dng nh nu
trn h iih 3.l3b, gm hai ng cong dng ch c (do cn c gi l biu ch
C) tng ng vi thi im bt u v kt thc chviyn pha ng nhit k h i ngiii
ti mi nhit tng ng. Nu Iilii t chuyn pha cng thp (tc qu ngui
AT cng ln) th thi im bt u v kt thc chuyn pha cng nhanh (do ng lc
chuyn pha ^v cng ln). nhng nu tip tc h nhit thp hn "ini" ch c th
c xu th ngc l i (do qu triih khuch tn xy ra cng kh khn). Trong mt s
chuyn pha trng th i rn. biu ng hc c dng phc tp hdn (xem h iili
3.22, 3.23, mc 3.4.1.2). Biu ng hc chuyn pha c xy cii.tiig t cc iig
cong ng hc chuyn pha xc lp ch yu bng thc nghiin.
Biu ng hc chuyn pha cho php d on sn phm ca qu trn h trong
cc iu kin lm ngui ng nhit hoc lin tc khc nhau. c bit, da vo biu
ngi ta xc nh c tc ngui ti h n Du, (hnli 3.13b) n hn vc cc gn
VT LiU HC________________________________________________________________ 113
plini chuyn pha khng khuch tn, v cl nhii t chc v nh hnh khi ngui
nhanh cc vt. iit khc nhau hoc nhn t chc Iiiact.enxit kh i ti thp.
3.3. QU TRNH KT TINH T PHA LNG
Trong qu trn h ch to v t liu v to hnh sn pham, phn ln vt liu phi

tr i qua q\i trn h chuyn pha t trng thi lng sang trng tli i rn tin h th (gi
t t l qiia trm h kt tinh). Qu trn h ny t.ric tip nli hng n phii b. hiih
dng, kch thc v nh hng ca iit. do nh hng quyt iih ii tnh cht
ca vt. liu.
Kt tinh xy ra khi lm ngui kim loi lng xung nhit th'p hn im cu
bang T ca phii ng L <-> R. ng lc ca qu triih nhi nu mc 3.2.1 l
chnh Iing lng gia hai pha L-R ; Ag ~ gu - 0 ti nhit T thp hn To.
tc vi qu ngui AT - - T = T,. - T (T,,.. l nhit, Iing chy).
Qii t rnh kt tin h tun theo cc qiiy hit cluiig ca chuyn pha nh kho
Bt mc 3.2, ng thi c nhng c th . Sau y kho st cc c th .
3.3.1. C I M QU T R N H TO M M k h i K T t i n h
K h i to mm tin h th t pha lng, s thay i uiig lng t do ca h ch bao

gni hai yii t: th tch AGv v b mt. AG^ ; y yu t. bin diig n hi AG,|1, c
th b qua Iih nu trong biu thc (3.8). juc 3.2.2.
Cii trc ca pha lng l tr t t gn. do trong pha lng lun hiii tn t i cc
nhm ngiiyii t sp xp c tr t t Iih th rn. (1 Iilii t cao hn nhit nng
chy, cc nhm Iiguyn t c trt, t. ny rt. kni \ dnh, chng ch tn t i trong
k h o n h kh c ri tan i ngay. () n h i t th]) hii 7,,, . s tr t t ha s p xp
nguyn t theo c'n trc ca pha rn lm gim Iiug lng t do. do cc nhm
n gu yn t vi trt t gn trong pha lng c X\1 th n ciih li v ph t trin ln
thnh pha tin l th; chnli l cc Iiiani : t siiih hoc k sinli.
S thay i Ii ii lng t do khi kt tinh theo c ch inni t sinh tun theo
l)iu thc (3.8), cn tlieo c ch niin l' sinli (inh 3.9a) th th tch V ca mm
trong (3.8) l th tch cliin cii v s hng nng lng b nit AG^ bao gm nng
lng b ii t g iia Iii m /v t r n c sn v Jing Ivng b m t gia in m /p h a lug.
tc:
AGj, = \||, + 'mk . ( \1|,>- am,) .
trong 5 mi, - diii tch b mt chm cvi gia mm vn pha lng;
'\1K> - di n tch ti p xc gia m m v b mt. v t rn.
Cc sc cng b m t aMi,, a.\ii< v CTÎ, c qvuin h vi nhau qua gc thm lt 0 :
COS0 - ( |. |, - omk) / a M i,
Biu thc thay i Iiug lng t do khi to Iiini kt tin h t pha lng ph
tliuc bn knh r ca inin c dng;
47r L,
A = c . ( ------ AT + 4 n r\ C) , (3.1)
o rp
8- VLH o
114 __________________ Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
trong c = (2 - 3 COS0 + cos'^0) / 4 .

Nu kt tin h theo c ch mm t sinh, tc mm c dng cu. gc 0 = 180" v h
s c - 1 . Nu kt tin h theo c ch mm k sinh th 0 < 0 < 180" v 0 < c < 1 .
ng cong thay i nng lng c dng nh Ii\i hnh 3.7 v k t tin h ch xy
ra kh i kch thc ca mm l ii hn gi t r ti hn r*.
Trong a s" cc trng hp to mm k sinh, gc 0 l gc nhn, do c 1.
tc nng lng to mm k sinh b hn nhiu so vi mm t sinh v k t tin h xy
ra d dng hn. Ngi ta li dng c im ny iu k h i ii qu tr in h kt tiiih .
V d, kh i kt tin h Cu, vi qu ngui AT =300 "c mm t sinh c r * = 10 * cin
(cha khong 300 nguyn t), nhng to mm k sinh t iig t ch cn qu
ngui AT khong 10 c (r* = 10'^ cm vi 0 = l). PQii c k im loi, c t chc
ht nh ngi ta cho thm cc cht bin tiili vo kim loi lng (v d. cho AI vo
thp. FeSi vo gang, Zr vo hp kim nhm, ...) c kh nng to ra cc hp cht kh
chy hoc cc ht rn nh m n treo l lng trong pha lng v k h i Iigui, chng
ng vai tr cc tm mm k sinh. K iin loi vi t chc h t nh c c tn h cao.
Ngoi cht bin tnh, ngi ta cn s dng cc bin php lm nh h t khc Iilu
rung c hc. sng siu m. ... kh i kt tinh.
3.3.2. C I m q u t r n h p h t T R I n M M k h i k T t i n h
K lii kho st qu trm h to mm (mc 3.3.1) gi th i t rng mm ban u c

dng cu (t sinh) hoc clim cu G sinh). y ch l s gn ng ban \i. V
mm c cu to tin h th nn trong giai on u, khi chng p h t tri n t do trong
pha lng, cc b m t gii hn phi l Iihng m t tin h th vi sp xp nguyn t xc
nh. H iih diig thc t ca mm (tinh th) ang ln ln p li i l hnh a din
tng ng vi kiu mng tin h th ca pha rn. Do tc pht tri n ph thuc vo
ch s" m t tin h th. kh i nim ln ln, mt s" m t ca a din b Iii t i, ch gi li
cc m t c nng lng b m t b v sao cho tng nng lng b m t ca tin h th L
b nht. p dng iu ny i vi mng lp phng tm m t chng hn, tin h th
ang ln ln thng c gii hn bi cc m t {111} v c dng u trc. T uy nh iii
trong nhiu trng hp, cc tin h th ln ln theo hnh nhnh cy.
Qu trn h kt tin h theo hnh nhnh cy c th III t nh saII. u tin tiiih
th pht tri n nhanh theo mt hng xc nh no . to th nh tr c chnh (A) ca
tin h th (li ih 3.14a). Sau , t trc chnh tin h th pht tri n u ti n theo trc
th hai (B), ri trc th ba (C), ... v cu cng phn k in i loi l iig xu iig quanh s
in kn khong khng gian cn l i gia cc trc. Ph thuc ki u mng tin h th,
trc chnh c ch s phng xc mh v thng thng nh hiig dc theo phing
tn nhit chnh ca vng kim loi lng cho. Trn hmh 3.14b Ii ii nh chp mt
tin h th nhnh cy di 39 cm, nng 3,4 kg tch ra t vng lm co ca mt thi
thp c ln m nh bc hc Nga Chernov pht hin nm 1878.
S pht trin tin h th theo hnh nhnh cy khi kt tin h c gii th cli theo
nhiu c ch khc nhau: do s tn t i gradient nhit m tro n g vng pha lng
hoc do s phn b' tp ch't (nguyn t^ th hai) pha trc b m t k t tin h lm
tng ng lc kt tin h Av-
VT LU HC ll
Hnh 3.14. S kt tinh theo hinh nhnh cy (a) Hinh 3.15 T chc ba vng ca
v nh chup tinh th nhnh cy tch ra thi c ) vng da c, 2) vng
t vng lm co ca mt thi thp c (b) tinh th hnh tru, 3) vng tinh th
th v u trc (LC . lm co )
3.3.3. T C H C C A T H I C
Vt liu sau k h i nu chy thng c to hnh biing cach c rt vo khun

d kt liiih . liu ii c th i thng c diii tv vi lliu iih dy Iiiiig khc nhau v
t cc v t livi khun khc nhau t ic ch liri ngui mong mun. H ai yu
t^ q iia ii trng cu hru k h i kho s<t s hnh thnh t chc ca kin i loi (hoc ca
vt liu b t k) tro iig th i c l; kin i loi lng dc: lm ngui nh to nhit ch
yu qua th n h khun v vai tr to mm k sinh ca b <nt thnh khun.
T chc c tr n g ca thi c k iii loi gm ba VII^: vng da c. vng tin h
th hnh tr v vng tin h th ht th u trc nh nu trn hiih 3.15.
K lii r t kim loi lng vo khun ngui, lp b nit tip xc trc tip vi thnh
k liii n , k in i loi ic lm ngui r t nhanh. Do c qu ngiii ln nn trn b
in t nhp nh ca th n h khun hnh thnh v s' cc mm k sinh v chng pht
tri n v hiig cho n k h i tip xc v cn tr l ii nhau to thnh lp da c gm
cc h t tin h th r i nh mn. K im loi lng tip tc c lm ngui theo phng
tn n h i t chnh, p lii iig vung gc vi thnh khun. Tinh th no c trc chnh
nhanh cy tr n g vi phiiig ta nhit s pht trin uliaiih vo bn trong, cn tr
s p h t tri n ca cc tin h th ln cn c hng tn ic chnh bt li hn. Sau qu
trn h "cnh tra n h ", m t s tin h th ngng pht trin, s cn li pht, trin u tin
theo phng vung gc vi thnh khun, to vng tinh th hnh tr. Pha lng cn
li vng triin g tm th i c tip tc kl lin h vi d qua ngui b hn Iih i ii so vi
cc vng bn Iigoi. S liiig mm kt tin h t ( y inin t, sinh c th c vai tr
ln hn), thm vo , chng ln ln trong iu kin graieiit nhit nh v nh
nhaii theo nii phng nn pht trin ng u. to t.hiili vng t chc vi cc ht

th v ii trc.
Kling phi kh i no t chc ca thi c cng gm c ba vng nh nii.
K lii c vt mng (di vi m ilin ie t) trong khun kim loi lni ngui bng nc, do
tc Iigui r t ln nn t chc nhn \tc ch gm c vng da c r't nh ini
trong c chiu dy vt c. c kin i loi nguyn cht (v d, ng) trong khun
ngui nhanh, do qu ngui ln, vng tin h th hnh tr s pht tri n xuyn
sut vo tm thi c, to nn t chc xuyn tinh. Thi thp vi t chc xuyn tinh
d b nt kh i cn hoc rn, cn cc kim loi c do cao nh Al. Cu th t chc
xuyn tin h khng gy ra tc hi. K lii c thp thi, trnh xuyn tin h cn gim
tc ngui b ng cch Iiuiig n ng khun hoc dng lp SII lt dy. Cng c th
dng cht bin tnh, rung, siu m to nhiu mm kt tin h v cn tr pht tri ii
tin h th hnh tr.
3.3.4. CC K H U Y T T T TR O N G V T C
c l nit phng php to h iili sii phm r t thng dng. Tuy nhin vt. c
lun c cc khuyt t t m Iigi ch to cn tm bin php hn ch hoc khc phc.
L/n co, r co v r k h : K lii vt liu kt tin h th th tch co li. Phn vt iic
kt t iiili tric s c b co nh cc phn khc cha kt tinh. Phn vt c kt
tin h cu'i cng, kh i co l i s khng cn ngun b svmg, to nn phn khuyt gi l
lm co (litnh 3.15). Ngoi ra, v t liu thng kt tin h theo c ch nhnh cy, phn
th tch pha lng nm gia cc nhnh cy khi kt tinh s kli c b co. to thnh
cc l hng nh ly ty nm phn tn trong vt c gi l r co.
K lii nng chy, v l livi ha tan uhiii kh. K lii k l lin li cac kh ti l ra. to
thnh r kh. v hnh thi, khng th phn bit r kh v r co v r co l ni kh
thot ra lu tin.
Lm co v r co ii l do h i ii ng co th tch AV^ = V|^ - V|> kh i kt tinh. Do
AV = const nn nu v t c cha nh iii r co v r kh th lm co c th tch nh
hn v ngc li.
Co l bn cht ca v t liu kh i kt tin h nn khng th tr iih khi. Ngi ta ch
tm cch lm co nm gn vo phn tha ca vt c (u ngt) s c ct b i.
b co, ii ngt thing ic t phn dy nht v cao nht ca v t c. V l
ni ngui sau cng, u ngt phi c kch thc ln hoc phi ic bao bc
bng lp cch nhit hoc pht nhit, bo m kt tin h xy ra sau cng. Lni ngui
nhanh kh i c th khong cch gia cc nhnh cy s hp. do chiu riig ca
vng hai pha (L + R) hp. b co d hn nn s lng r co t i. trn h kh ha
tan, khi nu luyn s dng cc v t liu kh. sch, trc khi rt cii kh kh tri t
hoc dng phng php Ii ii chy trong chu khiig, trong mi trng kh bo v.
Sau c em cn hoc rn th cc r co v r kh s c "hn" li. C th dng
phng php c p lc cc sn phm st cht t r co v r kh.
Thin tch : Thin tch l h i ii tng phn b tp cli't hoc nguyn t" cho thm
khng ng u trong th tch ca vt c. Nguyn nhn ca thiu tch l s khc
nhau v kh nng ha tan, s hn ch khuch tn trong pha lng v rn. Ngii ta
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ m
phn bit thin tch v m v vi m. Thin tch v in l s phn b khng ng

Iih t trn nlung vng ln ca vt c (cii gi l tlii ii lch vng), v d. troiig thi
thp c, l ii hu iih v photpho tp trung nhiu vng tn in g tni, ... Thin tch vi
III l s phn b khiig ng nht trong phm vi int ht ti ih th. i vi cc ht
tin h th ln lu theo c ch nhnh cy th s phn b tp cht (nguyn t' hp kim)
cng c dng hih nhnh cy (cn gi l thin tch nhiih cy).
T lii ii tch lm xu Iihiu tnh cht ca vt liu nh bn, kh nng gia cng
p lc, ... Nhng v thiu tch l do bn clit vt l ca qu trn h kt tin h nn
khng th loi b m ch c th dng cc bin phap klic nhau hn ch. Thin
tch vng do sai khc triig liig ring s c hii ch ng k nu trc khi rt
vt liu lng c k ln iy u v c lin nhiii nhanh trong khun, khuch tn
sau kh i c (inc 3.1.3.1) khc plic ng k thin tch nhnh cy v ch gim mt
plin th iii tch vng.
ng sut c : K lii lm ngui vt c, ng sut c sinh ra do cc nguyn
nhn sau y;
- K lii c. v t c c lm ngui khng ng u. Phn mng hoc lp b mt
tip xc vi th n h khun c Iigiini nluinh lin so vi phn dy hoc cc lp bn
trong. Do ngui khng ng u lin qii triih kt tiuh v co,xy ra khng cng lc
nhng phn khc nhau ;
- Do c lm ngui khng u. cc chuyn pha troiig v t liu cng khng xy
ra ng th i v n h i n h a n tro n g ton b Vct c (tlung km theo s th a y i th
tch ring);
- i vi cc v t c c h n li diig phc tp. qua trnh co ca vt liu b khun
cn tr.
Cc ng sut, c th ch sinh ra nht hi hoc cng c th tn ti lu di sau
khi vt dc ngui hon ton gi l ng suVt ch. iig su. i khi ciig c li (v d
ng sut ko k h i iig c polynie), nhitng nii V\1 qu gi t r cho php ca vt
liu, ch ng gy nn cong vn h hoc lm II t vt c. i vi n h i u v t li ii. ng
s ii t d i ko l r t n g iiy h ie i, chng k t hp vi ngoi lc th c y p h t tr i n v t
nt gy nn ph hy chi tit, iig su't nn cl trn b mt, chi ti l ngc li c tc
dng c<ii tr pht trin vt nt, tng bn ca chi til..
D hn ch ng sut, hnh dng chi ti t cn c thi i k hp l. K lii c cn
r vt c sm ra khi khun. Cc chi ti t c hnh dng cil cong vnh kh i ngui,
cn to thm cc gn tr lc. lm tiig cng vng ca chi ti t c. Sau k h i c,
phi kh ng sut d.
3.3.5. C I M CH U YN PH A K H I NGUI N H AN H
Nh nu mc 3.2.2. v mc 3.3.1, t'c ngui nh hng trc tip n s

hnh thnh t chc v do n tnh cluVt, ca vt liu, Tc ngui cng nhanh
th kt tin h xy ra vi qu ngui cng ln. lni cho c tc to mm (n) v
pht tri n mm (v).u tng (liih 3.16). nhng trong khong t AT) n AT^. khi
tng tc ngui, ch c tc to mm tug cn tc pht tri n mm l i gim do
khuch tn xy ra chm, ta nhn cc t chc rt nh mn (c microniet) gi l t
118______________________Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN p h a t r o n g v t li u
chc vi tin h th. Nu tip tc tng t'c ngui l ii hn gi t r ti hn (hnh

3.13b) th c to mm v pht tri n mm u khng thc hin c (viig lii hn
T-i trn liiih 3.16), cc nguyn t khug th khuch t n to th nh tin h th, t
chlc nhn c trng th i v nh hih (trng th i th y tinh). c bit cc cht
lng cu to t cc phn t c kch thc ln (v d, cc silicat, cc hp c li t lin kt
ion hoc ng ha tr, cc polyme, ...) r t kh khuch t u k h i ng c, ch cu tc
ngui nhanh va phi, c th cliuyii sang th rn v m h h iili. l vi cc hp
kim, mun c t chc v iah h iih th rn, chng cn c lm ng iii vi tc
kh cao. c 10 ' - lO*'^ c/s.
K li lm ngui vi tc ln hn t>(i, , s kt tin h khng th xy ra. pha lng
tip tc tn t i trng th i qu ngui di nhit T<, (on bc. hnh 3.17), st
(viscosity) tng mnh v t gi t r r t ln. Ti im c. tidn g ng vi n h i t T.
(glass transitiou teniperature) pha lng b "ng cng" li. chuyn sang pha rn v
nh hnh (thy tinh).
Cn nhn iniih l s tn t i ca Iihit Tg l x u t pht t yu t" iig hc
ch khng phi t iu kin nhit ng hc nh i vi n h i t nng chy T i.. Ti
Tg th tch ring khng thay i t bin nh T,,,. Oinh 3.17). st. t i nh
du s chviyn t trng th i mm (lng qu ngui) sang tr n g th i rn v iih
hmh, c gi tr khong 10'^-10'^ Pa.s. Nhit Tg c vai tr quan trng k h i kho
st c im cng ngh v tn h cht ca nhiu v t liu silica t v polyme, l nh iig
nhm vt liu d Iihn trng th i v mh hiih, tiu biu l th y tin h s ilic a t (xeni
mc 9.4) v cc polyme nhit do (xem mc 11.3.3).
Hnh 3.16. nh hng ca qu ngui M n Hnh 3.17 S thay i th tich ring theo nhit
tc d tao mm n v pht trin mm V khi ngui nhanh (abcd) v ngui chm (abef)
ab- lng: bc-lng qu ngui; cd - v nh hinh
(thy tinh), ef - tinh th
vi vt liu kim loi, cc phng php ngui nhanh hin i nh phun to
bt t pha lng, phun bng mng, bc hi chn khng, ... cho php nhn c cc
cu trc khc nhau ; vi tin h th (c ht m icroiiiet), siu vi tin h th (c ht.
nanomet) hoc v ili hih vi nhng tn h ch't c, l, ha r t a dng. V t liu
kim loi ngui nhanh v i tin h th hoc v iih h iih ang c nghin cu pht
VT LIU H O C _______ ________________________________________________ 119
trin tron g n h n g n m g n y v l m t trong nhng loi v t liu mi c nh iu

tini nng.
3.4. CHUYN PHA TRNG THI RN

C huyii pha tr n g th i rn tun theo cc quy h i t chung nu mc 3.2.
c ii ch l tron g biu thc th a y i nng lng t do k h i to mm [biu thc
(3.7)], s" hng nng lng n hi (do s sai khc v' th tch ring v kh
nng bin dng n hi ca pha m v plia sn phm) c vai tr ng k, n quyt
iih hm h dng ca pha sn phm nh nu hnh 3.9, H s khuch tn pha
rn nh hn nhiu so vi pha lng (mc 3.1.1) nn qu triih to mm v pht
trin mm xy ra kh khn hn; cc khuyt t t mng khc nhau nh n t trng,
lch, cc phn t tp cht, ng trt, tin h gii, ... c vai tr quan trng l vi
qu trn h to mm k sinh.
Nh kho st chng gin pha, cu .trc pha trng th i cn bng ca
cc hp k iin h oc hp c h t th rn rt a diig v phc tp, cha k cc cu
trc c th to ra tr n g th i khng cn bng. C th phn cc chuyn bin
trng th i rn th n h cc Iihm sau :
- Cc cliviyn biu ch km theo s thay i cu trc tin h th m khng thay
i th n h phn ha hc, v d, chuyn bin th hmh, cliuyii bin inactenxit, ...
i u chuyn bin ny xy ra nh dch chuyn nguyn t trn khong cch nh hn
hng s mng (chuyn bin inassive) hoc di chuyn tp hp ca cc nguyn t
tr ii khong cch c hng s' m ng (chuyn bin mactenxit);
- Cc chuyn bin ch dn n s thay i thnh phn ha hc ca pha th hai
m vn gi Iiguyn cu tr c tin h the, vi d s tacli Idp ca dung dch rn qu bo
ha a ^ tt + 2 tro iig hp k im A l-Z ii, trong cc pha a, tt , a .2 c cng kiu mng
t iiili th lp phng tm in t nhng vi tli iih phn Zn khc nhau;
- Cc c h u y n b i n k m th e o S th a y i th n h ph n ha hc l n cu tr c tin h
th ca cc p h a, v d. qu trn h ti t pha khi phn hy dung dch rn qu bo ha
hoc tron g p h n n g c n g tch v i sn phni to th n h l hn hp h ai pha;
- Cc chuyn bin khng tr t t - tr t t. troiig dung dch rn khng tr t t
chuyn tli n h dung dch r n c tr t t (cn gi l siu cu trc, superlattice).
Do chuyn pha tr n g th i rn mang uhiu tnh c th trong cc h hp kim
c th, sau y chiig ta ch kho st cc chuyn pha thng gp trong cc v t liu
kin i loi thng dng, trc ht l thp (hp kim Fe-C) v mt s' hp kim mu.
3.4.1. CHUYN PHA TRNG THI RN t r o n g HP k i m

ST - C A C B O N
T chc cn bng ca cc hp kim st-cacbon c nu gin pha Fe-C

(hnh 2.17). Cc pha v t chc c bn trong thp l ferit, austenit, xm entit,
m actenxit v cng tch peclit (chiig tlung c vit t t tng ng l F, A, X,
M. P). Qu trn h nhit luyn thp c lin quan vi cc chuyn bin ca nhng pha
v t chc nu.
3.4.1.1. S to thnh austenit khi nung

Trong h hp kim Fe-C. pha austenit cli tn ti nhit cao hdii im ti
hn A], tc 727 c. nhng n li c nh hng quyt nh cii s to thnh cac t
chc t v i v tnh cht ca thp sau nhit luyn.
dii gin, chng ta xt qu triih to thnh a iis te iiit tro iig thp ciiig tch
(0,8%C). nhit phng, t clic ca thp cng tch l peclit. tc gii hai pha
fe rit v xeinentit nm xen k nhaii. K lii Iiiiiig n nhit cao hn A|, xny ra
chuyn bin p ^ A. c im ni bt ca chuyn bin Iiy l t lia i pha vi cu
trc v thnh phn cacboii hon ton khc nhau l e rit v xine iitit. to thnh
mt pha ng nht vi c'u trc mi l aiistenit. to pha nii. cii cc qu trn h
to mm v pht tri n mm. Cc m ii a iis te iiit c to thnh theo c ch k sinh
trn b m t ra iih gii gia cc phn t fe rit v xnieiitit. S'liig mm ph tlmc
trc ht vo qu nung (tc ng lc chuyn pha = g,\ - g\' ) saii l tng
b m t ranh gii. K h i mm ln ln, do s sai khc ln v cii trc v tli n h phn
gia austenit v xm entit. cc ht aiisten it pht tri n nhanh hn v pha ferit. do
, sau khi chuyn bin kt thc, tc t t c th tch pha fe rit chuyn sang
austenit, vn cn l i mt liig x iiie iitit cha ha tan v nng cacboii trong
austeiiit mi to thnh cing cha ng nht. N li vy, qu trin h tip theo phi l
qu triih ha tan xm e iitit v ng u thnh phn austeiiit.
Chuyn bin p ^ A l chuyn bin kluich tn nn ng hc ca n tAin theo
biu thc (3.14) v itng cong ng hc c dng nh trn hbih 3.13a. T itng
cong ng hc cc nhit
khc nhau, Iigi ta xy dng
biu ng hc ca chuyn
bin p -> A khi nung. Dng
chung ca biu nu trn
hmh 3.18 vi cc iiig cong
bt u v kt thc chuyn
bin, kt thic ha tan
xineintit v kt thc ng
n ha thnh p li ii aiistenit.
Cc ng cong y khng c
dng ch c (nh nu hnh
3.13b l vi chuyn pha khi
ngui) v khi tng nhit
Hnh 3.18 Biu chuyn bin ng nhit peclit-
(tng AT), h s' khuch tn D
austenit khi nung.
cng tng, do tc pht
A ' l austenit cha ng nht thnh phn
tri n pha tng liu tc, tli i
gian bt ii v kt thc chuyn pha nhanh hn. Biu c th s dng kho
st xu tli ca clniyii bin kh i luuig lin tc. V d, hai vect Li v V-, trn hiih v
biu th hai tc nung (V2 > î), im ct vi cc ng cong ni lu thi im ca
VT LIU HC 121
cc qu trn h tng ng; k h i tng tc Iiuiig, bt u v kt thc chuyn pha xy

ra nhanh (sin) hn v nhit cao hn.
3.4.1.2. Chuyn bin ca austenit thnh peclit khi ngui chm

K lii igui austeiiit thp hn Ai. n tr nn kliiig n nh v c xu th chuyn
bin thnh cc sn phm c tnh n nh cao lidii. Ty thuc iu kin lm ngui
(ngui cliiii. va hoc nhanh), aiistenit c th chuyn thnh peclit, b a in it hay
Iiiactenxit (xem s nu trn hnh 3.19).
Hnh 3.19 S chuyn bin ca austenit khi Hinh 3.20 T chc t vi ca peciit tm
ngui (X 1500)
Chuyn bin austenit peclit khi ngui chm bt ii bng s to mm trn

ranh gii h t austeiiit. Nu mm ban u l Iihng phn t x in e iitit Fe.3C th s
x ii t hin mm lm gim nng cacbon dc tlieo ranh gii austeiiit - xm eiitit,
to iu kin inin fe rit hih thnli. S xut hin inm fe rit li lm tng nng
cacbon int ranh gii au sten it-fe rit v to iu kin cho vic hnh thnh mm
x in e iitit mi. Cc in iii xm entit v fe rit xen k nhau v cng pht tri n vo
aiistenit. K lii pht trin, cacboii khuch tn t vng c gi t r cao (ranh gii gia
fe rit v austeiiit) sang vng c gi tr thp (ranh gii gia xm entit v austenit).
kt qu l cc tm c di ra cho ii khi gp vt chitng ngi. Qu triih c lp i
lp li cho n k h i ht austenit. Nh vy. t chc peclit l gni cc tm ferit. v
x in e iitit sp xp xen k v gn nh soiig song nhau (hiih 3.20). T roiig mt s' ch
luuig v ngui c bit, peclit c diig ht. v d,khi cu ha (mc 3.4.3). K lii
lm ngui austenit vi tic hoc qu ngui cng ln th xc sut to mm
tng, chiu dy ca cc tm ferit, x in e iitit gim v peclit c nh m n cng cao.
T chc xocbit v tru s tit (vit t t X v T. hnh 3.2la) chnh l cc biu th ca
peclit vi Iih m n r t cao.
122 Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
Biu ng hc chuyn bin ng nhit austenit-peclit (itng cong ch C)

nu trn liiih 3.2la . i vi thp cng tch, k h i ngui austenit ch c phii iig
A -> p, biu chuyn bin ng nhit gm hai ng cong ch c
ting ng vi
bt u v kt thc chuyn bin (hnh3.21a). Bn tr i ng cong 1 l austenit
qu ngui, bn phi ng cong 2 l peclit, sn phm kh i hon thnh chuyn
bin. Gia hai iig cong l giai on chuyn bin ang xy ra. t chc lin hp
gm austeit v peclit. Kliong cch t trc tung n ng 1 ni ln 011 iih
ca austenit qu ngui; khong cch ny cng ln, austenit cng n nh v ngc
li. Vng "m i" ca ng cong ch c tng ng vi n n li th'p nht ca
austenit qu ngui. Trong vng k st nhit AC| n mi ng cong ch c, ty
thuc vo nhit , ln lt to thnh cc t chc peclit vi cc tm xm entit v
fe rit th, sau l xocbit hay tru s tit c nh i T i m cao. T m i iiig cong ch c
n ng nm ngang to thnh t chc bainit, cn di ng , to thnh
t chc m acteiixit (s triih by mc 3.4.).
Hinh 3.21. Biu chuyn bin khi ngui ng nhit (a)

v ngui lin tc (b) ca thp cng tich (0,8% C)
Di vi thp trc hoc sau cng tch, trc khi xy ra phn ng A -> p c qu
triih to thnh fe rit hoc xm entit (xem mc 2.4.6), do trn biu chuyn bin
iig nhit cn c thm ng bt u to e rit hoc xm e iitit (liiih 3.22). Nu
thnh phn cacbon ca thp cng xa im cng tch th ng cong ch cngc
dch sang bn tr i v do c nhiu ranh gii pha, chuyn pha xy ra nhanh hn.
c
vi thp lip kim , gin thng c dng ch kp (hiih 3.23).
Thc ra iu kin ngui ng nhit t gp trong thc t. Thng tlii ng kim loi
c lm ngui trong iii kin ngui lin tc. K ii chuyn bin xy ra chi hn
v vi qu ngui lii hn so vi ngui ng nhit; ing bt \i v kt thc
chuyn bin dch chuyn v pha nhit thp hn v thi gian di liii. Xy dng
biu chuyn bin austenit-peciit k h i ngui lin tc l cng vic phc tp, i hi
cc phng php thc nghim c bit v nhiu kh i ngha s dng vn hn ch.
Trn hnh 3.21b nu v d biu chuyn bin A ^ p khi Iigiii liu tc ca thp
cacboii cng tch.
VT LIU HOC 123
Hinh 3.22 Biu chuyn bin ng nhit ca Hnh 3.23. Biu chuyn bin ng nhit ca
thp sau cng tch (1,13%C) thp hp kim 40CrNi
Trong cc s tay nhit luyn thng c nu cc biu chuyn bin ng nhit

hoc lin tc cho t iig loi thp. T cc biu c th xc mh sn phm ca
chuyn bin trong cc iii kin ngui c th nh nu trn hnh 3.21. 3.22 v 3.23.
3.4.1.3. Chuyn bin ca austenlt thnh mactenxit khi ngui nhanh

M acte iixit l dung dch rn qu bo ha ca cacbon trong- a-Fe . c mng tinh
th chnh phng th tm. trong nguyn t Fe nm nh v tm c s,
nguyn l, cacbon nni gia cc cnh theo trc c v tm hai mt y, tc v tr l
hng khi tin m t (hnh 3.24a). Cc hang s mng a v c ph thuc vo hm
lng cacboii tro iig inactenxit; t s c/a gi l chnh phng.
b)
Hnh 3.24 c s (a) v t chc t VI dang kim ca mactenxit (b) (x 7 00)
K lii austenit c lm ngui nhanh, tc vi tc cao hn tc ti hn î,

Giiih 3.21) th austenit khng kp chuyn bin theo c ch khuch tu. cacbon vn
nm nguyn trong mng tin h th, to thnh pha inactenxit vi c\ trc nh
nii Chuyn bin austenit thnh iiiactenxit c nhng c trng chnh sau y;
124______________________ Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN pha t r o n g v t li u
- L chuyn bin khng khuch tn nn thnh phn ha hc ca sn phm

chnh l thnh plii ha hc ca pha m:
- Chuyn biu xy ra tc tli i (c th coi nh khng ph thiic vo thi gian)
vi tc pht trin khong 10 min/s;
- Chuyn biu ch xy ra k h i ngui lin tc dii nhit v dng li nhit,
Aff, A?v < A^dh- l nhit bt \i v kt thc chuyn bin mactenxit.
V tr ca v M| ch ph thuc thnh phn, khng ph thvic vo tc ngui;
- Chuyn bin khng xy ra n cng; ngay c nhit M( vn cn nit liig
austenit khng chuyn bin gi l austenit d. S' htiig austenit ch ph thuc vo
v tr cc im M s, M f;
- T chc t vi ca m acteiixit c dng kim hoc t'in.
M actenxit l pha c cng v bu kh cao. nhng do dai thp. cng
ph thuc ch yu vo hm liig cacbon ha tan trong n. T chc t vi ca
m acteiixit c dng h iih kim . bn cnh l pha austeiiit d niu sng (liiih 3.24b).
3,4.1.4. Chuyn bin ca austenit thnh bainit

B a in it l hn hp ca dung dch rn bo ha cacboii trong a-Fe v xmentit.
Ty thuc vo nhit to thnh, ngi ta phn bit b a iiiit di (to thnh nhit
gn st M) v b a iiiit trn (to thnh vng nh i t cao hn).
Chuyn bin austenit thnh b a in it chim v tr trun g gian giachuyn bin
khuch tu a iis te iiit thnh peclit v chuyn bin khng khuch tn austenit tli iih
m acteiixit nii II mang cc c iin ca c hai chuyn bin trn. Qu trn h
chuyn bin austeiiit th iih bainit. c th tm t t nh sau:
x menft
Hinh 3.25. S t chc t VI ca bainit

a) bainit trn: b) bainit di
i vi thp cacbon, vng chuyn bin b a in it l vng pha di ca m i ch c

(hmh 3.2la ), cn i vi cc thp hp kim c ng cong ch c kp th chuyn bin
ba in it xy ra vng ch c di (li ih 3.23).
VT LIU HOC 12
3.4.1.5. Chuyn bin khi ram thp

Sau kh i ti. thp c t chc niacteiixit ti v aiistenit d; c hai pha uv u
khng n iih niit thng, cling c xu th chuyn thnh cc pha n iih
hn. K lii juuig ln nhit thp (rain). niacteiixit ti b phn hy: cacbon ti t ra
dng cacbit F e 2.-C (cn gi l cacbit e) v Iihit c tr n 300 "c ca cb it 8 chuyn
thnh xnieiitit. Nhv vy. t nhit cao hn 300 "c c th coi Iih inactenxit ti
phn hy hon ton thnh fe rit (a-Fe) v xineiilit (Fe.iC). Ph thuc vo kch
thc ca cac phn t x n ie iitit ni ta c t chc trustit hoc xocbit rani c cng,
bn thp hn Iiactenxit, nling do dai li cao hn.
A ustenit d c th tn t i thi gian di nhit thng do cc nguyn t c
linh ng nh. K hi nung austenit d lu nhit d cao hn 200 "C, II s b phn
hy. T roiig th p cacbon v th p lip kini th p, s p h ii h y ca a u s te n it d x y ra
trong khong nhit 200-300 "c v sn phm to thnh ging sn phm ca
chuyn bin tru n g gian b a iiiit. i vi tlip hp kini cao. chuyn bin austeuit d
ch xy ra kh i lm ngui t nhit ram v sii phan to tli iih l niactenxit ti.
Vi Iiung thp trong pha n nh khng phi l Fe.iC m l cacbit hdp kim
tl ngoi qvi trnh phn Imy ca Iiiactenxit ti v a\isten it di cn c qu trnh to
thnh cacbit lip kiin. S to tli n h cacbit lip kim c th xy ra theo cch "in -s itii"
(nguyn t i ch) hoc bng cch to v pht trin Jiini. Vic to cacbit hp kim
theo cch th n h t khng gy ra bin cng phn tn Iin khng lm t n g cng
khi ram (v d. trong t.hp cacboii v lip kim thp), trong khi to ccbit hp kim
theo ccli tli liai gy bin cng phn tn. tc lin t iig cng khi ram trong
khong uhil OO-GOO "C. Hin ny gi l (t cng th hai (v d, khi ram
tlip gi).
3.4.2. S PH N HY DNG D C H RAN QU BO HA
y l c s ca qu trn h ha gi trong cc lip kim ( trc ht l hp kim

nhm) c gin trng thi, trong vng diing dch rn c nn ha tan tng
ng k theo nhit (cluiyn pha kiu c trn hnh 3.). K lii Iiung hp kim ln
Iihit cao li ii ng gii hn ha tan v lni ngui nhanh th nguyn t' ha tan
khng kp ti t ra, Iih ii ctc dung dch rn qu bo ha. Trng th i ny c Iiiig
lng t do cao nn ki n nh, khi im ng tr li. n c xu th phn hy, to cc
pha mi c niig lng thp hn. Nh vy, trong qu trn h phn hy c s phn
b" li nng . Qu trn h ny c th xy ra tlieo hai kiu thng ging nng ;
thng ging nh trong vng th tch ln hoc thng ging ln trong vng th tch
nh. Tng ng vi chng l hai loi p li ii hy: phn li y kiu lin tc (spiiiodal)
v phn hy theo c ch to v pht tri n inni.
3.4.2.1. Phn hy spinodal

Gi sv trong h lip kiin A - B ng cong thay i nng liig t do ca dung
dch rn ph thuc nng ti nhit c no c dng nh tr ii hnh 3.26. Ti
thnh phn Co (hiih 3.26a) dung dch rn qu bo ha c niig liig t do G| .
trng th i cui cng ca lip kim c n n g lng G^. Vic chuyn t trn g thi ban
u v trng th i cui cng khng th xy ra ngay lp tc v kh to thnh cc
vng c nng sai khc nhiu so vi c. Do thng ging nng . kh nng to
thnh cc vng c nng cao hn v thp hn c l d xy ra Iiht. V d hnh
thnh cc vng vi nng Co' v Co , khi h c Iiiig lng G th c p hn G|,
nhng cn cao hn 2. Qu triih c xy ra lin tc nh vy cho n khi hp ki 111
t c trng th i cui cng (trng th i cn bng) vi nng lng G -2 v gm hai
pha c nng t i Cct v Cp. Nh vy, bt u pha hy duiig dch rn khng yu
cu to ra cc mm c kch thvc ti hn. Dng phn hy ny ca dung dch
rn gi l phn hy spinodal. Phn hy spinodal xy ra i vi Iii thnh
phn hp kim nm gia hai im S v 5 .2, gi l im spiuodal, ni o hii bc
hai / ac^ = 0.
Chuyn bin spinodal gp trong hp kim Al-Zn, A u-N i. Cu-Fe-Ni, Fe-Co-Cr v
n h iu hp kim khc. Loi ch u yn bin n y cng gp trong m t s v t liii polynie.
Hinh 3.26. S gii thch s phn hy dung dch rn qu bo ha theo kiu spinodal
(a) hoc theo c ch tao mm v pht trin mm (b)
3.4.2.2. Phn hy theo c ch to mm v pht trin mm

Xt qu triih phn hy dung dch rn c thnh phn c nin ngoi vng
chuyn bin spinodal (hiih 3.26b). Nng lng t do tr iig th i ban u l G|.
trng th i cui cmg (cn bng) l G 2. N ii do thng ging th iih phn giai on
u li ih thnh cc vng c nng Co v Cu' gn vi Co th nng lng t do ca h
s l G 3 ln hn G,; qu tr iih Iiy khng th xy ra. Ch kh i to thnh cc vng c
thnh phn khc xa Co, v d, C3 v C4, th nng lng t do ca h (G.) mi nh hn
trng th i ban u (G|). S to thnh cc vng nh vy chi c th xy ra theo c
ch to inm v pht tri n inm v theo quy lu t chung, phi vt qiia hng ro
nng lng, tc cng to mm ti hn.
y l loi phn hy dung dch rn thng gp trong hp kim Iili in v nhiu
vt liu k iin loi khc. Thng thng trong qu triih phn hy. trng th i ban u
khng chuyn ngay saiig tr iig th i cui m phi qua cc tr iig th i trung gian.
Sau y kho st v d phn hy trong hp kim Al-4%Cu.
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________ T i
Sau k h i t i t n h i t cao hdn ng gii hn ho ta ii, hp k im Al-4%Cu c t

clic ig nht l dung dch rn qu bo ha a*. T chc ny khng n nh, n s
b phn hy di tc dng ca nhit v thi gian.
Giai on u ca qu tr ih phn hy l s t m cia cc nguyn t Cu dn
ii s hnh thnh vng Guinier-Preston 1 (vit t t G Pl). Vng G P l c dng a.
iig knh khong 100 . chi\i dy vi chc aiigstran(),iroiig lp trun g tm
l cac ngiiyn t Cu. nhng clua c cii trc ring bit v lin h lin mng vi
pha m. Vng G P l tip tc pht trin v kch thc, cc nguyn t Cu tip tc
khvich t ii n vng, dn du hnh hnh cii trc mng chnh phiiig. l vng
GP2. cn vtc k hiu l pha 6". iig knh vng GP2 khong lOO v chiu
dy khong 100 . Cng Iih vng G P l. vng GP2 lin kt lin mng vi pha m,
c trng ng sut n hi cn tr chuyn ng ca lch v do c tc dng ha
bn hp kim. Vng GP ch quan st c tr ii knh hin vi in t vi phng i
hng trm Iighm ln.
Giai on tip theo l s to thnh pha 0' vi kiu mng chnh phng v c
tli n h p li ii xp x cng thc Cu 2A 1; (. tic gn vi thnh phn ca pha cn bng
CuAla- Pha 0 ' lin kt bn lin mng vi pha m. c kch thc tiig i ln nn c
th quan s t c trn kiih h in vi qiiang hc. Giai on cui cng l s to thnh
pha cii bng 0 c thnh phn v cu trc tng ng vi hp cht CuAl^.
Nh vy, s phn hy dung dch rn qu bo ha trong hp k iin Al-4% C ii xy
ra qua nhiu giai on nh sa\i:
a -> vng G P l vng GP2 pha 0' pha 0 .
S phn hy nhiu giai on cng l c im chung ca qu trn h phn
hy dung dch rn qu bo ha. Ty theo thnh plin v nhit . khi phn hy c
th kliig xul hiu dy l t c cc cu linic Irung vi mi U i iili phn
xac nh, nhit phn hy cng cao, kh nng xut liin cc cii trc trun g gian
bc thp ciig t.
3.4.3. C C D * N G N H I T L U Y N V T L I U K IM L O I
N hit luyn l cng ngh x l bng nhit gm tp hp cc qu triih nung

nng, gi nhit v lm ngui theo mt ch xc nh nhm t cc yu cu mong
inuii. Sau y nu cc dng nhit luyii th\Mng CIIC s dng 'i vi cc vt. liu
k iin loi.
3.4.3.1. khng chuyn pha

khng chuyn pha tin hnh nhit thp hn nhit, chuyn pha nhm
khc phc m t p h n hoc hon to n cc sai lch VG t chc so vi tr n g th i cn
bng do cc dng gia cng khc Iih ic. rn. dp. hn, nhit luyn, ... gy ra. Ph
thuc vo mc ch ca . ngi ta phn bil: ng u ha, kt tin h li, kh
ng su't. i vi cc loi ny. nhit nung v thi gian gi nhit, l cc thng
s' ch yu, tc nung v tc ngui ch ng vai tr th yu.
ng u ha (mc 3.1.3.1) dng khc phc thin tch th iili phn ha hc
trong sn phm sau kh i c . Qua trn h chnh xy ra khi ng ii ha l khuch
t n nn dng n y cn gi l khuch tn. Nh, khuch t u cn chn cao

r t ngii thi gian .
kt tin h li (mc 4.4.3) dng cho kim loi qua bin dng do trng thi
ngui nhm khi phc tn h do v kh nng bin dng nh tr iig thi ban u.
Nhit c th chn cao hn nhit kt tin h l i . Thi gian chn theo k iiih
nghim.
kh ng sut dng cho cc sn phm m cc dng gia cng trc (dc.
hn, gia cng c, nhit luyn. ...) c th to ra ng sut d vi mc ch kh iit
phn hoc hon ton cc ng su't d . Nhit cng cao v tli i gian cng
di th ng sut d cng c kh tri t , nhng c tnh s thp.
3.4.3.2. c chuyn pha
c chuyn pha tin hnh nhit cao hn nhit chuyn pha nhm ci
thin t chc theo hitng mong mii i vi thp, nhit chn cao hn im
ti hn AC| hoc Ac. nhm to ra t chc ht nh, ci thin tn h ct gt. khc phc
nhng sai hng v t chc do cc dng gia cng khc gy ra v ng thi kh ng
sut ck.
Cc thng s' chnh ca c clmyn pha l nhit nung, thi gian gi nhit v
tc Iigui. vi hp kim Fe-C. ph thuc nhit nung v cch lm ngui,
Iigi ta phn bit: hou ton, khiig hon ton, cu ha. ng nhit v
thng ha.
hon ton l dng Iihil luyn dng cho thp trc cng tch. N hit nung
chn cao hn im ti hn Ac: (hmh 3.27). Tc ngui sau kh i gi nhit phi
chm (thng l lm ngui cng vi l)
nhu c t chc cn bng, u hon ton l
dng nhit hiyii sd b khi sn phm ca c
di gia ciig ln nn thng khng t ra
yu cu cao v chiig oxy ha v chiig chy
cacbon lp b mt. A x
kh n g hon ton tlic h i n n h i t
1 AC,
cao hn AC| nhng thp hn Ac,^ N khng
khc phc c nh n g sa i hng v t chc, / F +p p + x
m ch s dng vi mc ch gim cng
/1a %c
cho thp trc c n g tch.
cu. ha l mt dii 3 khng hon
ton dng cho thp dng c cacbon v thp
Hinh 3.27 Nhit nung thp khi
dng c hp kim chuyn t chc peclit
1) hon ton, 2) khng hon ton;
tm th nh peclit h t th ch hp cho gia cng
3) cu ha. 4) thng ha
c. tin hnh nhit cao hn Aci nhng
thp hn A,., (hnh 3.27) gi l i mt hiig cacbit khng ha tan, lm tm inm
cho vic to thnh peclit ht.
ng nhit ch khc hon ton cch im ngui: t nhit sn phm
c lm ngui n n h i t thp hn AC) m t t. gi lu n h it ny
austenit phn hy hon toii. sau lm Iigui Iigoi khng kli. y ng nhit chii
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________ m
yii dng lm mm thp: n u vit hdn thng thng l thi gian ngn, nht
l i vi thp hp kim.
Thng ha l dng nhit luyn ging nh , ch khc l sau k h i gi nhit lm
ngiii ngoi khng kh. Do tc ngui cao hn so vi , ht peclit nh hn. Do
ct c tnh ca vt phm sau kh i thiig ha bao gi cng cao hn sau kh i . S
kh<c nhau ny cng r rt k h i hm lng cacboii trong thp cng cao. Thiig ha
c th diiig nh nhit luyn s b (v d. thiig ha ci thin tnh ct gt ca
th p cacbon thp) hoc n h it lu yn kt thc c c tn h tng hp cao.
3.4.3.3. graphit ha
graphit ha l dng n h it luyn cc v t c bn g gan g x m en tit phn

hy, to th n h grap h it cm (gang do).
X nientit Fe,C l pha km n iih. Khi nung ln nhit cao, n b phn hy
v to tlinli graphit cun theo phn ng;
Fe;iC Fe + Cgr
Nu nhit phn hy cao hdii nhit cng tch (727 C) nhng thp hn
nhit cng tin h (1147 "C) th sii phm phn hy s l y-Fe (austenit) v
graphit. Nu nhit thp hn nhit cng tch th nhn c a-Fe (ferit) v
graphit. Mun qii trm li graphit ha xy ra nh nu th thnh phn ca gang
phi cha silic, sao cho tng lng (C + Si) vo khong 3.5%. Silic ng vai tr
nguyn t thc y qu trn h g ra p liit ha kh i luing. Gang thnh gang do
thiig cha 2,2 - 2,8 %c, do lng cha Si trong gang cn khong 0,8 - 1,4%.
Hm lng Cr phi r t nh (< O.O %).
Qu trn h gang do (xein mc 7.8.7) tlung bao gm cc giai on sau ;
- Nuii chi ti t ln n h it d cao (khong 900-950 "C) .
- Gi n lii t xy ra g ra p liit ha x iiie n tit t d:
- Lm ngui chi ti t xuig dii nhit chiiyii bin cng tch (khong 700-
730 T.) ;
- Gi uhit xy ra graphit ha nhit thp:
- Lin ngui ngoi khiig kh.
Ty theo cch tin hnh c th, bn cnh g ra p liit cm Iigi ta nhn c cc
t, chc nn khc nhau; peclit. fe rit hoc peclit - ferit. Nh qu trn h to graphit
CIII. bn ko v do ca gang t n g ng k so v i tn l c k h i v chi ti t c
th gia cng ct gt b iih thng.
3.4.3.4. Ti
Ti l dng nhit luyn gm nung hp kim ln nhit c trng th i pha nht
ili. gi Iihit v lm ngui nhanh qu trnh khuch tn khng kp xy ra,
cho php Iihn c trng th i pha khng cn biig. Ti r t thng dng cho cc
lip kim c ch u yn bin th hiih khi n un g Iing v lm ngui hoc c s th a y i
ha tan cc nguyn t" theo nhit trng th i rn. T cng c hai dng ti
tvng ng l ti khng c chuyn bin th hnh v ti c ch u yn bin th hiih.
Ti kliig c chuyn bin th hnh :
9 - VLH
1.30 Chng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
Dng nhit luyn ny dng cho cc hp kim ch c s thay i ha tan theo

nhit ca mt hoc nhiu nguyn t trong pha nn. Mc dch ca ti l to ra
dung dch rn qu bo ha hoc to trng th i m t pha ng Iilit troiig hp kim.
Ti cc hp kim c thnh phn nm bn tr i im a trn hnh 3.28 tin hnh
nhit cao hn ng gii hn ha tan a, v d i vi hp kim nng Co khi ti
t nhit T] s nhn c dung dch rn qu bo ha a ca B trong A. i vi cc
hp kim c th n h p h n nm bn p h im a, v d nng C, Iihit ti phi
bo m ha tan tl a nguyn B, sau kh i ti nhn c t chc gni dung dch rn
qu bo ha a v pha p. Thng thng ti thc hin bng cch ngui nhanh trong
nc. l vi nhiu loi hp kim , ti ch l bc cng ngh u ti ii tin hnh
ram hoc ha gi tip theo.
Ti c chuyn bin th hinh :
y l phng php ti thng dng, tin hnh bng cch nuiig vt liu ln
n h it cao hn n h it ti hn, gi n h it hon th nh chuyn pha v san bng
n h it , sa u Iigui n h an h n hn ic t chc khxig cn b n g (l vi th p
l m acteiixit c cng v bn cao).
Hnh 3.28. S chn nhit khl ti khng c Hnh 3.29. S chn nhit khi ti
chuyn bin th hnh thp cacbon
N hit ti c chn theo thnh phn v t chc cia hp kim. i vi thp
cacbon nhit ti chn theo s trn h iih 3.29. N lii t ti c th ca tng loi
thp c ghi trong cc s tay nhit luyn. Thi gian gi nh i t xc nh theo tnh toii
hoc kinh nghim ph thuc vo nhit v chiu dy sn phm. Ch lm
ngui phi chn sao cho nhn c t clic inactenxit, ng thi trnh to ng sut
d ln. Cc mi triig ti thiig dng l nc, du (i vi thp cacboii v th p
hp kim ) hoc k h n g kh (i vi m t s thp hp kim cao, v d. th p gi).
Ngi ta thng s dng cc phng php ti sau y :
- Ti mt mi trng; sau k h i nung ch lm ngiii trong mt nii trng. Ty
theo loi thp m chn mi tring ti l nc, du hay khng kh (ng 1 . hnh
3.30);
- Ti hai mi trng, v d nc chuyn qua du (vng 2). Chuyn sang dii
vi tc ngui chm hn hn ch mt phn ng sut d. Phng php ny
thng dng trong sn xut dng c bng thp cacbon;
VT LIU HC 131
- Ti phn cp (ng 3) : nhng chi ti t vo mi trng c nhit cao hn

gi nhit trong mt. thi gian ngn, xong ngui tip trong du hoc khng kh,
Cch ti ny hn ch ng k iig sut d, nhng kh khng ch thi gian gi
nhit phii cp khng xy ra chuyn bin bainit;
- Ti ng nhit hoc ti ra b a in it (ng 4) : nhng chi ti t v gi lu trong
mi trng c Iih i t ca vng chuyn bin bainit. u im ca phing php ti
ng nhit l ng sut di khng ng k. v t liu c d do dai cao v c th khng
cn ram.
M t tnh cht cng ngh quaii trng ca thp kh i ti l thm ti. N th
h i n k li n ng t i su vo bn tro n g ca thp. N c xc d n h bng phng php
ti n m t in ii hnh tr vi kch tluc quy nh. Chi\i su thni ti l khong
cch t b mt. u m t ii vng c t chic na mactenxit. T chiu sii thm ti.
c th xc u li ng knh ti hn. tc ng knh c th ti th ii ca mc thp
cho.
3.4.3.5. Ram
Rani l dng nhit lu yii dng clio cc sn phm bng thp qiia ti. nhm
giii iig sut d. to ra t chc n nh v tnh chl cn th i t cho v t liu. Ram
tin hnh nhit thp hn AC|. Ngi ta phn bit cc loi ram sau y;
Ram thp : tin hiih nhit lSO-200 "c, ding cho cc sn phm yu cu
cng cao Iilii dng c o, dng c ct gt. ... Sau khi rani thp c t chc
niactenxit ram v cng xp x sa\; khi ti;
o
0.
5
o
<a
I:
Hnh 3.30 S minh hoa cc phng php ti Hnh 3.31 S thay i c tnh khi ram thp
thng dng i vi thp
lam trung bnh : tin hnh nhit 30-00 "C. dng cho cc sn phm
y u cu tn h n hi cao n h \ l xo, n h p . ... h oc c ii c ng k t hp vi do dai
cao nh khun dp nng. T chc sau kh i ram l tru s tit vi cng HRC = 3-4
t y theo nhit ram;
Ram cao : tin hnh nhit t 500 c n di ing AC|, dng cho cc
s n phm y u cu c tn h tng hp cao ( bn k t lip vi do dai cao) uh tay
bin, trc chu lc. ... T chc san khi ram l xocbit hoc peclit vi cng HB t
1800 n 2500 MPa.
132________________________ c ,t n g 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
S thay i c tn h ca thp kh i ram nu trn hiih 3.31. Thng thng, khi

tng nhit ram th cng, bn gim, do dai tng. Trong mt s thp
hp kim c hiu tng gim do dai trong khong nhit rain 20-400 v
450-0'C. Hin tng ny gi l gin ram. khc phc II, ty theo loi thp,
khng ic s dng k h on g n h it xc nh hoc sau khi gi n h it n h it
ram phi lm ngui nhaiih trong nc hoc du. M t s' thp hp kim c cng
th hai, phi ram trong k h on g n h it c qu trnh ti t pha bin cng, v d thp
gi ram 00-600 c.
3.4.3,6. Ha nhit luyn

Ha nhit luyn l phng php nhit luyn c km theo s thay i thnh
phn ha hc ca lp b mt. Nh vy ha nhit luyn gm hai qu triih :
- To lp thîn b m t bng cch khuch tn vo b m t chi ti t mt hay nhiu
nguyn t khc nhau nhm thay i thnh phn ha lic, do thay i t chc v
tnh cht ca lp b m t theo mc ch nht iih;
- N hit luyn tip theo (, ti, ram, ...) nhm ci thin hii na t chc v tnh
cht ca lp b m t cng nh toii chi tit.
to lp thm, ngi ta t chi ti t vo mi trng tng ng (kh, lng hoc
rn) c kh nng phn ha ra nguyn t hot ca nguyn t" cn khuch tn
nhit thch hp. N li nu mc 3.1.3.2, s hnh thnh cc pha mi v t chc
t v i ca lp th'm ph thiic vo gin pha. kh nng khuch tn ca cc nguyn
t thm v ting tc gia chng trong tng h vt liu c th.
Ha nhit luyn c s dng ph bin i vi cc chi ti t bng thp nhii
tng bn, cng, tn h chng mi mn (thm cacbon, nit, bo. cacbon-nit,
cacbon-nild-lu hunh, ...) hoc nng cao k h nng chng n mn (thm crin,
nhm, silic, ...).
Th'ni cacbon l phng php khuch tn cacbon vo b m t chi ti t ch to t
thp cacboii thp (0,1-0,3%C) nng Iiiig cacbon n 0,8 - 1.0 % trn mt lp
b m t vi m iliinet, sau ti v ram lp b m t c bn v cng cao, cn
li (vi lng cacbon thp) vn do. dai. Thp dng thm cacbon thng l thp
hp kim Ti. V,... tng cd tnh v gi c t chc ht nh k h i thm. Cc chi ti t
thm cacbon lm vic tt trong iu kin t i trng va p v chu ma st. S
thm cacbon nu trn h iih 3.32a. N hit nung thm chn cao hn ng Ac.'
(khong 900-950C), tc trong vng n pha austeiiit l pha c kh nng ha tan
mt liig l ii cacboii ( n 2%). on ab trn h iih m t qu trn h tng nng
cacbon trn b m t chi tit, cng su vo bn trong nng cacboii cng gim cho
n nng ban u trong thp. Sau k h i ngui chm, t chc ca thp vng b
m t ln lt gm cc vng: p + Xen , p , p + F Qiiih 3.32b).
I thm cacbon th rn ngi ta s dng hn hp cht thm gm ch yu l
than g v mt liig nh cc ch't XIC tc (cc mui cacbouat BaCOa, Na 2C 0 'i,...).
Chi ti t xp trong hp kn c hii lip thm bao qvianh v m m g ln n h it tliîn.
Trong iu kin thiu -oxy. than g b chy khng hon ton vi sn phm l
cacbon oxyt c o . Klii gp b m t thp, c o b ph n ha v to nn cacbon nguyn t
theo phn ng;
VT LIU HOC 133
2 C0 ^
CO, + cg., .
cacbon n gu yn t to th n h trn b m t thp c tiih h ot cao. c hp th v
k h u ch tn vo bn trong.
.u %c vn nhit thm
Hnh 3.32. S biu din s thay i thnh phn cacbon lp b mt

(a) khi thm cacbon v t chc t' vi ca lp thm sau khi ngui chm (b) (X200)
Thm cacbon th lng thc hin trong nii trng nug chy ca hn hp cc
mui (v d, Na 2C 0 ;i v NaCl) v cht mang cacbon l SiC.
Th'in cacbon th kh c s dng ph bin hn c. Mi trng thm l kh co
hoc cc kh c cha cacboii d phn hy, v d, cc kli liycirocacbon no C,|H-2i,i 2 c
kli n n g phxi h y theo phn ng :
CH2,2 > (n + l)2 + nC, , .
Hn hp k h cn cha mt lng nht nh cc thnh phn khc nh CO 2, N 2,
.... iu chm h nng v tc thin.
Ch nhit luyn sau k h i thm cacboii c chn xut pht t thnh phn
ca thp v cc yu cu c th i vi chi tit, c th l ti trc tip t n h it
th m hoc ngui ch m sau khi
thm , xong ti m t ln hoc h ai lu
( vi h ai n h i t ti tng ng vi
nng cacboii trong li v lp b
m t chi tit) v cui c n g l ram.
Thm nit l phng php
khuch tn nitd vo b li t chi ti t
hoc dng c bng thp vi mc
ch ch yu l nng cao cng v
tn h chng m i mn. Thm nit cn
to nn lp ng sut d nn ng k
b mt, lm tng mnh gii hn
mi ca chi ti t Ngoi ra thm nit
to b m t bng m, chiig n mn 3.33. Gin pha Fe-N
tt trong k h quyn, c th dng vi nic ch trang tr.
134________________________ C hng 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN PHA TRONG VT LIU
Theo gin pha Fe-N (lim h 3.33). kh i nit khuch tn vo st. ln ht c th

to pha Y (cao hn nhit cng tch), pha y ' (Fe^N) v E (Fe2N). Nu thm
nhit cao hn nhit cng tch (90 C) th t chc ca lp thm sau kh i ngui
chm ln lt t ngoi vo trong s l; , Y cng tch [a + 7 '] v a . Nii
thm nhit thp hn OO^C, t chc s l e . y v a .
Do nhit thm nit thp (thng trong khong 480-60"C khng lm
hng t chc sau kh i ti) nn h s' khuch tn ca N trong Fe r't b (bng 3.1), tc
thm nit chm hn th'm cacbon hng chc l ii (san khi thm hng chc gi
ch t c chiu dy 0.1-0.2 min). t ic lp thm c t chc nh nii v c
tnh cao . thp thm nit thng phi cha cc nguyn t' hp kim nh Cr, Mo, Al.
... cn tr qu trn h st nhp cc h t n itrit.
Thm nit thng c tin hnh th kh, v d, dng kh anioniac N H 3.
Thm cng lc nhiu nguyn t, v d cacbon-nit, cacbon-iiit-lii hunh, ...
cho php ci thin ng k t chc v tnh cht ca lp thm, ng thi r t ngn
thi gian thm, tu y nhin cn c bin php phiig - chng c hi v nhim mi
trng trong trng hp cu thit.
3.4.3.7, Ha gi hp kim
a gi l dng- nhit luyn dng cho cc hp kim c qu tn n h ti t pha bin
cng (phn hy dung dch rn qu bo ha) nh nu mc 3.4.3. Tnc kh i ha
gi. hp kim phi c ti nhn dung ch rn qu bo ha. Qu trn h ti t pha
bin cng (ha gi) c th xy ra nhit phng (ha gi t nhin) hoc nhit,
cao hn (lia gi nhu to).
Mc d qu trn h ha gi t nhin xy ra trong nhiu hp kim . dng Iilii t
luyn ny t c s dng nh Iihit luyn k t thc v hiu qu ha bu khng cao
(do qu trn h phn hy thng ch cc giai on to vng) v tiih ii nh cu
trc thp. Ph bin hdu c l ha gi nhn to. Ph thuc vo ch ha gi v
vo nhiig thay i cu trc v tnh cht, ngi ta phn bit cc dng ha gi Iilin
to sau; ha hon ton, khng hon ton, qu gi. ha gi n nh ha.
Ha gi nhn to hon ton l ha gi tin hnh nhit v thi gian sao cho
t c bn t a.
Ha gi nhn to khng hon ton l ha gi tin hnh nhit d thp hn
hoc thi gian ngn hdn so vi ha gi hon ton. Mc ch l t c tnh do
cao hn mc d bii cha t t r s t a.
Qu ha gi l ha gi tin hnh nhit cao hn hoc thi gian di hn so
vi ha gi hon ton. Mc ch l nhn c s phi hp tt nht gia bn.
do, kh nng chng n inn. dn in v mt s tnh cht khc.
Ha gi n nh ha l mt dng ca qu gi, c inc ch l n nh tn li cht
v kch thc ca s n phm . Cc hp kiin s dng trong thi gian di thng c
ha gi n iili ha nhit cao hn nhit s dng.
chii ch ha gi hp l. cn bit hnh vi bin cng ha gi ca hp kim
cc nhit khc nhau. Trn hnh 3.34 nu v d v cc ng coiig bin cug
ha gi ca hp kim nhm A lC iiS iM n v AlM gSi kh i ha gi nhn to cc nhit
khc nhau.
VT LIU HOC 135
Ha gi c th thc hin theo ch mt cp hoc Iilii u cp, thng l hai cp.

Ha gi mt c'p l ha gi c tin hnh ch mt Iih i t xc mh. Ha gi hai
cp l ha gi c tin hnh u tin nhit thp hn. sau chuyn ln nhit
ha gi k t thc. Ha gi Iihiu cp cho php nhn cc c tn h tng hp tt hdn
v c th r t ngn thi gian. V d, ngi ta s dng ha gi hai cp cho hp kim
A lZ n 4 M g l. nh sau: lc u ha gi 100 "c.
sau nng ln 175 c.
Vng GP
m t cao to ra 100 "c s l tm mm to plia ha bn 175 c.
Nh pha
r t nh m n v c m t cao Iiii hp kim va c bn cao, tn h do tt, va c
kh nng chng n mii cao. Nu cc hp kim sau khi ti c gi mt thi gian
nh i t phng, sau mi ha gi nhn to th thc cht l mt dng ha gi
hai cp.
Hnh 3.34. Cc ng cong bin cng ha gi ca hp kim nhm AICuSiMn (a)

v AIMgSi (b) khi ha gi nhn to cc nhit khc nhau
Tc ngui sa u khi ha gi khng nh hng n tn h ch t hp kim , thng

lin ngui ngoi khng kh.
Trong nit sT trng hp c th tin hnh ha gi m khng cn ti to
d u n g dch rn qu bo ha. l nhng hp kim m trong iu kin ch to t
c tc Iigvii tng l cao (v d, khi c troiig khun kim loi hoc gia cng
p lc nng), do nhn c dung dch rn qu bo ha tuy ch mc hn
ch. Mc d hiu qu ia*bii y cha t ti a, nhng bin php uy mang li
hiu qu kin h t do khng phi thc hin thao tc ti. Cc v t c bng hp kim
magi h M g-Z n-Z r thng c ha gi khng qua ti.
136__________________________________ C hng 4, BIN DNG V c TNH CA VT LIU
Chng 4
BiCN DNG
V c TNH cl VT
UU

C tnh c chn l mt tiu chun nh gi cht lng ca nhiu v t liu.

l hnh vi ca chng bc l ra kh i chu t i c hc, biu hin s thay i kch tluc
v hnh dng v t liu - s bin dng. Kh nng bin dng ca v t liu c xc
nh bng hai c trng c bn ca c tnh l bn v do. Ni dung chng
ny lin quan n hai c trng bao gm:
- Bin dng thun nghch ( bin dng n hi, n hi tr -aiielasticity );
- Bin dng khng thun nghch (bin dng do, chyIiht-viscoiis flow) ;
- Ha bu. th i bn v l thuyt lch mng;
- Ph hy (do, gin, c ch. c hc ph hy );
- Bin dng nhit cao ( do, siu do );
- Bin dng tun hon ( m i) v
- Hin tng gi n hi - do ( hiu ng nh h u ili).
Mi vn c gii th iu t hin tng, bn cht n ngha thc t, klii
qut cho cc nhm v t liu thng dng hin nay l kim loi, gm - th y tinh,
polyme v coinpozit. Chi tit lidii v cc ch tiu c tin h v ng tng c lli ca
t ng nhm s c n u trong cc chng t chng 7 n chng 12 ca sch ny.
4.1. BIN DNG N Hl
4.1.1. CC G IA I O N B I N DNG
C tn h vt liu c xc iih bng cc phng php th ( kim tra ) khc

nhau t y theo bn cht t i ( chng loi, ln, tc ) v mi trng t i ( nhit ,
thi gian, hot tn h ). n gin v thng dng l phng php th ko, trong
mu th chu lc ko mt chiu trn g vi trc mu, tng dn cho ii kh i mu t.
Kt qu th c ghi trn mt gin ko biu th quan h gia lc ko v gin
di (hoc ng sut v bin dng), trong phn bit ba giai on sau (hiih4.1):
- Bin dng thun nghch, m t ngay kh i b t i hoc san mt. thi gian xc
nh ( v d, bin dng n hi, bin dng n hi tr, ...);
- Bin dng khng thun nghch, cn gi l i khi b t i (v d. bin dng do.
chy nht
VT LIU HC 137
- Ph hy kh i v t liu tch t hoc v, xut hin sau bin dng thun

nghch (ph hy gin ) hoc khng thun nghch ( ph hy do ). t y thuc cu trc
v t liu v iu kin th.
Bin dng thun nghch khng c vng tr trong mt chu triih t ti-b ti l
tring hp n h i l tng, n c th tuyn tnh ( a s kim loi, hp kim ) hoc
phi tuyn ( caosu, polyine, xng ng v t ). S xu't hin vng tr chng t bin
dng km theo nit. Iing liig. l hin tng n hi tr, lin quan n mt
thnh phn ph thuc thi gian ca bin dng, khng ng k i vi kim loi,
nhng quan trng cho polyme nhit trung biih. Bin dng n hi xy ra
trong tt. c vt liu, thng khng vt qu 1% trong v t liu tin h th xp cht,
nhng c th ln hn nhiu l vi polyine c cu trc v iih hiih hoc bn tin h
th. Trong cc v t liu gin nh gm, thy tinh ( nhit th p v tru n g biih ) th
bin dng n hi l ch yu. Bin dng thun nghch c bit quan trng trong
/
cng ngh ip c h to m y v dng c ung Sut
o, ni ni cc phn t n hi ( l
xo, gim xc, rle, ...) khng c
php c b t k b in dng d no khi
chii t i tc thi cng nh t i lu
di.
Bin dng khng thun nghch
c th l bin dng do trong vt
liu tin h th (kim loi. hp kim . ...)
hoc chy nht trong v t liu phi
tin h th (gn, th y tinh, poiyme
nlt cao, ...). H ai hnh thc
bin dng ny tu y cng to ra bin Hnh 4.1. ng cong ng sut-bin dang
dng d nhng khc nhau v c ( s );
ch v thi im bt u. Bin Oa-bin dang n hi (e-gii hn n hi,
gii han t i ) . ab- bin dng do ng
dng do ch bt u khi ng sut, u (c - gii hn chy , Q,2 - Qii hn chy
ln hn gii hn chy c v c quy c , b - gii han bn ko) ; bc - bin
dang do cuc b v ph hy ( - bin dng d
thc hin nh chuyn ng ca sau ph hy).
khuyt t t mng tin h th ( lch,
khuyt t t im, . . . ) . cn chy nht th xy ra kh i (. = 0 nh chuyn ng tp th
ca phn t hoc nhm phn t. Hiu bit v bin dng khng thun nghch gip
ch cho cng ngh to h iih nh c, cn rn ( vt liu kim loi); p, dp, c (vt
liu polyme ); thi, uii ( vt liu thy tinh), ... cng nh th i t k cc chi ti t c
bn kt cu cao nh do ca vt liu .
Ph hy l s tch t vt th do lin kt nguyn t ( ion, phn t ) b ph
v, xy ra k h i ng sut t ti gii hn bn ko b_ Ph hy gin khng km theo
bin dng d ng k ( < 1 % nn O, = Oe ), v d vt liu gm c nhit nng
chy cao. Ph hy do xy ra khi , f,. tc sau khi v t liu bin dng do
nhiu ( 1 % ) nh mt s' kim loi. Cc dng ph hy u tr i qua hai giai
on : to vt nt v pht tri ii vt nt. Tnh gin v tn h do khng phi l
tn h ch t ca v t liu, bi chng c quy nh ch yu b n g iu kin t i (nhit
138 Chng 4. BIN DNG V c TNH CA VT LIU
, tic , mi trng, ...). V cc v t liu c kh v xy dng ch yu lm vic trong

vng n hi nn khi s dng cc v t liu do cn phng chng d b bin dng
do v ph hy do t i trng tnh. Ngc li ph hy gin r t cn th i t trong k
th u t nghin p.
Do l mt hiih thc bin dng theo thi gian do t i trng c m h gy ra. c
th l bin dng th u n nghch hoc khng th u n nghch.
Trong bng 4.1 nu nhng c tr n g c b n ca cc hiih thc bin dng ca
v t liu chu t i c hc.
i*.
Bng 4.1. Cc hnh thc bin dng c hc
Bin dng Ph thuc Thun Ha bn Gii hn Vt liu

thi gian nghch chy
n hi 0 + 0 0 Tt c vt liu
n hi + + 0 0 Caosu.cht do.btng, hp
tr k im Fe-C. h p k im t
Do 0 0 + + Cc k im lo i (0 < T < Tnc)

Chy nht + 0 0 0 Thy tinh, polyme nhit do
Do + 0 + + K im lo i ( 7 > 0,37nc), p o ly m e
n h i t d o ( 7 > 0,57nc), gm
4.1.2. BIN DNG N H l
4.1.2.1.nh lut Hooke

Khi chu ti, v t liu sinh ra mt phn lc cn bng vi ngoi lic. hg s u t l
phn lc tn h trn mt n v din tch, n g s u t vung gc vi in t chu lc gi l
Lc lin kt
c)
^ 1 y
y 1
i

*
Li ,_U'
d)
Hnh 4.2 Bin dng n hi do ; a) ng sut Hnh 4.3. Lc lin kt gia hai
ko, b) ng sut nn; c) ng sut tip, nguyn t ln cn
d) p ba chiu
VT LIU HOC________________________________________________________________
ng sut php a. gy ra biu dng E. ng sut tip T sinh ra x dch trong m t

cliu lc. ng svit php ba chiu (p lc P) lm bin i th tch AV7V. Bin dng
n hi c th do ng su't php hoc ng sut tip sinh ra nh s trn h iih 4.2.
l bin dng b m t i k h i b ti, tuyn tnh v khng c vng tr. mt hih
thtc ph bin nh't ca bin dng thun nghch (hnh 4.6b,c,d).
Di vi nhiu vt liu, quan h tuyn tnh gia ng sut v bin dng n hi
c m t bng ih lut Hooke, phng trnh c s ca l thuyt n hi;
- E X ( cho ko. nn );
X = G .y ( cho x dch );
p - - K . A V / V ( cho p ba chiu) . (4.1)
Trong phing trn h (4.1) cc nun n hi E, mun x dch G, mun p
K lin h vi nhau qua kng s Poiason ( t s* gia co chiu ngang v gin
chiii di Sl/S/;) nln sau:
K ^ E / [ 3 (1-2^)]
G = E / [ 2 (1+ l) ] . (4.2)
i vi a s vt liu = 0.3 nn E = 2.6 G. Cc phng trn h (4.1) v (4.2) ch
c ng tnh v th i t k chi ti t iny cho cc vt liu ng hng hoc gi
dng hng c cu trc v iih hiih hoc a tin h th. Vt liu d hng nh n
linh th. a tin h th vi t chc textiia ( nh hng u tin ca ht, bin h t, pha
Ih hai. ...) hoc cht do c mch phn t nh hng s to ra cc phng bin
(lng tlu i n li v bt li ( so vi phng ti trng) do cc hng s* n hi ph
thiic vo phng tin h th, v d inun n hi E ca ii tin h th a-Fe trong cc
plung [ 100 ], [110] v [ 111 ] ln lt l 135. 210 v 290 ,10 MPa. cn ca a tin h
th l 210 .10 * MPa. T s / ^ 1, { ^ 1) thng c chii lm tiu chun d
hng u hi.
ih lu t Hooke tng qut cho trng hp d hng l mt h su phng trn h
cla su phn t ng sut c lp v s\i phn t bin dng tng ng lin h vi
nhau qua 21 hng s n hi. Trng hp c'i xng cao nlu tin h th lp phng ch
can c ba. v t liu ng hng cn hai hng s tnh cc mun ii hi nu
trong (4.1) v (4.2).
Bin dng ii hi ( tuyn tnh ) dia trn s x dch nguyn t khi v tr cn
bng. Trn h iih 4.3 cho thy ng cong ph thuc ca lc lin kt nguyn t vo
khong cch gia chng. Tng tc nguyn t bao gm lc h t v lc y. V tr
can bng lc tng ng vi khong cch r. ng sut ko hoc nn lm r tng hoc
gini. Phn ng li s thay i dr l s xut hin lc ht hoc lc y a nguyn
t tr l i v tr cn bng. Phn ng ciig mnh khi gc nghing ca tip tuyn
ng cong t i ( tiig ng vi inuii n hi ) cng ln. Trong vng nhng x
dch nh. phn lc t l thun vi khong cch nhi ili lu t (4.1) in t.
4.1.2.2.n hi phi tuyn

Bin dng thun nghch khng tu ii theo nh lut Hooke, l n hi p h i
tuyn hay n hi kiu caosu v ic ghi nhn u tin trong caosu t nhin, sau
d trong cc v t li ii phi kim v nh hnh hoc tin h th cc b ( cht do T > Tg,
v d,elastome), vt liu kim loi (gang xin). ... ng cong ng sut-bin diig
(ko) ca caosu t nhin (hmh 4.4) cho thy quy hit tuyn tnh ch ng vi bin
dng r t nh, cn l i l phi tuyn, tc mun ii hi E khng cn l mt. hng s^
na, m ph thuc vo ng sut hoc bin dng:
o = E {c ) &. (4.3)
Ngoi ra E kh nh, e c th kh ln ( 1 % . i khi ti 100 % ). Bin dng
n hi trong cc v t liu trn da vo s thay i h iih dng ca cc mch phn
t. tr iig th i khng ti, vt liu c c'u trc v nh linh bao gm cc mch
phn t b Iiii cong do an mc vo nhau, to ra mt bi hoc li phn t ( hnh
4.a). K lii chu lc ko, cc mch phn t c dui thng v song song vi phng
ngoi lc m vn lin kt vi nhau t i cc im n t ca li hoc bi. C th xy
ra kt tin h cc b ( h iih 4.5b). Bin dng n hi chnh l gin di tng cng
trong phng t i trng. K lii b ti. chuyn ng Broivi a cc mch lin kt phn
t tr v trag tli i khng t i ban \i, khng gy bin dng \t
V mt nhit ng hc, entropy chnh l ng lc ca bin dng n hi phi
tuyn. N l tiu chun ca tr t t ha. tng khi mc hn n tng. K lii c
ti. cu trc v nh hnh tr t t hdii do c cc li song song, entropy gim. B
t i ph v tr t + lm entropy tng. l l do t i sao elastome nng ln kh i bin
dng ii lii v niun E tng theo nhit . iu khng thy cc vt liu khc.
Hnh 4.4. ng cong ng sut-bin dang Hinh 4.5. S bin dng mach phn t
ca caosu t nhin a) trang thi khng ti :
b) trng thi bin dng
4.1.2.3. n hi tr ( anelasticity, viscoelasticity )

Cho n nay bin dng thun nghch c m t nh khng ph thuc thi gian
(bin dng n hi, n hi kiu caosu ) tc l bin dng tc thi xvit hin khi t
ti. khng bin i trong sut thi gian chu t i v ch m t ngay sau khi b ti
(hiih 4.6a.b ). Trong nhiu vt liu thc t vn c s lch pha gia ng sut v
bin dng, tc bin dng n hi vn cn tip tc sau khi t i t cc i v cn
mt thi gian na, k t lc b ti, bin dng tr v khng ( hnh 4.6a,e ). Trong
c hc hai trng hp tr n c m t bng cc m hnh c v g tng ng, trong
VT LIU HOC 141
bin dng n hi Edi, do bin dng tc thi ca l xo Fi v bin dng n hi tr

enht do bin dng theo thi gian ca l xo p 2 b khng ch bi gim xc A -2 gy ra.
Hin tng bin dng ph thuc thi gian gi l bin dng n hi tr. Trong mt
chu trn h t t i - b ti i chiu, do s lch pha n\i m xut hin mt vng
tr ng sut-bin dng ( hnh 4.6h ), ting ng vi s tn hao c nng ( ta nhit )
dn n ni ma st. tc cc dao ng c b tt dn ( so snh vi h ih 4.6d ).
+6
h)
5)
Hinh 4.6. S bin dang n hi (b,c,d) v n hi tr (e,g,h)

a) ng sut bin i theo thi gian t, - dt ti, I - b ti , b) bin dang n hi
tng ng ti v t2 , c) m hinh c hoc ca b. d) quan h ng sut - bin dng
trong mt chu trinh ti di chiu , e) bin dang tng gm bin dang n hi tc thi
r,dh v bin dng n hi tr ph thuc thi gian , g) m hnh c hc ca e;
h) vng tr ng sut - bin dng trong mt chu trinh ti i chiu
Bn ch't bin dng n hi tr gn lin vi cc qu triih vi m khc n h au nh

s khuch t n cc k h u y t t t im, s dao ng ca cc on lch b cht hai u,
s chy t i cc m t phn cch ( bin ht. bin gii pha ), chuyn pha, ... to ra cc
bin dng thun nghch bit . V d nhi hiu ng Snoek trong a-Fe. trng
thi khng ti, cc nguyn t c v N Iiin ri rc cc l hng tm m t- tm cc
cnh khi lp phng. Klii c t i cc nguyn t ny khuch t n ti cc v tr tng
ng th u n li hii trong phng ti gy ra bin dng, ri li tr v v tr x u t p h t
khi b ti.
Trong k th u t, cc v t liii c kh niig t t dao ng nh tn h n hi tr
thng gp l caosu, gaiig ( nh cha graphit ). lit s hp kim st t ( nh dch
chuyn cc vch Bloch ). Cc tc n^ ca tnh n hi tr cn c c bit lu
ni no phi bo m chnh xc cao ca lc ii hi hoc ca kch thc trong
cc phn t n hi chu t i tc thi hoc lu di ( do n hi tr. xem mc
4..4.2).
142_______________________________ Cling 4. BIN DNG V c o TNH CA VT LIU
4.2. BN DNG DO
Bin dng do l bin dng d, bt u khi ngoi lc t mt, gi t r ti hn -

gii hn chy ,, ( lc nh lu t Hooke mt hiu lc ) v khng m t i khi b ti.
Bin dng d c c do s dch chuyn nguyn t. nh ph v cc lin kt ban vi
ri lp li lin kt vi cc ln cn mi, khi b t i nguyn t khng tr v v
tr xut pht m cu trc ca v t liu vn c bo ton.
/ A / \ ^s \
/ ^ /
X/09 i i n hoi Trdt Song tinh Chuyn pha M
Hnh 4.7. S bin dng trong vt iiu (A,B - cc cu trc khc nhau)
Trong tin h th l tng c ch dch chuyn c th l s chuyn di tp th -

ng thi ca cc nguyn t, song cn c nhiii iii cha c sng t. Dl vi tin h
th thc n c thc hin bng trt, song tin h hoc chuyn pha inacteiixit lin
quan n chuyn ng ca cc khuyt t t mng ( hnh 4.7 ).
m t c tnh bin dng ca cc v t liu thng dng trong k th u t cii
th i t phi tm hiu c im b?n dng do n tin h th v tn h cht ca ht
cha n cng nh cc vng lin kt ( ht. pha.).
4.2.1. TR T TRONG N T IN H TH E
4.2.1.1. Hnh hc trt
T r t l S x dch m t ph n tin h th song song vi phn cn l i tro n g m t

phng x dch -m t trt v theo phng ca ng sut tip -phng trt.Tp hp
mt m t tr t v mt phng tr t gi l mt h trt. M t trt v phng tr t
thng l m t v phng c m t nguyn t cao nh'!. S lng h trit ph
thuc vo kiu mng tin h th v do tnh xng quyt nh (bng 4.2). Mng lp
phng tm m t A I c bn m t {111} v ba phng <110> ca tng nit to ra 12
h trt tiug ng. M iig lp phng tin khi A2 c th tnt theo cc mt
{110}, {112} hoc {123} v cc phng < 1 1 1> thuc 48 h trt. Mng su phng
xp cht A3 c m t tr t l m t c s {0001} nu t s" d a >1.63 v l m t lng
tr {1 0 0 [ hoc m t thp { lO l} nu c a < 1.63; trong cc phng <1120>. ca 12
h khc nhau. Ni chung cc h tr t khng xp cht thng x ii t liin nhit,
cao v gp phn ci thin do ca vt liu. Trong ba loi mng trn th mng
A I v A2 bin dng do t t hdn do c s h trt tng ng ln hn ( ti thiu l
12 ), trong khi mng A3 vi s h- trt hn ch ( ti a l 6 ) nn gin. R rng
tn h i xng cao ca tin h th lp phng quyt uh n s' h trit ting
ng ca n.
VT LIU HOC 143
Bng 4.2. H trt trong mt s loi vt liu

144 C hng 4. BIN DNG V c TNH CA VT LIU
S x dch dn ti bin dng do ch b t u k h i ngoi kc to ra trong h trt

hot ng mt ng sut tip cho php T t c gi t r ti hn. ln ca ng
sut ph thuc vo ngoi lc v m h hng ca h tr t vi ngoi lc. N\i
gc to bi ngoi lc vi php tuyn m t tr t n v vi phng trit t ln lt l 9
v X th X tn h c theo h iih 4.8a l ;
T = cos 6 cosX , (4.4)
l nh lu t Schmid, trong - F /S l ng s ii t do ngoi lc F sinh ra
trn ti t din tin h th 5. yu t m h hiiig COS0 cosX gi l tha s" Schrnid. Ni
chung (Q + X) ^ 90. trng hp 0 = 90 hoc X = 90" tc ngoi lc hoc song
song vi m t trvt hoc vung gc vi phng tr t th T = 0 v t iiih th s ph
hy khng c bin dng do. ng sut tip cho php t cc i = o.a k h i 0 =
= 45", do ng sut ngoi lc t'i thi u cn cho tr t l o = . iih lu t
Schmid quy nh h trt no s hot ng trc tin k h i t ti. l h
thun li nht vi yu t" nh hng ln nht, t i gi t r ti hn ca ng sut
tip t c sm nht. Sau khi hng lot h tr t khc c a vo hot ng,
th trn mt ngoi theo chiu di tiiih th x u t hin cc bc uh song song nhau
ging nh nhng ng k. l cc ng trt ( hnh 4.8b). N hiu ng tr t
gn nhau to thnh mt di tr 0 . X dch cng li th chiu cao bc cng tng.
rili
Hnh 4.8. Trt trong n tinh th

a) nh hng ca h trt vi ngoi lc: b) x dch to cc bc nh
4.2.1.2. Bn cht trt

x dch cc phn tin h th m t khong cch nguyn t trong tin h th l
tng (khng c khuyt t t ) t t c nguyn t trong m t tr t phi dch chuyn
ng thi vi mt ng sut tip r t ln ( T|1 = G / 27t ) gi l bn l thuyt
(xem mc 4.2.3 ). Trong cc tin h th thc x dch nh vy ch cn ng sut
= 10' G, tc khong 1000 ln nh hn, chnh l nh c kh u y t t t m ng (xem
mc l. ).
Bin dng do bng trt c thc hin nh chuyn ng ca lch mng. Lcl)
d dng tr t trong m t phng cha ng lch v vect Burgers (6 ) ca n (hnh
4.9a). K h i c ngoi lc T, mt s nguyn t gn vng lch dch ch\iyn sao cho m t
phiig nguyn t thng ng bn phi ng lch dng nh b tch i na
di ghp vi bn m t cha ng lch to th n h mt m t tli n g ng hon
VT LIU HC 145
chnh, cn na tr n tr th n h nit bn m t mi. Th l ng lch c x dch

sang phi m t khong cch nguyn t. C nh vy bn m t cng vi lch trt
sang bn phi v dn cc m t nguyn t v pha sau n ( sang tr i ) cho n khi
gp mt cn tr no ( v d, bin h t hay m t t do ca tin h th ) to ra
mt bc nh c chiu cao ng bng ln ca vect Burgers b. K lii troiig mt
tnt c n lii u lch l ii lt i ra m t t do th chiu cao bc s tng ln t l vi s^
lch chuyn ng. Do , phn tch cu to ng trt v di tr t c th xc nh
s b S" lng lch th a m gia bin dng d^.
Trong mng Ip tin lch tr t trong h {111} <110> l cc lch hon chiih c
vect Burgers l (a/2)<110> (mi vect Burgers c xc iih bi di hiih
chiu ln cc tn ic . v d a/2, a/ 6 , ... v ch s phng, v d, [110]. [ 111 ], ...). Trong
m t tr t chng c th tch th n h hai lck khng hon chnh Shockey (a /6 )< 2 ll>
km theo m t kh u y t t t xp:
(a/2)[110] (a/6)[2U]_+ (a/6)[12]; (4.)
Trong inng spxc lch dng (a/3)<2110> c th tr t trong h c s hoc khng
c s. Ging nh mng Iptm , chng cng d tch thnh hai lch thnh phn:
(a /3 )[2 0 ] (a /3 )[l0 0 ] + (a/3)[100]. (4.6)
Chuyn ng lch tron g mng Ip tk khng ging hai loi mng trn. Lch trt
c vect B irgers l ( a / 2 ) < lll> trong c ba h nhng khng u tia cho h no.
Tch lch thng xy ra vi lch xon lm cho ng sut Pcierls kh cao. Lch trt
c nh cc bc lch di ng theo vng lch.
1 -
B
B A B
>)
Hnh 4.9. a) s dch chuyn mt lch bin khi trt;
b) m hinh pht sinh lch t ngun Frank-Read
M h iih dn gin ca ngun to lch do bin dng do l ngun Frank-Read

(hnh 4.9b). M t on lch b cht cht t i hai iii A v B ( v d, n t lch, tp
cht, ...). K h i c bin dng do, di tc dng ca ng sut tip T, on lch b un
cong nh m t cung lch ( v t r 2 ). K h i t trng th i ti hn cung lch t m
rng (v t r 3). to ra m t vng lch khp kn bn ngoi ( v tr 4 ), phn cung cn li
bn tron g l i tr v v t r ban ii ( v t r 1 ) tip tc lp l i qu triih trn. Kt
qii l c v s' vng lch c to ra t rn m t tr t trong qu trin h bin dng do.
0 - VLH
4.2.2. SONG T IN H
Song tinh l mt trong ba hnh thc bin dng do. Sd nguyn t vng tinh
th c song tin h nu trn h iih 4.10. K h i tc ng, ng su't tip lm dch chuyn
cc nguyn t mt phn tin h th vo v tr i xng gng vi cc nguyn t
phn kia qua nt phang song tinh (bin gii song tinh).
Hinh 4.10. S nguyn t trong tinh th c song Hnh 4.11 Quan h ng sut - x dch trong
tinh (mi tn ch phng dch chuyn cc phng trt b
nguyn t)
Di y nu mt s c im ca song tin h :
- Dch chuyn nguyn t t l vi khong cch ti m t song tinh, cng xa mt
song tin h dch chuyn cng ln nhng khng vit qu mt khong cch nguyn t,
trong kh i tr t l kt qu dch chuyn Iiguyii t mt s nguyn ln khong
cch . Do , mc bin dng do do song tin h mang l i l kh nh so vi trt;
- Song tin h xy ra vi tc r t ln v ging nh trt, trong cc m t v
phng tin h th xc nh, t y thuc vo c'u trc ( bng 4.3 ). Tuy nhin, trong khi
trt khng lm thay i nh hng tin h th hai pha m t trt, th c theo
mt song tin h nh hng tinh th hon ton khc so vi phn tin h th cn li.
V bn cht, c gi th i t kh hp l cho thy song tin h gn lin vi s c mt
ca khuyt t t xp do cc lch khng hon chnh (lch song tinh) vi vect Burgers
{vect song tinh, nu trong bng 4.3 ) chuyn ng trn cc m t song tinh, to ra.
Bng 4.3. Song tinh trong mt s' kiu mng tinh th
Cu trc Mt song tinh Vect song tinh
A1 ( Iptm) {1 1 1 } ( 1 /6 ) < 1 1 2 >
A2 (Iptk) {1 1 2 } ( 1 /6 ) < 1 1 1 >
A3 ( spxc ) {1012} (const) < 1 0 1 >

VT LIU HC __________________________________________________________________ 147
ngha thc tin ca song tin h chnh l n thay th trt nhng khi c ch
tn t t tr nn kh khn. nh\ cc tin li th i xng th'p hay nhit th'p. v d,
kh i chuyii pha mactenxit, hay khi tc bin dng lii. Ngoi ra. s thay i ih
lung do song tin h gy ra c th a cc h tn t t vn kh hot ng vo v tr
thun li hn biu dng do.
4.2.3. L T H U Y T L C H MNG V B l N DNG DO
4.2.3.1. bn l thuyt v thc t

Trong mc 4.2.1.2 ni n s khc bit qii ln gia ng sut tip cn thit
x dch ng thi cc nguyn t tin h th l ting kh tr t v ng sut tip xc
n li bng thc nghim trn tin h th thc. Mu thun ny gi ra tng u tin
cho l thuyt lch mng v bin dng do. Dii y trn h by cch tn h ng sut
trong hai trng hp l tng v thc t.
M hnh Erenke: hg sut l thuyt c tnh theo m lin li ny nu trn hnh
4.11. Do ng su^t T tc ng, hai m t ngu yn t cch nhaii a x dch khong X < b
theo phing ti. Vi gn ng ban u. ph thuc ng siit vo khong cch c*th
ni td bng int hm sin:
x = k sin [(27Lr)/6]. (4.7)
Vi X nh : X = k {2nx)/b =y G = {x/a) G , (4.8)
t y k - {Gb) / (2na)
v T = [(G b)/(2na)] sin [i2n x)/b] . (4.9)
iig su t t cc i khi X = 6/4 l = {Gb)/{2n a ) . (4.10)
Nu a = b th snhu ic bn (x dch) l thuyt ca tin h th l t\ng;
T|, = G/27T = G/6 . (4.11)
Tnh ton theo cc hm phc tp hn cho thy T|, thay i trong khong G/10
n G/30, tc l vn cn r t ln so vi cc gi t r thc nghim. V d. vi
ii tinh th a-Fe theo phng <111> th T|, = (4-^12) .10'^MPa trong khi
T, = 0,02.10 * MPa. tc nh hn t 200 n 600 ln.
M knh Peierls : K lii trit ic thc hin bng chuyn ng ca mt lch
biu Iih\f trn hih 4.9 th s' lng nguyn t tham gia vo qu triih s t ng k
so vi trng hp l tng, ng su't ti thiu lch chuyii ng gi l ng sut
Peierls' T |. tn h nh sau:
Tj. = [(2G )/(l-n)] exp {(-27ia)/[(l-^)]}. (4.12)
N u a v ^ = 1/3 th Tp = 4.10''* G . nh hn Ti khong 250 ln v kh gn
vi T, .Troiig thc t. lch c th dch chuyn r't th u n li nh nhng on UII
trn ng lch, do ng su t Tf. CII c th nh hn na.
Biii thtc (4.12) cho thy T p cng nh kh i t s'a /b cng ln tc lch cng d
tham gia bin dng do. V vy m cc mng tin h th xp cht c a /b ln s do,
cn cc m ng km xp cht c T. ln nh cc hp ch't lin kim loi, khong vt,
bn dn, kim loi mng A2, ... c xu hng gin.
4.2.3.2. Ha bn bin dng

Ha bn hin dng l hin tng mt vt liu b bin dng do tr nn cng v
bn hn, thng c ng dng ci thin c tnh v t liu v c th kh i b nh
nhit luyn thch hp. Trn ng cong ng sut-bin dng ca n tin h th. l
s gia t n g ng su t cn th it bin dng do tip tc. Di y s triih by chi
ti t v hin tng ny da trn ng cong bin dng ca n tin h th, m t quaii
h gia ng sut tr t X v x dch y ( hiih 4.12 ).
a) mang lp phng tm m t, b) mang su phng xp cht

c) mng lp phng tm k h i, d) hin tng " rng chy "
Bin dng do ca n tin h th ni chung gm ba giai on vi c im ha

bn khc nhau nh trn h ih 4.12a :
- giai on 1 : ha bn tuyn tn h vi tc nh;
- giai on 2 : ha bn tuyn tn h vi tc ln v
- giai on 3: ha bn parabn.
Trong giai on 1 , k h i ng sut vt qua gi t r ti hn. cc lch mng t
ngun clniyn ng khp m t tr t s cp cho n kh i gp mt. t do. Trng hp
khng b cn tr, on thng 1 nm ngang; kh i c cn tr ( v d,tng tcgia
cc lch tr t ) on thng s dc vi nghing r t nh ( dt/dy =10 ' G)do cn b
sung thm ng sut lch tip tc tr t c, l ha bn bin dng. Do ha
bn nh v tr t ch yu trn m t s cp nn giai on 1 gi l giai on trt,
n gin. Lch t do v uii khc a dng l hm h th i ch yii ca cu trc lch.
Giai on 2, c gi l trt phc tp, bt u ng sut vi cao. k h i cc h
tr t th cp c th hot ng c. Tng tc gia cc lch thuc h s cp v th
cp s to ra v s cn tr lch, v d, kiu Lomer-Cottrell, ti mc hu nh lch b
dng l i bn chng ngi v cc ngun lch c nguy c ngng pht. V th cn tip
tc tng ng sut ngun hot ng to bin dng, lm cho ha bn bin dng
tng gp hng chc ln so vi giai on 1 . Tng tc gia hai h tr t to ra cu
trc lch kiu li ba chiu r t khng ng nht giai on ny, m tng ngn
cc l nhng bi lch vi m t r t cao.
giai on 3 ha bn bin dng vn tip tc nhng vi tc gim hn do qii
trn h th i bn ng thi xy ra khi cc lch tr i d'u gp nhau v hy ln nhau
hoc k h i lch mng vt cc cn tr ( ch yu nh tr t ngang ) lm cho chng
ngi tr thnh on li vung gc vi mt trt. Trong khi cc lch cng dii
VT LIU HOC______________________________________________________________________
xp xp l i tr t t, lm cc phn tin h th k nhau b quay hoc nghing vi nhau.

Cc qu triih ny lm cho cu trc lch hon thin hn; tng ngn c th
gim m t lch v tr t t hn, bn trong cc th ngho lch. Trit ngang ch
xy ra nu nit phn ca lch tch c hp nht li thnh on lch hon
chnh, qu triih ny cn c nig lng khuyt t t xp cao. S th i bn c gi
l h i p h c ng hc, dn n quan h phi tu yn t(y) v giai on 3 do c tn
ha bnparabn.
T y thuc vo cu trc tin h th , iih hng, nhit . ... m trn ng cong
bin dng c th c hoc khng c c ba giai on. V t liu mng Ip tii vi iih
hng tru n g tin c iig coug ba giai on t i vng nhit v tc bin dng
xc iih ( hnh 4.12a ). Giai on 1 thng kt thc sm bi h th cp d hot
ng. Nli nng lng khuyt t t xp thp nn lch tch r t rng v giai on 3 do
ch bt u ng sii^t kh cao. l ngun gc ca bn nhit cao nhiu
v t liu Iptm. v d. thp a u s te iiit.
ng cong khng ba giai on thng gp cc loi mng tin h th khc.
Trong mng spxc tr t ch xy ra theo h s cp nn ch thy giai on 1 ko di,
khng c hai giai on sau ( hnh 4.12b ). V t liu Iptk c ng cong bin dng ch
gm giai on 2 ngn v sm chuyn sang giai on 3 ng sut thp (hnh 4.l2c).
c nh vy l do chng c nng lng khuyt t t xp cao, lch xon tch r t hp
nn d trt ngang vo mt trong ba mt phang c lch tch. H iih 4.12d cho thy
hin tng " rng chy " k h i bin dng do cha th bt u c do hoc c t lch
ban vi ( v d, trong cc tin h th si ru - Luhiskers) hoc do lch v ngun lch b
phong ta (v d, bi cc m nguyn t tp c. N. 0 - k h i quyn Cottrell trong
mng Iptk cia Fe. Mo, ...). Bin dng d0 c bt u r t khng ng nht ti
vng bc chy {bicn dng Liiders) kh i lch hoc lch bt khi kh quyn (xem
miic 1...2 ). nhit thp ha bn s cao v kt thc bng ph hy gin.
4.2.4. B I N DNG DO A T IN H T H E
hg su t chy ca a tinh th c th tnh ton t ng su t x dch T ca n
tin h th theo biu thc (4.4) vi tha sTaylor M :-
= M t . (4 .1 3 )
cn l vi ha bii th d/de = ( dx/dy ) . (4.14)

i vi nhiu v t liu i xng cao M s 3 do ha bn a tin h th ln gp
gn chc ln n tin h th. s d nh vy v trong a tin h th cc ht c nh hng
khc nhau v bin gii gia chng l cc cn tr chuyn ng lch mng. S khc
nhau v iih hng th hin ch tr t s ch bt u trong mt s t ht c nh
hng thun li ( do vi m -m icroplasticity). lch c th tr t trong ton b a
tin h th m vn bo m tnh lin tc cn phi c t nht nm h tr t c lp
hot ng. V vy ngay t u trt phc tp xy ra trong a tin h th vi ng
sut cao hn nhiu so vi trvt n gin trong n tin h th cng loi mng. Bin
ht chnh l ni m cc lch tr t b dng li, to thnh mt tp hp vi s' lng
lch ng k. to ra mt trng ng sut b sung cng vi ngoi lc. kch
thch ngun to lch (xem mc 4.2.1.2) trong cc ht ln cn hot ng. C nh
vy qu trm h bin dng do c thc iii n t ht ny sang ht khc. Qu trn h

Iiy tr nn kh khn nii kch thc ht cng nh. v kh i s' lng lch trong
t p hp s g i m v tr n g ng s u t b sung s yu i. Mi qu an h hm gia ng
su t chy a tin h th v kch thc h t d c m t bng biu th c Hall-Petck:
w . rt w * ( 4 . 1 )
trong Q - ng sut cn th i t lch chuyn ng khi d ,

tc trong n tin h th;
k - hng s" biu th cu trc ca în ht;
n = 1 -r 1/3 ( thvng l 1/2 ).
nhit cao hn 0,5 Tuc (Te - nhit nng chy ) bin ht c th c ng
gp vo bin dng do do chng tr t c, khi vai tr cn tr chuyn ng lch
ca chng khng cn mnh na, v d trong bin dng do nhit cao hay kh i c
siu do.
4.2.5. NH NG TH A Y l SAU B I N DNG
4.2.5.1 .T chc t vi
Bin dng do to ra mt cu trc lch phc tp v khng ng nht vi m t
lch cao hn nhiu bc so vi trng th i cn bng ( cm'^ ). l mt
trong nhng nguyn nhn lm thay khi lng ring v dn n trng th i
ng sut d, bao gm ng sut th i v ng sut t vi. ng sut d c li nu n
dn n ha bn v t liu, song Iigc l i c hi khi to ra cc vt nt gin trong
cc mi hn hoc thc y n mn di tc dng ca ng sut. Trng th i ng
sut d ciig lin quan n nhng thay i c-l tnh ca vt liu b bin dng do
s nu di.
Trong qu triih bin dng do, s hot ng ca nhiu h tr t cng mt lc
(trt phc tp ) lm cc m t tr t b un v quay, do k h i mc bin dng ln,
s khc nhau v iih hng gia cc h t gim dn v t chc t vi in h iih xu^t
l^n: ht dn dn b ko di trong phng bin dng, cha nhiu kh\iy t t t v c
th to ra t chc si ( h iih 4.13.).
Hnh 4.13. S t chc t' vi (in hnb ca vt liu b bin dng
Nu cc ht c mt iih hng u tin theo cc m t v phng tin h th xc

n h , t chc c gi l textua bin dng. V d, k h i ko si, a s' cc h t n h
VT LIU HC l l
h n g m t ph ng tin h th n o so n g so n g vi trc si h oc k h i cn th m t m t
tin h th so n g so n g vi m t p h n g cn, cn m t phng c a m t so n g so n g hoc
to vi phng cn mt gc xc iih. Textua dn n s d hng ca c-l tnh
v c th c xc nh bng phng php phn tch cu trc Rntgen (bng 4.4 ).
Bng 4.4. Textua bin dng
Cu trc Phng textua ko Mt textua cn Phng textua cn
AI ( Iptm) [111] [100] (123) v (011) [412] v [211]
A2 ( Iptk) [110] (0 0 1 ) hoc (0 1 1 ) [110]
A3 ( spxc) 100] ( 0001) [1010]
Textua bin dng c ng dng thnh cng pht tri n v t liu t mm d

hng tro iig hai trng hp sau. Thp lm li bin th c ch to t cc tm hp
kim Fe-Si ( inax 4 % S i) c cn ngui v nng thch hp sao cho cc ht
nh hng m t { 110 } tr n g vi m t phng tm thp (mt cn) v phng d t
ha <100> tr n g vi phng cn ( textua n gin, hih 4.14a ). Tm hp kim
Fe-Ni ( 50 % N i ) bin dng ngui mnh ( s > 95 % ) v kt tin h l i (1050^1100)C
to ra textua lp phng (hiih 4.14b) vi mt lp phng {001} v cnh lp phng
<100> song song vi m t phng v phng cn. Cc v t liu ny t c tnh t
mm t t nh d t ha, tn hao tr nh vi ng tr gn nh ch nht v kh
hp.
Hnh 4.14. Hai dng textua bin dang trong vt liu t mm:
a) F e-S i, textua {011} <100> , b) Fe-Ni , textua {001} <100>
4.2.5.2.Tnh cht
C n n g c a n g o i l c c tr l i tron g v t liu b b i n d n g do k h o n g 5--lO
to ra cc dng khuyt t t v sai hng khc nhau, dn n nhng bin i v
t chc v tnh ch't ca n. Bin dng ciig mnh th bin i cng nhiu.
ng sut d ci thin c tnh v t liu, c ng dng lm tng bn chi ti t
my, v d, ch to bng gia cng p lc ngui; hoc lm tng tnh cng ngh, v
d, tn h ct gt ca cc v t liu do, dai nh hp kim ca Al. Cu. ... K lii bin dng
cc c tnh bn tng ( c, c b. cng) v cc c tnh do gim ( gin di 5.

co tht, dai va p ). Nh trn h iih 4.15 thy r v t liu ha bn nhanh
giai on u bin dng, sau chm dn. Gii hn chy 0.2 tng nhanh hn gii hn
bn b, trng hp vt liu bin dng r t mnh th chng gn nh nhau, cn
gin di bng khng, tc nu bin dng tip th c ph hy. Ni chung bin dng
do c th tng cng v bn t 1,5 n 3 ln, cn gii hn chy t 3 n 7
ln. Vt liu mng lp phug tm m t ha bn mnh hn c, c bit nu nng
lng khuyt t t xp l i nh, chng hn thp austeiiit v thp Iiiken ha bn
mnh trong k h i nhm th khng ng k.
- i ------------6 -
- L -L -L J . - L X
F-R stop F-R stop
6
- / t
Hnh 4.15 S bin i tinh cht theo Hinh 4.16. S chuyn ng lch khl bin
bin dng dng tun hon
ng sut d cng l nguyn nhn ca hiu ng Baushinger, cho bit nu vt

li ii c bin dng trc th s d bin dng tip trong phng ngc li do gii
hn chy thp hn lu trc. S suy gim gii hn chy s t iig theo s chu
tr ih t i cho n kh i ph hy xy ra t i ng sut thp hn nhiu b. Hiu ng ny
gn lin vi bin dng tun hon ( mi ). Chnh ng sut d kch thch chuyn
ng ca lch do chng c gii ta khi chng ngi tr v Iiguii k h i ti i
du (hiih 4.16).
Bin dng do lm gim tnh dn in v dn nhit ca v t liu kim loi khng
ng k ( mt vi phn tr m ) do tng cc cn tr dn, v d, khuyt t t im. T
tnh ca v t liu t cng gim k h i tng bin dng ( v d, lc khng t, t d.
thm t, ...) Ngoi ra, v t liu sau bin dng r t hot ha nn d b n mn, c
bit k h i chu t i cd hc.
4.2.6.TH I BN
Thi bn l qu trm h bin i ngc chiu vi ha bn, gn lin vi vic kh

b mt phn hay hon ton nhng thay i v cu trc v tn h cht do bin dng
do, chuyn pha hoc chiu x gy ra ( y khng cp n s suy gim gii hn
chy ( d/de < 0 ) v d sau bin dng s b nhit thp, kh i thnh phn hp
VT LIU HC 13
kiin lch khi hp thc, khi bin dng nh it (t cao hoc khi ch\iyii biu v nh
hnh - tiiih th, ...).
Thi bu c th xy ra khi l u i n g n nhit 0.3 T",,, do vt liu chuyn dn v
tru g thi n n g hng thp n nh lin. nh gim v phn b' li cc k h u yt tt
li iig c liot nhit. Qu trn h gm hai giai on; hi phc ( Iihit thp ) v
kt tinh li ( n h it cao ). km theo to nhit v gim nng lng t do.
4.2.6.1. Hi phc
Ar^ tinh li
Hiphc\ l h I ln 2
Thi gian nun^

b) C)
Hnh 4.17. S thay i cu trc lch v tinh cht sau thi bn:
a) lch trc hi phc , b) lch sau hi phuc , c) c tinh v l tinh
Ton b thay i v cu trc lch ( vi )n ) v tnh ch't ( v m ) m khng lm

thay i trng th i bin diig ca t chc li t ( liiih dng, kch tlnc, iih hiig )
gi l h i p h c, ilc c trng bng s siiy gim khuyt t t im ( trc tin l
n t trng ) v s phii b li lch ( lch tr i d'u hy nhau, lch leo. ...). dn n
hiih thnh cu trc lch v siu ht nh sau ( hnh 4.18b ). Li lch khng
ng Iiht (to ra sau bin dng ) nh lch tn t ngang bin th n h cc lch c trt
t (nhv giai on 3 bin dng n tinh th, xem mc 4.2 .3.2 ). K lii nhit tng,
lch trt t trong lch c th leo ti tvng ngn, ti chng c xp xp li
theo m t trt t ( v d, titng lch ) sao cho hai lch lan cn khng sai khc nhau
ng k v nh hiig v hii nh khng cha lch. Ta gi lch v tiiig ngn
chng l siu ht v bin gii siu ht ( hay bin gii gc nh ). Tip theo sau l s
pht trin ca siu h t nh x dch bin gii v hp nh t siu ht, lm cho iih
hng gia chng phn bit ic r rt hn. Qu trn h cluiyn t lch sang siu
h t ( hnlY th n h v ph t trin ) nh lch-trit v leo kh phc tp. itc n gin
ha tru s mt dn tin h th b vin ( hnh 4.17a,b ) gi l a cnh ha, trong k
th u t ic ng dng uh kh ng siit. C tnh thay i khng ng k: ng
sut d gim, do tng, cng v bn gim ti a l (10 -- l)% . Ngoi ra
in tr gim v kh nng chiig nt do n nin tng ( hnh 4.17 c ). Qu trn h
hi phc ch x y ra trong kim loi sch v ung dch rn saii bin dng khng
ln lm. nhng khng phi t t c. Nhm, st, mlipen c nng lng khviyt tt
xp cao r t d hi phc; trong kh i thp austenit, ng, nike ii v hp kim ca chng
t c kh nng .
4.2.6.2.Kt tinh li
Hai giai on kt tiu h l i l s sinh cc ht mi hon thin ( t kliu y t t t hn )
v s p h t tri n ca chng to cc h t tng i ng trc thing c gi l kt
tinh l i ln 1 v ln 2. Theo l thuyt siu ht nng lng thp, cc ht mi
thng sinh ra t cc tm mm kt tin h t i bin gii cc ht biu dng vi m t
lch cao. Tm mm chnh l cc siu h t pht tri ii giai on hi phc vi mt
khuyt t t r t thp v c iih hng khc bit nhiu vi vng xung quanh.
Gia chng vi vng b bin dng s hih thnh mt bin gii ht tng lai.
Tm ht mi ln ln nh s dch chuyn nguyn t t cc vng b bin dng v do
bin h t c tin su vo vng bin dng. Kt tin h l i ln 1 kt thc k h i ton b
th tch bin dng c thay th bng cc ht mi hon thin. K lii tng nhit
v thi gian gi n h it, k t tin h li ln 2 b t u bng s pht trin t pht ca cc
ht mi. do ht th to s gim Iiiig lng t do nh gim niig ling b m t ht.
H t ln ln bng cch dch chuyn nguyn t t ht ny sang ht khc qua bin
gii, do mt so ht s Iih dn v m t i trong k h i cc ht khc nh "nuV'
chng ln. k h i cc ng ba bin ht khng n iih x dch. S hnh thnh t chc
trong qu tr ih th i bn c m t theo s trn h iih 4.18.
Hnh 4.18. S bin i t chc khi thi bn ;

a) t chc h t ; b) cu trc lch ( hi phuc )
T chc kt tin h l i kh nhy vi bin dng, nhit nung v thi gian gi

nhit. Kt tin h l i ch xy ra sau k h i t c bin dng ti hn ( 2 - ^ 8 % ) . nh
hn n h t mi khng hm h thnh c. K h i bin dng tng, m t lch tng, kch
thc siu h t gim, sai khc iih hng tng, do s tm mm ln v bin gii
siu ht lin h ng hn, kt qu l kt tin h li thng bt u cc ng ba bin
ht ( hoc gn ch tp cht hay pha th hai, ni bin dng r t khng ng n h t )
v kch thc h t gim xung. N hit nung ti thiu cho php hnh thnh ht
mi gi l nhit kt tinh l i T^\ , c tnh theo nhit nng chy Tnc nh sau:
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________
n u ^ a r,,.. (4.16)
vi a = 0.3^0,4 cho kim loi sch, gim khi bin dng tng do ng lc cho kt
tinh tng. vi hp kim , a c th tng t 0,5 n 0,8 v tp cht hoc pha th
hai cn tr bin ht dch chuyn. K lii tng nhit . kch thc ht tng nhanh
(hdn c khi tng thi gian gi nhit ) v khuch tn d hn v tc pht trin
Jiim ln lii n h iu t'c to m m. Thi gian gii n h it lin quan n thi gian
khuch t u , c b i t qu an tr n g tro n g tr ng hp hp k im c a ln.
Klic vi hi phc, tn h cht vt liu thay i ch yu trong qu tr ih kt tinh
li ( hnh 4.17c ) Iih c c mt t chc cn bng vi m t khuyt t t thp
nht. Ha bn hoii ton b kh b, bn. cng v gii hn chy gim mnh,
do v du in tng ( ty thuc vo ht c th t gn ti gi t r trc
bin dng ).
Quan h thc nghim gia kch thitc ht sau kt tin h li. nhit kt tin h li
v bin dng thng c bi\i din bng cc giii khng gian ba chiu, c
ng diig chn ch gia cng t t chc ht ti ii, v d, t do v dai
cao cho v t liu kim loi vi ht nh. Kt tin h li ln 1 cng l bin php duy nht
to ht nh cho cc v t liu khng c kh nng chuyn pha. Trong trng hp chn
c c h x l thch hp, v d bin diig do v kt tinh li n hiu ln n h it
sao cho siu h t c kch thc rt ln pht trin nhanh. t sa i khc nh hng gia
chng cn tr to m m kt tinh li. c th to ra cc n tin h th ln. Cng c
th chn cc iu kin cng n gh c bit ( ty thuc th n h phn, tp cht, cch
bin dng. ...) to ra iih hng u tin khi kt tinh li ( textua kt tinh l i ). Tr
int vi kim loi, cn a s c textua kt tinh li v textiia bin dng khng ging
nhau. Do textua kt tin h li c ng dng ci thin mt tnh cht no
theo mt phitng xc nh, v d nh t tnh thp Fe-Si lm li bin th ( xem mc
4.2.5.1).
Trong cc v t liu a pha, qu triih kt tin h li ph thuc vo tnh cht, cu
Lrc v t l mi pha, c bit l kch tlnc v phn b' ca chng. K lii cc phn tii
pha th hai cn g n h iu th khong cch gia chng cng nh v qu trnh dch
chuyn bin ht mi ( hon thin ) cng kh, do nhit kt tin h v thi gian
kt thc giai on to m m s t n g nhiu so vi v t liu n pha. nh hng cn
tr k t tinh li ca pha th h ai c ng dng nng cao n h it lm vic ca
vt liu.
4.2.7. B I N DNG NNG
4.2.7.1. c im v ng dng
Qu trn h to li ih v t liu ( rn. dp, cn, p, ko ) xy ra kh i ngoi hc vt
qu gii hn chy ac gy ra bin dng do khng c ph hy, c th thc hin
nhit thp hn hoc cao hn nhit kt tin h li Tii. Trng hp u gi l
bin dng ngui, cn trng hp sau - bin dng nng. Bin dng nhit phng
cti vi ch l bin dng nng, CII vi thp 400 " c v ii coi l bin dng ngui.
Bng 4.5 cho thy c im ca hai loi bin dng nu.
156 C h ng 4. BIN DNG V c TNH CA VT Lu
Bng 4.5. So snh c im ca bin dng ngui v nng
Loi Nhit cng, bin dng, Trng thi

bin dng bin dng bn do b mt
Ngui < T.ktl Ln Nh Tt
Nng > T,ktl Nh Ln Oxy ha
Trong khi bin dng ngiii, ha bn bin dng lm tng cng, bn. gim
do. do bin dng tip thing phi nung nng trn h nt, th bin dng
nng cho php bin dng vi inc kh ln v cng bin dng th'p hn nhiu,
nh xy ra hi phc ng hc v kt tin h li. kh b mt phn hoc ton b bin
cng. T iiy nhin gi l i trng thi bin cng nhm tng bn ( nh bin dng
ngui) c tli thc hin bin dng nng vi tc v mc bin dng ln. saii
lm ngiii nhanh nhit tli p hii nhit kt tin h li. Ging nh\f bin dng
ngui, bin dng nng cng tng r rt t trng v t c nh hn kn cc r co v
r kh cng nhi to ra t chc ht nh ci thin c tnh. T iiy nhiii. bin diig nng
thing lin cho v t liu b oxy ha, lm gim cht liig b m t v kch thic chi
ti t kh kim sot.
Bin dng nng p dng ic i vi a fi cc phiiig php to hnh nh bin
dng ngui v i vi hu ht v t liu kim loi, c bit cc v t liu gin. V t liu
hii c cao phn t c th bin dng nng nii cc bn thnh phm dng tni,
ng,., trng th i n hi caosu v ngoi hjfc phi c duy tr cho n k h i chi
ti t ctc ngui hn. Bin cng uiig cng \tc ng dng c hi\i q\i i vi cc
vt liu siii do.
4.2.7.2.Trng thi siu do
C th xem siu do l mt trng th i chung ca v t liu tn t i trong nhng
iu kin c bit v t chc v biu dng. l hin tiig hng lot kim loi v
hp kim (xem bng 4.6 ) vi kch thc h t nh (< 10^ nm ). c th bin dng do
vi mc gin di ln ( 10 ^ ^ lo ' % ) m khng b ha bn v ph hy nhit
cao ( >0.0 ) v tc bin dng nh (10"" -- 10'' s*' ). Thc cht siu do l mt
trng hp c b it ca b in dng n h it cao.
C ch ca siu do cha ic khng nh, song mc bin dng l ii nhit
cao c th do mt hay mt vi qu triih sau y gy nn: tr t bn trong ht.
trt bin gii ht. khuch tn mh hng do chuyn ng ca klu iy t t t im
(xem mc 4.3) v hi phc ng hc do kt tin h l i kh i biu dng.
Trng th i siu do khng ch cn c ce ht nh m ii ng ii m cn cn gi
cho cc ht khng thay i trong sut thi gian bin dng nhit cao. Cc
hp k iin nit pha ( v d. dung dch rn ) khng gi c trng thi ny v h t kp
ln trong thi giaii . Trong thc tin, thng s dng cc hp kim hai (liay nhiu)
pha kiu cng tin h hoc c n g tch vi t l pha 1:1 t cc n gu yn c n h it nng
chy gn nhau, vi s' lng b in gii pha lu n h t c kh n n g gi c t chc
VT LIU HC 157
h t nh trong qu triih ch to. Cc bin php cng ngli thng c s dng

ch to hp kim siu do l bin dng ngui s b mnh km theo kt tin h li,
n h it lu yn tu n hon hay chuyn pha trng thi rn hoc lm ngiii n h an h nh
trong cc hp k in i Ti, Ni, AI. thp cacbon cao ( 1.6 % c }. Kli khn thng gp l
phi to ra int t chc h t nh Iin n nh cng nh fluy tr m t tc bin dng
qu nh v m t mi trng n h it cao khc hn vi cc iu kin k th u t thng
thng. M c d vy. trn g th i siu do lun c s dng ch to cc chi tit c
hnh dng rt phc tp. c th n h iniig v su bng cac cng ngh thng dng nh
p th tch, c p lc ( nhit gn T,. ) hoc thi bng kh nn ( nh i vi
polym e v m t s^ hp kiin c do cao ) v c bit c li. i khi khng th thav
th c khi cn c bin dng khng ph hy t vi trm phn trm tr ln.
Bng 4.6. Mt s vt liu siu do tiu biu
Vt liu '.. % T, c Vt liu s,% T, c
Ni 225 820 Al-Zn cng tinh 2500 20^250
Ni39Cr10Fe 1000 810^980 Bi-Sn cng tinh 1950 20^30
AI33Cu7Mg 600 420^80 Bi-ln cng tinh 450 20
Mg-33AI 2100 3 5 0 ^0 0 Pu 680 150-r190
4.3. CHY NHT ( VISCOUS FLOW )
Hnh 4.19. S chy nht phu thuc thi gian ca

ng sut x dch T v chy (|)
Chy nht l mt hiih thc bin dng khng thun nghch thng gp trong
cc v t liu v iih h iih hoc v t liu tinh th nhit cao. S bin d n g trn
hnh 4.19 cho th y ch y nht lun ph thuc thi gian ( n h it cao vi vt
liu tin h th. khi lch v bin gii iit c th leo hoc trt; n h it cao hn
n h it phng vi v t liu v nh hiih) nh sau; bt u khi c ti (i) tn g
tu yn tn h v gi c^ m h khi b ti (t^). P h thuc trn c th m t nh qu triih
chy nht ca cht lng Newton\
158___________________________________ C hng 4. BN DNG V c TNH CA VT LIU
X = r| ( dtp /d ) = n ip , (4.17)
trong r| - nht ( st) o bng Pa.s = N m'^ s .V d. nhit phng, nc
v tin h th lng c n = 10' Pa.s, cn vt liu v nh hnh c th t V > 10 ' Pa.s.
nht tn h bng t s gia ng sut x dch T v tc chy () . cho bit kh
nng chng l i bin dng ( chy ) ca v t liu;
n = T ' . (4.18)
Trong a s trng hp, n pli thuc vo T v T. cho nn (4.17) c thay bng
T = i ( d c p /d f ) = ic p " , (4.19)
cn ph thuc vo T th giiig nh h s khuch tn;

r| = Ho ex p{ AH/ RT) . (4.20)
trong J - nng lng hot cng bc vi t khuch tn trong cht lng v ph
thuc yu vo T v tf).
Nguyn nhn ca chy nht l s dch chuyn tng gia cc tp th
ngiiyii t. ion khng theo mt phng xc iih no ( i vi vt liu v iih hnh )
hoc cc c ch khuch tn c lp ca nguyn t ( i vi vt liu tin h th ). Thc
cht chy nht cng c xem Iih mt qu triih hot nhit. Trong tin h th
nhit bin dng cao, qu tr iili ny xy ra ng thi vi chy do nh chuyn
ng hot nhit ca lch. K lii bin gii siu ht v ht s l ngun thu v pht
khuyt t t im ( v d,nt triig), thc y khuch tn ( s i ch ca nguyn t
v n t trng ), tng bc lm cu trc bin gii v do hnh dng ht b thay i
- SII trit bin gii. Nhng bin i vi m ny lun xy ra trong qu trn h thiu
kt vt liu bt ( c bit k h i c t i nh p nng, thiu kt p lc ) hay trong vt
liu siu do.
Hiu bit v nht c vai tr quan trng trong vic ch to v s dng vt
liu. V d.cn bit nht ca thy tinh, polyme. kim loi nng chy iu
khin qu triih to hnh nh thi, p v c. nht cho php anh gi SI n
iih kchthc. hnh dng ca cc chi ti t ch to t thy tinh, polyine.... kh i lni
vic c t i int nhit xc mh.
4.4. HIN TNG GI N HI - DO < HIU NG NH HNH )

Hin tng gi n hi ( pseiidoelasticity ) v gi do ( pseudoplasticity ) l cc
c tnh quan trng ca hiu ng nh hnh: s thay i hiih dng vt liu chu ti
hay khng chu t i kh i thay i nhit ca n. Hin tng c m t trn s
thay i hnh dng (e) theo ng sut () v nhit (T) ( xem hnh 4.20 ) .
Hih 4.20a cho thy trng hp bin dng thng thng i vi vt liu chu
ti: bin dng n hi tuyn tnh, tip n bin dng do c ha bn v ph liy.
l li i nung nng chiu di thay i thun nghch ph hp vi h s gin n nhit.
Cc trng hp cn l i thuc v hiu ng nh hiih: gi n hi. gi do { hiu iig
mt chiu ) v hiu ng hai chiu.
Gi n hi ( hnh 4.20b ) xut hin vt liu c tn h n lii ki ii caosu. K lii
chu t i > T^ bin dng phi tuyn r t ln, song lc b t i < a-r^ bin dng l i tr
v ( nh l i ) trng th i ban u trc bin dng, to mt vng tr v c tnh thun
nghch nh bin dng n hi. Nguyn nhn l chuyn pha a iiste n it -m actenxit
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________
th ii n nghch sinh ra bin dng khi t t i (p -> a) v kh bin dng khi b ti

(a-^P). ^
Trong tri iig hp gi do (hnh 4.20c ) khi c t i < ,a cluiyii pha p ^ a
km bin dng Ei v kh i b ti vt liu ( trng th i a ) nh l b bin dng do
(bin dng di | 0). Ch kh i nung ti T > As vt liu mi tr li trng th i trc
biu dng do chuyn pha a-> p . Ty theo tli iih phn v t chc, vng nhit
thch hp thay i t 0 n OO K. l hiii ng nh hnh mt cliiii ( so snh
hnh 4.21b,c).
Hin iig hai chiii (hih 4.20d) km theo bin dng E2 hn E) khng do
ngoi lc in do lm ngui vng ^ M( gy ra v nh li hnh dng c kh i nung
A|. tng ng vi chuyn piia p-> a v p. Qii trn h s c lp li trong
chu triih lm ngvii - nung tip theo i so snh hnh 4.21c.d,e,g ). V d v h.iu ng
nh hnh mt chiii v hai chiu ca hp kim C ii-Z ii-A l-N i xem trn iih chp mu
th hnh 4.21 (tnng hp mt chiu c t i : 6 -> c. tri iig hp hai chiu khng
ti: c - ^ d v e -^g).
iu kin c hiu ng nh hnh l kh i lni ngui, pha aiistenit (p) chuyn
thnh pha mactenxit. (a) v ngc li, km theo x dch v khng c khuch tu.
Chuyn pha cng c th xy ra vng nhit cao hn Iiii c ngoi lc, l
trng hp gi n hi (Tu > v gi do (T2 > M), tviy nliin nhit xy ra
gi n hi phi cao hti v khuyuli hng chuyn pha a -> p cty lii hn.
V vy. v ugviyn tc t t c hp kim c chuyn pha niactenxit u nh hnh
ic. v d. hp kim ch to t cc nguyn t c chuyn pha th hnh nh Ti. Mn,
Fe, Co, Tuy nhin, ch c hai loi hp kim c s Fe l h PeNiAl. KeNiAlTi,
PeNiCoTi c chuyn pha t mng Iptni ( nhit cao ) sang mng Iptk cha cc
ht pha ti t ra trt, ti kiu Cu iAvi v h PeMiiSi c chnyii pha t mng Iptni sang
mng spxc ( e -n ia c te n x it) ang c pht trin v c trin vng. Cn li a s hp
k in i nh hnh ang c s dng hin nay c ch to t pha lin kim loi ca Cu
v N i v c pha nhit cao (P) mng Iptk khng mm bng pha m actenxit (a).
Vic ng dng hp kim nh hnh kh a diig, tiy thiic tritc ht vo tnh
kinh t v cht liig ca bn thnh phm v d. chnh xc ca nhit
clm yii pha, s n nh cia hiu iig. bu mi. ...), saii l vo s thch \'tng
ca hiii ng i vi cc kt cu v liih vc p dng c th. C th n\i ra mt vi
ln h vc sau y.
Trong cng ngh lp rp, hp kim N iT i ( c bn cao ) v CuNi ( c dn
in cao ) ic ch to thnh cc biilng. inh t ii hoc u ghp ni c hc cc chi
ti t iny, ng hoc chn ci cc mch vi in ti r t nhanh, thun li v chc chn.
M t on ng nh hnh N iT i ic lm ngui nhit dii M f ( trng th i a ) ri
ic nng rng ra lun ghp hai ng li vi nhaii. Sau khi nung li n nhit
cao hn ( trng th i P) on ni nh li kch thc iig knh trc k h i nng s
ni cht ly cc iig cn ghp. Mt v d ng dng lii ii ng nh hnh mt chiu
tng t ghp nl nu trn hnh 4.22.
Hinh 4.20. Ph thuc ca bin dng (r.) vo ng sut () v nhit ( r ):

a) bnh thng bin dng do khi >- v gin n nhit = dt; / dT" ,
b) gi n hi: dn hi caosu khi > ; c) gi do;bin dng d c, khi
> tr v gc khi T > { hiu ng mt chiu ) ; d) hiu ng hai
chiu bin dang r,2 khi ngui v tr v gc khi nung .
M^.Mt -nhit bt u v kt thc chuyn pha a ; -nhit bt
u v kt thc chuyn pha a -> [, <>7 - ng sut bt u chuyn pha
1^ a v a -> |; gii han chy ca pha a v |
K th u t t ng ha s dng cc phn t l xo bng hp k im nh hnh hai

chiu, c th co hoc gin theo nhit trong cc h n by. van y. ... Trong
tng lai c th dng cc si nh hiih ch to cc chi ti t chuyn ng ( nh cnh
tay, bn tay ngi my ) nh nung trc tip bng dng in, khng cn cc khp
n. Trong y hc, t vic ghp n xng gy n cy cc chn rng gi, ... cng bt
u s dng cc loi hp kin i nh hiih gi n hi, m t chiu v ha i chiu. K li iig
loi tr kh nng ch to cc ng c hot ng tr n nguyn tc my n h i t nh
VT LIU HOC 161
h iih nh s chnh lch n h i t I - A f I to ra chuyn ng quay, mc d cn b

hn ch v hiu sut (=5% ), k t cu v nhit ng.
0')
d
y 9 -ix
b)
e)
(D
S) c)
Hnh 4.21.Hiu ng nh hinh hp kim Cu-Zn-AI-Ni:

Hinh 4.22. ng dng hiu ng nh hnh mt chiu:
a) tm hp kim trng thi mactenxit khng
tl nhit phng ; b) un nhit a, d) trng thi nung (P) ; b.c) trng thi ngui (a)
co bien dng
phng , c) nung 200 c : d) ti nc ti
nhit phng ; e) nung lai ( nh c ) ,
g) lm ngui ( nh d )
4.5.PH HY
Trn hnh 4.1 ng cong ng sut-bin dng kt thc giai on ph hy khi

lin kt nguyn t ( ion, phn t ) b ph v theo mt m t uo v vt liu b tch
thnh hai phn. Ph hy ch xy ra do ng sut php hoc ng sut tip t ti
bn l th u y t, v th s b t u Hi no c t p tru n g ng s u t cao n h t nh vt
nt, rnh kha. ... Do d ph hy lun c xem nh mt qu tr ih hai giai on:
hnh th n h v p h t tri n cc vt n t t kch thc siu v i m. vi m n v m.Di
y s Ii ii nhng vn chung ca h a i giai on . c im ca mi loi ph
li y theo cc h iih thc t i s c gii thiu trong tng phn ring.
4.5.1. CHUYN BIN DO-GIN V c CH PH HY
4.5.1.1. Nhit chuyn bin

Nh n ii mc 4.1.1, tn h do v gin ca cng mt v t liu c th hin
theo iu kin th v s dng, trc ht l Iihit , tc bin dng v mi
trng. C huyn bin do-giii tliit iig c xem xt theo ph thuc nhit ca cc
c tr n g th ko l gii hn chy quy c 0 2 . gii hn bn ko ai, v bin dng
11 - VLH
d sau ph hy , c tnh n nh hng ca t'c bin dng 8 v mi trng.

Gim nhit , tng tc bin dng v mi trng th u n li cho tp tru n g ng
sut s kch thch tn h gin ca vt liu v ngc li.
Hinh 4.23. Ph thuc C3 cc c trhg th ko vo

a) nhit r ; b) tc bin dang
Trn gin ph thuc nhit ca c tr n g th ko. quy c nhit

chuyn bin do-gin l nhit ti Oo 2 v Gb c cng m t t r s', cn th
gn bng khng ( h iih 4.23). K h i th nh i t T < Td.g do a < (, 2 nn v t liu
b ph hy gin trc k h i c th xy ra bin dng do ng k. K h i th m t nhit
xc nh, tng tc bin dng s dch chuyn n h i t v pha n h i t
cao, tc lin cho v t liu gin sm hn, ging nh k h i gim n h i t th. S tp
trun g ng sut, dn n cc trng th i ng sut khc nhau, ch nh hng ch yii
n b . N hit s cng tng v b s cng gim, tc cng sni c xu hng
gin kh i cng c liiu thay i ti t in t ngt.
Cc nh hng ca nhit v tc bin dng lin quan n chuyii ng ca
lch mng. K lii h thp nhit , troug k in i loi chuyn iig hot n h i t ca lch
tr nn kh khn v ng siit tr t ti hn r t cao, do ngoi lc th ng lc
lin kt nguyn t, gy ph hy theo mt m t v gin no trc k h i c bin
dng do; cn trong cht do th cc mch phn t tr nn km lin h ng v kh
nng tr t gia chng r t hn ch, cho nii khng c bin dng do n h i t
thp. V t liu g"m c xem nh gin v st t i n h i t chy mi c bin dng do.
Tc bin dng lin quan ti tc lch di ng V theo phng trin h O roivan:
= AT 6 y = iV 6 Q (x / To ) , (4.21)
trong N - m t lch di ng;
6 - vect Burgers;
Vo lo - tc lch v ng sut tng ng vi gii hn n hi:
X- ng sut tc dng;
n - ch s" ph thuc vt liu.
Theo (4.21) k h i tng , ngoi lc X buc phi tng v ln n mc lm vt
liu ph hy gin trc kh i lch c th chuyn ng to b i ii dng do. c bit khi
n nh. Trong k h i nh hng ca tp tru n g ng sut c ngun gc th u n t y c
hc. T t c cc loi v t liu u nhy cm vi tp tru n g ng sut v th hin
VT LIU HOC 163
chuyn bin do - gin. Cc k im loi v hp kim mng lp phng tm khi, su

phng xp cht v cht do c chuyn bin do - gin r t r kh i thay i nhit
v tc bin dng. Trong k h i mng lp phng tm m t do c nhiu h trt
c lp, lch kh lin h ng vi ng sut tr t ti hn thp, nn khng nhy cm
vi n h i t v tc bin dng nh l vi tp trun g ng sut.
Trong thc t, cc yu t" nh hng trn thng l nguyn nhn ca r t nhiu
ta i nn xy ra vi cc cng tr iih v th i t b giao thng, cc h thng ng dn v
cha kh, ch't lng. ... do v t liu chuyn sang trng th i gin. phng trn h cc
tai ha b t ng , ngi ta ti n hnh cc php th dai va p hoc c hc ph
hy nhm xc n h n h i t chuyn bin do - gin hoc ciig ng lc, nh
c th la chn cc v t liu v cc th i t k thch hp trong cc s dng c th ca
chi ti t v th i t b. T t nhin cha th to ra cc iu kin th hon ton giiig
iu, kin lm vic thc t, song s la chn s bo m s an ton ti a c th
c.
4.5.1.2. C ch ph hy
Cn phn b i t nm giai on ca qu tr ih ph hy nh sau; 1 - s h iih thnh

vt n t;2 - s p h t tri n chm ca vt nt di ti hii;3- trng th i ti hn; 4 - s
pht tri n nhanh ciia v t n t ti hn v - chm dt nt. Ba giai on quan trng
nht l cc giai on 1. 2 v 4.
V t n t t v i thviig sinh ra k h i bt u bin dng do nh xut hin s tp
tn in g ng sut ln. do nhiu nguyn nhn khc nhau nh b n mn, mi inn,
b l t th, bin h t gin, cc tp ln. ... c lin quan n chuyn ng khng ng
n h t ca lch mng. V d, vt n t sinh ra k h i tp hp I lch cng du dng li
bn cnh chng ngi kiu bin h t hoc cc phn t ti t ra ( hnh 4.24a,b ), ni
gp nhau ca hai m t tr t ( h iih 4.24c ) hoc kh i tng lch trong bin gii siu
ht b tch ri do x dch ( h iih 4.24d ).
^ Bin gii
siu ht
Bin ht
Pha th 2
b) d)
Hnh 4.24. Cc c ch to vt nt t' vi do lch chuyn ng :

a,b) m hinh Stroh-Mott , c) m hnh Cottrell , d) m hnh Giman v Orovvan-Stroh
V t Ii t di ti hn p h t tri n chm trong cc iu kin th tn h , do, mi,

n mn c ng su't, ... c b i t khng mong mun i vi cc v t liu do, v sau
k h i c bin dng do ng k v iig gia gii hn chy ^. v gii hn bn ko
b, chng dn ii ph hy cc kt cu ch c th it k trong vng n hi. Trc

kh i t c kch thc ti hn, vt nt thng c m rng nh mt vi lch
chuyn ng n iih ca n ( h iih 4.2a ). Sau , vt nt vi m t lch cao
giiig nh mt cm lch, dch chuyn v pha vng lch tr i du bn ngoi iih ca
n, nhn lch tr i du nn iih b t ra v tip tc m rng v pha trc nh
tng tc vi cc vng lch tip theo c sinh ra trong qii trn h bin diig do
(hnh 4.25b ), t kch thc ti hn v dn ti ph hy nhanh chng nh ph hy
gin hoc ph hy do c v khng c vng co th t cc b.
b)
Hinh 4.25. M hinh lch m rng vt nt khi bin dang do
Kch thc ti hn ca vt nt c tnh theo ng sut G rifftk , l ng siit

cn th i t mt vt nt c kch thc xc iih pht trin dn ti ph hy. Khi
xut hin mt vt n t kch thc 2a .l, th nng ca tin h th thay i :
U=V^W, (4.22)
trong V - s gia tng nng lng b mt vt nt;
V = 2.'. 2 a .l = 4 y'a ( y' l mt nng lng b m t) ;
w - s gim nng hng n hi do vt nt xut hin:
w = .e.n.a^. 1 = (E)Tia^ = K ^.
Do = 4 Y 'a - {Ê)na^ (4.23)
th hm AU (a) trn hnh 4.26 cho
thy A c cc t r ti a = a, , l kch
thc ti hn ca vt nt. Nh vy s pht
trin ca cc vt n t c kch thc
a > a, s c li v dn n gim A. Cc gi
t r tng iig vi cc t r l ng sut G riffth
oq v kch thc ti hn a, c xc nh
k h i d()/a = 0 l:
Hnh 4.26. Ph thuc th nng tinh th
=i2y'Elna,'^ vo kich thc vt nt
v a, = ( 2 y ' E l n a c , ) . (1.24)
L thuyt G riffith kh ph li p vi cc v t liu gin nh g'm, th y tin h , ...

Kim tra cng thc ( 4.24 ) vi bn l thuyt |, cho tin h th NaCl thy
|t /G - ( 2 y 'E /nd'^ / (2y 'E/n = { a jd '^ = 10'\ tc l a, - 10^ d, nu
d - 10' cm th a, (l thuyt) = 10'^ cm . thc nghim vi NaCl cho a, = 10"' cm.
VT LIU HC 165
i vi v t liu c bin dng do trc ph hy, cn thay th Y ' bng y , vi

y = Y ' + y" (y" l nng lng bin dng do do tp trun g ng sut iih vt n t).
4.5.2. P H H Y DO V G I N , c HC PH HY
4.5.2.1.Ph hy do
Ph hy do xy ra saii khi c bin dng do ng k. K lii th ko mt
chiu, vt th i c th c uhiii dng t khc l ia ii ( hnh 4.27 ). Ph hy thun ty
x dch ( nh i vi n tin h th ) thng c dng m t t nghing mt gc 45 vi
phng ko (a). Cc kim loi r t do s c vng co th t mnh trc kh i t (b). i
vi a tin h th sch k th u t r t hay gp m t t dng "chii-a ( cup and
cone ) c mp nghing 4 vi trc ko v phn y th vung gc ging nh ph
hy gin (c). M t t kiu "t ong" (d) thiig xy ra vi vt liu c cha tp cht
phi kim khng ng nht, v d, mangan sunt trong thp, nm r i rc trong cc
h nh m t t.
Ph hy do xy ra vi tc nh v cn nhiu Iing liig nn t nguy him.
Ph hy thng tr i qua ba giai on in h iih nh trong trng hp (c) l:
- Qu t r iili ko di v quan trng nht l s hiih thnh cc l trng siu t v i
ring bit to ra c ngiig;
- Qu triih lin hp cc l tr iig to ra vt nt t vi k h i bin dng tng v
- Qu trn h ln du ca vt nt theo phng vung gc vi trc ko cho n
khi gp m t ngoi tin h th gy ra ph hy.
iu kin cn th i t cho ph hy do xy ra l bin dng do v trng th i ng
siit. ko ba chin trong vng c co tht, cc b.
t t t t
w-rw-r
t>) d)
Hnh 4.27. Cc dng t khi ph hy do

a) thun ty x dch; b) tht c ngng; c) kiu " chn - a" v d) dang " t ong"
4.5.2.2. Ph hy gin
Ph hy gin hu nh khng c bin dng do v in km theo, xy ra tc thi
nn kh nguy him, n ch cn int nng lng nh xut hin vi mt tic
kh ln ( v d. khong 1000 m/s trong thp ). dn n bit bao ta i ha him ngho.
B ngoi, m t t k h i ph hy thng vung gc vi ng sut php ln nht.
nhng m t vi m th c th l theo biu ht. hoc theo cc mt phng tin h th xc

nh ( m t v gin ) bn trong mi ht ( hiih 4.28 ).
Nt trong ht Ht theo
( v in) bin hi'
1
Hnh 4.28. ng cong th ko v cc dng t khi ph hy gin
t theo bin ht k h i chng cha nhiu tp ln hoc cc phn t pha ti t ra

lm gin bin, c bit kh i nhit thp gi l hin tng gin lnh. t kiu v
gin tu y khng km bin dng do v m Iihing l i r t cn bin dug do v i m
(m icroplasticity) bn trong mi ht, to cc tp hp lch bn chng ngi sinh ra
cc vt nt t vi. Ph hy gin dng ny c hu ht cc v t liu gm, cc pha lin
kim loi, cc kim loi mng lp phng tm khi v su phng vi cc m t v
gin tng ng l {100} v {0001}. Mng lp phng tm m t c th c m t v gin
{111} nu b n mn c ng sut. V t liu v nh h iih di Iih i t th y tin h ha
Tg cng t ra gin nh cc v t liu a tin h th c t h tr t hoc t lch di ng.
Cc iu kin thun li cho ph hy gin l nhit thp (xem mc 4.5.1),
trng th i ng sut nhiu chiu (rnh kha, chuyn tip kch thc t ngt, thnh
dy, tc bin dng ln ( va p ), t chc khng ng nht ( inl hn. nhit
luyn s a i), v t liu bn cao do km, mi trug to vt nt (ii mn. mi mn, ...).
phng nga r i ro cn tr n h cc iu kin kh i v t liu lin vic.
Ph hy gin xy ra theo hai giai on c bn l sinh v pht tri n vt nt. c
hai qu triih thc t ch i hi bin dng do nh cc b vt n t c th pht,
tri n vi tc ln bt ng m cng thc hin l i khng ng k.
4.S.2.3. C hc ph hy
c tn h ph hy ca vt liu c th nh gi mh lng theo cc tiu chun
ring, chng c xc iih trong cc php th khc nhau. Php th ko cho php
xc iih cng bin dng ca c vt liu do v gin - l ln ca phn din
tch gii hn bi ng cong ng sut - bin dng v trc ngang e (xem hmh 4.28).
V t liu gin s c cng bin dng nh hn v t liu do.
Th va p thng thc hin cho v t liu do vi mu c rnh kha khc nhau
v chu t i un bng mt ba c khi lng m ri t cao H nh kiu con lc, san
kh i ph hy mu ba dng l i cao h. Tiu chun nh gi l cng va p -
hiu nng lng trc v sau ph hy;
Av-m g(H -h), J (4.25)
trong g - gia tc trng trng.
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________ l x
T s gia cng va p Av v ti t din mu t i rnh kha So l dai a p

(tiu chun c v Nga thiig k hiu l hoc KC c km theo dng rnh kha,
v d KC - rnh ch u , KCV - rnh ch V v KCT - rnh ch T ) :
ttk = Av / Su . J . (4.26)
dai va p ph thuc r t mnh vo h iih hc mu cho nn khng th s
dng n tnh ton th i t k cho cc chi ti t my c kch thc v h iih hc r t a
dng, l i chu t i v lm vic trong cc trng th i ng sut r t khc nhau. Tuy
nhin so snh cht lng ca vt liu vi nhau th t r s' cng va p Av cng .
Trong php th va p cng c th xc ih c nhit chuyn bin do - gin
bn cnh A v K lii cn ghi r tiu chun v hnh hc inu bn cnh, v d
Av ( ISO - V ) = 10 J ( mu th theo ISO c rnh kha ch V ).
i vi vt liu gin th cc php th ca c hc ph li y cho php xc iih
nguyn Iihii, iu kin xu't hin ph hy cng nh cc bin php phiig nga n.
Cch xem xt nh sau. M t vt liu gin dng tm cha tm mt vt nt di 2a
x iiy ii tm v chu mt ng sut php ko vung gc vi b m t vt nt. Da
theo cc phng php l thuyt n hi cn tnh ng sut v s phn b ca chng
gn iih vt nt, t a ra cc in kin cn vt nt t pht tri n ti ph
hy khng cn bin dng do. Bit rng t'm s ph hy gin nu tch (a^) vt
qiia mt gi t r ti hn. Do c th s dng h s cng ng lc K v h s'
ct/ng ng lc ti hn K(' hay gi l dai ph hy c trng cho kh nng
ca v t liu chiig l i ph hy:
= Pa.m'^'^ (4.27)
v g l hng s^ cho bit vai tr ca h iih hc mu v kch thc vt nt. Ty theo
vt nt ic m rng do iig sut ko hay ng sut tip vung gc hoc song song
vi ih vt ltt. in h s cviig ng lc c thm cc ch s I hay I I hoc I I I . tc
K hay K hoc K^\\. Trong c hc ph hy, ng sut ti hn chung cho cc vt liu
c xc m li t l thuyt G rifth l
oîEylna''^ (4.28)
vi y bao hm cc nng lng u hi. b m t v bin dng do. N li vy trong
tri iig hp ti ko th
K,c = o g ( n a ) ' = g ( E y ' ' ^ . (4.29)
xc nh K c cn th dai ph hy. M t mu th dng tm dy d, rng 6
cha mt rnh kha cao h ni tip vi mt vt nt di a ( c to ra Iih t i trng
tun hon ) chu mt lc ko F ( h iih 4.29 a ). Trn ng cong ph thuc F (Ah) s
xc iih lc ko ti hn Fc ti mu th khng cn bin dng n hi na v vt
n t bt u pht tri n t ngt trong mu Oiih 4.29b ). ng sut ti hn p tnh
theo trn ti t din mu t i rnh kha d(b-a) cho php tm c K\c theo (4.29).
Trng hp kch thc mu r t ln so vi vng bin dng pha u vt nt th Kc
hu nh khng ph thuc vo hnh hc m ii v do n c xem nh mt thng
s ca v t liu. Trong thc t h s ciiig ng lc ti hn cn c tn h cho c
trng hp chu u mn c ng siit, chu t i mi v do na.
Phng triih (4.27) v (4.29) cho bit tng quan gia ng sut tc dng v
kch thc vt nt k h i chu ti. l vi mi v t liu (C[C = co n st) khi tng ng sut
th vt liu s ph hy ng sut b. Nu ng sut gi c iih th k c k h i < b
v t liu cng s b ph hy nu vt l t pht tri n v t kch thc ti hn. Do
kh i th i t k k s cn bit c K\ c trn h cho v t liu b ph hy t ngt. Nh

bit K\c m tn h c ng sut ti a mt vt liu c th chu vng c khi
n c cha cc khuyt t t kch thc iih trc a, hoc Iigc l i c th xc ih
c kch thc ti a ca khuyt t t a,ax cho php tn t i mt ni no ca chi
ti t chu mt ng sut bit trc ( h iih 4.30 ) . l l do t i sao K\c c s
dng rng r i tn h bn vt liu vi yu cu an ton cao nh cc php th i
vi cc mu c rnh kha a dng. V d, i vi cc v t liu bn thp nh thp c
gii hn chy ()_2 < 700 MPa ( tc E ! () 2> 300) th dai ph hy K\c tnh t php
th va p un. Cc v t liu bn trun g biih nh thp c Q2 = ( 700-^1400 ) MPa
(tc E I oq-i - 1504-300 ) cn th va p trn cc mu thnh dy hoc nhit
thp. I vi v t liu bn cao {E! (),2 < 150) nh thp c ao 2 > 1400 MPa r t cn
bit K c tnh kch thc chi ti t theo ng sut ti a ( vi a, cho tric ):
max = K xc [ g (n a, ] (4.30)
hoc theo chiu di ti a ca vt nt ( vi , cho trc ) :
a tnax = ( ÎC I , / ) - { U n ) (K c .l g , ) (4.31)
Hinh 4.29. Th dai ph hy : Hnh 4.30 Quan h gia dai

a) mu th ; b) ph thuc ti vo chiu cao rnh khia ph hy /C|C, ng sut cho php a
vi kch thc vt nCrt a
Bng 4.6. dai ph hy K|C ca mt s vt liu
Vt liu Ph hy Kic . MPa.m '^
Hp kim nhm Do 2 2 ^ 33
Hp kim titn Do 30^ 120
Thp xy dng khng hp kim Do 300 ^ 400

Thp xy dng hp kim thp Gin 10 ^ 100
Polycacbonat Do 1.1
Polycacbonat Gin 0.4

vi Gin 1.1 - 2 , 4
Thy tinh Gin 0,3 ^0,6
Nhm oxyt Gin 3 ^5 ,3
VT LIU lHC 169
Trong bng 4.6 cho bit ca mt s' vt liu kt cu in hiih, thy r s

khc bit gia nhm vt liu kim loi v phi kim loi. Cc vt liu th hin tnh
gin c A'|(' kh nh.
4.5.3. M I
4.5.3.1. M t
T i trng mi l t i trng bin i theo thi gian, c quy lut, c lp li tun
hon r t nhiu lu, thng dn n ph hy ng sut thp hn gii hn bn ko
tnh. Trong thc t a s" cc chi ti t v kt cu chu t i mi v c ti 70% trng
hp ph hy cc th i t b. my mc v cng trn h c nguyn nhii chnh l mi - mt
diig ph hy da trn bin dng do, xy ra kh i t i vt qu mt bin ng
sut ti hn. ng sut hay bin dng thay i theo thi gian kiu hnh sin dn n
t i trng mi l:
= ., sin (co) hoc e = e sin {(t) (4.32)
vi bin ., . v gi tr trung binh . e, . Mi dao ng c chu k l T v s
hng chu k c lp li gi l n chu trin h N. xc iih bn mi cn xy
dng th ph thuc biii ti ,, vo s chu trn h N tng ng lc mu b ph
hy. l gin hay ng cong Whler: - f (N) ( h iih 4.31 ). Nh c th
chn c t i cho php m mi v t liu c th chu ng c mt s lng
chii tr ih ti thiu xc nh gi l H chu trn h gii hn Nr, , v d, l vi thp
Nr, - hp kim nhm Nc, = lo . Trong thc t thng chn hai ch tiu mi
l s' chu trn h gii hn N', v bn mi lu . bn ini lu l bin ., m
thp hn II v t liu chu iig c int s chu triih bt k in khng b ph hy.
Trng thi ng sut tn h , nhit , h iih hc v trng th i b m t nh hng r
rt n iig cong Wohler v do trc tip thay i cc ch tiu mi ca vt
liu. Trong bng 4.7 liu gi t r ( nhit phng) v Nr, cho mt s nhm vt
liii. Trong c hc ph hy, t i trng mi c c trvng bng bin cng ng
lc A K K^.x -
A K = O rg (n a ''^. (4.33)
4.5.3.2. C ch ca ph hy mi
ng cong ng sut - bin dng ca mt chu k mi biu hin int vng tr
r t r tng ng vi phn bin dng do nh kiu ng Bauahingcr ( xem mc
4.2..2). do c th phn bit c hin tng ha bn v th i bn giai on
u ca qu triih mi. Nu th vi bin d ng sut = coiist th vng tr hp
tng ng vi ha bn ( bin bin dng Si, nh ) v rng tng ng vi th i bn
(bin bin dng Ea ln ). K h i th vi bin bin dng e = const th th i bn lm
gim bin ng sut ( vng tr thp ) cn ha bn lm tng bin ng sut
(vng tr cao ) ( hih 4.32 ). Ha bn thng xut hin kim loi sch, cn thi
bn ch thy trong hp kim , ring thp th c c ha bn v th i bn.
Bng 4.7. c trng mi ca mt s vt liu
Vt liu o , MPa Vt liu Nr.
Gang s80 Gang, thp 3.10^ 10^
St armco 184 ng
ng sch 67 ng thanh
Thp 774 ng thau 10^ 10
Hp kim Cu-Be 425 Kim loi nh
T t nhin hiu ng cng r k h i bin ng sut cng ln. Tuy vy ngay c khi
bin thp,nh chuyn ng ca lch m c bin dng do cc b, lm thay i
t chc t v i ca v t liu. Sau khong =10 h iih thnh t chc Gi) c kch
thc gim k h i nhit gim v khi bin Ea tng, hu nh khng cha lch
bn trong .
Trn b m t v t liu xut hin cc di trt c trng. Do lch hot ng trong
cc h tr t ngc chiu nhau nn to ra cc ch li v lm, ni to mm cho vt
nt sau ny hih thnh v pht trin. i k h i mm vt nt cng h iih thnh c
bin ht hoc gn tp phi kim loi. C ch ph hy mi cng gm cc qu triih
hiih thnh v pht tri n vt nt, tuy nhin kh phn bit c r riig. Thng
thng l vi v t liu do phn to vt nt chim 10% , v pht tri n vt n t
chim 90% tng thi gian sng (N chu trn h ), cn vt liu gin c t l ngc li.
Phn tch hnh th i b m t v t liu cho thy vt nt pht tri n giai on u
trn cc m t tr t c ng sut x dch lii nht, nghing mt gc 45 vi ngoi
lc; trong k h i giai on sau th vung gc vi ng sut phap. vt gy cho thy
c hai vng r rt : yng b m t phng nhn nh ha bn gm nhiii cung trn
VT LIU HC 171
ng t m c tr n g cho g ia i on p h t tri n ca v t n t v v n g ph h y do hoc

gin dng si hoc tin h th b i u th g ia i on k t th c mi.
Bn cht s xut hin vt
l i-l i cn cha c h i u y
. M t vi m hnh lch mng
c gng gn s chuyn
ng ngc chiu ca lch to ra
cc m in l i-l m b m t v t
liu ng chi l:
M hnh C ottrell-H ull:
lch tr t trong hai h trt,
mi h hot ng trong mt
na chu k (ko v nn) to ra
mt cp l i-l ii b m t ( h iih
4.33 ) ngay trn cc di trt,
tuy nhin cc vt li-lm cn
phi xuyn su't min tr t nh
cc di trt, iu m i khi Hnh 4.32. ng cong bin dng mi khi a = const
hoc r-a = const
khng quan st thy;
M hinh Mott: nu c mt lch xoii chuyn ng tun hon bng trt
ugang theo mt vng khp kn th s to c mt min li. Tuy nhin khng
gii thch ti sao l i lun c mt min lm tng ng bn cnh;
M hnh Pisher. mt lch xon chn mt m t tr t to ra mt bc nh, khi
bin dng bc tr t t do to ra mt l hng. M hnh khng gii thch ngun
gc min li.
~T _____ n ------------, ,
r r TT
11
II
/ I I
Khng ti
]
-
\ J j-
Ko

! l
il __l f ]
Nn
l ___
ko
I
Hnh 4.33, S xut hin min li v lm theo Cottrell- Hull
4.S.3.3. Yu t nh hng n bn mi
N li nu trn, c nhiu yu t' nh hng n bn mi ca v t liu,
l bin iig sut a , gi t r trun g b iih , , dng t i trng, gradient ng sut
(theo ti t din), nhit , tn s v mi trng th, trng th i b m t v t liu, ...
Di y s nu r hai yu t cul cng c lin quan nhiu n h t n s hmh thnh
v pht tri n cc vt nt t b mt.
S nhp nh b m t cng giiig nh rnh kha lm gim bn mi. Kch
thc b m t nh v tin h s lm tng bn v tui th. C th to ra trng thi
ng sut nn b m t tng bn nh cc qu trn h gia nhit hay hot ha hoc
172__________________________________ Chtig 4, BIN DNG V c TNH CA VT Ltu
lm nhn c hc, v d. cn ln. phun bi. thm nit. ti b mt. phmi ph bng lp
b m t v c hay hu c. K lii th i t k cng cn trnh cac vng chviyn tip bn
knh cong nh, cc rnh kha nh d to tp trung ng sut. Mi trng th ug
quan tm nht l s n mn kh quyn, ha cht; chng d dn n s gim tui
th ca vt liu, c bit loi m chng nhy cm nht; v d thp bn cao v nc,
hp kim nhm bn cao v kh ni. hp kim nhm v thy ngn, hp kim tita n bn
cao v nc mui, ng thau v ainoiac, ... V vy, ini trong ini trng n mn
(cn gi l hin tng mi-n mn ) cn c c bit ch . nh hng ca nhit
n iig cong Whler n\i trn s mnh m khi nhit t n vng c
do ( T > 0,5 r,,,. ) v k h i vai tr ca mi trng ( v d. oxy ha) tr nn quan
trng. Hin tiig mi - do ny kh phc tp v khng c b qua. v d, trong
tr n g hp cc cnh tii c b in ca ng c ph n lc l m vic t i n h i t
900-^1000C.
4.5.4. D O
K lii t t i th ko (nn) ngm hiu rng bin dng sinh ra khng ph

-thuc thi gian, gm bin dng n hi 8<||, v bin dng do 8,1 tc thi. iii ny
ch ng khi tc bin dng cao. Thc t cho thy lun c mt thnh phn bin
dng thay i theo thi gian, k c khi vt liu chu mt t i c' nh, l bin
diig do e,|,-,0 (t), c th gm bin dng dn hi tr hoc bin dng do. T roiig k
thut, do thng c xem Iili qu trn h bin dng khng thun nghch ph
thuc thi gian do t i c' nh gy ra. Titng t, tcA thot ng sut l s suy gim
theo thi gian ca ng sut cn th i t gi cho biu dng khng thay i. Hni qu
trn h trn r t qxiaii trng vi cc vt liu c cu trc khng trt, t hoc mt
phn tin h th ( v d, thy tinh, cht do. ...) v vt liii tin h th nhit cao.
4.5.4.1. M t v phn ioi

Ph thuc thi gian ca bin dng khi chu t i III t bng phviig trnh:
e(0 - e.ih + e.i + e.iAo () - + e,i, ) , (4.34)
trong e,, - bin dng tc thi, bao gm bin diig n hi v bin dng do:
(Eit - Gdh + S,| ); vi kim loi e (t) = t"\
Trn th (hnh 4.34a) phn bit r ba giai on;
I - do chuyn tip (do s cp) vi m < 1. tc do gim dn theo thi gian;
II - do n iih (do th cp) vi /n = 1. tc do khng thay i (coiist):
I I I - do nhanh dn (do tam cp) vi m > 1. tc do tng dn theo thi gian.
Do chuyn tip (I) c trng bng qu trn h cc lch c hot nhit ct nhau,
to ha bn ch yu nh cc bc lch v cu trc lch n nh, qu triih th i bii
khng ng k.
Do n nh (II) th hin s cn bng ng hc gia ha bn v th i bn nh
g i i to cc t p hp lch bn chng n g i bng cc chuyn ng h o t n h i t ca lch
nh leo. tr t ngang. Cu trc lch khng thay i ( ph thuc ng sut, khng
VT LIU HC 173
ph thuc nhit ). dn u t chc a ciih ha hoc kt tin h i t y theo nng

liig khuyt t t xp ln hoc nh.
Do nhanh di (III) bt u khi qua trn h th i bn chim u th. Bin ht c
th trt, cc vt nt c hnh thnh . mu co th t v ph hy theo bin ht.
Trong khi th (ng sut hay nhit c gi khng i) nu ch c giai
oii I xvit hin th do c gi l do loga (hay do nhit thp), cn k h i c c
hai giai on sau th gi l do Andrade (hay do nhit cao) vi ranh gii nh
trn gin do hnh 4.34b. Chng p li ii bit nhau ch do loga ch c lch
trt, cn do Andrade c lch leo. Gin do cn cho bit hai loi do khc: do
n hi tr xy ra kh i < a* v do H erring - Nabarro, mt tri iig hp c bit
ca do n iih ch xy ra nhit cao. thiig gi l do khuch tn.
Trong mt gin vi hai trc l nhit v ng su't chun ha ca Ashby
c th thy c cc viig bin dng vi cc c ch do khc nhau cng nh cc
iig cong c tc do n iih khng i. Nh trong cc iu kin th c th
c th xc nh c int c ch ch yu tng iig vi tc do cho tnc i vi
tng vt liu.
DO
H erring-
Nabarro
O)
Hinh 4.34. a) ng cong do r. (t) nhit hoc ng sut khc nhau ,

b) gin phn loai do theo Weertman
Trong thc tin th do thng xc iih hai i lng: gii hn do v bn

do. bn do l ng sut gy ph hy do sau int thi gian cho trc ( v d
sau 1000 h l ai,/1000 = 1 7 0 MPa ), cn gii hn do l ng sut cn th i t c
bin dng xc nh ( v d, 0,2 % ) sau mt thi gian cho tric (v d, 1000 h)
l ,2 / 1000 = 100 MPa. thun tin c th tm cc i lng trn cc th
loga ph thuc ca bin dng vo ng sut v thi gian.
Thng bin dng chn l 0.2 v 1%. cn thi gian c th n 10 h.T cc
i liig trn c th nh gi bn nng ca vt liu chu ti c^ iih.
4.S.4.2. C ch do
Trong phn ny s gii thiu ln lt bn loi do c trn gin h ili 4.33b.
theo hin tng. cc c im, c ch v ngha ca tng loi.
174__________________________________ C hng 4. BIN DNG V c TNH CA VT LIU
Do n hi tr xy ra kh i < * (* l ng sut ti hn ), c m t bng

phng trih :
e ( 0 = Srih + easo () = e<iii + Eo [ 1- exp {-t / T) ] . (4.3)
trong s hng th hai biu th bin dng n hi tr e,iiii Iili biu din trn hnh
4.6e. C ch ca qu triih cng c cp t i inc 4.1.2.3 .
Do nhit thp bt u k h i > * v nhit T < o. r,,,., tun theo quy
lut:
e ( ) = Etii, + ea + e,iAo ) - Ei, + E) I n ( 1 + v ) . (4 .3 6 )
c im ca do l khng n nh v tc do gim theo thi gian;
() = de () / d = (e, . v ) ! { \ + vt) . (4.37)
K h i ng sut t * lch c th tr t to bin dng do km theo ha bn.
Nh thng ging ng sut nhit, lch c hot nhit thng cn tr do ha bn,
to ra bin dng do tip tc. Do thng ging tug theo thi gian nn bin dng
cng tng, gy ra ha bn tip v kt qu l tc do gim dn theo thi gian.
Do loga cn c khng ch i vi cc chi ti t cn c chnh xc cao v kch
thc m chu ti tn h lu. Cc vt liu ch to chng cn cuhit luyii thch
hp ha bn c hiu qii hn.
Do nhit cao thc hin > * v T > 0,5 T,. , c m t bng phng
triih Andrade:
Kt ,
e (0 = Edh + Sd + e <1A0 ) = e it + (4.38)
trong s'hng th hai c trng do khng n mh (p") vi tc do gim dn
theo thi gian v s hng th ba - do n nh {K t) vi t'c do khng i. th
ph thuc e (0 ging nh it trn hnh 4.34a vi ba phn r rt: do khng n ih.
do n iih v do nhanh dn. T l gia ba phn ph thuc vo ng sut v nhit
. Tc bin dng do ln h bng:
() = d E ( ) / d = n P " ' ' + / (vin<l) (4.39)
gm hai th iih phn: tc do khng n nh gim theo thi gian (np" ' ) v tc
do n nh l mt hng s, { K - const ). i vi do n nh, K ph thuc ng
sut kh phc tp: vi ln l q iia ii h hm m, cn khi nh hoc tru iig bnh
th c th l hm ly tha . Hm Sh thay hin m ln v hm ly tha Iih.
Cn ph thuc vo nhit T ca K c dng hm ni saii;
K = ( T , a , ...) exp [ - ( T, . ...) I k T ] , (4.40)
trong /n - hng sBotzm ann ;
- nng Ivng hot ( vi kim loi sch w nng lng t khuch tn).
Cc hm ph thuc tc do vo v T c th xc iih bng thc nghim
nh phng php phn tch hot, t c th nh gi vai tr ca c ch do ch
yu ca qu trnh. Di y s nu c ch ca do n iih v do Iihanh dn. cn
do khng n mh ging nh d nhit thp trn h by trn.
Do n nh xy ra nh ba qu tr ih v m: hot ng ca ngun lch to lch
di iig, lch chuyn ng cho n k h i to cc tp hp bn chng ngi ( ha bn )
v s phn b l i lch nh qii trn h hi phc ng hc ( thi bn ). Ba qu trn h
ny to mt. vng kn nh hot nhit , lm cho tc do khng thay i ( hnh
4.35 ). Ngun kiu Frank - Read c ngoi lc kch thch, ban ii sinh ra mt
VT LIU HOC 175
lng lch di ng ng k to bin dng do. sau kh i ha bn hot ng ca

ngun tr nn kh hn do ng sut ngc t n lch b dn li bn chng ngi.
Nh kch hot nhit, lch c th leo hay trt ngang qua cc cn tr ( nu n t trng
c m t v lin h n g cao ) (h m h 4.36) t o iu k in g i i ta t p hp lch v
ngun l i ti p t c c kch th ch .
To lch
Kich thih Tp hp
nun
T h i bn Ho bn
vt
cn tr
Hnh 4.35. S khp kn ba qu trinh ca do n inh
Nh vy l s phn b' l i lch hay hy lch lm cn bng ha bn bin

dng vi li i phc ng hc, dn n s khng ph thuc thi gian ca tic
bin dng ( = const ). Ni cch khc, chuyn ng leo ca lch l ng lc ca
do n iih, thc hin bng s khuch tii ca cc khuyt t t im ( n t trng, ...)
dn diig lch. Do nng lng h o t do s bao gm Iiiig lng t khuch tn
t/|<, v nng lng to bc lch I,, trong - U + ,. ( nng lng to n t trng
| v nng lng n t trng chuyn ng r ):
= + , - , + ,. + ^ (4.41)
T . tc do s t l vi xc sut to n t trng, xc sut n t chuyn ng
v xc sut to bc lch:
exp(-kT). e\>{-Ur/kT^. exp(~Jk\T) - exp[-(+Ui.+\,)kT ]. (4.42)
K h i s bc lch sinh ra do kch hot nhit nh so vi s bc do lch ct
nhau th U, 0 v = . iu m thc nghim quan st thy vi r t
nhiu kim loi sch.
Do nhanh dn xy ra nhanh, km theo bin dng do t, dn n ph hy
theo bin ht. Qu tr ih ph hy gm hai giai on ; to l tr iig theo bin ht
t cc tm sn c hoc ch li-lm k h i ht tr t trong phng vung gc vi ng
sut bn ngoi ( hnh 4.37a ) v l trng tp hp l i to vt nt , c bit ng ba
bin gii c tp tru n g ng sut cao k h i gp cc m t trt ca lch ( hnh 4.37b ).V
vy phng ph hy do cn tm cch cn tr tr t bin h t . gim tp tru n g ng
sut v sau phng cc ch li-lm t i .

T 'T -T ^ T "T
-L I \
Hinh 4.36. S m hinh leo
ca lch khi gp cn tr :
) bj C) a) vt cn tr sang mt bn,
b) hy ln nhau khi tri du, c)
tham gia vo bin gii gc nh,
d) leo gn bin ht v e) leo
qua ht phn tn, li vng
lch
j l . j -.-L
T T
t /
e)
Do khuch tn ch xy ra nhit cao {T 0,5 T(.). trong cc v t liu lit

nh v kch thc b. Tc do ph thuc tuyn tn h vo ng sut bn ngoi
v c tn h bng s thay i th tch theo thi gian trong n v th tch ca mu;
= (1 / ) (d V / d) -={2c b^D) I ( Ar T) , hay ~ , (4.43)
trong D - h s t khuch tn ;
L - kch thc mu.
HtA A
Nt
Ht B
Hnh 4.37. S trt ca ht to l trng (a) v vt nt (b)
Hinh 4.38. S m t do
Herring-Nabarro khi th ko
a) dng khuch tn :
b) s thay i kich thc
- nguyn t,
- nt trng
VT LIU HOC 177
S thay i kch thc biu dng ) do qu tr ih khuch tn n t trng v

nguyn t theo hng Iigc nhau. V , khi th ko. dng nguyn t dch chuyn
v pha hai mt. y, cn dng n t trng - v pha cc nit bn. Kt qu l mu b
ko di trong phng ngoi lc ( hnh 4.38 ). Qu trn h khvich tn c xem Iiii
s chy nht Newton ( xeri mc 4.3 ). Litu rng gn nhit Iing chy s
khuch tn theo th tch l ch yu ( do H crring - Nabarro ) trong khi nhit
thp hn th khuch tn theo bin ht chim ii th ( do Coble ).
4,5.4.3. Do trong cc vt liu khc nhau

i vi vt liu kim loi, do n nh c bit quan trng, nht l cc chi ti t
lin vic nhit cao ( ng c phn lc ). chu n mn (nh my nhit in ).
chu bc x ( nh my ht nhn), ... Hai yu t nh hng trc tip n do l
u lii t v ng sii't. K lii tng mt trong hai yu t^ th bin dng tc thi v tc
do n nh tng, cn Uii th gim. Do trong vt liu kim loi lin quan n
bn nng ca chng. Mun nng cao bn nng phi chng do nhit cao,
tc phi to ic int c'u trc hoc t chc chng li c hiu qu chuyn ng ca
lch ( trt v leo ) cng nh x dch ca bin ht v n t thay i hoc thay i
chii nhit . Tiu chiiii chn cc hp kim bn nng cao l:
- K in i loi c bn c nhit nng chy v miin n hi cao Iih i Cr, Nb. Mo,
Ta hoc w . Tuy nhin cu lu l chng gin v b oxy ha. K im loi c bn cng
cu phi c nng lng khuyt t t xp thp cn tr trt ngang v leo ca lch.
Dp ng tiu chun ny c cc thp austenit. hp kim Ni v Co;
Hnh 4.39 S bin dang

do tr :
0) a) ng sut bin i theo thi
gian (f, - t t i . 2 - b t l) .
b) bin dang tng gm bin
dng n hi tc thi , bin
dang n hi tr v bin
dang do tr , c) m hinh
c hoc
c)
12 - VLH
- Nguyn t" hp kim a vo gim nng lng khuyt t t xp, to c ch

ha bn kiu dung dch rn hoc pha th hai, cn tr khuch tn v trt bin
ht, thiig c m t trong cc thp v hp kim chu nhit l Co v Cr. Trong Iihiu
trng hp cc pha ti t ra nh TI1O 2, cacbit ( Mo. w , V. Nb. Ta) hoc cc hp cht
N ,3( a i, T i ) c hiu qu ha bn r t tt.
Trong thc tin s dng cn nh rng thp austenit , hp kim c s N i v Co
kh t v chu ng n nhit ln hn 600 c. ring hp kim Co c th ti
lio o ^ c . vng nhit thp hn 600 c nn dng loi thp khng hp kim . hp
kim thp v hp kim cao c nn l kim loi lp phng tm khi s r hn.
C ht do di t i trng C iih c th b bin dng th u n nghch theo thi gian
gi l do n hi tr ( xem mc 4.1.2.3 v 4..4.2 ) , thm ch nhit phng v
ng sut nh hdn gii hn chy. K h i do c trin g bng m un do ^d() ph
thuc thi gian:
^cio () = / e do (0 1 (4.44)
trong a - ng sut tc dng,
do (0 - bin dng do n hi tr.
Khc vi kim lo ix h t do vi nhit nng chy thp cn c th bin dng
khng thun nghch nhit gn nhit phng di t i trng c iih theo mt
hiih thc khc gi l do do tr ( viscoplastic creep ). Ch cn tng nhit mt t
l cht do chuyn t tr n g th i do n hi tr sang do do tr. Hin tng do
tr ( viscoplasticity ) m t nh sau ( hmh 4.39 ). K h i chu mt t i tc thi vt qu
gii hn n hi. v t liu b bin dng n hi tc thi ,iii do l xo F\ , bin dng
n hi tr E(ihi do l xo F -2v gim xc A 2, biii dng do tr E(it do gim xc A | thay
i theo thi gian trong sut thi gian t ti. K h i b ti. sau thi gian t - t: - .
vt liu b bin dng di F ., , . l mt lo<i bin dng khng thun nghch.
Vt liu gm do c lin kt nguyn t mnh (ion hoc ng ha tr) nn nhit
hot cho chuyn ng lch kh cao. Tuy nhin do cng c thc hin nh
chuyn ng ca lch v tr t bin ht. nhng nhit cao so vi kim loi
(0,6--0,7 ) v thng c th nn. K lii cha nhiu pha tin h th c th xy ra
chuyn bin th hnh v v t liu d b n hoc co t ngt. Gm r t d b sc nhit.
N lii t chuyn trng th i thy tin h - nht ( nu gm c cha cc pha thy tin h
hoc l tr n g ) c nh hng n kli nng do.
4.6. C IM BIN DNG CC LOI VT LIU

*
4.6.1. V T L I U V C
4.6.1.1. c im bin dng

nhit thp v t liu gm tin h th ch bin dng n hi v kt thc bng
ph hy gin. c trng bin dng l cc mun E, G. v gii hn bn b . Nu
v t liu cha l trng th cc mun s giin t y thuc s" lng l trng. Loi tr
MgO n tin h th nhit phng , khi chu nn, trc lc ph hy bin dng
do c mt vi phn trm . L do l MgO c c mt vi h tr t hot ng. Cn
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________ 179
Iiu chu ti ko v l a tin h th th n cng b ph hy gin nh cc vt liu gm
khc. Mc d cng c cu trc tin h th nh kim loi, cng xp cht vi cc m t v
plntng tin h th xp cht, cng cha lch v ngun lch, nhng cc h trt khng
th hot ng c, v lin kt ion s lm cho cc ion tch in cng du phi x
dch li gn nhau khi lch trt, nhng lc y tn h in s cn tr x dch . Tnh
giii cng cu tr bin dng do cc b nhm gim bt tp trun g ng sut t i cc
ni s c vt Iit.
Thy tin h do khug c tr t t xa nn khng c h tr t v lch mng, nhit
th p hn n h it thy tin h ha T , c tn h bin dng cng ging nh gin;
ngha l ch c bin dng n hi lm bin dng cc li ion tc thi, sau hm h
dng ban u c khi phc li dn du kh i b ti. S tng hay gim mun n
hi E ph tlnic vo thnh phn v th loi ioii, cn tc khi phc h iih dng -
vo ng sut tc dng v nhit .
nhit cao v t liu g'm c th bin dng do mt t nh kh i bin dng do,
chnh l nh chuyn ng hot nhit ca lch, nh c thm m t tr t mi, nh lch
leo. ...V lch linh ng trong gni c lin kt io ii nhiu hn trong gm c lin kt
ng ha tr, cho nn u tin chn loi sau cho cc chi ti t chu t i nhit cao.
v d, SiC. SiriK}, ... Cng v do thc hin nh tr t bin ht hoc chy nht ca
pha v mh liiih cho nn cn hn ch cc pha v mh hmh ( thy tin h ) trong cc
vt. liu gm s dng nhit cao. Thy tin h nhit T > Tj, ha mm v
cluyn sang trng th i nhit do. kh i tnh bin dng r t ph thuc vo tc
bin dug; s chy nht khi tc thp v gin khi tc cao. S ha mni ca
thy tin h hn ch s dng chng cc nhit . song li to iu kin thun li
gia cng to hih in i vi cc loi g"m khng lm c.
4.6.1.2. c im ph hy
Vt liu gjTi khng do nn ch ph hy gin. bn ph hy thc hin tru
inu th ko, th nn v mu dng ru cho thy ln lt l : wlO'^ T|| (mu
thng, th ko ), a|," a: lO ' T|1 (mu thng, th nn) v h' =5: T|1 (mu dng
ru .th ko ) , T|| l bn l th u y t (xein inc 4.2.3.1, cng thc (4.11) ).
S khc bit trn cho thy vt nt ph hy iig vai tr chnh. Th ko m
riig. cn th Iiii hn kn vt nt sn c; mu dng ru bn nht v cha t vt nt
nht. l cc l hng, cc vt nt t v i sinh ra t i cc tp ln, cc phn t pha
th hai hoc bin ht th ca nn do s khc bit v tnh n hi. gin n khi
ngui. ... nhit thp, nt v ph hy xy ra bn trong ht, cn nhit cao
ph hy theo bin h t ging nh ph hy do. ^ ii c tc ug ca n mn n vt
nt b m t ( v d. kh quyn m ). ph hy ( sinh v pht tri n vt n t ) c th
xy ra chm theo thi gian, v d. nhi nhiu v t liu gc silicat, thy tin h chu ti
thp v nhit thp.
Thy tin h cng ph hy ging Iih i gni. Thy tin h v mh h iih ph hy gin
T < Tg. Do c hnh thnh t th lng, thy tin h khng c l trng bn trong
Iihiu nh g"m, v vy tr iig thi b m t (vt nt. klia, g gh, ...) quyt iih n
bn ph hy, c khong 10^ Tii . nh hng ca n mn cng ging nh gm.
Khi nhit T > nh chy nht. Iii thy tin h s ph li y do.
180__________________________________ Chg 4. BIN DNG V c o TNH CA VT LIU
4.6.1.3. Kh nng ci thin c tnh

Kling c cch no t iig c kh niig bin dng do ca v t li ii v c. Bin
php tt nht l tng kh nng chng pli hy nh gim s lng v kch thc cc
vt nt. l trng bn trong v trn b m t ca v t liu. Bn tro iig c<ii to v t liu
khng c l trig, ht nh m ii v t chc dn pha. Bn ngoi cn to mt trng
thi ng sut nn trn lp b mt, Di y s nu m t vi phng php x l b
mt thng gp n h t :
- Ph mt lp b int. thch hp ln gm n h i t cao. Do lp c li s" gin n
nhit nh hn gm nn khi lm ngui b m t gm chu ng su't nn. C th ph
bng khuch tn to dung dch rn hoc bng phn ng ha hc to cc hp
ch't ;
- Lm cng ha hc cho thy tin h bng cch nhng v t cn bo v vo dung
dch mui, v d. K N O 3 Iih i t T < T,. K iii lp b li t ca v t s trao i cc
in N a' nh hn ly ion C' ln hn t mui, do vy lp bn ngoi b u s to
ng sut nn ti lp bn trong ;
- Lm cng bng nhit p dng cho c gm ln th y tin h bng phng php
ti. Phn v ngoi c lm ngui trc s co l i gy mt p lc p vo ph<ii li
c lm ngui sau. Phng php d thc hin c hiu qii nhng n h i t s dng
khng c qu cao :
- Lm cng bng chuyn pha mactenxit ca h t Z r 2. K lii lm n g ii i t 110C
miig bii phitng ca ZrO s chuyn thnh mng in t nghing c th tch ring
ln hn. Nu trn vi CaO th chuyn bin s khng xy ra v m ng bn phng s
n iih ti nhit thp hn nhit phng. Nu gln c cha cc h t ZrO^ n
iih phn li v ht ZrO;i khng n nh phn v t li k h i ti t n h i t nu.
phn v s b cluiyn pha to ra ig sut nn vo phn li do t h l tch ring ca II
ln hn ;
- Lii gim nguy c lan rng vt nt. tng K r nh dng cc h t Z r 2 hp th
nng lng tch gn vt nt t n chuyn pha. Cc loi gm c Ki' cao thng
cha A I 2O 3 . n iu llit. Si.iN.1. SiC vi cc ht ZrO -2 c ti t ra nh n h i t luyn.
4.6.2. V T L I C H T DO

4.6.2.1. c im bin dng

Do c"u trc phn t kh phc tp v t. Iih't qun nn qu trn h bii diig ca
cht do r t phc tp. hin r qu trnh bin i v i III k h i bin dng cn hiu
r cu trc ca vt liu clit do nh trn h by cc mc 1.2.3 , 1.4.4 (chng 1)
v 11.2 (chng 11 ). Cc c ch bin diig nu cc mc 4.1.2. 4.2, 4.3 l bin
dng thun zighch (n hi tuyn tnh v phi tuyn, n hi tr) v bin dng
khiig thun nghch ( biii dng do. chy nht ) ii c th xy ra vi ch't do.
ng gp ca tng c ch vo bin dng s ph thiic vo n h i t v th i gian th.
D phn tch vai tr ca tng c ch. c th s diig cc m hnh tifng t c hc
nh nu trn cc h iih 4.3g,c v 4.6e.g vi cc phn tv l xo v th y lic.
VT LIU HOC 181
0)
Hinh 4.40 . ng cong ng sut - bin dng ca cht do .
a) cc dang ng cong th ko , b) nh hng ca nhit v tc bin dang
Tm h 'n h th
Mnh Khn ian

' Min v nh'' inh ih tr h s
hinh
Spheruli
Hnh 4.41. Bin dang cht do bn tinh th

a) ng cong hg sut-bin dng ba vng ( I - bn dng min v nh hnh,
II - bin dang - gin di ca spherulit, III- bin dang ca tm tinh th );
b) s bin i cu trc ca mt spherulit khi bin dng
c im bin dng ca cht do nm gia hai trng th i gii hn; v t rn

gin ( T < Tg ) v cht lng n h t { T > T^). Cng c th xy ra cc qu trn h tng
t nh tro n g v t li u k im loi l to cc di x dch, chuyn pha inactenxit, hi
phc v k t tin h li, ...
ng cong ng sut - bin dng thng c ba dng ( h iih 4.40a ). ng 1
cho cc cht gin ph hy ngay sau bin dng n hi. ng 2 ging vi v t liu
kim loi: c bin dng n hi. rng chy v bin dng do trc ph hy, ng cho
182 C hng 4. BIN DNG V co TNH CA VT LIU
cc vt liu do. iig 3 c trin g cho bin dng n hi kiu caos\i ca cc

elastome ( bin dng thun nghch l ii ng sut nh v phi tuyn ). Cc c trin g
bin dng ca cli't do tu y khc v t r s so vi vt liu kim loi ( bng 4.8 ) nhng
ging nh k im loi ch mun n hi. gii hn bn ko gim v do tng khi
tng nhit . Gim tc bin dng nh hng ging nh tng n h i t ( hnh
4.40b ).
Cht do v nh hinh nhit thp hn Tg bin dng n hi tr l ch yu
(mt phn nh bin dng n h i) v vn tuyn tnh cho ti 0.% bin dng chung
(hih 4.40b, ng 4). K l bin diig ln hn s xut hin bin dng phi tuyn, cc
b v khng thun Iighch, th hin b' int c cc di x dch ngliing m t gc 4"
v cc khe - rnh vung gc vi phng ti. Tuy nhin bin dng do ch tp
trun g cc di x dch, cn ton b vt liu vn bin dng thun nghch. K lii cc
di x dch hp nht v pht tri n s x ii t hin rng chy ,. v bin dng do s
nhiu hn ( ng 5 ). Xu th ny tng khi tng nhit hoc gim tc bin
dng, k h i dng ngoi lc nn hoc x dch. Cng gn Tg ng sut b t ii chy
nht to bin dng do ng nht cng thp (ng 6 ) v khi t rng chy s
xut hin co th t cc b, sau lan du theo chiu di mu. Trong qii trm h bin
dng tip theo cc rnh c th to ra cc vt nt b m t v dn ti ph hy.
Bng 4.8. So snh cc c trng bin dng ca cht do v kim loi
Vt liu Mun n hi, MPa Gii hn bn ko , MPa Bin dng d ,%
Cht do 7^4.10^ < 100 < 100
Kim loi (4 8 ^1 0 ). 10'' 4100 s 1000
Cht do bn tin h th c ng cong ng sut - bin dng ging nh ch't do

v iih hnh ( hih 4.41a ). Khc nhau ch rng chy c km theo vng chy ko
di ti vi trm phn trm biu dng, gii hn chy v gii bn bn cng cao hn.
Trc k h i c r iig chy ( h iih 4.4la , vng I ) bin dng th u n t ii thun
nghch ( n hi v n hi tr tuyn tnh ) do bin dng cc min v nh hnh
gia cc spherulit v gia cc tm tin h th trong tng spherulit. K lii cc mch ni
gia cc tm tin h th giii di, cc rnh xut hin, cc t'm tin h th b t u tri t
v quay th bin dng khng thun nghch xut hin. K hi c rng chy, ng .sut
s gim do c co th t cc b v chng t cc spherulit c gin di ( h iih 4.4la .
vng II ). T cc tm tin h th tch ra cc mnh nh iih hng theo ngoi lc v
lin kt vi nhau bng cc phn t ni mch, gia chng l cc lii ii khng gian
trng rng ( h iih 4.4Ib ). Bin dng tip theo buc cc mnh tin h th iih
hng phi tr t nhing chng b rng buc bi lin kt vi cc phn t ni mch,
do xut hin ha bn ( hih 4.41a, vng I I I ). K lii nhit vt n h i t nng
chy th bin diig do chuyn thnh chy nht ging nh cht do v ih hnh
nhit cao hn Tg.
VT LIU HC 183
Cht do c mng li gm elastome v urome c ng cong ng sut - bin

dng ging nh ng 1 v 3 h iih 4.40a. Elastome c mng rng kh i T > Tg
thng bin dng kiu caosu ( n hi phi tuyn ) nh lin h ng cao ca mch
phn t, i k h i c th t ti mt vi phn trm bin dng. K h i bin dng mnh
cc mch phn t c th b kt tin h cc b v dn n bin dng n hi tuyn tnh
hoc c th b ph hy ( ng 3 ). Nu tm cch gim lin h ng ca mch phn
t nh h th p nh i t di Tg hoc tng m t im m t li th elastome s
bin dng hon ton n hi tuyn tn h v ph hy gin nh ng 1.
4.6.2.2. c im ph hy
i vi cht do ph hy cng tr i qua cc giai on to vt nt v pht trin
vt n t n kch thc ti hn ri t ri. Ph hy xy ra hoc bng cch ph v
trc tip cc lin kt-ph hy mch, hoc bng bin dng. Cch th nht nhm
ph cc lin k t gia phn t hoc trong tng phn t, cn nng lng thp, l
ph hy gin. Cch th hai lin quan n s to ra cc min rng v i m, sau chng
hp n h t l i th n h l tr iig ln c kch thc ti hn, l ph hy do.
Ph h y gin xy ra vi ch't do d bin dng n hi, tc chng c cu trc
mng li hp nh urome hoc c cu trc iring li rng hay khng c mng
li nhug n h i t thp hn T nh elastome hay nhit do ( thermoplast ).
urome ph hy xy ra nh ph v cc lin kt s cp. cn elastome v nhit do
- cc lin k t th cp.
Ph h y do trong cc trng hp cn li do cc khuyt t t to ra vt nt nh
s in rng cc di x dch, cc khe-rnh. cc min rng. ... Trong cht do bn tinh
th. c ch ph hy ging nh v nh hnh v u xy ra min v mh hiih, c
th theo lp bin gia cc spherulit hoc gia cc tm tin h th. Ging nh vt liu
kim loi, cht do thay i tn h do v gin theo nhit . t'c bin dng v trng
th i ng sut. K h i tng tc bin
dng, tr n g th i ng su't uhiu
chiu v s khng ng nht t chc
th n h i t chuyn bin do - gin
s x dch v pha nhit cao. Nu
cht do cha h t ca pha cht n
hoc ch't tn g cng th ln, s
phn b, h iih dng, s" lng, c
tn h ca chng s gy ra s khng
ng n h t dn n s tp trun g ng c)
sut v to iu kin xut hin vt
Hinh 4.42. Cc dng vt t ph hy vt liu
nt ph hy. C th phn bit loi cht do:
ph h y v t liu cht do theo mt a) ph hy do: b) ph hy gin ;
c) ph hy dang si
s' dng v t t k h i th ko trn
hm h 4.42.
184 Chng 4. BIN DNG V co TNH CA VT LIU
4.6.2.3. Kh nng ci thin c tnh

Lm mm ha bn trong theo phng php ng trn g hp nh gim T
tng do nhit thp bng cch a vo mch phn t gc cc on mch
lin h ng v lin kt yu hn hoc dng cc comonome mch nhnh di lin gim
lin kt phn t ( h iih 4.43 ).
Lm mm ha bn ngoi bng cch a vo mch phn t gc cc phn t lm
mm ii cc v lng cc. Chng s hoc lm tng khong cch gia hai mch
cnh nhau ( lng cc ) hoc chn tc dng ca hai mch ln cn ( n cc ) { hiih
4.44 ). Phng php ny cho php ch to cc cht do c th gia ciig c, c c
tnh caosu, thay th cho elastome kh gia cng v t.
Trn nhiu cht do ti u tnh cht, v d, trn ht elastome hoc nhit
do vo nn gin v cng
ci thin tnh cng
ngh nh do. chy
ca hn hp nng chy. nm
on cP Boo A 1
m
meiT
Cht trn vo gi l cht
bin tnh. C th trn D-C=D~C=h : =J3h = > - h = ) -
T
trng th i rn hoc nng Mc
Mach nhnh
chy. Phng php Iiy
khng lm thay i ng Hnh 4.43. Phng php mm ha bn trong mach phn t
k .
S dng cc
cht b tr v tng 1
cng dng si, 1-----
tm hoc cu bng
th y tinh , cacbon, l
aming, thch cao.
Phn t ho mm n cc
... kiu compozit Phn t ho m dn cc
tng bn. C th
dng bc x i n Phng php ha mm bn ngoi mch phn t
t cc nhanh hoc cc phn ng nhit - ha tng bn, chng ini mn, tng
bn nhit cho mt s' loi cht do.
4.6.3. V T L I U V N H H N H
Tnh cch bin dng ca vt liu v nh h iih ni chung c nu r i rc

cc mc 4.1.2.2, 4.3, 4.6.1.1, 4.6.1.2, v 4.6.2.1. Di y ch tr ih by mt vi c
im bin dng v c tn li ca cc kim loi. hp kim v iih hnh, y vn cn
nhiu kha cnh cha c hiu cn k v ang c nhng nghin cu tip tc.
Do khng c cu trc tin h th nn vt liu v iih h iih khng cha cc dng
khuyt t t mng in h iih nh trong tin h th (khuyt t t im, lch mng, bin
ht. ... xein mc 1.2 v l.). song li c cc khuyt t t ciug khc nh th tch t do
VT LIU HC 180
(cc l hng), cc tin ng siit ba chin nn. ko cc b ), ... nh hiig trc tip
n cc c tritn g c tnh v bin dng ca n.
M uii n hi ca hp kim v nh hnh nh hn khong 20--30% mun n
hi ca hp k im tin h th do t k h i ca tr n g th i v n h h iih nh hn tr n g th i
tiiih th. Trong k lii gii hn chy ca chng tng i cao. c th ti
/!/ /(0-^100), l do ng sut x dch cn tr t xy ra r t ln khi khng c cc
khuyt t t thch hp chuyn ng (nh trong tin h th). Tuy nhin qii tr ih trt
vn xy ra cc b v tp tru iig ti cc di tr t , tr t t gn gim ng sut
x dch ti hn v hn ch dch chuyn
nguyn t lan sang cc vng khc. Do th
ko ca cc hp k im v n h h n h dng bng
h Fe-B v Fe-Si-B cho thy ng cong ng
sut - bin diig gn ging vi cc v t liu
gin (hnh 4.4 ), Iigha l khng c bin
dng do ng k , khng c ha bn bin
dug v gin di kh i ph hy khng
vt qu l--2 %. C th khi th nn. qu
trn h trit phn b" ng u hn trong ton L, mm
lomm
Ih tch v do bin dng do s ln hn.
Hnh 4.45. ng cong th ko cc
song k th u t th khng cho php thc
bng v inh hinh h Fe-B v Fe-Si-B
lii ii i vi cc inu mng. Qu triih trt
th ic hi n c c l Iih s dch chuyn cc b ca cc th tc h t do. i v i h
Iiii gii hn bn ko b v 5 u gim theo thi gian v nhit ( T < 1,|, )
(lo qvi trn h tch thot cu trc xy ra v dn n s lio gin ca biig v nh
linh. Qu trn h ny cn c kim tra kh i ch to v s dng chng.
4.7. PHNG PHP NNG CAO c TNH TNG HP
4.7.1. C TRNG c TNH T N G HP
Cc v t liu kt cu ch to chi ti t my . dng c , xy dng cng triih . u

chu t i c hc, c hnh dng, kch thic v lm vic trong cc iu kiu r t khc
nhau ( m. n niii ha v in ha, nhit cao hoc thp, chu bc x, ...), v vy
khi ch to cn t ra cc yu cu v s diig, v cng ngh v v kin h t, trong
vu cu s dng c t ln hng u. l v t liu phi c bn kt cu cao.
bn k t cu l t p hp cc c tr n g c tn h , l - ha tn h bo m cho v t
liu c th lm vic l ii bn v tiu cy trong cc iu kin lm vic c th. Cc ch
tiu c tnh lin quan n bn kt cu cn quan tm l bn tnh, tin cy
(kh nng chng ph hy gin t Iig t). bn lu ( kh niig chng ph hy t
t hay kh nng gim tc ph hy ) v bn mi ( kh nng lm vic trong
iu kin t i tun hon - m i) . Cc c tr ng va nu , nh ch ra tr n s hmh

4.46, s c th hin trong bn chung ca v t liu nu phn di y.
Hlnh 4.46. S cc c trng ca bn kt cu
Ktc-Sc
'c ( K c - 6 c ) '
7TN
/ 1 '
' I '
(d6de)f'iu ' \
' \
' \
6-/
c) )
Hlnh 4.47 Cch chon bn ti u cho vt liu

VT LIU HOC 187
bn ni chung l kh nng chng bin dng do, chng m rng vt nt v

chng in i mn b m t. K h nng chig bin dng do c c trng bng m t
niig hng n hi e,,i,;iy gii hn chy p l:
eûVv = , N/ni^ hay J/m '^. (4.45)
Cn kh nng chng ph hy ( m rng vt nt. mi mn ) xc iih theo dai
ph hy K\c v c tr n g bng nng lng ring chng m rng vt ut
G^pb hy = N/m hay J W . (4 .46)

Nh vy bn s l tch Ccii^y - ^ph Uiiy :
^chy ^ph hy - {^c / 2 E ) (KÎC. E ), / m'" . (4.47)
Trong k th u t thng dng tch p . K\c thay cho bn. Quan h gia
bu, gii hn chy v dai ph hy nu trn hnh 4-47. Thy rng k h i (. c' nh,
chn do thp s SII b ph hy, tc K]C nh (a). K h i do c iih v ti u
th chn ,. th p s lu b p h hy v Kc ln (b). Do K\c v c ph thuc ln n hau
(c) nn phi chn s tha hip bn t ti u (iîc . p)* gi t r hp l c* (d).
4.7.2.N G U Y N T C c h u n g
C h a i cch t c bn cao; 1 - ch to cc vt liu hon ton khng c
lch (gn n h l tiig ) t bn gn T|t; 2- to mt cu trc gm Iihiu cn tr
cho chuyn ng ca lch mng chng li bin diig do. Tuy nhin lin h ng
ca lch cng gim bao n h i ii th do -dai v tin cy ca vt liu cng gim
by nhiu v n g iiy c p h t tri n cc vt nt ( bn cnh cc tp hp lch gn chiig
n g i) dn n ph hy cng cao. Do bn tnh, tin cy, bn lu cao ch
c th t c nu to ra m t tr n g th i cu trc hoc t chc va hm lch hiu
qu l i va phn p li i ng u chng trong ton th tch hoc to ra mt lin h
ng n h t iih ca cc tp hdp lch mng bn chng ngi, v d, dch chuyn
chng sang cc vng ln cn. Cch tch thot s tp trun g ng sut nh bin dng
do nh vy c th thc hin i vi cc chng ngi "mm" (yu) nh bin gii gc
nh ( siu h t ). y chnh l ni dung ca nguyn tc tha hip nu mc
4.7.1.
Theo cch th n h t c th to ra cc tin h th ti t din nh dng ru ( vvhisker )
dng lm ct si tron g v t liu compozit c nn mm nh ch't do. kiin loi. Trong
thc ti n cch th hai c chn ch to cc v t liu c bn cao, bao gm;
- cc phdng php tng m t lch v gim lin h ng ca chng v
- cc phng php bo m mt d tr ng k do - dai. cho php phn
pli ng u lch cng nh loi tr cc tp gy gin.
Trong bng 4.9 gii th i u m t s phn t cu trc v t chc c bn c th ng
gp vo cc c ch ha bn ca v t liu. Chi ti t v chng xem ic 1.5. Trn
thc t p h t tri n v t liu c bn cao thng thy t nht c t hai phn t tr
ln tha m gia. Tic rng va i tr ca tng c ch ring bit c nghin cu kh t
li song tc ng phi hp ca nhiu c ch mt lc cha c xem xt c kt qu.
Bng phng php tn h mi ch nhn c kt qu iih lng ti a cho hai c ch.
V d vi b ii c ch u tin, v nguyn tc c th c mi kh nng kt hp sau;
L, B, H, D, LB, LH, LL, BH, BB v HH. Di vi cc vt liu kim loi

gii hn chy c th tnh nh sau:
(4.48)
trong y - ng sut cn lch chuyn ng khng c cn tr trong kim

loi sch;
A^ - s ng sut do ha bn bi chng ngi "mm";
- s gia ng sut do ha bn bi chng ngi "cng" th i v
k, d - hng s v kch thc ht (xem cng thc 4.15).
Bng 4.9. Cc phn t cu trc v t chc nh hng n bn
N Phn t cu trc hoc Kch K C ch ha bn

t chc thc hiu
1 Khuyt tt im, 0 D Ha bn dung dch rn, ha bn

nguyn t tp bc x / A d
2 Lch mng 1 L Ha bn bin dng / AL
3 Bin gii (ht. 2 B Ha bn ht mn. ha bn trt

pha, i pha) t / Ab
4 Ht tit pha. a 3 H Ha bn tit pha. ha bn

pha phn tn / AH
5 D hng (tinh 3 D Ha bn nh hng (textua,

th. t chc) n tinh th, si, ht di) / AD
6 T chc mactenxit 3 M Bin dng bng chuyn pha

mactenxit/AM
i vi vt liu thc gii hn . tnh l:
i (4.49)
trong cc ng gp vo ha bn ca bn c ch u tin tng ng l Ap),
Al , A[ , A snh trn hnh 4.48).
4.7.3. NHNG KH NNG THC T
4.7.3.1. Gim m t lch
Ch thc hin c i vi vt liu n tinh th ng knh nh, di vi

ncromet (dng si ru, tc), ch to t th lng. Ch dng lni ct cho loi vt liu
VT LIU HOC 189
coinpozit. bn t kh cao ( gn l th\iyt ) nhng sau gim Iilian h v bin

dng do ng sut r t th p do c lch xut hin.
4.7.3.2. Tng mt lch
Ho bn nh lch, thc hin biig bin dng do. l do m t lch tng ln rt

nliiu v s chng ngi cng x u t hin tng t. l kt qu ca cc phn ng
lch k h i chng ct nhau
vi lch rng, to ra
bc lch hoc cc
ching ngi kiu
Lomer - CottreL cc bi
lch m t cao. ...
ong gp ca i t
lch vo ha bn l:
A a G 6 . (4.0)
T u y nhin, c th
tng n lo '^ cm'^
nhng cao hn na s
to ra m t cu tr c lch
khng ng nht d
du n cc vt n t t
Hnh 4.48. Kh nng nng cao bn ca vt liu ( s )
vi lm gim bn.
Phng php bin dng ch c s dng cho mt s^ dng sn phm cn biu
dng cao Iih il si, lm . thanh. ... Iihng cng l i lm gim do ca chng, cu
ch iih hng ca hiu ng Baushnger k h i bin dng nhivi ln ngc chiu
nhau (xem mc 4.2..2).
4.7.3.3. Lm nh ht v siu ht
Vai tr cn tr lch l bin h t v siu ht. Lch tr t t do bn trong ht v

siu h t buc phi dng l i bn biu gii v cc h t v siu h t ln cn m t trt
c iih hng khc. Tp hp lch bn bin gii to ra tp tru n g ng sut CIC b
cn tr cc lch tip theo saii chuyn ng - gy ha bn, ng thi ciiig c tc
dng tru y n ng su't tri t c th xy ra cc ht bn - t iig kh nng bin
dng do. S' gia ng sut do h t nh t l nghch vi kch thc ht d nh phdng
trn h (4.l ) nu:
- 1/2
(4.1)
C nhiu biii php cng ngh lm nh ht, v d tc ng n iu kin lm
ngui v to mm k h i c, s dng cc loi bt m n v k th u t cn tr pht trin
mm k h i ch to v t liu bt ( gn v kiin loi ) hoc bin dng ngiii v kt tin h
li. ... c th t kch thc h t n l|in i v nh hn na nu s dng cng ngh
ngui nhanh ( ^ 10* / s ) v ch i bn c th tng hn 10^^ MPa. V d,
si a tin h th Fe-C (1%C ) c kch thc h t O.Olim v m t lch lo '^ cin'^ c

cha cc ht cacbit r^t tin h t b = -T 8) 10^ MPa, tc gn ti bn l thuyt
ca Fe a tin h th. M t v d khc l th y tin h gm ic x l nhit cho ra tinh
th nh hn l^ m v tng ng k bn.
4.7.3.4. To trng ng sut n hi
C th to trng ng sut d do x lch mng tin h th bng khuyt t t im

( n t trng, nguyn t tp. nguyn t' hp kim ) trong dung dch rn. Tng tc ht
v y gia lch v nguyn t l lm tp trun g xung quanh ng lch cc "m
my" nguyn t ( kiu Cottrell, Suzuki, Snoek ). K h i tr t lch buc phi ko theo
"m my" hoc phi tch khi n, c hai trng hp u cn tn nng Iiig. dn
n ha bn. S gia ng sut t l vi nng nguyn t l c , s sai khc tng
'i kch thc nguyn t v nng litng lin kt a ;
A a K a G c '^ ^ . (4.2)
Ha bn dung dch rn c bit c ngha k h i dung mi vi cu trc th hiih
nhit cao c kh nng ha tan mt lng ln nguyn t l. Nh ti t nhit
cao s xy ra chuyn bin m actenxit vi t chc qu bo ha nguyn t ha tan (v
d c, N. o , H, ... trong Fe ) t i cc l hng tm mt, sinh ra trng ng sut khng
i xng cn tr r t hiu qu chuyn ng ca lch.
4.7.3.. Ha bn tit pha, ha bn phn tn

Cc ht hoc phn t ti t ra ca pha th hai gy ha bn; hoc gin ti) bng
cch n iih ha t chc h t m ii ca pha nn ( ging nh ct trong vt. liii
com pozit) nu chng th. cch xa n h au v n h t l c dng ln i hoc iniih;
hoc trc tip cn tr chuyn ng ca lch nu chng r't mm. gii nhau v c
dng cu hoc ng trc. Thc t vai tr ha bn t ti u khi kch thc ht
d < O.Oliii vi khong cch L < 0,l|am. K lii trn mt tr t ca in iih lch gp mt
ht ti t ra th c th xy ra hai kh nng vt chng ngi: hoc lch ct ht
hoc lch i vng qua n. Trong c hai trng hp u cu phi gia tng ng sut
Aj| lch c th tip tc chuyn ng. ln ca A|| ph thuc vo bn cht, s'
lng, hih diig, kch thc v phn b' ca ht ti t ra. Di y s xt chi tit
hn hai trng hp va nu ( h iih 4.49 ).
Ct ht xy ra nu lch khng lin h ng lm, ht dng cu, nh. lin mng,
"mm". ng sut cn ct ht l:
A ~ {ny/h)d\ (4.53)
trong Y - Ii iig lng b m t b ct.
Trng hp lch i vng xy ra k h i lch khng th xm nhp vo ht Gin
mng, ln m khng hoc t lin mng, hay nh m cng ) v lch lin h ng hn.
K hi ng lch s un cong gia cc ht vi bn knh ( L - d ) 2, ri vt qua
sau khi l i cc vng lch bao quanh ht. l c ch Orouuan. hg sut cn
lch un bng;
Aan' ^ G b { L - d y ' vi L d . (4.4)
VT LIU HOC 191
Lch

......... #
)
Hlnh 4.49. S tng tc lch v pha th hai:
a) ct nhau , b) i vng
Vic la chn c ch no ty thuc tng quan gia AH*^ v Ah ; nu

Ah'" > Aan" th lch s i vng theo c chOroLuan, ngc l i k h i AH*" < Ah" th c
ch ct s xy ra. Trn thc t s c im chuyn tip gia hai c ch, tng ng
vi mt kch thc ti hn ca ht pha th hai dth(hnh 4.50 ):
6^(71 y r ' . (4.55)
Vy theo (4.55) s la chn s
do ln ca y quyt nh v vi
d > dth s un. cn d < dti, s ct.
Ty theo h hp kim m dti,
thay i trong khong rng t 3 nin
( ht cng, khng li ii mng ) n
100 nm ( h t mm, lin mng ). V
d, trong nn Cu hoc Al, cc ht
oxyt v lin kim loi khng lin
iniig c Y Ss 1J m'^ ( nng lng ca
mt bin h t ) th ch c th b ct
khi chng c kch thc nh hn 2
nm; trong k h i cc phn t lin
mng trong hp kim Al, v d.
vng G uiner - Preston c nng
lng thp hn nhiu (y O .U rn^ )
Hlnh 4.50. nh hng ca kch thc ht phn
nn c th b ct n kch thc tn n tng lc gia lch v pha th hai
50 nm. Cn lu rng vai tr ha
bn ca ht pha th hai cn hiu qu hn bi cc tc ng ph na. V d, s to
thm b m t bin gii i pha k h i cc ht ca pha th hai c tr t t b mt cp lch
ct, s tc ng ngc tr l i ngun ca trng ng sut n hi xung quanh ht
ti t ra ( do s khc nhau v bn knh nguyn t nn-ht v h s gin n nhit, do
s xut hin cc vng lch bao quanh h t phn tn lm cho bn knh hiu dng
ca ht tng ln v khong cch hiu dng gia chng gim xung, ...) gy kh
khu thm cho chuyn ng ca lch kh i bin dng cn c tip tc.
4.7.3.6. Vt liu kt hp (compozit)

Trong cc vt. liu c ha bn
bng cc c ch nu. nii ( dung dch
rn ) nhn ti. cn cc ht pha th hai
cn tr lch chuyn ng, dii n ch
do ca vt liu s gim v cc tnh
cht khc cng thay i ng k ( xem
mc 4.2.5.2 ). iu s khng xy ra
vi vt liu compozit ( xeni chng 12).
() y nn l vt liu do ( cht, do,
kim loi, thy tinh, ...) c chc nng
truyn ngoi lc v phn b chng cho
ct, ng thi bo v ct kliiig b h,
ngn khng cho vt nt ( nu II xut
hin t ct ) pht trin, trong khi bii
thn chu t i t. Ct l plia th hai
dng si. ht. ... c bn cao v chu Hnh 4.51. S q u a n h gia bn, gii
t i chuli. nh si cacbon, A l^ o M g O . han chy v trang thi t chc ca mt
vt liu 1) dung d|ch rn, 2) qu ha g,
a-SiC. cc n itrit. si vvhisker. ... nh
3 ) h a g i n o n , h a b n c a o , 4 ) c - n h i t
vt liu ny c bu kt cu v luyn (; < 40%) , 5) c-nhit luyn
bn riiig kh cao. bin dang do manh sau
(k. > 4 0 % ) , 6 )
nhit luyn, 7) bi?n gii hat gin
4.7.3.7. Ha bn b mt
Cc pluiig php to ng siit-nn b m t ngn chn vt n t x u t hin v
lan rng cho phep nng cao d bn tinh v mi ca v t liu. i vi v t liu kim
loi c th tlic hin cc pliiig php bin dng c hc ( phun, p. ph, xem inc
4..3.3 ) hoc ha - nhit luyn ( xein mc 3.4 v 3.6, chng 3 ). Cc bin php ci
thin cd tn li ca vt li ii g'm. thy tin h v cht do trn h by cc mc 4.6.1.3
v 4.6 2.3 .
4.7.4. M T V I V D
Troiig tlic tin k th u t vic nng cao bn v t li ii k in i loi chc tluc

hin bng nliiu bin php khc Iihau, kt, hp nhiu c ch ha bn cng nit lc.
C ba bin php quan trng nht, l: 1- hp kim ha ti lu. 2- l n nh ht. v 3-
niig cao cht liig nu luyii.
Hp kim ha ti ii l hp kin i ha nhiu nguyn t vi hm htiig va phi
nng cao c do-dai. H t c th lm nli bng hp k in i ha v Iih i t hiyn nh
nung v lm Iigvii nhanh ( cao tn, laze ) hoc c -iih i t luyn n h i t cao to t
chc c m t lch cao v phn b' u Iili l m nh in a c te iix it th n h cc siu
ht . to bn v do-dai cao. Cht lng nu luyn lin quan n vic nng
cao sch ca vt liu nh cc phng php nîi cm ng chn khng, iii s. h
quang chn khng, chm in t. ... Nhng v d di y l kt qu c th.
VT LIU HOC_______________________________________________________________________
Thp bin dng austenit ( ausorm iiig = au.stenite + d e / rm a tio ii) c bn cao
nhng khng gin, b tng t i 30--50 % .Phng php ch to gm im ng trng
th i au ste n it ( t 400 n 600 c ) v bin dng mnh ( to m t lch cao ), sau
ti di n h i t chuyn pha m actenxit ( lm cho cacbit ti t ra phong to lch ).
Thp ha g i m actenxit ( marageing = m artensite + ageing ) c bn v
do r t cao, ch < 0,03 % C; N i; T i; Al; Co v Mo. Trc ht ti chuyn pha
m a cte iixit lO--300 c , sau nung t i 400 550 c ( ti t pha ha bn lin kim
loi Ni.Mo, Ni.Ti, ...)
Hp k im siu do ( sup erp la sticity ) cho php bin dng vi mc r t ln
( > 1000%) tro n g in kin tc v nh i t bin dng xc nh ( T > 0,5 T^c.) nh
hp k im ha v l in nh h t ( < 10'^ m ). r t thun tin cho gia cng to hnh.
Hng lot hp k im c kh nng nh A l-C u-M g, A l-Z ii-M g -Z r, B i-In , Ni-Cr-Fe,
Bi-Sn, A l-Z n , ... ( xem mc 4.2.7.2 ).
Hin nay bng cc bin php cng ngh khc nhau c th t c gii hn bn
tn h I, ng k, vi hp k im AI l 550 4- 600 MPa, hp kim T i l 1000 -r 1250 MPa
v thp l 1600 ^ 2200 MPa. trong mt vi triig hp t ti 4500 MPa. S
nh gi hiu qu ca cc bin php i vi mt loi vt li ii xc iih c th
xem tr n gin h iih 4.51.
13 - VLH
194 C hng 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
Chng 5
TNH CHT VT
IV cfl VfT
LIU

5.1. TNH CHT IN

m
5.1.1. S D N I N
5.1.1.1. dn in
M t trong nhng c tn h in quan trng nht ca vt liu rn l kh niig
dn in ca n. Hm h 5.1 nu s b" tr th nghim o dn in. Theo nh
lut Ohm, cng dng in 1 lin h vi in p ( hiu s in t h ) u theo biu
th c ;
U = IR , (5.1)
trong R - in tr ca mu vt liu m dng in chy qiia. Gi t r ca R ph
thuc vo h lih dng mu o v vi nhiu loi vt liu, khng ph thuc vo
cng dng in.
Bih tr
Hnh 5.1. S b tri thit b o dn in
in tr sut p khng ph thuc vo hnh hc ca m ii o nhng lin h vi R

qua biu thc;
RS s
= --------- . (.2)
l l
VT L i u HC_____________________________________________________________________
trong l - khong cch gia hai im o in p;

s - ti t din vung gc vi hng dng in.
dn in a l nghch o ca in tr s u t;
1
= (5.3)
p
biu th kh nng dn in ca v t liu. n v o l : (Q.m)''.
Cng vi phng tr ih (5.1). iih lu t Ohm cn c th biu din di dng vi
phn :
J ^ o E (5.4)
trong J - 11 s ~ m t dng in , tc l dng in i qua mt n v din tch
ti t din mu, cn

E - (.)
l cng in trng. ^
Cc vt liu rn c dn in tr i rng trn 27 c s', c l khng c mt tnh
cht v t l no khc c c di bin i rng nh th! Thc vy. cn c vo kh
nng dn in, cc vt liu rn c phn thnh ba loi: dn in, bn dn v in
mi ( cch in ). Cc kim loi l nhng cht dn in tt, thng c dn in c
10 (Qcin)'*. Ngc li, cc cht cch in c dn in thp, nm trong khong
1 0 '" v 10"^* (ncm )'' . Cc v t liu c dn in trung gian, ni chung t 10 *^
u 10'* (Qcm) . c gi l nhng cht bn dn.
Dng in c to thnh do chuyn ng ca cc ht mang in tch di tc
dng lc ca mt in trng ngoi t vo. Cc ht mang in dng c gia tc
theo hng ca in trng, cn cc ht mang in m th theo hng ngic li.
Trong phn ln cc vt liu rn. dng in c to bi cc dng in t . l s
dn din bng iu t. Ngoi ra. trong cc vt liu ioii, s chuyn ng th u ii ty
ca cc ion cng c th to ra mt dng in, gi l s dn in bng ion. Di y
ta ch ni v s dn in bng in t. cn dn in bng ioii s c nu tm t t
trong mc 5.1.3 (dn in trong gm ion v trong polyme).
5.1.1.2. Cu trc vng nng lng trong cc vt rn

Trong t t c cc cht dn in, bn dn v trong nhiu v t liu in mi. ch
tn ti s dn in bng in t v dn in ny ph thuc mnh vo s lng
cc in t c kh nng tham gia dn in. Tuy nhin, khng phi mi in t
trong nguyn t u c gia tic kh i c m t in trng. Trong mt loi vt liu
cho, s in t c kh nng dn in lin quan vi s sp xp cc trng thi din t
( hay l cc mc nng lng in t) v cn vi cch thc m cc in t chim lnh
trong cc trng th i . S kho st c bn v cc vn ny kh phc tp, cn
vn dng .cc nguyn l ca c hc lng t. iu vt ra khi khun kh ca
cii sch ny. Cch triih by di y b qua mt s' khi nim v n gin ha
mt s khi nim khc.
Trong ring mi nguyn t tn t i cc mc nng lng gin on. Cc in t
sp xp thnh cc tng ( cng vi cc fi'lng t chnh n = 1. 2, 3, v cc lp
ic ch bi cc ch s, p, d - v f ( ng vi cc s" lng t qu o / = 0, 1, 2 v 3. ...)
Trong mi lp l i c tng ng 2/ + 1 = 1. 3. 5 v 7 "(ju o" khc nhau. Trong s'
196 C h n g 5. TNH CHT V T L CA V T LIU
cc nguyn t. in t chim ln h cc trng thi c nng lng thp nht, c hai

in t c spin song chim mt " qu o ", ph hp vi nguyn l loi tr
Pauli. Cu h iih in t ca mt nguyn t c lp biu th sp xp in t vo cc
trng th i cho php.
Ta hy ngoi suy mt s' qiian nim cho cc vt liu r n . M t cht c th xem
nh cu to bi mt s ln. gi s l N nguyn t. c a vo sp xp vi nhau c
tr t t trong mt mng tin h th. nhng khong cch ting i xa. mi ngiivn
t l c lp vi cc nguyn t khc v s c cc mc nng lng trong nguyn t
v cu hnh in t ging nh nguyn t ng c lp. Tuy nhin, k h i cc nguyn t
cng xch l i gn nhau th cc in t cng b kch thch ( hay l b nhiu lon ) bi
cc in t v cc ht nhn ca cc nguyn t ln cn. nh hng ny lm cho mi
mt trng th i in t trong nguyn t ring bit b phn tch th n h m t lot cc
trng thi in t nm st nhau, hih thnh nn mt vng nng lng in t. S
gin (m rng) t mt mc nng lng in t trong nguyn t th n h m t vng
nng lng trong v t rn ty thuc vo khong cch gia cc nguyn t. s gin
ny bt u t cc in t ngoi cng ca nguyn t bi v chng b nhiu lon
trc tin kh i cc nguyn t lin kt li vi nhau (hiih 5.2). Trong mi vng . cc
mc nng lng vn l gin on, tu y Iihin khong cch gia cc mc k nhau l
ht sc nh. khong cch nguyn t cn bng, s to th n h vng nng liig c
th xy ra vi cc lp in t gn ht nhn nht, nh m in h ha tr n h iih 5.2b.
Ngoi ra, gia cc vng k n h au c th tn t i nhng khe nng lng ( h ay cn gi
l nhng vng cm): bih thng th cc in t khng c php chim ln h
nhng mc nng lng nm trong cc khe ny. Cch thc thng thng biu
din cu trc vng nng lng in t trong v t rn nh ch trn h ih 5.2a.
Hnh 5.2. Cu trc vng nng lng in t trong vt rn (a) l kt qu ca

s gin (m rng) cc mc nng lng in t (b) khi cc nguyn t ng gn nhau
VT LIU HC 197
S" cc tr n g th i niig lng in t ( hay l s' cc mc nng liig iu t )

trong mi vng s bng tng s^ t t c nhng trng thi do N nguyn t ng gp.
Chng hn vng .s s cha N trng thi, cn vng p cha 3N trng thi. Mi
mt tr iig th i nng lng c th cha c hai in t, chng phi c spin i
song. K h i xp t t c in t vo cc mc nng lng s xu't hin nhng vng cn
trng v cng c th x u t hin nhng vng ch b lp y mt phn.
Cc tn h cht in ca v t liu rn ph thuc vo cu trc vng nng lng
in t ca n, c th l vo s sp xp cc vng ngoi cng v cch thc lp y
chiig bi cc in t. Theo quan im ny, vng cha cc in t c nng lng
cao n h t ( hay cc in t ha t r ) c gi l vng ha tr. Cn vng dn s l
vng c nng lng cao hn k trn m trong a s" cc trng hp, v c bn l
b triig. n h i t OK, c th c bn kiu cu trc vng khc nhau, loi th
nht (h iih .3a), v iig ha t r ch mi b lp y mt phn. Nng liig ng vi
mc cao n h t b chim OK c gi l nng lng Fermi E. y l cu trc
viig in h iih cho cc k im loi, c bit l cc kim loi c mt in t ha t r s
ng n l (v d,ng). M i nguyn t Cu c mt in t 4a-. Vng 4.S c kh nng
cha t i 2N in t. N h vy ch mi c mt na s' mc nng lng c trong vng
ha t r 4s l b lp y.
loi cu tr c vng th hai. cng tm thy trong cc kim loi ( h iih 5.3b),
vng ha t r b l'p y v cn ph ln c vng dn; vng ny nu nh khng b
ph th hon ton cn trng. Magi c cu trc vng kiu ny. Mi nguyn t Mg
c lp c hai in t ha t r 3s nhvng kh i to thnh vt rn th cc vng 3 v 3p
ph ln nhau . Trong trng hp ny OK, nng lng Fermi c chp nhn l
mc m di c N nguyn t, N trng th i b chim, c hai in t chim mt
trng thi.
B A'
B
y
1p .
E
)
Hinh 5.3. Cc cu trc vng in t khc nhau c th c trong cc vt rn OK ;
A- vng ha tr c lp y ; A - vng ha tr cn trng,
B - khe vng , C- vng dn cn trng ; Ef - nng ng Fermi
H ai cu tr c vng cui cng tng t nh nhau : mi cu trc t t c cc

trng th i tron g vng ha t r u b in t chim ht. Tuy nhin y khng c
s dnh ph vi vng dn cn trng ; iu ny to ra mt khe nng lng xen
gia. i vi cc k im loi r t tin h khit, cc in t khng th c nng lng
trong khe ny. S khc nhau gia hai cu trc vng l lii ca khe nng
lng.l vi cc v t liu cch in, khe vng tng i rng ( hih .3c) cn trong
cc bn dn th l i hp ( hmh .3d). Nng lng Ferini vi hai cu trc vng
ny nm gn chnh gia khe.
5.1.1.3. Tnh dn in lin quan vi m hnh vng v lin kt nguyn t
Ch c nhng in t no c nng lng ln hn mc Fermi th mi chu tc

dng v c gia tc k h i c m t in trng. y l nhng in t tham gia vo
qu trn h dn in, chng c gi l n h ng in t t do. Trong cc cht bn dn
v cht cch in cn tm thy mt thc th in t khc gi l l trng, c niig
lng thp hdn v cng tham gia dn in bng in t. Nh sau ny s thy,
dn in l mt hm s' trc tip ca s in t t do v l trng. Thm na, s
phn bit gia cc cht dn in v khng dn in (cch in v bn dn) nm
cc ht t i in (in t t do hoc l trng).
K im lo i
cho in t tr nn t do, cn phi kch thch n ln mt trong nhng trng
thi nng lng cho php v cn trng trn Ey . i vi cc kim loi c cc cu
trc vng nh trn h iih 5.3a hoc 5.3b c sn cc mc nng lng trng nm
st k ngay mc b chim
cao nht t i E . Do vy
ch cn mt nng lng
r t nh a in t ln
cc trng th i trng nm
di nh nu tr ii hiih
5.4. Ni chung nng lng (
do mt in trng cung thch
c'p l kch thch A

c mt s ln in t ln
nhng trng th i dn in ny.
b)
Theo m h iih lin kt
kim loi, t t c in t Hnh 5.4. S chim cc trng thi in t trong kim loi (a)
ha t r u c th chuyn trc v (b) sau kch thich in t
ng t do, chng to
thnh " kh in t " phn b' ng u khp trong mng li cc li ion dng.
Mc d nhng in t ny khng b lin kt iih x vi b't c mt nguyn t
ring r no. chng vn phi nh mt kch thch nht iih mi c th tr thnh
in t dn thc s t do. K h i ch mt b phn b kch thch cng s gy nn
mt s" tng ln in t t do v hu qu l c m t dn in cao.
Cch i n v bn d n
vi cc cht cch in v cht bn dn, khng c nhng trng thi cn
trng nm k ngay bn trn ca vmg ha t r y. Do tr thnh t do. cc
VT LIU HC 199
(iiii t phi c nng inc vt qua khe vng nng liig, nhy vo tr iig thai
cn trng cty vng dn. iu ny ch c th xy ra bng cch cp cho iu t mt
nng lng bng hiu nng lng gia hai trng th i . xp x bng nng liig
khe E^. Qu trn h kch thch ny c bi\i din trn hnh .. I vi nhiu vt
liu, khe viig ny rng
vi electroiivoii. Thng
nng liig kch thch l
t Iigiin phi iu nh
nhit hoc nh sng.
S cc in t b kch Ci Kich thch
tlich nhit chiiyu ln
vng dn ph tlmc vo
h rng khe v nhit .
Ti mt nhit cho.
E.. cng ln th xc sut
cluiyn in t ln ) b)
nit trng thi nng
lng nm trong vng Hnh 5.5. S chim cc trng thi in t trong cht cch in
du cng thp. Kt qu v cht bn dn (a) trc v (b) sau mt kch thch in t t
l c t in t dn hn. vng ha tn ln vng dn
Vng cng rng th dn in cng thp. Nh vy. s phn bit gia cc cht bn
daii v cc cht cch in l ch rng ca khe Iiiig lng: vi cc cht bu
dii khe ny hp, CI trong cc cht cch in th l i kh rng.
Tng nhit ca cht bn dn hoc cht cch in vi lm tng niig lng
nhit kch thch in ti. N hi vy c nhiu in t itc nng ln vng dn. iu
Iiy lm tng du in.
D (ln iu ca cc cht cch in v cc cht bn dn ciig c th c nhn
ulin t gc III hnh lin kt nguyn t, i vi cc vt liu cch in, lin kt
gia cc nguyn t l lin kt ion hoc lin kt ng ha t r mnh. Nh vy cc
in t ha t r b gn cht hoc l phn chia vo cc nguyn t ring l. Ni cch
khc, cc in t nh x cao v khng th no t do di chuyn trong k ii li tin h th
c. Cn lin kt trong cc cht bn dn l ng ha t r ( hoc chiii u th ng
ha t r ) v tng i yii, c ngha cc in t ha t r khiig lin kt mnh vi cc
nguyn t. Hu qu l cc in t ny d b ly i bi kch thch nhit hn l cc
in t ha t r trong cht cch in.
5.1.1.4. linh ng ca in t
Di tc dng lc ca in trng t vo, t t c ini in t t do u thu
c mt gia tc theo hiig ngc vi hing in tring . Theo c hc lng t.
trong mng t iiili th hon ho s khng xy ra tng tc gia in t ang gia t'c
v cc nguyn t. Trong iu kin . t t c mi in tt t do \tc gia tc chng
no in tntng cn tc dng, do s gy ra s tng lin tc ca dng in theo
thi gian. T iiy Iihin, ta l i thy dng in t ti mt gi t r khng i ngay sau
k h i t in trng, nh l c mt " lc ma st " chiig l i s gia t'c bi in
tn iig ngoi. Nhng lc ma st ny l kt qu ca s tn x ca cc ctiii t bi
cac sai lch mng tin h th. bao gm cc nguyn t tp cht, l trng, cc Iigiiyii t
200 a i n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
xen k, v ngay c cc dao ng nhit ca chnh bn thn cc nguyn t. C mi

mt tn x l i lm cho in t mt
ln m t ng uiig v thay i -
hng chuyn ng ca mnh, nh
m inh ha trn hnh 5.6. 'cc (n b
in x
Tuy nhin vn c mt chuyn
ng nht mh ca in t theo
hng ngc vi in trng v
dng in tch ny chnh l dng
in.
Hin tng tn x c biu th
nh l lc cn vi s i qua ca 1 Chuyn ng thn c 1
hng ca in t
dng in. C nhiu thng s c
dng m t mc tn x. trong Hnh 5.6. S ng i ca mt in t
c tc y v lin h ng ca
in t. Tc y d biu th tc trung biih ca in t theo hng lc tc
dng ca in trng t vo. N t lthun vi in trng:
(5.6)
hng s" t l He c gi l lin h ng in t, c th nguyn / v.s.

dn in ca a s cc loi v t liu c th biu th bng;
= MI e I He . (5.7)
y n - s' in t t do tc in t dn trong mt n v th tch;
I e I - gi t r tuy t ca in tch mt in t (1,6.10'C).
N li vy dn in t l vi s in t t do v lin h ng in t.
5.1.1,5. in tr ca kim loi

Nh ni trn, a s cc kim loi l nhng cht dn in r t tt; dn
in nhit phng ca nhiu kim loi ph thng nht c cho trong bng .l.
Bng 5.1. dn in nhit phng ca cc kim loi

V hp kim ph thng
Kim loi n in,
Bc 6,8 .1 0 ^
ng 6,0 . 10^
Vng 4,3 . 10^

Nhm 3,8 . 10^
St 1,0 . 10^
ng thau(70Cu - 30Zn) 1.6 . 10'
Thp cacbon tm 0 6 . 10^
Thp khng g 0,2 . 10^

VT LIU HC 201
S d kim loi c dn in cao l v chng c int s l ii in t t do ic

kch thch ln cc trng th i trng nm trn mc Fermi. Nh vy n trong biu thc
(5.7) c gi t r ln.
tin triih by, di
y s dng kh i nim
in tr sut, nghch o
ca dn in.
Cc khuyt t t mng
tinh th chnh l nhng
tm tn x i vi in t
dn trong kim loi, bi
vy s khuyt t t tng ln
s nng cao in tr sut
(tc h thp dn in).
Nng cc khuyt t t
ny ph thuc vo nhit
. thnh phn v tc
kt tin h ca mu kim loi.
Qiia thc ughiin
chng t rng cc c ch
tn x l c lp v in Hnh 5.7. in tr sut ph thuc nhit ca ng v ba hp
tr sut ton phn ca kim ng-niken
mt kim loi l tng cc ng gp t dao ng nhit, tp cht v bin dng n
hi:
P(tou pbiu) - Pi + Pi + P(1 . (5-8)

tro n g Pi , Pi v Pa l n l t l in tr s u t ri n g ca n h i t, t p c h t v b i n
dng.
Phng triih (.8) i k h i cn c gi l qiiy tc Mathiessen. H nh 5.7 nu
iih hng ca cc tham s' p ti in tr sut ton phn.
n h h n g c a n h i t
nhit khong trn 200'^c, in tr sut ca kim loi nguyn cht v t t c
cc hp kim ng - n ike ii cho trn h iih 5.7 tng tuyn tn h theo nhit . Nh vy:
p, = Po + a T , (5.9)
trong Po v a - cc hng s" cho ring tng kim loi.
S ph thuc ny ca thnh phn in tr sut vo nhit l dos tng
theo nhit ca cc dao ng nhit v cc khuyt t t khc trong mng (v d, cc
n t triig) c xem l nhng tm tn x iii t.
n h h n g c a t p c h t
K h i pha thm mt tp cht n to dung dch rn. in tr sut tp cht Pi
lin h vi nng tp cht C (tnh bng phn trm nguyn t) nh sau;
p, = A C d - C , ) , (5.10)
202 Ch ng 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
trong A - mt hng s khng

ph thuc thnh phn nhng
ph thuc c tp cht v kim
loi nn.
Hnh .8 cho thy nh
hng ca km ln in tr
nhit phng ca dung dch
rn Cu - Zn ( pha a ) . Cc
nguyn t Zn troiig Cu tc dng
nh nhng tm tn x. do s
tng nng Zn dn n s
Iiiig cao in tr su't.
I tnh gn ng in tr
% r>jypn i Zn
sut ca mt hp kim gm hai
Hinh 5.8. in tr sut nhit phng ca hdp kim
pha a v p c th s dng biu
Cu- Zn (dung dch rn) phu thuc thnh phn
thc theo quy tc hn hp sau
y:
Pi = pu Va + Po V^|(. (5.11)
trong ,V|, v p a . Pn - phn trm th tch v in tr sut ring phn ca cc
pha tng ng.
n h h n g ca bi n d n g n h i
Bin dng n hi cng lm tng in tr sut do tng s lng cc tn x in
t. A iih hng ca bin dng ln in tr sut c biu th trn hmh .7.
5.1.1.6. c trhg in ca cc hp kim thng mi

Tnh cht in v cc tn h cht khc ca ng khin n tr thnh vt dn k iii
loi c dng rng r i Iiht. ng OFHC c hm lng oxy v tp cht khc r t
thp v dn in cao c dng cho nhiu ng dng in. Nhm c dn
ch bng khong mt na ca ng . cng thng c dng lm v t dn in. Bc
c dn in cao hn c nhm v ng, tu y nhin ng dng b hn ch v gi t.
C kh i cn phi ci thin bn c hc ca hp kim in khiig lm gim ng
k dn in ca n. To hp kim dung dch rn v bin dng ngui, c hai cch
u c th ci thin bn nhng l i gy tn hi dn in. Nh vy cn c s
tha hip gia hai tn h cht . Thng thng nht, bn c nng cao bng
cch a vo mt pha th hai no m khng lm gim mnh tn h dn in. V
d. cc hp kim ng b e rili bn v cng, nhing dn in ch gim chiig nni
ln so vi ng tin h khit cao.
Trong mt s ng dng khc, chiig hn nh dy hoc thanh nung trong l. l i
cn c in tr sut cao. tn hao ung lng do cc in t b tn x c chuyn
thnh nng lng nhit. Cc vt liu nh th cn phi c bn chng oxy ha
nhit cao v ng nhin c nhit nng chy cao. Nicrm (hp kim
nikeu - crm) c s dng ph bin trong cc iiih kin l nung.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ ^
5.1.2. BN D N I N
Cc vt liu bn du c dn in khng cao nh cc kim loi, nhng chng

li c int s c trng in c o nn c ng dng rng ri. Tnh cht in
ca cc vt liu ny ht sc uhy cm vi s c m t ca cc tp cht ngay c
nng thp. Cc cht bn dn. trong tnh cht in c quy iih bi cu trc
in t vn c trong v t liu tin h khit, c gi l bn dn tinh khit. Cn kh i cc
c triiig in do cc nguyn t tp cht qiiyt mh th v t liu c gi l cht
bn dn tp cht.
5.1.2.1. Bn dn tinh khit

Cc cht bu dn tin h kh i t irc c trng bi cu trc vng in t nu trn
hnh 5.3d. OK hai cht bn dn nguyn t l silic (Si) v gecmani (Ge) c khe
nng lng tng ng vo c 1,1 v 0.7 eV. c hai u nm trong nhm IV A ca
bng tun hon cc nguyn t v u c lin kt ng ha tr. Ngoi ra. nhiu hp
cht cng c bn cht bn dn tin h khit . M t nhm v t liu nh th c h iih
thnh gia cc nguyn t" ca cc nhm I I I A v V A. v d nh: gali asenit (GaAs)
v iii i a iitim o n it (InSb); chng thng c gi l cc tp cht I I I - V. Cc hp
ch't ca cc nguyn t' nhm I I B v V I A cng biu hin tnh bn dn. trong c
catini s u iifit (CdS) v km te lu rit (ZiiTe). Khi hai nguyn t to thnh nhng hp
cht ny nm v tr cch nhaii cng xa trong bng tun hon th lin kt nguyn
t cng tr nn ioii hn v ln ca nng lng khe tng ln. V t liu c xu
hng tr nn cch in hn. Bng 5.2 cho bit khe nng Ing ca mt s hp
cht bn dn.
K h i n i m v l tr n g
Trong ch't bn dn tin h khit c khi nii in t c kch thch ln vng dn
s li mt ch thin in t trong lin kt ng ha tr, tc l mt trng thi
in t cn tr iig trong vng ha t r nh ch trn h iih 5.5b. C th tug tng
rng, dinh hng ca in triig, v tr thiu in t ny s chuyn ch trong
mng tin h th do chuyn ng ca in t ha t r khc ti, in vomi lin kt
ch\ia ( hnh 5.9).
in t i o
L trh
..
.. " "
: : : : : : '
m. .. * * **
i>', c)
Hinh 5.9 M hnh lin kt in t ca s dn in trong silic tinh khit:

a) trc khi kich thch i b. c) sau khi kich thich
204 C h n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
Qu triih ny xy ra trong min ha t r nh l chuyn ng ca mt ht mang

in dng gi l trng. M t l trng vc xeni nh c in tch vi lii bng
in tch ca mt in t nhng ngc du (+ 1,6.10 ' ^C). Nh vy, khi c mt iii
trng, cc in t v cc l trng s chuyn ng ngc hng nhau. Hn na,
trong cht bn dn. c in t v l triig u b tn x bi nhng ch khng hon
ho trong mng tin h th.
d n d i%n t in h k h i t
V trong cht bn dn tin h khit c hai loi ht t i in ( in t t do v l
triig ), cho nn biu thc (5.7) ca dn in phi c bin i bao gm c s
hng ng gp ca dng l trng.
Do ta c ;
(.12)
trong p - s' l trng trong n v th tch;

||, - lin h ng l trng.
i vi cc cht bn dn. ln ca |Lii, lun lun nh hn |I . Trong cht bn
dn tin h khit, c nii nit in t c kch thch nhy qua khe u l i int l
trng trong vng ha tr, nh vy ;
n = p (.13)
v - n \ e \ (|a,. + Hi.) = p I e I (|i,. + Î,) . (.14)
dn in tin h khit, lin h ng in t v lin h ng l trng nhit

phng ca mt s v t liu bn dn c triih by trn bng 5.2.
Bng 5.2. Khe nng lng, linh ng in t v l trng v dn in tinh khit

nhit phng ca mt s vt liu bn dn
Vt liu Khe nng lng. dn in. linh ng linh ng l

eV (Q.m)-^ in t. mÂ/.s trng, mÂ/.s
Nguyn t
Si 1.11 4x10'^ 0.14 0,05
Ge 0,67 2.2 0.38 0,18
Hp cht III- V
GaP 2,25 - 0,05 0,002
GaAs 1.42 1 0 -^ 0,85 0,45

InSb 0,17 2 x10^ 7.7 0,07
Hp cht ll-VI
CdS 2,40 - 0.03 -
ZnTe 2,26 - 0.03 0 , 01
5.1.2.2. Bn dn tp ch't
Tlic ra cc cht bn dn thng mi u l bn dn tp cht. K h i c m t tp
cht ngay c vi nng thp cng to ra in t hoc l d tha. Chng hn, mt
VT LIU HC 205
nng tp cht ( tc mt nguyn t tp ch'! troiig lo' nguyn t) cng

lm cho silic tr thnh bn dn tp cht nhit phng.
B n d n t p c h t k im lo i n
m inh ha tnh bii dn tp cht hnh thnh Iih i th no. ta li xt bn dn
nguyn t" silic. M t nguyn t silic c b'u in t vng ngoi, mi mt in t ny
liu kt ng ha t r vi mt in t ca bn nguyn t silic ln cn. By gi gi s
mt nguyn t tp cht c ha t r um c thay th vo. c th l nguyn t ca
nhm V A bng tun hon (v d. p. As. Sb). Ch c bn trong nm in t ha t r
ca nhng ngiivn t tp cht ny c th tham gia vo lin kt.
p5+ in f t do
; : / : : : * . : ; ; : : : ;
/ 'i T-. * *t
: ' : ; : : : : ; : : ; T
''-3^-' f
: : ; :
a) b) c) ------------
Hnh 5.10 M hinh lin kt in t ca bn dn tap cht loai n
M t in t tha ra ch nh mt cch lng lo vo vng xung quanh nguyn t

tp ch^t bi mt lc h t tn h in yu nh m inh ha trn h iih .lOa. Nng lng
ii ii kt ca in t ny tng i nh (vo c 0,01 eV). do d b tch khi
nguyn t tp cht, kh i n s tr thnh in t t do. tc in t dn ( hiih
B.lOb v .lc).
Mi mt in t gn lng lo
chim mt mc nng lng n nm
c ----- c
trong khe cin v ngay di y
vng dn ( hnh 5.1 la). kch
thch in t nhy t mt trong cc
MC B fu' do
tr iig thi (mc) tp cht ny ln n
mt mc trong vng dn i hi mt
nng liig tng ng vi nng
lng lin kt iu t. C mi ln
kch thch (hnh .llb ) s cp mt
in t n vo vng du. Tp cht
loi ny c gi l n (tp ch^t
"cho"). Bi v mi in t u c Hnh 5.11. S vng nng lng in t i vi
kch thch tC mt mc tp cht nn mt mc tp cht n trc (a) v sau
khng to ra l trng tng ng (b) kich thch
trong vng ha tr.
nhit phng, nng lng nhit cng kch thch c mt s' ln
iu t ri khi cc trng thi n. Thm vo cn xy ra mt s" chuyn di
vuig ha tr - vng dn. nh trn hiih .b: nhiig mc c th b qua. Nhi

vy s' in t trong vng dn vt xa s^ l trng trong vng ha t r i ( tc
n p ) , v s hng th nht v phi ca phng triih (.12) ln t s hng th
hai. ngha l:
el |i,. ( .l )
Vt liu loi ny c gi l bn dn tp cht loi n . Do nng ca chng, cc
in t l nhng h t t i a s', cn l trig l nhng h t t i t h i u s ' . vi cc
cht bn dn loi n. mc Kermi dch ln pha trn ti kh u vc tr n g th i n: v
tr chnh xc ca n ph thuc vo c nhit ln nng n.
B n d n ta p c h t lo a i p
M t hiu ng i lp xut hin kh i pha vo silic hoc gecniani cc tp cht
thay th c ha t r ba nh Al, B v Ga thuc nhm I I I A ca bng tu n hon. Mt
trong cc mi lin kt ng ha t r xung quanh mi nguyn t ny s b thiu mt
in t. Ch thiu Iih th c th xem Iih it mt l trng lin kt y ii vi nguyn t
tp cht. C th gii phng l trng ny khi nguyn t tp cht bng cch iii
chuyn mt in t t mt mi lin kt cnh nh m inh ha tr n liiih .12. Thc
cht l in t v l trng i ch ln nhau. M t l trng chuyn ng ic xem
n h ii l trng th i kch thch v tham gia vo qii tr iih dn in ti iig t mt
in t n b kch thch, nhit m t trn.
Si
O''
a)
Hnh 5.12. M hinh (lin kt in t) cc bn dn tap cht loai p
Cng c th dng m h n li vng nng

lng din t cc kch thch tp cht to
ra l trng, Mi mt nguyn t tp cht
ia vo khe cni mt mc nng litiig nm
r t st pha trn nh ca vng ha tr
Mc
Giiih .l3a). M t l tr iig s c to ra acxept L trng
trong vng ho t r kh i kch thch nhit do

mt in tt chuyn t vng ha tr ln r ^ n
A ~T~ A
trng th i in t tp cht ny nh biu
th trn h iih . 13b.
Vi mt chuyn di nh th ch c mt
, ? / .. A. 1 i __\ x_ .1
_
ht ti (mt l trng) c sinh ra trong Hnh 5.13. S vng nng lng i VI mt
vng ha t r Iii khug c int in t t do mc tap cht acxept trc
no c to ra hoc mc t p ch t hoc
(a) v sau (b) kich thich
trong vng dn. Tp cht loi ny c gi
VT LIU HC 207
l acxept (tp cht " nhn "). bi v II c kh nng nhn in t t vng ha t r

v li int l tr'uff - sau ny gi mc nng lng trong khe cm do loi tp
cht Iiy gy ra l tr n g th i (mtc) acxcpt.
i vi bn dn tp cli't loi Iiy, l trng c int vi Iiug cao hn Iihiu so
vi i n tt ( t c l p n), v tro n g tr n g hp v t li u c gi l c h t bn dn
loi p bi v tn h dn in ch yu do cc ht tch in dng m nhim. T t
nhin, cc l trn g l h t t i a s* cn in t chi xut hin nng thiu s.
Diu lm cho s' hng th hai trong v phi ca phing trn h (.12) chim lu
th. tc l;
(.16)
i vi cc cht bn dn loi p, jnc Ferm i nm trong khe cin v gn mc
acxept.
Cc cht bn d ii tp cht ( c hai loi n v p) ii c ch to t cc vt liii
ban u c tin h k h i t h t sc cao. ni chung c tng hm lng tp vo c 10'Vo
nguyn t. Sau , bng cch s dng nhng k th u t khc nhau, ngi ta ch
n h pha th m n h n g n n g n hoc acxept c th . Quy t r iih hp k im ha
v t li u b n d n n h i v y c gi l ping ( s pha tp).
Trong cc cht bn d ii tp cht, s* ln ht t i ( hoc in t hoc l trng, ty
th u c lo i t p c h t ) c t o ra n h i t phng do nng lng n h i t cung cp.
H qu l cc ch't bn dn tp cht c dn in nhit phng tng l cao.
a s cc v t li u n y ic s dng tro n g cc liiih k i n in t h o t ng tro n g
i ii k i n m i tr n g x u n g quanh .
5.1.2.3. S thay i nhit

ca dn in v nng
ht ti in
Hnh .14 tr iih by th

s ph thuc n h i t ca
dn in ca silic tin h k h i t v
ca silic pha tp vi 0.0013
v 0.0052% nguyn t bo.
du in tron g mu tin h k h i t
tng mnh theo n h i t . S
in t v s l trn g u tng
ln theo n h i t bi v c
nhiu nng Ing n h i t hn
kch thch cc in t chuyn
t vng ha t r l ii vng du.
N hit vy, gi t r ca c n v p
trong biu thc dn tin h
T, K
khit (5.14) ii tng ln. cn
lin h ng in t v l Hnh 5.14. S phu thuc ca dn in vo nhit
trng th l i gim nh k h i tng (thang loga) ca silic tinh khit v silic pha tp bo
nhit do s t iig tn x
in t v l tr iig bi dao ng Iiliit.
Tuy nhin, s gim n,. v Hi, r t nh so vi s tng n v p, nn hiu qu ca s
tng n h i t vn l s tng dn in.
Biu thc toii hc gn ng s ph thuc dn tin h khit vo nhit T

l; ;
lu a = c - ^ (.17)
2kT
Thng s c l mt hng s, khng ph thiic nhit v E, v k ln lit l
niig lng khe v hng s Boltzmaiin. S ph thuc nhit ca nng h t ti
ca bn dn tin h khit trn thc t cng ging nh ca dn in, tc l;
In n = h ip = c ----- . (5.18)
2kT
Thng s' c* cng l mt hng s. khng ph thuc nhit .

Nli phng trn h (5.18) s c mt phng php khc biu din s ph thuc
nhit ca dn in ca cc cht bn dn nh trn h iih .l vi cc s liu
ly t hih 5.14. Hy chi ti on iig thng gy bi vt liu tin h khit c th
nhanh chng xc iih c uiig hng khe.
Theo phng trn h (. 18), dc ca on thng ny l bng - /2. tc l E,
c th c xc iih nh sau:
A In p A hi p
E^=-2k = -2k (.19)
A ( l/ D A (l/T )
iu ny itc ch r bng T,oc

th trn hnh .16.
M t c trng quan trng
khc ca cc quan h nu trn
hnh 5.14 v .l l cc nhit
di khong 800K (527"C)
cc vt liu pha tp bo u l
bn an tp cht loi p\ ngha
l trn thc t t t c l trng t i
in u c c t cc kch
thch tp cht - cc chuyn di
in t t v iig ha t r ln cc
mc acxept bo, l i cc l
trng trong vng ha t r ( hnh
.13). Nng lng uhit c c
cc nhit l thc
h i n m t S ng k Iih iig kch
thch ny nhng l i cha
kch thch itc nhiu in t t Hnh 5.15 Quan h gia nng hat ti (in t
vng ha t r vt qua khe vng. v l trng) v nhit i vi silic tinh khit
Nh vy. dn tp cht vt v silic pha tp bo
xa dn ca v t liu tin h
khit. V d, 400K (127 C) dn in ca silic tm h khit v ca v t liu pha
0.0013% nguyn tt bo tng ng c 10'^ v 600 (Q cm)'' (l^nh .14). S so snh
VT LIU HC 209
Iiy cho thy dii in nhy vi ngay c nhng nng cc k Jih ca mt s

nguyn t tp c h t.
Hn na. dn tp cht cng nhy vi c nhit , nhi ch trn h iih .14 cho
c hai vt liu pha thm bo. Bt u t khong 7 K ( -200"c ). trc tiu
dn tiig theo u lii t . t u nit cc di v sau li gim dn trc khi tr
thnh dn tin h khit. Ni theo thut ng ung ht t i ( tc l trng . hnh
.l). liip lc u tng tuyn tnh khi 1/T gim (tc T tng) c th xy ra s lng
ln cc kcli thch tp clit ngay nhng nhit tidiig thp ny bi v mc
acxept nni st ngay trn nh ca viig ha tr. khi nhit tng hn na (1/T
gim), Iiiig t l trng c khi li tr Iiii c lp vi Iihit ( hnh .l). 0 im
ny thc t t t c nii nguyn t bo vi Iihu itc in t t vng ha tr. tc
chng bo ha theo th u t ng vng bo ha trn hnh .16 (i vi cc tp cht
ii Iigi ta ni chiig tr nn cn kit thay cho bo ha). S l trng trong
vng n gn bng s nguyn t tp cht, pha vo (tc bo).
S gim du khi tng nhit trong vng bo ha i vi hai ng cong
tp cht trn hnh 5.14 c th gii thch bng s gim linh ng l trng. Trn
bi\i thc dn tp cht (5.16). c n v p trong vng ny u c lp vi nhit
v s ph tliiic nhit, y ch l do linh ng.
Trn hnh 5.14 v .l cng cn mt iu ng ch Iia l khong 800K
(li7"C). dn in ca c hai vt liu plia tp bo ii tr v du tin h khit,
ch bt ii c tnh bn dn tin h khit , s cc chuyn di tin h khit t vng ha
t r lii vng dn tr) nu ln hn s' l trng do tp ch't sinh ra.
Vi nhu xt ciii
cng v nh hng ca
hin liig acxept bo di
vi tiih cht in ca
silic. Trc ht. cc
(lan tp c li l v bo ha
cng nhi cc Iiiig l
trng vi lu hii vt
liu c hni lng bo cao
hn { hnh .14 v .l).
mt kt qu uhi mong
i. bi v c mt nhiii
nguyn t bo hdu th s
l trng vc sinh ra t
cling cng nliiu hn.
Nh vy. Iih i t ct bt
u tnh bn dn tin h
Hinh 5.16. th phu thuc nhit ca nng l trng
khit s nng cao khi
ca cht bn dn loai p Cc trng thi
hin hng pha tp tug
c tap cht, bo ha v tinh khit
ln.
14 - VLH
5.1.2.4. Linh kin bn dn

Do nhng tn li cht in c ao ca nnh, cc cht bn du c ng dng
trong nhng linh kin tlic hin cc chc uiig in t c bit. it v transito
th a y th cc n in t chn kh ng kiu CI. l h a i v d quen tlu i c. u im
ca cac liiih kin ban dn l kch tliic nh. tiu th cng sut thup v khng cn
thi gian cli nng my. Cc con s* khng l cc inch in cc k Iih m mi nit
mch l i c to bi n h i u lin h k i n in t. c th t hp tr n m t "chip " silic
Iih b. S pht m inh ra cac lin h kin in t dn n s vi mch ha, chnli l
c s cho s xu't hiu v ln mnh cc k nhanh chng ca mt ngnh ng u
cac ngnh cng nghip ini trong my nni qua .
Ghp c h in h l u p - n
Chnh lu l liiili kin in t cho php dng in CI chv theo mt chiu.
Trc khi xu't hin chnh lu bn dn ]} - I. Iigni ta s dng n it chn khng.
Ghp chnh hm p - n. cau to bi mt t'ni ban dn pha tp loi n trn mt Iii t v
loi p trn mt kia (hnh .17a). Nu em cc tm vt liu loi n v p glip li
vi nhau' s c mt chnh
n p Bn n
lu km. hi v SI xut hin b
e o o 0
int gia hai ih ii lm cho 0
e 0 0
linh kin kin hiu qu. Do 0 o

vy trong t t c cc lin h kin
0)
u plii s dng v t liu bii Khu vc l/ hp
dii clu t.inh th ct trnh cc
0
hin t\ug in t xut hin
bin ht s ph hy hot ng -
e
ca lin h kin . 0
e
Trc khi t mt. in p
ln mau p n. ht l i ciiiih ------------------------ -11
bn p l l trng. CII hn n l
in t nh iniuh ha trn
h ili 5.17a. Mt. in p ngoi
c the th i t lp trn ghp p - n
bng liai phn cc khc Iilum.
K lii dng nit b pin, vi
dng c th ni vo bn p v
u ni vo bn n. gi l Hnh 5.17. Ghp chnh lu p - n Biu din s phn b'
n'i thun. S '\i cc ngic in t v l trng (a) khi khng c in p:
li (ni vo p v diig vo /) (b) n thun v (c) ni ngc
ic gi l ni ngc.
Dii tc dng ca mt
in p ni th ii n (hnh .lTb), cc l trng bn p v iu t bn a ii b li t v
int tip xc. KJii l trng v in t gp nhau gn . chng lin tc t i hp v
tri t ti ii n nhau, t.iiig ng vi ;
VT LIU HC 211
in t + l trng -> nng lng. (.20)
N hi vy kiu ni Iiy, s liig ln cc ht ti i qua cht bn dn v ti ch

tip xc, nh c minh chng bi int dng in mnh v mt in tr su. thp.
c trng vn - anipe kh i u thun itc nu trn na bn phi ca hmh 5.18.
Khi ni nghch (hnh .lTc). c l trng v iu t l ht t i a s' ii b ko
nhanh khi ch tip xc. S phn cch in tch dng v m ( tc l s phn cc)
li ch tip xc mt vng titng i t cc ht ti linh ng. S t i hp s
khng xy ra ng k. nh vy ch tip xc by gi tr nn cch in cao. Hnh
.18 cng minh ha c tnh VII - ampe khi ghp ngc .
in p ii vo v dng iii u ra ca qu trn h chnh h c biu th
trn h'mh .19. y in p vo bin thin hnh sin theo thi gian ( hnh .19a).
Dng in cc i l kh i ni ngc l ht sc nh so vi dng /|.- khi n thun
(hnh 5 .19b). S tdng iig gia /|. v I\i v in p CIO i v t vo itc ghi ch
trn hnh .18.
Hnh 5.18 c trng vn - ampe ca mt ghp Hinh 5.19 in p theo thi gian u vo (3 )
p - n khi ni thun v ni ngc v dng sau khi qua chnh lu bng ghp p - n(b)
Vi cc in p lp ngc cao. c khi c hng trm vn. s pht sinh s lng

ln cc ht t i in ( in t v l trng). iu ny gy nn s tng vt ca dng
in gi l hin titng n xuyn, cng c ch ra trn hnh .18 v c cp
chi ti t hn trong mc .1.4. ( bn in mi).
T ra n s to
Transito. lin h kin bn dn cc k quaii trng trong mch vi in t ngy nay,
c th m nhim hai chc nng c bn saii. Th nht, chng c th hot ng nh
n in t chn khng tric y. n triot. c ngha l chng c th khuych i
^ IC tn hiu in . Th hai. chng cng c dng nh cc phng tin chuyn
mch trong my tnh x l v lu tr thng tin. C hai loi chnh l transito tip
xc v transito hiu i trn lii loi - oxyt - bn dn (vit t t l MOSFET. theo
t ting Anh inetal - oxide - seinicoiiductor field effect transistor) .
T ra n s ito ti p x c
Trausito tip xc t hp bi hai tip XIC p - n ghp ta liiig vo nhan theo cii
hih n-p-n hoc p-n-p. Hnh .20 nu s ca mt tra iisito tip xc p-n-p cng vi
mch in ca u. Mt vng (base) loi n. rt. mng c t xen k vo gia
ng pht ( entter) v vng gp (colleclor) loi i.
Mch bao gm tip XIIC p li t - ( tip xc 1) c lp thuu. trong k h i mt.
in p lp ngc c t ln tip xc - gp (tip xc 2).
Tip xc Tip xc 2
/
:
n p
-'
p
't' ->5-
-9
' Ph ti +
--------r " w v : ------------
'Vo Vra
^v'o
.I
Hnh 5.20. S ca transito tip xc p-n-p v mch in hoat ng ca n .

cc c trng in p vo v ra cho thy s khuch i in p
H iih .21 minh ha cc c ch Lo/ p Loi n Loi p

vn chuyn cc ht t i in. V cc 0

pht thuc loi p v tip xc 1 c e 0

nl thun nn c nhng s" ling e
ln l trng i vo vng loi n,
y chng l nhng ht ti th i ii s
v mt s s ti hp vi cc in t lp xc Tip1xc 2
a s. Tuy nhin, nu nhit cc
ht sc hp v cc vt liu bn dn
Cc phf

\ ' Cc
0
c ch to ring th a s" cc l V<' .
' -
trng s trii qua vng ni @
khng b t i hp, sau qiia tip )
xc 2 v i ti cc gp loi p: by gi
chng tr nn mt phn hp thnh Hnh 5.21. Phn b v hng chuyn ng ca
ca mch phat - gp . M t s tiig in t v l trong mt transito tip xc p-n-p (a)
nh ia p u vo mch pht - khi khng c in p t vo v (b) khi ni mach
s gy nn mt s tng mnh ca khuch i in p
in p trn in tr ph t i trong mch (hnh .20). N hit vy. mt tn hiu in p
qua transito tip xc th c khuch i ln; hiu Vng ny cng ic niinh ha
trn h ili .20 bi hai th in ap thi gian .
VT LIU HC 213
Hot ng ca traiisito n-p-n ciig \tc l gii idng t. trong thay cho l
trng, in t c n qiia vng v i vo cc gp.
M O SFET
Hnh .22 nu nit. ct ca iit inii MOSPET gni c liai o nh bn dn loi
p (c to ra trong mt cht silic loi n\ cc ao thng vi Iiliau bng mt knh
hp loi p. Cc u ni kim loi thch hp (u ngun v u ra) t ln cc o ;
mt lp cch in silic ioxyt c to ra bng cch oxy ha b m t silic. Sau
mt u ni kt thc ( ca) t lu trn b inl ca lp cch cin .
Hot iig ca mt
MOSFET khc vi
tra iisito tip xc ch
l y ch c mt loi -tL Ngn Ct/i7 Thot
ht ti ( hoc l in t ) S/0^ ( Lp cch din)

) Knh loai p
hoc l l) hot iig
m thi. dn in Si loai p Si b i p
ca knh c biu i
'Si loi n
do s c int ca mt
in tnng dng t
ln ca s y cc ht
ti (trong trng hp Hnh 5.22 S d mt ct ca mt transto MOSPET
ny l cc l) ra khi
kiih. do lni gim dn in. Nli vy. mt bin i nh ca in trng ca
s gy nu mt bin i tiig i ln ca dng din giia cc ngun v thot. Cc
qii trn h khc trong MOSPET r^t giiig uh ni t cho transito tip xc. S
khac )ihau c bn l ch dng ca l r t nh tto vi diig c s ( base) ca transito
tip xc. Do . cc MOSPET c s dng nhng Iii m ngun tn hiu cn
khuch i khng th cho c mt dng in ng k.
Cc c h t b n d n tro n g m y ln h
Cng vi kh nng khuch i tn hiu in, cc transito cng c th hot ng
nh nhng lin h kiu chuyn mch, mt tnh nng ic s dng cho cc x l s hc
v lgic v cng s diig lu tr thng tin trong cc my tnh. Cc con s' v hm
s Iiiy tnh u ic vit thnh hai s": 0 v 1 tlmc h m c s 2. By gi th cc
transito v it trong mch s" s hot ng nh Iili iig chuyn mch vi hai trng
th i ng v ngt .Nh vy, mt s' n c tli biu rlii bng mt tp hp cc phn
t mch cha cc traiii?ito c chuyn mch thch hp,
M ch v i i n l
Trong my Iim va qua, s ra i ca mch vi in t, trong hng ngn
phn t v m ch in t c t hp tro iig in t kh ng g ia n r t nh, l m m t
cuc cch mng trong ln h vc in t hc. Cuc cach mng ny trc ht phc v
cho ngnh hng khng VI tr. ni cn c uhiig my tiili. Iih tiig c\i kin iu t
rt nli v i hi cng sut thp. Nh Iihng thnh t ii mi trong cng ngh cb
2 Chu 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
to. h (c gi th n h ('a mch t' hp m t cch ang ngc n h i n . K t q \i l;i

gi {y Iiiiiy lnh c nhn (IH' vil tt t ting Anh êrsoiial Computer) c s
diig r;Vt pli biii. nt dnt cac mch t. hrtp ciig xm nhp vo uhiu ln li
vc ca CIIC rtug hin nay: lnh toan thng (IK cnh bao. sn xu t v iii khiii
ciig nghi]) rug Iiln mi khu ca cng nghip .liii t.
Nhn^f vi mch
k li iig (lai (l (lc sn
xvit luiiig lot, vi k
thut cli t.o tiiih
xo. bt. (h'ni I.I vic
nui cr cliii tiiih th
.silic hinli tr Ulia ln
VI t iiiii khit cao
e t (16 ct thnh
nhng tm mng hnh
trn . N liiii mch vi
diu t. (mch l. lip).
th it n g si "c lip ",
ctic: ch t o ngay
tr n m t ta n i n.
M t ch) hnh vung
kch thc c 1/4 iiich
(6 nmi) trn mt mt
cha ti linf Iighin
phan t nh it.
transito. in tr v
l iliii. H iiih .23a
L-hp ton ) Iiit ch]>
vi x l nh tli : hu
400 (hdng (ly dn
din (liis (to ni chp
Iiy ti mt bng
mch in. Mnh .23b
chp phng di int
phn ca mt clip vi i ^ 4 0i II mrm MM 1 r 4
x l khc cho thy
r s phc tp ca b)
in t Iii c li t hp n lii
Hinh 5.23 nh chup mt chip x l 32 bit, phng al 3,5 ln (a)
th. Min nay Iihng v nh chp mt phn ca mt chip VI x l 32 b it khc,
cliip vi 2 000 000 phng al khong 1 250 ln (b)
pliii t (:iuf dc cli
to v c ulung b
nli cao hn r iig s chc: chn (hrc phat. tri n trong Ufiig lai.
Nhns nicli vi in t giii Iiliixi lp Iijn trong hocsp xp phii tr ii
ca t'in silic theo mt sd (l chi ti t chnh xac. Dng k tlnit. quang khc
(photolithographic) v cac k tliu t v i tn h kliac ( v d, khuch tan hoc cy ioii)
to ra cc klm vc bau (lan loi n . loi p. (in tr hoc in dn cao trn mi
VT LIU HC 2 ir.
Quy rn h Iiy \fc lp li t lp ny sang lp kliac cho ii khi ton l) mch

to li p (tc ch to xong.
t n h D N d i n T K O N G GiM lO N V T R O N POLYM E
Phii ln cc polynie v cc gin ion ii l vt li\i caoli din Iihit (l pliiig
v;'i (lo (l. c cu trc vng nang lug din t trtng U nlat l)ieu (lin trii
h iiih ;3.:-c : k lu ' nng litiig tng i rng, tln iig ln hn 2eV. N ln vy. Iiiiit
binh tlivng cl c rt t in t nh chc cung cp nng lng c tliP b kch thch
nhay ( i i a khe; iii ng vi nhng gi t r rat Iili ca dii din. Bng 5.3 cho
(l (ian (liu Iil t phng ca mt lo t v t liu nli th. ng nhin. Iiliipu vt
liu chtc s dng tr n c s kh Ii iig cach in ca chiig v nli vy. din tr
siiat cao li l ctiu mong nmn. K lii nng cao nhit . (l dii ca cc vt liu cch
din li c the ln hdii ca cc cht bn (ln.
Bng 5.3. dn in tiu biu nhit phng

ca mt s vt liu phi kim loi
Vt liu dn in . ( LI m )'
Graphit 10^
Gm :
Nhm oxyt lO"'- 1 0 '^
S 1 0 -^ ^ - 1 0 ^
Thy tinh Na - Ca < 1 0 "'^
Mica
Polyme :
Phenolormalehyt lo '-' - 10 '-
Nylon 6 . 6 1 0 "" - 10 '^
Polymetylmetacrylat <10
Polyetylen 10 '" - 10
Polystyren < 10
PolytetraAoetylen < 10 "'
5.1.3.1. Dan in trong cc vt liu ion

Cac cation v aiiio n trong vt. liu ion (tu c (tiii tcli v do (i cl)i'iiig clu c
kh iiaiiK ci chuyn hoc klnich tn kh i c mt mt (liu tru(inf;. Nh vy. mt
(long in s c to thnh do clniyn ng thu ii ty ca nhng ion uy. in
nhin, aion v cation s cliuyen di ngc luiig nhan. D (.li tng {'.a nit v1
liii ion biig tn^ ca cc iig gp ca in t v ion nln sa\r.
^ to n phn ~ ^ r l i i n l ^ io ii (0.2 I )
f)ng gp no chini I \1 th l t y t.luic vo vt liu, tin li kh i t v (tii.;

Iilii u cn vo Iih i t .
D lin h ng ng vi nii loi lon l :
n, c D,
(5.22)
hr
troii< /, v Z)| - ha t r v h s kluich tn ca mi ioii.

21G_____________________________________ C h n g 5. TNH CHT V T L CA VT LIU
Cn ch\' l D, t l vi lu tha bc cao ca nhit, T. Do vv, cng Iihi

thnh phn tlin t. ng gp ion vo dn ton phn s tng ln k lii tng nhit
. T \iy th, (ta R cc vt. li n io ii v n cn girt c tn h cach i n n g a y c Iilii t
cl cao.
5.1.3.2. Tnh cht in ca cc polyme

Phn ln cc vt liu polynie u du in km ( bng .3) v khng th c
nhiii in t t do tham gia vo qu triih dn in. C cli dn in trong cc
vt. liu ny r t phc tp, nhing bit r l cc polynie c tin h khit, cao du
din bng din t.
Cc p o lyin e d n i n
Trong nhi\i niti qiia tng lip ic Iilii u vt liu polynie c dn din
Iigang vi cc vt dn kini loi, chng ic gi l cc polynie dn in. T ro ii cac
vt liu ny ct cit ic dn cao ti l, 10' ( Q. 111) ' . Gi t r ny tiih theo tho
tch t\ug ng vi mt. phn ti, cn tnh theo tr iig hiig th tng i'ng vi hai lii
dn ca ng.
Hin ling trn quaii st thy trong nhiu polyine, trong c polvaxetyleii,
polyparaphenylen, polypyrol v polyaiiilin c pha vi cc ph gia thch hp.
C ng nh tin iig li p c li t bn dn. cc polynie n y c th itc ch t o th e o lo i !I
(tc in t t do chim \i th) hoc theo loi p (tc l trn g chiin lu th ) tuy
theo cht ph gia. T iiy nhin, chiig khc cc cht bn clii ch cc nguyn ti't
hoc phn t pha tp khng thay th hoc i ch m t Iigiiyn ti no ca polynio.
Polyine tinh khit cao c c t.ntng cu trc vng in t ca cc cht, cacli din
(hnh .3c). C ch sn sinh ra s htng ln in t t do v l tr n g trong cac
polyiie di\ din ny rt phc tp. khng th gii th d i d diig. Hiu nit cach Uin
îiK cc nRiiyii t pha tp dn n s to thnh nhng vng Ii iig lii 1U( )h
ln vng ha tr v vng dn ca polynie tin h khit, to nn cc vng (ln lioc
vng ha l.r lp cty mt. phn v to ra nhit phng nit. nng c cao on
in t t do hoc l trng. Bng cch nh hing cc mch xch polyiiie trong khi
tng hp chng, hoc bng plung plip c hoc t s to ra c v t li ii d hiig
cao. c dn in cc i dc theo hiiig .
NltiiR polynie clii ctin ny c ii th trong m t lot ng d iig do chng c
trng lng ring thp, do cao v d ch to. Cc pin t i sinh hin ang itc
ch to vi (tin CIC polynie c Iih i \i tri n vng t"t h n p in k iin lo i. N h n g ug
dng khc nh lm dy dn trong cc c\i kin hng khng v v tr . che ph
chiig nhiu ciii cho q ii ii o. vt li ii mn chn in t v lin h kin in t,
5.1.4. I N M I
in mi l vt liu cch in ( phi kim loi), c cii tr c Ivtiig cc (liii t

Iihiii hoc nhan to IIC phn tiV hoc nguyn t. V t liu in mi dc s
dng trong cc t iii nh l kt qu ca tng tc litng cc vi in tn iig .
VT LIU HC 217
5.1.4.1. in dung
K lii iu p V irc t ln int t in, mt tm tr tli u h tch in dng,

t iii kia tch in in vi in triiig tiig ug hng t tni ding sang ni.in
dung c lin h vi in lng Q mi tni c tnh theo biu thc:
Q
c = ( . 2 3 )
V
Dn v iii d iiu g l cvilug/von, tc l'ara (F).
Xt mt t in tm song song vi chn khng trong vng gia hai tm
(hbih .24a). i ii dung c th tnh t bivi thc;
s
c = o . -------- . (.24)
l
trong 5 - din tch b m t tm;
l - khong cch gia chng. ;
8() - thm ca chn khng, l mt hng s v tr c gi tr bng
8.85.10 F/m.
b)
Hnh 5.24. Tu ln tm song song trn g chn khng (a)
v khi c mt rnt vt liu in mi (b)
Nu m t v t li u in mi lp y vmg gia hai tm (hnh 5.24b) th;

s
c = e ------- , ( 5 . 2 )
l
trong - th m ca mi trng in mi. c gi t r ln hn 8
D tham tviig i. thitng gi l hng s dii mi, l t s:

(.2()
e,i
Er ln lin 1 v biu th tng kh nng tch in do a in mi vo giia

hai tm. Hng s in nii l nit tnh cht vt liu ic xem xt trc tin khi
thit k t in. Gi t r 8, ca mt s vt liu in mi cho trong bng .4.
Bng 5.4. Hng s in mi v bn in mi ca mt s vt liu
Hng s in mi bn in mi,
Vt liu
60 Hz 1 MHz 10 v /m
Gm .
Gm titanat 15 - 10 000 200 - 1 180
Mica 5,4 - 5.7 3 940 - 7 875
steatit (MgO - SO2) 5,5- 7.5 790 - 1 380
Thy tinh natri 6,9 6,9 985
S 6,0 60 160 - 1 575
Silica nung 4.0 3.8 985
Polyme :
Phenoltormaldehyt 5.3 4.8 1 180 - 1 575
Nylon 6.6 4.0 3,6 1575
Polystyren 2.6 26 1 970 - 2 760
Polyetylen 2.3 2.3 1 770 - 1 970
Polytetraloetylen 2.1 2,1 1 600 - 1 970
5.1,4.2. Vect din trng v s phn cc in mi

Mi hdiig citc chc c tn n g bi niiieii hng cc p (hnli .2);
p-qd. (5.27)
trong q - ct lii ca mi in tch:
d - khong cch giia chng.
Minen lng cc l nit vect hng t in tch m ti in tch ditng. K lii
c nit iu tritng E, mt ngii lc tc dng ln hiig cc in lm n xp theo
hng in tr\iig nh m inh ha trn hnh .26. Qu trn h xp hiig lng cc
nh vy gi l s phn cc.
Tr li vi t in, mt in tch mt D, tc l in lng trn mt n v
in tch ca t'm tvi in ( s t l vi in tntng. K lii c chnkhng th;
D = u E . (.28)
Trong trvng hp in mi. s c biii tlic tng t:
D - zE. (.29)
i khi D cu c gi l dch in mi.
VT LIU HC 219
< y - 0-
Hnh 5.25. S biu din mt Hinh 5.26. Ngu lc do in trng tc dng ln lng cc
lng cc in vi vect phn cc p (a), cui cng lng cc xp theo hng in trng (b)
Si tng in diing. tc
rni cc J: s
tng hng s' in mi.
c th gii thch biig
I
mt m h iih n gin
Cnn khn
ha v s phn CC
trong vt liu in mi.
Hy xt t iu trn
hiih .27a. Trng hp
chn khng, t'!!! trn
ic tch in +Q() v
tni di -Qi) . KJii a
mt in mi vo t
in v t ln nit
(liu tring, ton b
cht rn gia hai tin b)
t in tr th iih iu
mi b phn CIC (hnli
5.27c). Kt qu l, c Cin rih m fnun -Q'
Iit s tch t thun ti t rnt
in m - Q' b mt
Vng knng c
iu mi gn tn i
in tich thun
tch in dng, v
cng bng cch tng
in hch dng thn
t, mt in tch + Q'
i-0 = PS fi mt
x ii t hin b m t gn
tm m. Nh vy. Iiu
xeii mi tm cng vi
b mt in mi gn n
Hnh 5.27. S biu din :
nhi l mt v t th, c
a) in tch trn cc tm ca tu in chn khng: b) s sp xp lng
th cho rng in tch
cc trong in mi khng phn cc, c) kh nng tich in c tng ln
cm ng bi in nii
nh c s phn cc ca vt liu in mi
(+ hoc - Q' ) kh bt
220 C h n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT L i u
mt plii in tch vn tn ti trn tm khi c chn khng ( - Q) hoc + Qii).

iu p gia hai tm c gi gi tr nlu khi chn khng bng cach tng in
tch tm m nit liig - Q' v tm dng int. hng Q'. in t chy t tm
dng sang t"in in bi ngun ttiii ngoi sao cho cin p riiig \tc khi phc li.
V nh vy in tch trn mi tam by gi l Qn + Q\ tc t iig ln int hng Q'.
K li c mt in mi, nit in tch Ht trn cc tm t in cng c th
biii th bng:
D = Eu E ^ p . (.30)
troiig p - ph<u cc hay l tng ni<t c in tch mt so vi kh i c clin

khng, t hiih .27c t c p = Q' s , y s - in tch mi t'in; p c th nguyn
giig nh D (Cm^).
Cng c th xem phn cc p l ninien hng cc tng cng trong mt ctii v
th tch vt liu iii Iii, hoc l in tntng phn cc bn trong in mi gy
bi s sp xp tng h ca nhiu lng cc nguyn t hoc phii t theo luug
in trng Iigoi E t vo. i vi nhiu vt liu ctiii mi. p t l vi E theo h
thc;
p - e (e, - \ ) E . (5.31)
Trong trng hp khng ph thuc vo ln cim in tnng.
5.1.4.3. Cc dng phn cc in mi

Phn CIC l hin
Khng c
0
tirig sp xp li cc <0 = 3 c j in trn^
in irnq
mnieii lng cc
ngviyii t hoc phii &
t vnh cu liay cm
ng theo hng ca
in tring Iigoi. C
ba dng (hay ngun o o o o o o
gc) phn CC: in t.
o o o o
ion v xoay hng.
Thng thng cc vt. o o 0 o o 0
liu iu mi c t
o o o o
nht mt trong ba
dng phn cc ty
theo vt liu cng nhit
theo cch t iii
trng ngoi.
Phn cc i n c)
t
Phn cc in t Hinh 5.28 S biu din cc trang thi phn cc in t (a),
c th xy ra vi phn cc ion (b) v phn cc xoay hng (c)
VT LIU HC 221
nhng mc khc nhau t t c mi nguyn t. N l kt qu cch chuyn trng

tm ca m my in t tch in in so vi ht. n li ii tch in didng trong mt
nguyn t diti tc dng ca in trng ( linh .28a). Dng phn CIC ny tm
tli y trong mi v t li ii in mi, v d nhin, cl tn t i kh i c m t mt in
tring.
Phn cc ion
Phn cc ch xy ra trong cc vt liu ion. Din trng t vo lm dch chuyn
cc catioii theo mt lung v cc anioii theo hng ngc li. gy nn mt mmen
lng cc thun. Hin tiig ny c minh ha trn hnh .28b, l ii p ca
ninien lng cc ca int cp ioii l bng tch s" cia dch chuyn ting d v
in tcli mi ion, tc l:
p, = qd, (5.32)
P h n cc xoay h n g
Dng th ba, phn cc xoay hng ch tm thy trong nhng cht c cc
innien lng cc vnh cii. Si. phn cc ny l kt. qii ca s xoay cc mmen
vnh cu theo hng ca in triig t. vo ( hnh .28c). Xu th sp xp ny b
dao ng nhit ca cc nguyn t chng li lm cho phn cc gim i kh i nhit
tng.
P hn CC to n ph n p ca m t cht, hiip; tng s ca cc ph n cc i n t,
1011 v xoay hng ( tng ng l p ,. . p , , ), tc l:
p = p , + p, + p,, . ( 5.33)
C th mt trong nhng thnh phn viig mt ioc c ln khng ng k
so vi cc thnh phn khc. V d. phn cc 1011 s khong tn t i trong cac vt liu
lin kt ng ha tr, trong kliiig c mt cc iou.
5.1.4.4. S ph thuc tn s ca hng s din mi

Trong nhiu tri iig hp
thc t thng diig dng in
xoay chiu (AC). Hy xt mt
vt liu in mi phn cc bi
0 0 0
mt in triig AC . C ini
l ii i Inng. cc lng cc li
phi nh hing li theo iii + -H
trng nh minh ha trn hnh
5.29. qu trn h i hi mt thi b)
gian xc iih. v i mi dng
phn cc c nit thi gian ti Hinh 5.29 inh hng lng cc theo mt cc tnh
d iih hng ti th i ii ph thiic xoay chiu (a) v theo cc tinh ngc lai (b)
vo kh nng sp xp li ca
cc lng CIC ring l. T n s hi phc ctic ly bng nghch o ca thi gian ti
nh hng ti th i ii .
Nu nh tn s ca in trng vt qu tn s' hi phc ca lng cc th n

s khng th theo kp s i hng v do s khng c ng gp no vo hng s'
in ini. S ph thuc ca Er
vo tn s in tritng \c
biii din bng s trn hnh
5.30 cho in mi c c ba
dng phn cc. K lii nit, c ch
phn cc Iigiig hot iig.
hng s in mi s gim t
ngt, tc Er v cd bn khng
cn ph tluic vo tn s' na.
Bng .4 cho cc gi t r ca
hng s in mi 60Hz v
lM H z ca mt s in mi.
S h'p th Iing lng
icHi bi vt liu in nii t
trong in trng xoay chiu Hnh 5.30. Bin thin ca hng s in mi theo tn s
xc gi l tn hao in mi.
ca in trng xoay chiu
Tn hao ny c th l quan
trng nhng tn s" ln cn tn s" hi phc vi mi loi htdug cc trong vt
liu. Ngii ta hiii nioiig inii ii c tii hao iu mi thp tn s s diig.
5.1.4.5. bn din mi
K lii t ln vt liu in mi nhng iu tring r t cao. s c int Kug ln cc
in t b kch thch chuyn ln nhng nu'c nng liig Iiii Iron vng dn. Kt
qu l dng iu chy qua (ii mi do chuyeu ctng ca nhng iii t ny tiing
ln m n h lit; i khi s nng chy, chy hoc bay hi CIC b s gy nn SI thoi
ha bt thun nghch v thm ch c th pli hy vt lii. y chnh lhin tvng
nh thin g in mi. bn in mi cn gi l bn nh tln g biu th ln
ca in tn iig cu thit, to ra s nh thng in ini. D bii in mi ca
mt s vt liu c gii thin trong bng .4.
5.1.4.6. Cc vt liu in mi
Mt s gm v polyme c dng lm cht, cch in v trong cc t in.
Nhiu loi giii. k c thy tinh, s steatit v Iiiica c hng s" in ini niii troiig
khong A 6 n 10 ( bng .4). Nhng vt liu ny c n nh kch thc v
bu c hc cao. c nhng ng diig tiu biu nh\r cch in iiig dy t i in,
cu dao. l t nh sng. T ita ii oxyt (TiO;i) v gni tita iia t. Iih it bari tita n a t
(B aT iO ) c th c ch to vi h ng s in mi h t sc cao. l m cho chng c
.''u 'k iiig c bit trong t in.
D ln ca hng s' iu mi ca phn lii cc polynie u nh lidn ca giii l
vt liii c mnien lng cc ln hn : gi tr Er ca polynie ni chung nm trong
khong 2 t. Nhng vt liu ny c ng dng lm cch in cho dy. cp. ng
c, my pht in......ngoi ra cng dng trong mt s' t in.
VT LIU HC 223
5.1.5. CC C T N H I N K H C CA CC V T L I U
Hai c tn li din khc tng i qiia ii trng v mi mt s vt liii s iic

I1\1 tm tt. c l tih st in v tnh p din.
5.1.5.1. St in
Nhm v t liu iii mi st in mang tiih p li ii cc t pht, tc l phii cc
khi vng mt in tritng. Tng t nhi cc vt liu st t c th cho t tnh vnh
cii. Trong cc vt liu st iii phi tn ti nlnng hng cc ciii vnh cn. Ta hy
giai thch ngviii gc ca cliiig bari tita iia t. int trong Iihng cht it iii ph
thiig nht. S phn cc t pht l h qii ca s sp xp v tr cc ioii Ba^'. T i" v
()" trong c s nh biu th tru hnh .31. Cc ion Ba^' nm cc nh gc ca
c s niaiig tnh i xng tetragoiial (hnh lp plniig b gin nh theo mt
phng). Mmeii htng CIC sinh ra (lo s x dch tiig i ca cc ion 0 ^ v T i"
ra khi v tr i xng cia chng (hnh 5.31b). Cc ion nni thp xuig di
int cht, cn ioii T i'" li dch ln trn so vi t]ii im ca c s. Nhvt vy nit
m iiie n l iig CIC io ii v n h ciu gn vi m t cd s. T u y nh in, k h i Iixing nng b a ri
titnuat. ln trn Iilii t Curie st in cia n (120" C) th c s s tr li khi lp
pliing. v t t c cc ioii ii theo ng v tr i xng troiig c s lp phng,
vt liu by gi c cii trc tin h th kiu perovskit v tnh ch't st in bin m t.
r9 T ; ^V tc
1 1
o
'1 i 1
7, 0^'

Hnh 5.31 Mt c s ca ban ttanat BaTiOs (a) v s b' tri ca cc

ion v o ^ xung quanh tm ca mt ( b)
Si pliii CIC t plit ca lim vt liu ny si]i ra Iili l h qu ca tng tc

Ria cac ling cc vii cii ln cii. cluiig sp xp vi liaii UVt c theo cuig mt liiiig.
V d. troiig bari titanat. s x dch tuiig l ca cc 1011 0 ^', T i" ctu tlieo cuig
mt hng cho tt c nii (X) s trong mt Iin th tch Iilit iili ca hp cht. Cc
vt liu st in klic li nui Rochelle (NaKCH.|0,i.4H20). kali (liliycophotpliat
(KH^PO,). ka li niobit (KNOi) v ch ziconat-t.itanat (Pb[ZrOi. TiO:i]). Cc cht
st in c hng s in mi CI.C k cao cc tn s' in trng tng thp; v
d. nhit phng r ca bari tita iia t c th cao ti 000. Do vy. cc t in ch

to bng nhng vt liu ly c th c kch thc nh iin rl. nhivi so vi cc t
in lm bng vt liu in ini khc.
5.1.5.2. p in
p in l mt tnh cht khc tluiig ca int vi vt liu gm: khi lc ngoi

tc dng ln mt mu cht th s phn cc sinh ra v mt in triig c th i t
lp trong mu. K lii o
du cia lc ngoi (tc l
ko chuyn sang nn) th b

chiu ca in triig _L
cng o theo. Hiu iig
ap in c th hin
trn hih .32.
Vt liu p in ic
ng d iig tro iig cc lin h Tl T
kin chuyn i nng f
a> b]
ling in thnh ng
su t c hc v ngic l i Hinh 5.32 Cc lng cc trong vt liu p in (a) v s xut
nh u ghi m. hin in p khi vt liu chu ic nn (b)
inicrphon, my pht
siu m. u o ng sut, u thu ni. Trong mt my ghi m. khi u kim dch
chuyn theo cc rnh trn mt a ht. bin thin ca p s\it ln vt liu p in
trong u ni chuyn i thnh tn hiii in v ic khuch i ln trc k h i cho
ra loa.
Cc vt liu p iu gni cc bari tita iia t, bari v ch ziconat (PbZrO.}), am oiii
ihydrophotphatNH^HaPO.i) v thch anh. Tnh cht ny l c trng ca cc vt
liu c cu trc tin h the phc tp vi i xng thp. Tnh cht p in ca mu
cht a tin h th c th c ci thin bng cch imng nng ln trn nhit Curie
ca n v sau ln ngui xving nhit phiig trong mt in trng mnh.
5.2. TNH CHT NHIT

Mc ny s lin nhng tnh cht ca vt liu khi chu tc dng ca nhit. K lii
mt vt rn h'p th nng lng di dng nhit, nhit ca n tng ln v cc
kch thc ca n gin ra. Nng liig c th idc truyn ti cc vng lnh hn ca
mu cht nu tn t i gradient nhit . v cui cng, mu cht c th chy ra.
N hit dung, gin n nhit v dn nhit l nhng tiih cht thng c quan
tm i vi cc vt liu rn.
5.2.1. N H I T DNG
N lii t dung cho bit kh nng ca vt liu hp th nhit, t bn ngoi, n biu

th phn nng hng cn th i t nng nhit ln nit ii v. Bng Iign ng
ton hc. nhit dung c vc vit nh sau:
VT LIU HC 22
(5.34)
dT
tro n g CQ - ung lng cn gy ra bin th i n n h i t d T .
Thng thng, nhit dung c tn h theo mol ca v t liu (chng hn J/mol. K
hoc cal/mol.K). Nhit dung ring (thng k hiu bng ch c nh) l nhit dung
ca mt n v khi liing v t livi, c n v J/kg.K hoc cal/g. K).
Trong thc t, c hai cch o nhit dung ca vt li ii tng ng vi cc iu
kin nii tring kni theo s truyn Iihit. M t l nhit diing ng tch Cv (th tch
m ii itc gi khng i) v hai l nhit dving ng p C, lun lun ln hn Cv Tuy
nhin, s khc nhau gia chng l r t t l vi a s' cc v t liu rn nhit
phng v thp hn.
N h i t d u n g do d a o n g m n g
Trong a s cc v t rn. dng cn bng nng Kng nhit ch yu l bng s
tng nng lng dao ng ca cc nguyn t. Nguyn t trong v t liu rn khng
ngng dao iig t ii s r t cao v vi bin tdng nh. Nhng dao ng ca
cc ng uyn t l n cn phi hp vi n h a u bng li n k t ng uyn t v theo phng
thc tru y n sng m ng, c th xem l n h n g sng n hi h a y ni n gi n l
nhng sng m. c bc sng ngii v tn r t cao, lan truyn trong tin h th vi
tc m thanh. Nng lng dao ng nhit ca vt li ii bao gm mt dy cc sng
n lii c phn b v tn s khc nhau. Theo l thuyt lng t, nng hiig dao
ng n h i t tro n g c h t r n b hng t ha: ch c m t s gi t r nng lng l c
php. Mt lng t n ca nng ling dao ng c gi l mt phonon (tiing t
nhi hng t ca bc x in t l photon). Bn thn sng dao ng c khi cng
ic gi bng th u t ng plionon.
Chnh nhng sng dao ng (sng n hi) Iiy gy nn tn x nhit ca cc
iii t t do Iih trong dn in iii t (mc .1.14) v cng tham gia vn chuyn
nng hiig trong dn nhit (xem mc 5.2.3).
S p h th u c n h i t
ca n h i t d u n g
Biu thin theo nhit
ca nhit dung ng
tch ca nhiii cht rn
tiiih th tng i n
gin nh nu trn hnh
5.33: Cv bng khng
OK Iihng tng ln
nhanh theo nhit .
iu uy tng ng vi
kh nng ca cc sng
m ng u ng cao n ng
Hnh 5.33. S phu thuc nhit ca nhit dung
lng tru n g b n h ca
ng tch
15 - VLH
m iili. K li nng ny c tiig ln theo Iihit . cc nhit thp, mi quan h

gia Cv v nhit T l:
c, = AT' , (.3)
trong A - hng s' khng ph thuc nhit .

trn uhit 6n gi l nhit Debye, Cy hu nh khng cn ph thiic
nhit na, c gi t r vo khong 3R, R l hng s kh. i vi nhiu vt liu rn.
gi t r ca 0|) xp x nhit phng, v gi t r gn ng hp l ca c , nhit
phng l 2 J/inol.K (6 cal/mol.K). Bng . gii thiu nhit dung ring thic
nghim ca mt s vt liu.
Bng 5.5. Tnh cht nhit ca mt s' vt liu
Cp. u,, k , L,
Vt liu J/kg.K^ 1 0 ' W/m.K 2.W/(K)^.10
Kim loi:
Nhm 90 23,6 247 2,24
ng 386 16,5 398 2,27
Vng 130 13,8 315 2 52
St 448 11.8 80,4 2,66
Niken 443 13,3 89,9 2 10
Bc 235 19,0 428 2.32

Voltram 142 4.5 178 3.21
Thep 1025 486 12.5 51,9 -
Thp khng g 316 502 16,0 16,3*5' -
Brng (70 Cu - 30 Zn) 375 20 0 120 -
Gm :
Nhm oxyt (AI2O3) 775 8.8 30.1 -
Berili oxyt (BeO) 1050^> 9.0'^ 220 -
Magi oxyt (MgO) 940 37.7 -
Spinen (MgAlOa) 790 7.6 15.0 -
Silic ioxyt (SO2) 740 0.5 2.0 -
Thy tinh N 840 9,0 1,7 -
Polyme:
Polyetylen 2100 60-220 0,38 -
Polypropylen 1880 80-100 0.12 -
Polystyren 1360 50-85 0.13 -
Polytetratloetylen (teflon) 1050 135-150 0.25 -
Phenol-tormalehit (bakelit) 1650 68 0.15 -
Nilon 6.6 1670 80-90 0,24 -
Polyizopren - 220 0 14 -
Ghi ch : 1) chuyn i thnh cal/g.K cn nhn vi 2,39.10^

2) chuyn i thnh caiys.cni.K cu nhn vi 2,39.10
3) Gi tr o 100"C.
4) Gi tr trung bnh ly trong khong nhit 0 1 000C.
VT LIU HC__________ ____________________________________________________ 227
Cc n g gp n h t d u n g k h c
Cn c cc c ch hp th nng liig khc cng c th ng gp vo nhit dung
ton ph n ca ch't r n. Tuy nhin, tro n g a s tr n g hp n h n g iig gp ny
ii nh so vi thnh phn dao ng. C thnh phn iii t v cc in t hp th
nng lng do s tng ng nng ca mnh. Tuy nhin, iu ny ch c th i vi
cac in t dn. Chng ic kch thch t cc mc y ln cc mc cn triig trn
Ii iig ling Ferini (m c .1.13). Trong k im loi, ch c n h n g in t cc mc gn
nng lng Fermi mi c kh nng chuyn di nh th v s' ny ch chim mt
p li ii lng nh ca t n g s' M t t phn cn nh hdn na ca cc in t c
kch thch tro iig cc vt liu cch in v bu n. Do vy. phn ng gp ca iu
t th n g th n g l kh ng ng k. ngoi tr tr n g hp gn n h i t OK.
Ngoi ra, trong mt s vt liu, cc qu trn h hp th nng lng khc xy ra
mt s nhit . v d. s hn lon ha cc spin in t khi n\ing vt liu st t qua
nhit C iirie lm x ii t hin mt pic mnh trn ing cong nhit dung - nhit .
5.2.2. G I N N N H I T
a s' cc v t li ii rn u n ra kh i nung v co li kh i ngui. S thay i chiu

di theo nhit ca vt liu rn c th c biu th nh sau:
- = a/(T, - To) (.36a)
hay l
----- = u /A T , (.36b)
/0
trong v /f - ting ng chiu di ban ii v chiu di cui cng khi thay i

nhit t T,, n T( ;
tt/ - li s' di ca gin n nhit, "c .
ng nhin, s nung nng hay lm Iigui tc dng ln t t c cc kch thc
ca vt th, dn n s thay i th tch c th tnh theo biu thc:
AV
- = a,AT, (5.37)
v
trong V^ v AV - tng ng th tch baii u v bin thin th tch;
ttv - h s th tch ca giii n Iihit.
nhiu loi vt liu, gi t r ca tty l d hng. c ngha l n ph thuc vo
hng tin h th. 'i vi cc v t liu m s gin n nhit c tnh ng hng th ttv
gn ng bng 3 a /.
T gc cu trc, s gin n nhit c phn nh bi s tng khong cch
trung bnh gia cc nguyn t, Hin tiig ny c th gii thch d nht bng cch
xt ng cong thay i th nig theo khong cch gia cc nguyn t trong vt
liu rn (hih .34). ng cong c dng mt h th nng, v khong cch nguyn
t cn bng OK tug ng vi cc tiu ca h'. Nung nng tng dn nh i t

ln (Ti. T i , T . ...) s lm tng nng lng dao ng t jB| ln E>. E: . ... Bin
dao ng trung bnh ca lit nguyn t tng ng b rng ca h th nng tng
nhit v khong cch tru iig bmh gia cc nguyn t c biu th bi v tr
trung bnh, khong cch ny tng ln tlieo nhit t r n r,. r .,....
Thc ra. gin n nhit lin quan vi dng iig cong bt. i xng ca h th
nng hn l vi cc bin dao ng dng Iig\iyn t c tng l-1. Nii ng
cong th nng l i xng (liiih ,34b) th s khng c s thay i no v khong
cch trung bih gia cc ngiiyii t. v h qu s l khng c gih n nhit.
Hnh 5.34 S gii thich s gin n nhit khi ng cong th nng khng xng (a)
v khng gin n nhit kht ng cong th nng i xng (b)
i vi mi loi vt liu (kim loi, gii v polyme), nng liug lin kt nguyn
t cng lu th h th nng ny cng su v cng hp hn; kt qu l vi mc tng
nhit cho. tng khong cch ngiiyu t s t hn. gy nxi gi tr a/ nh
hn. Bng . li t k h s gin n nhit di ca int s vt liu. Ch n s ph
thuc nhit . ln ca h s' gin n tng theo nhit c bit nhanh khu
vc rt gn OK. Cn cc gi tr cho trn bng . l nhit phng, nu nh
khiig c ghi ch g khc.
K im lo i
Nh ghi bng ., h s gin n nhit di ca mt s* kim loi ph thng
nm trong khong t .IO'* n 25.10 CC) '. Trong Iih i ii ng dng, n nh
kch thc cao khi nhit thng ging l r't quan trng. Diu ny t c Iih
pht trin mt h hp kim st-iiiken v st-coban c t r s' a/ vo c 10''*("C)''. M t
hp k iii nh th c d kin c cc c trng giii n ging nh ca th y tin h
Pyrex; khi c gn vi Pyrex v chu bin thin nhit s trn h c ng sii't
nhit v s nt gy c th c ch ni.
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________ 229
Grn
Trong nhiu vt liu gm. lc lin kt gia cc nguyn t kh mnh, v c
phn nh gi t r h s gin n nhit, tng i thp, trong khong O..IO'^ v
15.10 0 cc giii khng tinh th v cc gin c c'u trc tin h th lp phng,
tt/ l ng hng. Ngc li. c mt. s' vt liu gm d hng, khi nung nng th
chiig co l i theo mt s hng t iiili th v n ra theo mt vi hng khc, cc
thy tin h hu c, h s" gin n ph thuc vo th n h phn. Thy tinh SO 2 tinh
khit cao c h s gin II cc k nh ; 0,5.10 V C ) '. Diu ny c gi th i t bi
m t nguyn t thp n mc s gin cch gia cc nguyn t ch gy nn
nhng bin i kch thc vi m ting i nh. Tp cht lm tng h s' gin n.
V t liu gm lm vic trong iu kin thng ging nhit cn phi c h s gin
n nhit tng i thp v ng hng. Ngoi ra. nhng vt liu gin ny c th b
Iit v do thay i kch thc khng ng ii, gi l "sc" nhit s vc ni ti
sau.
Polym e
N lii u vt liu polyme gin n nhit r t mnh, h s'tt/ trong khong t O.IO'^*
n 300.10 ^C0 ' Gi t r a/ cao nht tm thy cc polyme mch thng v phn
nhnh bi v trong cc lin kt th cp gia cc phn t l yu v ch c mt s
t thiu mch lin kt ngang. K lii tng lin kt ngang h s gin n s gim v c
t r s' thp nh l trong cc polyine tin h th chu nhit nh bakelit. trong lin kt
h\i nhi hn ton l ng ha tr.
5.2.3. DN N H I T
Dn nhit l hin titiig nhit c truyn t viig nhit cao ti vng nhit
thp ca v t liu. Tnh cht c trng cho kh Iiiig dn nhit ca v t liu l
dn nhit, c iih ngha theo biu thc
dT
q = -k , (5.38)
dx
tro iig - m t nhit thng, tc l dng nhit i qiia mt n v din tch trong
int n v thi gian (din tch c ly vung gc vi hng ca dng
nhit);
k - h s' dn nhit;
dT/dx - graient nhit qua mi trng dn nhit.
n v ca q v k tong ng l v W /ii.K. Phitng tr ih (5.38) ch c gi
tr i vi dng n h it tr n g th i n ih, ngha l troiig iu kin m in t dng
nhit khng thay i theo thi gian. Du tr trong biu thc ch dng nhit truyn
t ch nng n ch lnh, tc l theo hng gim graient nhit .
Phng trn h (5.38) c dng tng t vi iih lu t Fick I ca hin tng
khuch tn nguyn t (ching 3). k tng t h s khuch tn D v graient nhit,
c vai tr ca graieiit nng Clx.
230_____________________________________ C h n g ,5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
Cc c ch d n n h i t

Trong cc vt liu rn, nhit c truyn bi c sng dao ng mng (phonon)

v in t t do. dn nhit toii phn l tng ca hai th iih phn theo hai c
ch :
k - k\ + , (5.39)
trong k\, k - dn nhit bi dao ng mng v bi in t, thng thng th

mt trong hai thnh phn chim u th. Nng lng nhit cc phonon, tc l
cc sng mng c truyn i theo hng chuyn ng ca chng. Thnh phn ki
gy bi chuyn ng thun ca cc phonou t vng nhit cao ti viig nhit
thp trong v t th.
Cc in t t do (cc in t dn) ciig tham gia dn nhit, vng nng ca
vt liu in t t do c ng nng ln hn. Chiig di chuyn n nhng vng lnh
hn. v mt phn ng nng ny c chuyn b thm cho cc nguyn t (nng
lng dao ng) nh l kt qu ca cc va chm vi phonon hay l vi cc khuyt
t t mng. Phn ng gp tng i ca tng theo nng iu t t do v c
nhiu in t hn tham gia vo qu trn h dn nhit.
K m lo i
Trong kim loi vi sch cao, c ch in t vn chuyn nhit c lu th hn
phn ng gp ca phoiion v in t khng d b tn x nh phonon v c t'c
ln hn. K im loi l cht dn nhit ht sc tt do c s" lng kh lii in t t do
tham gia dn nhit. Bng 5.5 cho dn nhit ca Iihiu kim loi thug dng, ni
chung c gi t r trong khong 20 - 400 W/in.K.
V in t t do chu trch nhim c dn nhit v dn in trong ki i loi tin h
khit, tnh ton l tliiiy t cho thy hai dn c nii lin h ph hp vi nh
lu t Wiedemann Franz:
k
L = . (.40)
T
trong - dn in;
T - nhit tuyt i;
L - hng s. Gi t r l thuyt ca L l 2,44.10' Q.W/(K)^. khng ph
thuc nhit v nh nhau vi t t c mi kim loi nu nng
lng nhit c vn chuyn hon ton bng in t t do. ng ch
l gi t r l thuyt ny ph hp r t t t vi cc gi t r L thc nghim
ca cc kim loi cho trong bng ..
Tp cht trong kim loi lm gim dn nhit, l do ging nh vi dn
in. C th l cc nguyn t tp cht, c bit l trong dung dch rn, hot ng
nh nhng tm tn x. h thp hiu qu ca chuyn ng in t. th dn
nhit theo thnh phn ca cc hp kim ng-km Ginh 5.35) cho thy hiii ng .
Theo xu th , thp khng g du nhit km hn st hoc thp hp kim thp.
VT LIU HC 231
Gm
Cc vt liu phi kim loi u l nhng cht cch nhit v chng khng c nhiu
iu t t do. Nh vy. phonon chu trch nhim ch yu trong dn nhit: r t
nh so vi k i . Phonou vn chuyn nng hiig nhit khng c hiu qu nh in t
t do, do phonon b tn x r t mnh bi khuyt t t mng.
dn nhit ca mt s' v t liu gm cho bng 5.5, nm tro iig khong
2 -r O W /m .K nhit phng. Thy tin h v cc gm v iih hnh khc c dn
Iihit thp hn cc gm tin h th, v tn x phonon mnh hn nhiu kh i cu trc
nguyn t c nic khng tr t t cao.
Tn x ca cc dao ng nhit tr nn ni bt hn kh i nhit tng. Do vy,
dn nhit ca a s cc v t liu g"m b iih thng u gim dn kh i nhit tng,
t nht l nhng nhit tng i thp. H iih 5.36 cho thy, dn nhit bt
u tng lu nhit cao hii, l do truyn nhit bc x: lng nhit bc x
hng ngoi ng k c th c vn chuyn qua mt s v t liu gm trong sut.
Hiu qu ca qu triih ny tng ln theo nhit .
% trng Ing 2n
r , c
Hlnh 5.35 dn nhit ca hp kim Hnh 5.36. S phu thuc nhit ca dn nhit
ng - km ca mt s vt liu gm
L xp trong v t liu gm c th gy nh hng mnh n dn nhit; trong
a s' trng hp, s tng th tch l x'p lm gim dn nhit. Trong thc t.
nhiu g'm s dng lm vt liu cch nhit ii c x'p cao. S truyn nhit qua
cc l xp thng l chm v khng c hiu qu. Cc l x'p bn trong thng cn
cha khng kh, kh ny c dn nhit cc k thp, khong 0,02 W/m.K. Hn
na, s i lu kh trong cc l x'p cng khng c hiu qu ng k.
Polym e
N lii ghi trong bng .5. dn nhit ca a s cc polyme l vo c
0.3 W/m.K. i vi loi v t liu ny, nng lng truyn theo dao ng, tiih tin v
232_____________________________________ C hng 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
quay ca cc phn t mch. ln ca dn nhit ph thuc vo mc kt

tinh ; polyme c cu trc tin h th v tr t t cao s c dn nhit ln hn so vi vt
liu v iih hnh tng ng. l do dao ng hiu dng hn ca cc mch
phn t trng th i tin h th.
Polyme thng c ng dng lm cht cch nhit nh c dn nhit th'p.
T nh cch nhit ca chng, cng nh ca gm. c th c nng cao hn bng cch
a vo nhng l xp nh, thng c to ra bng cch khuy bt trong khi
polyme ha. Polystyren to bt (styrofoam) \c dng ph bin lm cc ung
v hp cch nhit.
5.2.4. NG SUT N H I T
ng sut nhit l ng sut c gy ra trong vt th do s thay i nh i t .

Tm hiu ngun gc v bn cht ca ng sut nhit l r t quan trng v nhng ng
sut ny c th dn ti s nt v hoc bin dng do khng mong mun.
n g s u t do s g i n v co b h a n ch
Ta hy xt mt thanh c ng cht v ng hng b nung nng hoc lin
lnh ng u. ngha l khng c graient nhit . K lii gin hoc co t do, thanh
s khng chu ng su't. Tuy nhin, nu nh chuyn ng dc tn.ic ca thanh b gii
hn bi cc gi cng chn hai u th s c ng sut nhit. ln ca ng s ii l
gy bi bin thin nhit t To n Tf l :
o = Eai ( T , - T f ) . (.41)
trong E - mun n hi;
tt/ - h s' gin n nhit di.
K lii nung nng (T ( > T ) ng sut s l nn ( < 0), v s gin II ca thanh
b gi li. ng nhin, kh i thanh b lm lnh {T f < T ) th s c ng sut ko
( > 0). Cng vy, ng sut theo biu ths (5.41) cng l ng sut cn th i t nn
(hoc ko) n hi thanh mu tr v' di ban u sau khi n chu gin n do bin
i n h i t Tu - T .
n g s u t g y bi g r a ie n l n h i t
K h i mt v t rn b nung hoc lm ngui, s phn b nhit bn trong s ph
thuc vo kch thic v hnh dng ca n. vo du nhit ca vt liu v ch s
bin i nhit . ng sut nhit c th h iili thnh do graieiit nhit gy ra bi
s nung nng hoc lm ngui nhanh v lm cho phn ngoi thay i nhit
nhanh hn phn pha trong. Cc bin i kch thc b phn c tc dng hn ch
s gin hoc co ca nhng phn th tch xung quanh. Chng hn k h i nung nng,
phn ngoi ca mu s nng hn, v do s gin mnh hn cc vng trong. Nh
vy ng sut b m t l ng sut nn, xut hin v b cn bng bi cc ng sut
ko bn trong. Mi tng quan ng sut trong-ngoi s o li kh i lm ngui
nhanh, lm cho b m t chu ng sut ko.
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________ 233
Sc n h i t ca v t li u g i n
Di vi cac kim loi v polyine d un. ng sut nhit sinh ra c th c gini
Jih nh c bin dng n hi. Tuy nhin, i vi a s vt li ii gm, tnh kh un
s lm tng kh niig ph hy gin do ng sut nhit. Ngui nhanh d gy ra sc
Iihil liii l Iiu iig nng, v ng sii't. nhit sinh ra l ng sut. ko. S to thnh vet
Iit v s lan tn iv n cc vt Ii t t. b nit xy ra d hii kh i c ng sit ko.
Kli nng' ca vt li ii chng l i loi ph hy ny c gi l bn xung vhit.
Di vi gm b lm ngvii nhanh, bn xm ig nhit ph thuc khng n l iig vo ct
ln ca s thay i nhit, in cn vo tn h cht c v nhit ca vt liu. bn
XIUI nhit tt nht cc gm c bn nt f cao v dn nhit cao. cng Iilii
mctiui n hi v li s gin n nhit thp. bn ca nhiu v t liu chng li loi
ph hy Iiv c th Itc tnh bng thng s' khng sc nhit TSR (ting Anh :
Teinperature Shock Resistaiice).
drk
TSR = . (.42)
Ea/
C tli phiig nga sc nhit bng cch bin i cc iii kin ngoi gim bt
lc (t ngui hoc niing Iing v hn ch graieiit nhit trong v t th n mc
ti thivi. Ci th i ii cc c trng nhit v c trong biu thc (5.42) cng c th
nng cao tiih khng sc nhit ca vt liu. Trong cc thng s' ny. h s gin n
nliit l d biu i v d khig ch nht. V d, thy tin h Na ph tliiig, tlnng c
(/| vo khong 9.10'(C) ' c bit nhy vi sic nhit nh chng ta vn bit. Bng
cach gunii hm htng CaO v Naô ng thi b sung vo to thnh thy
tinh horosilicnt. (tc pyrex) th s gim itc h s' gin n xiiiig ti khong
3.10 ' r O '; v l lixi ny hon ton thch hp cho cc chu triih Iiung nng v lm
ngui cia l nung. \a vo mt s^ l x"p tng i ln hoc mt pha th hai nini
ciig c th ci thin c tnh sc nhit ca vt liii, c hai bin php ny u c
tc dung ngn nga s lan tn iy n cc vt nt nhit.
T hiiig cn phi kh ng sut nhit trong cc vt liu gm Iih it l mt bin
phap ci thin bn c v c tnh quaiig hc ca chng. iu ny c th th ic
hin bng .
5.3. TNH CHT T
Hiu tiig cc v t liu biii hin lc h t hoc y hoc nh lutiig ln cc v t

iu khc ic bit t ling Iig h ii nm nay. Tuy nhin, Iiling nguyn l v c
ch su xa gii thch hin tng t phc tp v b n n mi thi gian kh gii
(ty cc nh khoa hc vn cha hiu c. Nhiu loi th i t b cng ngh hin i
ca chng ta da trn t hc v vt liu t: cc my pht v my bin th in lc.
cc ng cd in, raio, in thoi, my tnh, v cc thnh phn ca cc h thiig
t i to nghe nhn.
St. mt s' loi thp v nam chm thin Iihin l nhng v d v cc v t
liu c t tnh. T uy nhin, trn thc t th t t c cc cht ii phi c iiii tc ng
nc ny hay mc d khac ca mt t triig hin hiitii. Plin ny trn h by fni

t t v nguii gc ca t, tnrng, vectd t tn iig v cc thng s t (cc liin tng
thun t. Iiglich t. st t v fe rit t), v mt s vt liii t khc nhau v liiii
titiig siu dn.
5.3.1. CC KHI NIM c BN
5.3.1.1. Lng cc t
Lc t. l do cc h t mang in tch chuyn ng gy ra. Nhiu khi cn lii lc
t l lc ca t triig. ch hing ca lc t t i cc v tr xung quanh ngun ca
t tnng Iigiti ta v cc tng sc t. ng sc t cho ta hnh nh c th v s
phn b'ca t tnng. V d trn hnh .37 l ca mt vng dy ctin v nit thaiih
Iia iii clini.
\ I
c)
Hnh 5.37. ng sc t trng xung quanh mt vng dy in(a)

v mt thanh nam chm(b)
L ng CIC t tn t i tro n g cc v t li u t. v m t s' n i t c h iig t ng t nh

nhng hiig cc in (mc .l.4b). Lng cc t c th xem nh mt thanh Iiani
chm nh. gm hai u cc Bc (N) v cc Nani (S), thay cho in tch chtug v
iii. n giii, ta ch biu din cc liig ctc t bng nhng mi tii nhi ch tr ii
liiih .37c, Lng cc t chii tc ng ca t triig ting t nh lng cc in
ch\i tc ng ca in trng (hnh .26). Lc ca triig-lin xoay cc lng cc
h\tng theo tniig. M t hin tng rt. quen thuc l hiii tiing k iii la bn t
liitiig theo t tritng tr i t.
5.3.1.2. Cc vect t trng

T tn iig ngoi tlutng ic biii din bng H v gi l cng t tring. T
triig sinh ra trong mt ng dy hnh tr (solenoid), gin N viig dy qun k h t
ihau vi cliiii di L v t i mt dng in ciiig I (hnh 5.38a) t ih bng;
H ^N I/. (.43)
T tritng do vng dy iii v thanh nam chm sinh ra nln trn hnh .37. l
tring H. Dn v o H l ampe - vug/mt hoc l A/m.
VT LIU HC 23
c in ng t hay m t t thng B, biu th t tring bn trong cht chi tc

dng ca tn t iig H. n v o ca B l Tesla [tc Weber trn met v\iiig (Wb/m^ )].
C B v H ii l nhng vect
t.rvrng c trng bi ln v chi\i
khng giaii ca trng.
Cing t trng v m t t
thii^ c qiian h theo biu thc
H = iH . (.44)
Tham s |.i gi l thm t, l
tu li cht ring ca mi trng,
troug H tc dng. i lng B
(hfc do nh m inh ha trn liiih
5.381). thm t c o bng
vveber trn anipe - met (Wb/A.m) Hnh 5.38. T trng H do dng in i qua ng
hay l H enri trn niet (H/ni). dy hinh tr sinh ra (a) v khi c mt vt rn
Trong chn khng th
> > bn trong (b)
, (.4)
trong // - thm t ca chn khng, mt hng s v tr c gi tr l
471.10' (1.27.10 ") H/m;
B. - nit t tli iig trong chn khng, nh minh ha trn
hiih .38a.
C uhiii thng s in t tn h cht t ca vt rn. v d. t s' gita thm t
1roiiK vt liii v thm t trong chn khng:
//, = // /// , (.46)
Irong //r - thm t tng i, khng c th nguyn.
D tli m t hoc thm t tng i ca vt li ii l s' o mc t ha
>
vt liu hoc kh nng in tring H ic cm ng trong v t liu k h i c t4.ntng
>
Ii5<)i H .
Vect t ha (t ) // ca v t rn c xc nh theo bin thc :
H = +//A . (.47)
K lii tro iig t tri iig H, cc inmeii t ca vt li ii nh hiiig theo tn iig
v tng ciig n bng chnh t triig ring ca chng. SThng trong (.47)
chnh l tli iih phn ng gp .
ln ca M t l vi tnng t vo l:
M (.48)
v Xiii citc gi l t ha (h s t ha) khng c th nguyn . H s t ha v
(t tham t tng i lin h vi nhau theo:
Xn. = - 1 (-49)
>
11I s /n, l;i (l l i li;i liu'- lc li llio o (Irtii v S I. k lii tih iili vi H clio tii Vfcl( l lii lliiio rltlii v t l i r tc li ( 111*) t:;i
V ..1 lir-ii
Cc n v t r t d nhm ln. bi thc t c hai h ic s dng ph biu. Mt

l SI (rationalized MKS [meter - kilogram - second]); h kia l CGS -EMU
(centimeter - gram - secoiid - electromagnetic im it). Cc n v ca hai h v cc
h s'chuyn i cho trong bng 5.6.
Bng 5.6. Cc n v t v cc h s chuyn i gia hai h SI v CGS-EMU
i lng K hiu n vi SI n vi Chuyn

dn xut gc CMS-EMU i
->
Cm ng t t tesla (Wb/m^) kg/s.c gauss 1Wb/m^
(mt t = lO^gauss
thng)
Cng t -> ampe.vng/m c/m.s oersted lampe.vng/m
H
trng = 47t. 1 0 '^ oersted
>
Vect t ha (t M ampe.vng/m c/m.s maxwell/cm^ 1 ampe. vng/m
(SI)
) = 1 0 '^ maxwell/cm^
/
(CGS-EMU)
thm t ca henry/m kg.m/C^ Khng 4rt.10^ henry/m

chn khng n v = 1 emu
thm t Khng Khng Khng l-lr =

(SI)
tng i n v n v n v
(CGS-EMU)
t ha (h s Xn,
Khng Khng Khng Xm = 47rx,
(SI)
t ha) n v dn v n v
(CGS-EMU)
Ghi ch: n V weber (Wb) l volt.second (V.s).
n v henry (H) l weber/ampe (Wb/A).
5.3.1.3. Ngun gc ca mmen t
Cc tn h cht t v in ca vt liu ii l h qiic ca cc tnmcn t gii vi

tng in t. K hi nim ny k h phc tp v da trn cc nguyn l c hc liig
t nn vit qii plini vi ca sch ny. D\ti y triih by int s c n gin
ho. Mi in t trong mt nguyn t ii c cc innien t vi hai ngun gc. Mt
lin qvian n chuyn ng qu o ca n xung quanh ht nhn. L nit in tcli
chuyn ng, mi in t c th c xem nh mt dng in vng nh. sinh ra int
VT LIU HC 237
t tri iig r t yu. do c mt nimen t hng dc theo trc qu o ca n, nh

n iiiih ha trn hnh 5.39a.
M t khc, mi in t 5
cn c nit chuyn ng
ring l chuyn ng xung
quaiih trc ca bn thn
(gi l spin). Do xu't
hin mt inoinen t na.
bt ngun t spin in t.
hitng theo trc spin nh
trn hnh .39b. Mmen
t spiii in t ch c th
nhn hai chiu i song
Mmen f qu o Mmtn j' spin
Iiliau. hoc hiig "ln"
hoc hng "xung". Nh b)
vy. mi in t trong
Hinh 5.39. Momen t do chuyn ng qu o ca in t (a)
nguyn t c th coi nh
v do spin (in t t xoay) (b)
mt nam chm vnh cu
nh. c mmen t qu o
v nimeii t spiii.
Mmen t n v l magneton Bohr [H c gi t r 9,27.10 A.m . vi nii
in t trong ngviyii t. mmen t spin ch c th nhu mt trong hai gi t r in
(cng cho spiii hiiig ln v tr cho spin hng xiing). Cn mmen t qii o th
bng /nifih . l s liig t t (sling t khng gian) ca in t.
Trong mi nguyn t c lp, innien t qii o cng nh mmen t spiii ca
cp in t tri t tiu ln nhau.
V d, miien spiii ca li t iu t c spin hiig ln s tri t tiu mmen spiii
ca mt in t c spiii hiiig xuiig. Cn mnieii t ca mt Iigiiy ii t s chnh l
tiig mmen t ca mi in t trong nguyn t bao gm c hai thnh phn qii
o v spin. i vi nit nguyn t c cc lp iii t hon ton y. ininen
tng ca n b tri t tiiL N liir vy, vt li ii cii to bi nguyn t c cc lp in t
hon ton y th khng th b t ha vnh cu, v d. cc kh tr (He. Ne, Ar, ...)
cng nh nhiu vt liu ion khc.
Trong v t liu tn ti cc dng t tnh sau: nglch t. thun t v st t .
Ngoi ra phn st t v feri t c xem l nhng dng ph ca st t. M vt
liu dii tn t i t nht mt trong dng t tn h v tn h cht t ca vt iiu ph
thuc vo hnh vi ca cc lidiig cc t nguyn t v in t dii tc dng ca t
trng ngoi.
5.3.2. N G H C H T V T H U N T
Nf/cl t l mt dng r t yu ca t tnh, khng vnh c\i v ch tn ti khi r

Iiit tndng Iigoi tc diing. T n iig cin ng siiih ra do c s thay i clmyn (tiit
lu (to ca in t bi tring ngoi.
Miiien t cm iig c t r s r t nh v hitiig ngic chiu vi t. trng ngoi.
Nh vy thm t tng i |Xr Iih hn mt (tuy nhiu ch r t t. thi) v ( t
ha l nv, Iigha l cing ca tnng B trong vt rn nghch t s nh lin
tro ii chn khng. t ha th tch Xiii ca vt rn nghch t vo khong -10
K lii ctt vo gia hai cc ca nit nam chm in mnh, cac v t lin nghch t .s b
ht ve pha nhng k lu i vc t. trng yu.
Hnh .40a m inh ha c'u hnh cc lng cc t nguyn t ca nit, vt. liu
nghch t khi c v khng c t tri iig ngoi, y. cc nui tn biu th rc
iinien hng c nguyn t. khc vi trn h by trc y. cc im i tn ch hivi th
cc ininen ctin ti. S ph thiic ca B vo t tntug Iigoi H i vi vt liu
t biu din trn hnh .41. Bng .7 ghi t la ca nhiu vt liu
iiglich t .
H
H =0
oooo OOO0
oooo 0 0
oooo 0OO0
oooo o 00
H
Q Q Q Q 0000
0oo oG0
O00O 0O0
0G0O 0000
Hinh 5.40. cu hinh sp xp mmen lng cc t Hnh 5.41, S mt l thng B v cng

nguyn t trong vt liu nghch t (a) v thun t t trng H i vi cc vt liu nghch t, thun t
(b) khi c v khng c t trng ngoi v st t
Tnh nghch t c t t c cc vt liu: Iihitug v n r t yu nn ch c th q\iaii

st c kh i khng c cc dng t tn h khc, do ct chng t c ngha thc t.
VT LIU HC 239
Bng 5.7. H s t ha nhit phng ca cc vt liu nghch t v thun t
Nghch t Thun t
Vt liu H s' t ha Xm (th Vt liu H s t ha (th
tch . n v SI) tch, n v SI)
-5
Nhm oxyt -1.81,10' Nhm 2.07.10
5 5
ng -0,96.10 Crm 3.13.10
Vng - 3. 44 .10,-5 Crm clorua 1.51.105
-2.85.10 -6
-5
Thy ngn Mangan sulat 3.70.10
Silic -0,41.10 Mlipden 1.19.10
Bc -2.38.10' Natri 8,48.10
5
Natri clorua -1.41.10.5 Titan 1.81.10
Km - 1.56.10' Zicni 1.09.10'
Trong nhiu vt. mi nguyn t c mt mmen ling cc vnh cu do kt qu

tri t tiu ln nhau khng hon ton ca cc niiien t spin v cc mnien tl qii
o. K lii khng c t tn iig ngoi, cc inmen t nguyn t ny nh lii iig hn
lon, do v t li ii s khng c vect t ha v m ring. K lii c t tring ngoi cc
lidng cc nguyn t ny quay t do v tnh thun t ch th hin k h i s quay ny
to ra mt nh hing vi tin no nh trn hnh 5.40b. Kt qu l lm tng t
trtng ngoi, gy ra thm t titdng i Hr ln hn 1 v do t ha tng i
nh nhng ding (xem bng 5.7 v hnh 5.41).
C hai cht th u ii t v nghch t u c coi l vt li ii khng t tnh, bi v
cl\ng cl b t ha k h i c mt t trng ngoi. M t t thng trong chng hu
nh ging trong chn khng.
5.5.3. ST T
Mt s" v t li ii k iin loi c ninieii t vnh cii ngay c k h i khng c t tring

ngoi v c mt t r t ln. l hin tiiig st t, c trng cc k iin loi
chuyn tip: st. cban, niken v nit s" kim loi t him nh gadoli (Gd). H s^
t ha ca cc v t liu st t c th ti 10^', lm cho H M v t biu thc (5.47)
c th vit;
B = \X,M (5.50)
Mmeii t vn h cii trong cc vt li ii st t do spiii in t sinh ra - l cc
spin in t khng t tri t tiu ln nhau. S ng gp ca mmeii t qu o nh
so vi nimen spin. Hn na. trong v t liu st t, tng tc ghp lm cho cc
inmeii t spin ca cc nguyn t ln cn iih hiig song song vi nhau ngay c
kl khng c t triig ngoi (xeni h iih 5.42). Ngun gc ca lc ghp ny cha
c hiii y nhng c bit l do cu trc in t ca k im loi. S iih
hng spin song song vi nhaii gii hn trong cc min th tch tng ln c
gi l cc min t ha t nhin (xem niic 5.3.6).
T cc i. tc l t bo ha Mgcna mt vt liu st t bivi th t rlc

to ra k h i t t c cc lng cc t trong vt rn itc nh hing theo t tnng
ugoi. K lii nit t thng t bo ho: tt ha bo ha bng tch cia
ininen t ring ca mi nguyn t v s" nguyn t tng ng l: 2.22: 1.72: 0.60
magueton Bohr.
H = 0
0000
0ee
eee
0000 Q .
Hinh 5.42. S minh ha s nh hng Hnh 5.43 S sp xp phn song song

ca cc lng cc t nguyn t trong ca cc mmen t spin trong mangan oxyt
vt liu st t phn st t
5.3.4. PH N ST T V F E R I T
5.3.4.1. Phn st t
Hin t.itiig Iiv l kt qii ca s nh liing phn song Sony: s sp xj) ciu>
cc mineii t spiii ca cc nguyn t hoc cc ioii lu cn theo cc lung i ugc
nhau mt cch chnh xc itc gi l lii ii titng pkn st t, M angaii oxyt. (MnO)
l mt v t liu phn st t. l int vt liu gm mang c tn iig ioii. c c liai
ion Mn^' v o^' khng c mnieii t ring bi c hai iniiien spin v ninien (Hi
o ii tri t ti\i hon toii. T \iy nhin, cc mmen Mn^' li c ninieii t rins vi
ngun gc spin chim lu th. Trong cii trc tin h th. nhng ioii Mn^' l ii cn xp
ninien t phn song song nhan (hnh .43). Hin nhiu l cc Iiiineii t s tri t
ti ii ln Iilia ii v hu qu l ton b ch. rn s khng c niiiieii t ring.
s.3.4.2. Feri t
M t s' v t li ii g*m cng th hin tnh t ha vn h cii gi l f'eri t. Cc (tc
tn iig t \i in ca cc cht st t v feri t tng t nhau, ch khc u lia ii Iigiin
gc ca cc nimen t. Nguyn l ciia feri t itc m inh ha bng nhng ferit l])
l)lung. Nhng v t liu ion ny c th c biii din bng cng thc ha hc
MFe;0.|. troiig M l mt hay nhi\i nguyn t kin i loi. F erit in hnh l Fe , 0 1
(niauhtit. khong).
VT LIU HC 241
Cng thc ca Fe.04 c th vit thnh FeÔ ' - (Fe' *)2(0 l. trong cc ion
st tn t i c hai trng th i ha t r +2 v +3 vi t s 1 : 2. Mi ion v Fe '^
c mt mmen t spin ring tiug ng bng 4 v 5 magneton Bohr. Ngoi ra cc
ion O^ l trun g ha v t. Gia cc io ii st c nhng tong tc ghp spin phn song
song tng t nhir phn st t. Tuy
nliin, mmen feri t ring l i do s
tri t ti ii khng hon ton ca cc
ninien spin .
F erit lp phng c cii trc tin h
th spiiien o. Cii trc spineii c th
xem Iih c to ra t cc m t phiig
xp cht ca cc io ii o^'. Ngoi ra c
hai loi v tr c th b cc ion Fe chim
ch (hnh .44 v bng 5.8). M t loi c
s phi tr bng bn tc l ini ion Fe
c bao quanh bi 4 io ii oxy gn nht. Fe-^
I vi loi kia. s" ph'i tr bng 6. Vi ( V t r kh e m t ) ( V i r kh o i mt)
cii trc spineii o ny mt na s' ioii

Fe * nm cc v tr tm mt, cn na Hinh 5.44. S sp xp cc mmen spin
kia Iini cc v tr bn mt. Cn t t c ca cc ion v Fe^* trong Fe304
cc ion Ke"*' u nm v tr tm mt.
Bng 5.8. S phn b t spin ca cc on Fe** v trong mt c s ca Fej04
Cation Nt mng tm mt Nt mng bn mt Mmen t ring
t t T t Trit tiu hon ton
t t t
t t t t T t
t t t t T T t T
Ghi ch : Mi mi tn l)i\i (iiii (lnh hTiRCa ml catioi.
S sp xp cc mmen t spin ic bin din trong bng 5.8. Mmen spin ca

t t c cc ioii Fe kh ln nhau v do khng c s ng gp no vo s t ha
ca cht rn. Cn cc mmeii vi mmen spin sp xp theo cng mt hng s
c Iiiineii tng m bo S I t ha. Nlii vy t bo ha ca cht rn feri t c
tli tnh biig tch ca mmen spin ring ca mi ion vi s' ion tng
ng.
Cc fe r it l p phng th n h ph n kh c c th ic to ra l i th a y th m t s
ioii Fe trong cii trc tin h th bng cc ion kim loi ph gia. Trong cng thc ha
hc ca ferit (Fe'^)2(0 ^"):. thay th cho Pe^'. M^* c th l cc ion ha tr hai
16 - VLH
nh: N i^', v 11^'; mi ion c mt. nimeii t spin ring khc 4 (xem
bng .9)
Bng 5.9. Mmen t ring ca cation
Cation Mmen tspin ring

(magneton Bohr)
Fe3* 5
Fe2+ 4
Mn'' 5
Co^ 3
Ni;2* 2
Cu^ 1
N lii vy bng cch in chnh cc th n li phn c th to ra cac hp cht ferit

c tiih clit t khc nhau. V d. t fe rit Iiiken vi cng thc NiPeÔ I c th to ra
cc hp ch't fe rit hn hp cha hai iou kim loi ha t r hai nh (Mii. Mg) Fe20 (.
troiig t s' Mg^' c th thay i.
Cc v t liu gm khc c tnh feri gm cc fe rit S\1 plurin v cc gariiet. Ferit
sii phitng c cii trc Utng tit vi spiiieii o. vi Ji xitug lc gic. Cng thc
ha lic ca chng l ABaOii trong A l mt kim loi ha t r hai nh Ba, PI1
hoc Sr . cn B l kim loi ha t r ba nhu Al. Ga. Cr hoc Fe. Hai fe rit siv phng
ph bin l PbFei2 0 i., v BaFei 2 0 ii.
Cc garnet c cu tn ic tin h th r t phc tp. c biu din bng cng thc
tiig q u t RE,iFe.r,0i2. y RE l mt iou t him nhi Sni, Eli. Gcl lioc Y. Ph
bin nht l garnet Y;iFe.r,0i2.
t ha bo lio ca cc vt liu feri t khng cao nh ca cc cht st t.
M t khc, cc fe rit k h i dng vt liu gin l nhng iu mi in t tt. Trong
mt s iig dng t. cliiig h ii nli cc biii th cao tn. dii in th'p li l
in mong niiin Iili t.
5.3.5. N H HNG CA N H I T L N T N H C H A T T
K lii tng nhit , dao ng nhit ca cc nguyn t troiig v t rn s tng, cc

ninieii t nguyn t s quay d dng. Do kh i nhit ct tng, chuyn ng nhit
ca cc nguyn t dn ti s iili hng hii lon ca mi niiieii t.
i vi cc v t liu st t, phn st t v feri t. chuyn ng nhit nguyn t
chng li lc tng tc ghp gia cc Iimen liig cc ng\iyn l. gy ra sif xp
hiig lm ln ca cc lng cc. k c khi r t tnrng ngoi. Do . trt bo ho
ca cht st t v feri t u gim. T dn ha s cc i nhit OK v k h i ct
dao ctiig n lii t l cc tivi. K lii Iihit thng, t bo ha gim dn v sau t t
mnh ti khng nhit Curie T,.. c tnh t - nhit ca Fe v Fe,iO, itc
biu diii trn hnh .4. 0 nhit T,. lc ghp spin vi nhau mt tc dng v k l\i
VT
* , LIU HC
------: 243
nhit cao hn T,, vt liu st t v feri t u tr thnh thun t. N hit Curie

thay i theo v t liu, v d. st, cban, niken v Fe304 c cc t r s' tng ng l
768; 1120; 33 v 58"c.
Mhit , c
Hnh 5.45. th ph thuc nhit ca t ha bo ha ca Fe v Fe304
Tnh phn st t cng ph thuc nhit ; n bin m t nhit Nel. Cao hn

nhit ny cc v t li ii phn st t cng tr thnh thun t.
5.3,6. M EN (M I N t ) v t TR
Mi v t li ii st t hoc feri t nhit di T,. c cu to bi nhng vng

th tcli nh. trong t t c cc mnien hng cc t u nh hiig song song vi
Iilu u i VI d t t ha t bo ha (hiih .46). Mi vng gi l mt mi t
(ctinen) - mt niiii t ha t Iibiii. Cc meii ln cn phn cch nhan bi cc
Hinh 5.46 S cc men trong vit liii Hinh 5.47. S thay i inh hng lng cc t
st t hoc feri t qua rnl vch men
vng bin hay vch, qua hng t liua thay i dn (linh 5.47). Thng tlung
cc men c kch thc vi m v trong a tin h th mi bt. c th cha nit s
iiien n. Do , mt vt rn s c mt s liig ln men vi uling hitiig t
ha khc nhau. T triig M ca vt rII s l tng vect t, lin ca t t c cc
iiien. Phn ng gp ca mi ineii pli thuc th tch ca n. Mt vt clua t
ha c tng vect t ha ca t t c cc nien bng khng.
l vi cht st tt v feri t. mt t thng B v cng t tn t iig H khng
t l vi nlia ii. Nu nh v t liu chia itc t ha s b th li n i s B biii di theo
ging nh hnh .48. Dng coiig i t gc. kh i H tng th B lc ii tng chm,
saii nhanh hn. cui cng Iini ngang, v khng ph thiic vo H na. Gi tr cc
i ny ca B gi l m t t thiig bo ha ting ng vi t ha bp ha
nu trn. Theo phng triih (.44) thm t // l dc ca ng cong
B - H.
Hnh .48 cho thy // ph thuc vo H. dc ca ing coiig B - H i.i (tiiii
/ / = 0 l mt c tn h ca v t liu, c gi l thm, t ban u // .
K lii tnng H tc dng, cc men thay i h iih dng v kch thic nh s
dch chuyn cc vch nien. Trn liiih .48 l sd cu trc min t t i Iihiii
im dc theo iig cong
B - H. Ban ii, mineii
ca cc ineii nh hng
hn lon Iiii khng c
tring (hoc M). K lii c
t tring ngoi, nhng
nien no c nh hiiig
tluiu li (hoc gn song
song ) vi t triig ngoi
s ln lu nh t liii hp cc
iien khc luiig khng
thun li. Qvi tru h ny
ic pht trin theo c\ng
t tring H cho n
khi vt rn tr thnh mt
n inen duy nht nh
lung gn nlu t tnng
Iigoi. Bo ha t bt u
khi n meii t quay
nh hng theo t trng
Hinh 5.48 . ng c trng B - H ca vt iiu st t hoc feri
H.
t VI s sp xp cc men *rong tng giai on t ha
T im bo ha s
(hnh .49 ). kh i t tn iig H gim v i luiig iig cong uoiig tr n g vi \ng
ban u na v tritng B gim chm hon tnriig t vo H. l hiu ng tr
t . Ti im R khi trng H bng khng vii cn nit tring B c gi l t d
hav l mt < t thng d Br, tc vt liu vn cn b t ha kh i mt. t tr\tug
ngoi H.
VT LIU HC 24
Tnh tr v t ha vnh cu c th gii thch bng s dch cluiyn cc vch

ineii. KJii gim v i hng t trng t im bo ha s ( hnh .49 ) th qiui
trn h bin i cu trc meii cng i li. Tntc ht l s xoay hitiig ca c n
inen theo t.rng hiig mi. Tip . nhng men c ninieii t xp theo triig
mi s h iih th iili v ln lii nh int dn cc nieii c. Tuy Iihiii. s chuyn dch
cc vch Iiiin t tng l trng theo hiiig Iigc li b cn tr, gy ra hin
tiig tr ca B theo H. K lii tri iig ngoi bng khng, mt phn th tch ca cc
nieii vn cn nh hitug theo trng cCa, l nguyn Iih ii tn t i ca t
d B,.
D giii trng B ( im c, hnh .49 ) cn t mt trng H c tr s - H,.
ngitc vi h\ng ban u; H, ic gi l kh t, hay l lc kh t. Tip tc tng
citiig trng theo hng Iigc li th cng t ti bo ha pha din ng
vi in s \ Tip tc bin i trng ln na cho ti im bo ha ban u (S) s
kt thc mt vng t tr v c thm int t d m(-Br) v mt kh t dng
m .
c tuyn B -H trn hnh 5.49 biu din mt vng t tr t ti bo ho. T iiy
nhin vii c tr tt in khiig cn tng trng H cho ii bo ha tntc khi i
liiiig. Trn hnh .O vng NP l mt iig t tr cha bo ho. Nh vy. c th
i liiig trng t i nit. im bt k trn itng cong v to ra ulng vng t tr
khc nhaii. Hnh .O clio thy vng tr LM tng ng tnrng H c bin i ti
khng. M t phng php ph b t ha (kh t) mt ch't st t hay feri t l t
ha lp i lp li trong nit tn t iig H lun i hng v gim cng .
rng kh
^ 9
R
/\y
j l ^ T ho
/ / ban u
c /
0 /+Hc H
Hinh 5.49 Mt t thng bin i theo Hnh 5.50. Mt ng cong t tr cha bo

cng t trng trong vt liu st t at bo ha (ng NP) nm trong vng t tr bo
ha thun v nghich (cc im s v S ). Vng ha ca vt liu st t. ng L M l c
t tr c biu din bng ng lin nt cn trng B -H khi i t trng tai mt im
ng t nt l ng t ha ban u B, l trc bo ha
t d; l kh t
5.3.7. V T L I U T M M
Kch thc v h iih dng ca ng

cong t tr ca cc v t liu st t v feri
t c tm quan trng thc t. Diu tch
bn trong vng t tr biu th tn hao
nng lng trong mt n v th tch vt
liu troiig mt chu tr ih t lio- kh t.
Tii hao nng liig c tn h bng lng
nhit siiih ra trong v t liu v lm tng
nhit ca n.
Cc v t liu st t v feri t c
phn ha thnh vt liu t mm hoc vt
liu t cng t y theo c tnh t tr ca
chng. V t li ii t mm ic s dng
trong cc lin h kin chu t trng xoay Hnh 5.51. ng cong t ha ca vt liu
chiu vi t n hao n n g lng p h i th p ; v t mm v t cng (s )
d, lm li my bin th. V l do ny din
tch vng t tr phi nh, vng cu mnh v hp nh trn h ih . l. Do vt liu
t mm phi c th m t ban u cao v kh t thp. V t liu c th t
c t ha bo ha b ng m t t tr n g t ng th p (tc d b t ha v kh
t) v c tn hao nng lng t tr thp.
T trng bo ha v t ha ch ph thuc vo thnh phn ca vt V
d. trong cc fe rit lp phng, s thay th bng mt ion kim loi ha tr hai
nh Ni'^' (trong PeO-PeÔn) 5 lm thay i t ha bo hv"i Ngitr l i h s t
ha v kh t Hc li nhy vi bin i c\i trc hn l bin i thnh plin. V
d . s dch chuyn d dng ca cc vch men khi t trng thay i ln v
hng lm cho triig (lc) kh t nh. Trong kh i cc khuyt t t cu trc n lii
cc ht khng t tnh hoc cc l trng trong vt liu t l i km hm s chuyn
ng ca cc vch men v do lm tng trvng kh t. Nh vy vt liu t
mm phi khng c cc khuyt t t cu trc.
Mt tn h cht quan trng na ca vt liu t mm l in tr. Ngoi tn hao t
tr cn c t n hao n n g hiig gy bi dng i n c cm ng tro n g v t li u do t
trng bin thiu ciiig v hiig theo thi gian, l dng in xoy. gim
tn hao nng liig ny c bit tn s cao cn s dng cc v t liu t min c
in tr sut ln. Cc v t liu c th l cc hp kim (dng dung dch rn) st-
silic v st - Iiikeii. Cc fe rit gm c dug ph bin v chng l nling cht cch
in thun tiy. T \iy nhin, kh nng ng dng hi b hn ch do chng c h s' t
ha tng i nh. Gn y vt liu t mm v nh h iih v nanomet (fineiuet)
dng bng mng ca cc hp kim h Fe (Cr, Ni, Co)-B (Si) vi tnh t mm t t aiig
c khai thc s dng c bit trong tn s' tru n g v cao. Tnh cht ca cc v t
liu t mm xeni bng . 10. Tnh t mm ca cc v t liu c th c nng cao
cho nit s' ng dng nh x l nhit trong t trng. Bng cch ny c th nhn
VT LIU HC 247
ctxc nit vng t tr ch nht r t thch hp trong mch khuch i t v bin th

xung. Ngoi ra vt liu t niin cn c dng trong cc my pht, ng c. iiiaiio
v mch chuyn i.
Bng 5.10. Cc tnh cht tiu biu ca mt s vt liu t mm
Thnh phn, thm Mt d t Tn hao t tr in

Vt liu % trng lng t tng thng bo trong mt chu tr sut.
i ban ha, Tesla trnh, J/m^ 2.m
u |.i, (Gauss) (erg/cm^)
St thi thng mi 99,95 Fe 150 2.14 270 ,

1 0.10
(21 400) (2 700)
st sillc (nh hng) 97 Fe, 3 Si 1 400 2,01 40 4,7.10 7
(20 100) (400)
45 pertnalloy 55 Fe. 45 Ni 2 500 1,60 120 4,5.10^
(16 600) (1 200)
Supermalloy 79 Ni. 15 Fe. 75 000 0,80 6 ,0 . 1 0 '
5Mo, 0,5Mn (8 000 )
Perrox cu be A 48 Mn Fe204, 1 400 0,33 40 2 000

52ZnFe204 (3 300) (400)
Perrox cube B 36 NiFe204. 650 0,36 35 10'

64ZnFe204 (3 600) (350)
5.3.8. V T L I T CtTNG
V t liu t cng vc dng lm nam chm vinh cvm. vt liu ny cn c t

di, tring kh t v m t t thng bo ha cao cng nh thm t ban u
tli p v tn hao t tr cao. Cc c tn h t tr cia vt liu t cng cho trn hnh
.l. C th lin h ciig tiiig 'i (nng lng t) ca vt liu vi tch
n bng khong hai ln nng lng cn ph hy t ha nit n v th tch vt
liu. Nh vy. v t liu tt c nng lng cng cao nu tch cng ln. Nh
nii, tn h cch t tr lin quan ti kh nn^f dch chuyn cc vch nien t. K lii s
dch c liiiy ii ny b cn tr th trng kh t v h s t ha ii tng ln. pli
hy t ha cn mt trng ngoi ln. R rng qu trn h ny c lin quan ti cu
trc vi in ca vt liu. S dch chuyn vch nien s kh khn kh i c nhng phn
t ti t ra nh inii. a s' nam chii vn h cii c s dng rng r i l thp st t
hp k in i vi v o lfra m v crm k h i x l n h i t th c h hp, k t hp vi cacboii tro n g
thp to thnh nhng ht volrain cacbit v crm cacbit phn tn. Ching km hni
c b i t h i ii qu s dch chuyn vch m eii. M t s^ hp k im t cng c p h t
t r i ii sau n y c cha n h i u ng uyn t lip k im n h st, cobaii. Iiik e n , nhm v
248 C hng 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT L i u
ng. Nh x l nhit thcli hp s to ra nhng ht st- coban n inen c t

tn li cao trong nn mt pha khng t tnh- Cc hp kiin cha t iiin (Sin, Nd.
Pr. ...) c v khng c cobaii loi tin h th v vi tin h th c tri n vng s diig ln
Iili cc c trng t cng r t cao ca chng. Cc feri t c diig lni Iiani cliin
u l fe rit sii phng. Bng . l l gii thiu tnh cht ca mt s loi vt liu t
cng.
Bng 5.11. Cc tnh cht tiu biu ca mt s' vt liu tcng
Thnh phn. t d B, Trng kh Nhit in tr

Vt liu % trng Tesla tHc. J/m^ Cuhe sut |\
lng ( Gauss) Ampe.vng/m (Gauss - Tc. c u.m
(Oersted) Oersted)
Thp cacbon 98,1Fe 0,95 400 1 600 - -

Mactenxt 0,9C1Mn (9 500) (50) (0 ,2 0 .1 0 )
Thp volam 92,8Fe6W 0,95 5 900 2 600 760 3,0.10''

0,5Cr (9 500) (74) (0,33.10)
Cunite 20Fe20Ni 0,54 44 000 12 0 0 0 410 1 ,8 . 1 0 '

60Cu (5 400) (550) (1.5,10)
Cunico 29Co21Ni 0,34 54 000 6 400 860 2,4.10'

50 Cu (3 400) (650) (0 ,8 . 1 0 )
Alnico 8 thiu 34Fe7AI 0,76 123 000 36 000 860 -
kt 15N35CO (7 600) (1 550) (4,5.10)

4Cu5Ti
Perrox dur B aO - 0,32 240 000 20 000 450 . 10'
(nh hng) 6 Fe 2 0 3 (3 200) (3 000) (2,5.10)
5.3.9. L U TR T
Trong nhng nm qua v t liu t ngy cng quan trng trong ln h vc liii
tr thng tin , v d, vi niy tnh. Trong kh i cc lin h kin bn dn cli ding lm
b nh s cp, th cc a v bng t l i c kh nng lu tr nhng lng thng tin
ln v vi gi thnh thp hn. Ngy nay ngnh cng nghip ghi ]ii v truyn hnh
ang hy vng Iihiu vo bng t lu tr v ci to cc cbdng trn h audio (nghe)
v video (nhn).
VT LIU HC 249
Cc d liii my tnh, m th an h
hoc hnh nh diti dng cc tn hiu
din t u ic ch u yn np ri lu
gi li trong cc khii vc r t nh ca
mi tnng liii tr t. Vic np thng
t.m v kVy ra t bng hoc ca c
tlu.c hiu nh mt u t. l mt
((ln dy qun xiuig qiiauh nit li (vt
liu t.) c x nit khe. D liu ic
(la vo (hay "ghi" ) bng tn hiu in
qua cun dy lni li t sinh int t
trng i qua khe. T triiig ny s t
ha mt khii vc r t nh trn a hoc
bng (uni trc tip bn trong u t).
Khi Iigt trng, s t ha vn cn hrn
li v tn hiu c hiu tr. Ciiig
chnh u t ic dmg ti hin Hinh 5.52 nh hin VI in t qut cu trc
(tc l "c") thng tin lu tr. Klii vi m ca mt a lu tr t
baiig hoc a i qua klie ca n t,
mi mt biii i ca t triig bng (ca) s sinh ra int iii p cm ng trong
cun dy (LUI tt. in p ny c khuch i ri chuyn v dng (hoc. c tniig)
iiK'iyii gc. a s cc t mi u gm nhng h t r t nh dng hnh kini hoc q\ie
r a ferit y-Fe20i hay cc hp kim pha tp ca n. Chng ic gn ln mt m ng
polyine (i vi bng tt) hoc ln mt a kim loi hay polyme. Klii ch to nhiig
ht ny (\fic sp xp sao cho trc di ca chng soiig song vi lutiig chuyn (tiig
(]ua ctu t (hnh .52).
Mi h t l nit n n ien . ch c t h b t ha sa o cho Iiinieii t ca n Iiiii
dc theo trc . C th c hai trn g thi t , tiiig ng vi vect t ha bo ha
tlveo hiig trc v liiiig Iigc li. Hai trng thi Iiy c th hii tr thng tin
dng s' ( s' 1 v s 0). Trong mt li thng, s 1 c biu (lin bng mt php ci
li hng t trng . t int khu vc nh trong mi trng lu tr sang' mt kl)ii
vc klic. khi c nhiii h t hih kim ca ini mt khu vc Iihit vy i qua u t.
Thiu php i hng gia cc khu vc ln cn s c biii tli bi s' 0.
Vug t tr cho mi tnng lu tr t phi t\tiig i hp v ch nht. Yu cu
Iiy bo in cho s lu tr c vnh cu v s o chiu t ha ch xy ra trong-
mt khong hp ca cng t trng t vo. Thng th\tng m t t thng
bo ha nm trong khong 0.4 v 0,6 Tesla.
5.3.10. S I U D N ( I N )
Siu dn v c bn l mt hin tng in; tuy nhin, c nhng vn phc

tp lin quan n trn g th i siii dn. v ngoi ra. cc v t liu siii dn ic iig
d ng tric tin trong cc nam chm c kh Iiiig to ra nhng t trng cao.
250 C h n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA V T LIU
a s cc kim loi khi

c lm ln h xiing n
nhit gn OK th in tr
gim xuiig t t. t ti Iit
gi tr Iiht cnh. l ctc
tiih ca ring kim loi. Tuy
Iihin c m t s t v t liu.
khi nhit r t th p , in
tr gim t ngt t iDt gi
tr xc nh xiing ti khiig
v vn gi nh v y khi tip
tc lni ln h na. l hin
tng siii dn (in). Cc
vt liii gi l cc c/it siu
dn. Cn n h it ti t
ti trng th i siu u ctc 5.53. s phu thuc in tr-nhit ca vt dn binh
g o i l Iik i t t i h a n T c thng v vt liu siu dn khu vc gn OK
Hnh .3 cho bit c tring in tr-nhit ca cc v t liu siu d n v khii'
sivi (ln. N h it ti hn th a y i t y theo tiih c h t siu dn. Iilutiig ch troag
khoii; t dii IK cho n 20K (ti vi kim loi v hp kim. Mi y , Iigi ta (t
p h t hin mt s' gii oxyt phc hp c nhit ti h u n lOOK hoc cao lum
(sivi dn nhit cao).
nhiig nhit,
(hti Te. tr n g th i siu Mt dng J
dn s in t (li khi t.
vo nit t tring
Iiiuh , gi l t tr n g
t i h ii H ,. //,. ph
thiic Iihit ct v gim
khi n h it ct tng.
Titdiig t c nit m t
d n g i n ti. h n e/,.,
thp liii n v t li\i
vn l siii dn. H nh
5.4 l s khng
gian n h it - t
trng - n it dng
Hinh 5.54 Gin d nhit - mt dng in - t trng ti han
in, phn chia cc
phn chia cc trang thi siu dn v dn in bnh thng (s )
trng thi dn thiig
v siii dii. V tr ca
biu gii phn chia ng n h i n p h thuc t n g v t li u , v iiig Iih i t ct . t
trvng v nit dng iu nm trong khong gia gc ta v b in gii ny. vt
liu s l siii dn; ngoi bin gii, v t liu dn in b iili th iiig.
t ) T ro ii iiliiiMi li'ii li ii k lii'ii 7 . tli/c iliitii; t; Iilii'1 ili) <'iir it ' (mc v:'i n ltii-i il li 11.111 siii ilMi. Iiliiiii!.'.
Iiiiit cliVl. Iio/iii l o i i kliiK: n li.n i, x i n (liiu iiliMii hin. 'l 'r o n u Siicli Ii:'iy c li u i i i ; iliiitr |) ||;'||| liil. I.I
T, v, Tr-
VT LIU HC 25]
H in t ng s i u d n c g ii th ch b iig nt l th u y t kh phc tp. v bn

c h t . tr n g th i s i u d n c c l dotng tc h t gia cp in t dn. Clm yn
ng ca n h n g in t ghp cp ny h u nh khng b t n x bi dao ng nhit
v cc nguyn t t p cht. Nh vy, in tr, vn t l vi ciiig t n x in t.
s b n g khng.
C n c vo h n h vi t. cc
vt liu siu d n c th p h n
chia th n h loi I v loi II. V t
liu loi I . k h i a n g tr n g
thi siu dn, l hon to n
nghch t. tc l, mi t
trng t vo u b v t siu
dii y ra (h n h 5 .5 4 a ), C.U
khi tr li tr n g th i d n in
) b)
bnh thing th t trng li
i qua (hnh 5.54b). H in Hnh 5.55. S minh ha hiu ng Meissner
tng n v c t n gi h i u ng
M e issn e r (hnh 5.55). Klii
tuR H. v t liu vn l nghch t cho n t trng ti hn . Ti im ny. tnh
dn din tr li biih thing v t thng xm nhp ton b v t liu. Nliiu kini loi
Iiliit n h m , c h , th ic v th y n g n thuc loi I.
Cc ch't siu d n loi II nghch t hon ton khi t triig t vo th p v y
ton b t tn n g ra ngoi. T uy nhin, s chuyn bin t tr n g thi siu dn sang
tr n g th i d n th ng xy ra t t, ga t trng ti hii di v t tnng ti
liu trn, k hiu tng ng l //,1 v Ti H r \ . cc ng t thng b t vi
xm n h p vo v t liu v qu triiili s kt thc ti H r i- Ti t tring gia H,. v
v t li u tn t i tro iig tr n g th i hn hp gm Iihiig v n g dn thng v vng
siii dn.
Cc c h t siii d n loi II u im hn h n loi I do nhit v t triig ti
h n ca ch n g cao. H in n ay, ba cht siu dn c s dng ph bin n h t l cc
hp kiin niobi - zicon i (Nb - Zr), Iiiobi - tita n (N b-Ti) v hp ch t lin kim loi
niobi - thic (Nb.Sn). B ng 5.12 cho bit mt s^ cht siii dn loi I v loi II cng
vi n h it v m t t th n g ti h n ca chng.
R t g n y (1 9 8 6 - 1 9 87). int loi v t liu gom cha ng oxyt. bih thng
l ch t ccli in , ic p h t h in l nh n g ch t siu dn c n h it ti hn cao
m t cch k h c th iig . N g h i n cu u tin tp trun g vo hp ch't Y B a 2Co.(0 7 .
vi c'u trc tin h th phc t p kiu perovski v nhit ti hn khong 95K. Cc
v t li u gm s i u d n m i c n h i t ti h n cao hn cng v ang ic pht
trin. V d, h B i-S r -C a -C u -0 c Tc. 115K, h T l-B a-C a-C u -0 c Tr ~ 12K v
h H g -B a -C u -0 c 130K. Cc v t liu ny thuc nhm v t liu si u d n n h i t
cao. B n c h t v c ch siu dn ca chng hin cn cha hon ton siig t..
Trin vng ng dng ca Iilivtiig v t liu ny l kh ln. v nhit ti lin fa

chug trn 77K, tc cho php dng Iiit liig. mt cht, lni lnh r so vi hydro
lng v heli lng. Tuy nhin v t liu gom sivi dn nii cng c nhng nhc im,
trc ht l tnh gin ca chng, h n ch kh nng ch to siu dn dng dy si.
Bng 5.12. Nhit v mt d t thng ti hn ca mt s vt liu siu dn chn lc
Nhit ti Mt t Nhit ti Mt t
Vt liu hn Tc, K thng ti hn Vt liu hn Tc. K thng ti hn
Tesia^^* |ic. Tesla^'
Cc nguyn t' Cc hp cht v hp km
Nhm 1,18 0,0105 Hp kim Nb-Ti 10,2 12

Chi 7.19 0,0803 Hp kim Nb-Zr 10,8 11
Thy ngn (tx) 4.15 0,04 l'l NbaSn 18,3 22
Thic 3,72 0.0305 NbAI 18.9 32
Titan 0,40 0,0056 NbsGe 23.0 30
Volram 0.02 0,0001 VaGa 16.5 22
Niobi (Nb) 926 PbgMogSa 14.0 45
(hi ch: 1) M t (l lf lliMK U'J l i n c ia c c HKiiyii t (li/c (lo OK Di V('J CL' li|) cliYl. VI liii) k i i n l;'iV
l H//(> biiiK Tosli (lo OK
Hin tiig siu dn c nhng ng dng thc t a dng. Cc nam cliiii si\i
dn c kh nng to ra Iihiitiig t trng Iiuli vi ciig siit tiu th t h ) hiii
ang c dng trong cc thit b th nghim v nghin cu khoa hc. Cliiig cng
ang c tng dng trong lnh vc cng h\ng t (MR) v chp n h cng hcin t
(MRI). trong y hc nh mt cng c chn oii. Nhng bt. thviig trong cc ni
v c q\iaii ni tn g c th c ph t hin nu to c nhtng nh ct cho. C th
phn tch lia sinh cac ni c th nh ph cng hng t (MRS).
Vt liu siu dn cn c nhng ng dng quan trng khc. Cc lnh vc ang
\c khai thc bao gni: 1) tru yn t i in n n g bng vt liu siii dn vi tn hao
cng su t rt th p v tran g th it b s c vn h nh in p thp; 2 ) n am chm
cho cc m y gia tc h t n n g hng cao; 3) truyn tn h iu v chuyn m ch tc
cao hn clio m y tiih v 4) t ii m t cao tc vi m n n g nh lc y ca t
trng.
Tr Iigi ln n h t ng dng cc v t liu siu dn l kh k hn trong vic t
*v lii ch c nhit r t thp. Hy vng l cc kh k h n ny s c khc phc
cng vi s p h t trin th h mi ca cc cht siu dn c nhit ti h n cao
hp l.
VT LIU HC 23
5.4. TNH CHT QUANG
Tiili cht quang c lii\i l hnh vi ca v t liii i vi tc dng ca bc x

in t vn ctcc bit l ca nh sng trng thy. Trong phn ny trc ht trnh by
int s Iiguyii l v khi nim c bn liu qviaii n bn cht ca bc x in t v
nhng tng tc c th ca n vi v t rn. Tip l cc tnh cht quang ca vt
liu kim loi v phi kim loi vi cc c tring hp th ,p h n x v lan truyn ca
cling. Mc c\ii cng s nii khi q u t v hunh quang, quang dn. laze v ng
dng tlic t ca cc hia ting .
5.4.1. CC KHI NIM c BN
5.4.1.1. Bc x in t
Theo quan nim c in, bc x in t c xem nh l sng gni hai thnh

piiii in tintng v t tritng vung gc vi n h au v vi c plutng truyn (hnh
5.56). iih siig. nhit (hay l nng lng bc x), sng rada. siig raio. tia
Rout.geii. t't. c ii l nhng dng bc x in t. Mi mt dng c c trinig
trc tin bi mt phm vi c th ca bvtc siig v k th u t to ra n. Ph ca
br x in t tri rng t tia y (do cc cht phng x pht ra) c bc sng c
10 ' m (10 ' miii), qiia tia R oiitgeii. tia t ngoi, nh sn g Iihii thy, tia hng
Iigoi v cu cng ti sng raio (sng v tuyii in) vi b\tc sng (i ti 10 1)1.
Ph ny ic cho trn hnh .6 theo thang loga.
Hnh 5.56. Sng in t vi cc thnh phn in trng t trng H v bc sng
iih sng nliin thy nm trong mt vng hp ca ph vi bc sng t 0.4 MUI

(4.10' n i) n 0.7 ^m . M u Rc cm n hn c l do bitc sng xc n h , v d. bc
x c bc sng c 0.4 mn liin niu tni. trong khi niii xanh lc v m u li
Iini bc sng tng ng l gii o. v 0.6 iih sng trn g ctii gin l hn
hp ca t t c cc Iiiii sc. P h n ny ch yii trnh by cc van c lin quan
n cc bc x nhn thy, theo nh ngha ch l nhng bc x l m t ta nhy
cm clc.
T t c cc bc x in t u tniyii qua chu khng vi cng nit tc bng

tc nh sng (C = 3 . 1 0 m/s). Tc ny l i n h vi hng s' in nii E v
tlinm t ca chii khng }JLo bi h thc
c = ( . l)
Hn na t n s" v bc sng X ca bc x iii t u l hm s" ca tc c
theo h thc:
c = A.V. (.2)
T n s c o bng (Hz). mt Hz bng mt chu k trong nit giy. T hang tan
s ca cc dng bc x in t khc n h au cng cho trn ph (hiih .7).
niê\/ BL'ny.rn
Tn s',H^ I ' ^
1 Pb
T 10*
io
Tin)
(0
Tiax JL Xanh
J0 19
ngoi
Nhn thy Vng

10li
Hng ngoai .am
-2
10'
I
I
Vi b 10
to 10
T !
w,-
10^
R,jto I V )
10-
f0
10w
Hnh 5.57. Ph bc x in t bao gm c phm VI bc sng ca cc mu sc

khc nhau trong ph nh sng nhin thy
Nhiu khi thch lip hn l xem bc x in t theo quan ctini c hc lii t.

Bc x in t khiig phi l co siig m l gm cc Iihin hay cc h iiiiR litiiK
(tc .i l cc phton. Nng lng E ca m t phtoii b lng t ho. tc l cli c
MiP c uhin gi tr ring q\iy nh bi i thc
E = hv = h C / X , (5.53)
troiiy tt h -h n g s P l a n c k . c gi tr 6.63.10'' J.s. Nh v y Iiiiig hng plitoii t,
l vi tn s v t l iihch vibitc sng ca bc x. NHip liuK
phton cng cc cho trn ph ctiii t (hnli .57).
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 2 ^
Klii in t nhng hin tng quang hc lin quan n tng tc giia bc x v

cliat th s l gii thng tlmii li hn nu xeni xt nli sng theo quan im
)liton. Trong nit s tn iig hp khc th quan Iiini sng li thch hp hn. i
klii li s dng c hai cch tip cn.
5.4.1.2. Tng tc nh sng vi vt rn

Khi nh sng i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc (chng h n t khng
kh vo v t rii) th mt s* bc x n h siig c th c truyn qiia mi trng,
nit s b hp th v mt s b phn x trn b m t phn cch gia hai mi trng.
Cidng / ca clm m s n g ti b nit nii trng rn phi b ng tng cing ca
chni sng tr \iy n qiia, h'p th v I)hn x tng tng l /'I', ,\ v /|^ tc l:
/ = I,\ + ' + I\i . (.)
troug T . A, R ti n g iig b i u din tn iy n q iia (/'I'/ /). hp th (I,x / /) v
phii x (I\{ / /o). tc l nhng t phn ca nh s n g ti ic
truyn qua, phn x v hp th bi v t liu.
Nlniig v t liu c kh nng triiyii nh sng vi hp th v phn x tiiig
i Iih l nh ng v t tro ig sut. - Iigiti ta c th Iilin qiia ching. N h in g v t tro n
m l n h n g v t li u ni k h i nh sng i qua chng s b t n x vo tro n g v t liu
(tn mc Jii khi nhn qiia mt m ii v t liu th khng th plin b it r riig
(IC (tc)i tng. Cn n h n g vt khng cho nh sn g nhn tliy truyn qiia gi l v t
dc.
Cc kim loi kli u c vi ton b ph nhn thy c; ngha l tt. c
bc x iih s iig ctii b hoc l h'p th hoc l phn x. M t khc, cc v t liu
ccli din ct\i c th l]ii th n h trong siit. Ngoi ra. mt s" vt liii bn dn l
troii sut cn mt s khc li l c.
5.4.1.3. Tng tc nguyn t v in t
Cc hin Utng quang hc xy ra bn trong vt. rn \i c lin q\iaii ctii

Iihng titiig tc giia bc x in t v nguyn t, ion v in t. Hai Inii tiiig
(liian trng Iiht trong Iihug t\tng tc ny l s phii cc in t v s clmyii
Ui nng lii (tiii t.
P h n cc in t
Mt trong liai th n h phn ca sng in t l in tntiig bin thin nliaiih. 0

phii vi tn s thy itc in tring ny tiiig tc vi ctni my in t bao
quanh trng nguyn t v gy ra s phn cc in t. C nii ln th n h phn
in trng tliay i hng l m t lii lin lch dm m y iii t so vi ht. nhn
iguyii t, nlut biu th trn hnh 5.28a Hai h qu ca sit )hii cc ny l;
J; mt phn n n g lng bc x b h'p th v 2 ) sug nh s n g b chm li khi i
qua mi trng, H q\i th hiii bin hin s khc x s tho lun trong mc
.4.3a.
25(3 C h n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
C h u yn di in t
S li"p th v p lia t bc x ctiii t

c th gy n u s chuyn di cc in
t t trn g tlii n n g liig ny saiig Ki'cn t h i c b
t.rug th i Iiiig hng khc. e d tho in t
lun, ta xt ring m t nguyn t. AE = E-E

-h,
th n n g lng n gu yn t ca n (hc 42
l)iu (lin tru hiih .8 . Mt in t
c th clc kch thch clm yii t mt
trng thi chim mc Iing litiiK
E , ln mt. trn g th i nm mc n ng
liiiig cao liii. E chang hn, bng
r tn s' > 4 2
cch h'p th m t phtoii Iing lng:
k\- - AE . (.6 ) Hinh 5.58 S minh hoa s hp thu
troii (t E l hiu n ng Ivng gia phton ca mt in t trong mt nguyn t
hai nic. c lp
y c nit s^ khai Iiini quaii
tr iig cn h u ;
- Th n h t, cc trng thi ca n guyn t l gin (loii nn ch tn ti nhng
khong cch E ring gia cc mc n n g litng: nh vy ch c nhii phtoii no
c tn s titiig ng vi n lu n g Ai? cho php tli mi c th (htc h'}) th h(ii cc
clniyen cli iii t. Hn lua, trong mi ln kch thch, plii l tt. c (ch khn
th' mt phn) n n g lng plitoii c hp th.
- Th liai. in t khng th ht\i li v thi hn tr n g th i k irh thch-, saii mt
th i gia n Iiguu u l i Iili y tr v t r n g t h i , c b n ca m n h hoc m t mc iK int
hiig thp hn v ph t tr li bc x in t (tlm t ng bc x gi l s th p h t).
C th c Iihitni con itng n h y tr v. nlutng trong ht. c tn tu lup no cnii
phi c s bo ton n n g lng cho cc chuyn di in t hp th v pht. x.
N ln s trnh by saii. cc c tiih quang hc ca v t rii lin quan (tn liap
th v p h t bc x in t (lu c'gii tlich nh cu t n k v n g Iing lng lin
ca vt. liii v cc Iiguyn l liii quan ctu SI cliiiyeii di in t Iili Ii\i ('
trn.
5.4.2. CC T N H C H T QUANG HC CA K IM LO I
Hy kho st s v n g n an g liig in t troiig kini loi m inh ha trn hnli

.3a v .3b; trong c h ai triiK hp ctii c mt VIIR n n g htiig cao ch ini b
cac in t ohim m t plin. Bc x nh siig ti s kch thch cac iu t chuyn
ln trng thi n n g iiig cha b cliini nni trn inc F'erini. Iilu biAi th trn
liili . 8 a, k t qu l nh s n g ti b hp th ph hp vi bin thc (.6 ). Chnh
v vy m kiin loi 15 c. S hp th hOcii ton ch xy ra trong m t lp int ngoi
rt Iiiiig. tlung th in g Iih hn 0.1 I-Iiii; Iiln vy ch c nhng m ng kiin loi
mng hn 0.1 nni mi c kh n n g tn iy ii nh s iig nhn thy.
VT LIU HC 2fw
Pini loi hp th chc m i t u s" ca nh sng Iilin th y bi v li n tc c

nhng trn g thi (tin t cn trng, chng cho php cc chuyn di in t Iihi ch
trn hnh .9a. Tln.c ra. cc kiii loi ii dc i vi t t c cc bc x in t
vng t n s thp cia ph t sng v tuyn in, qua hng Iigoi, nh sng nhn
tliy cho n khong gia ca bc x t ngoi. Cc kim loi \i trong sut i vi
t;t c cac bc x tn s cao (tia Rntgeii v tia ganiiiia).
Hnh 5.59 S biu din c ch hp thu phton trong kim loai (a)
v s pht xa tr lai mt phton nh sng (b)
Pliiiu ln l)( x b h) th s c tli )h<t t b mt. di (lng anh sauf

iihu t.hnv c CIUIK bic .snR. ta c nh sii plin x. S chuypii di in t c
ch trn hiih 5.591). phn x ciîa phii Iriii cc kiii) loi Iiiii giiQ 0.90 v 0.9.
Mt plian nh Iing lng ca q\i trnh nhy xuiig ca c!in t b chuyn th n h
nhit.
Rcn v cc kim loi ctu ctc v phn x Iiiiih nn mau cm nhn r ciia chng
chrc xc nh bi J)hii b bic sng ca chm tia phn x. S xut, hiii niii sng
bc khi chi\i nh sniig triig chng t rnng kim loi phn x m nh trn ton b
Ki ph nhn thay. Ni cch khc, di vi chm tia phn x, th n h phn tn s v
s hiiig )htou tli J)ht ny cng gn ging nh ci vi chm tia ti . Nhm v
V);U iiai kim loi c tiih ])hn x nln vy. Cn ng v vng li th hin hai Iiiaii
fl - da cam v niii vng bi v c int. phn nng lng gn vi ccphton iih
saiig c bc sng Iigii kling dc th pht.
5.4,3, T N H C H T QUANG HC CA CC V T L I U P H I K IM LO I
Do cu tn c vm g nng l iig cin t ca m nh CC vt. li u j)hi k im lo i c tliP

1:\ troiig sut (li vi nh sa n g nhhi thy. Do (t ngoi phn x v hp th, CII cii
kho sat cc hiu tng klic x v tru vn qua.
17 - VLH
258_____________________________________ C h n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
5.4.3.1. Khc x
Tia Sing truyn ti b nit ngoi ca cc v t liu trong sut th b îni tc (t

v kt qu l b lch hng ti m t gii lin. H in tng cl ctc Ri l hh ic x. Ch
s 'k h u c .v I c / i i c t s u t ) I ca m t c h t (Kc n h ngha l t s tc ct t r o ii '4
clin khng ( v t'c trong mi triig 1\ tc l
I - c 11>. (.-l)
D ln ca / ph thuc vo bc sng nh sng. Hin ng ny (c chnt

iHnh bng s tn sc nh s n g quen tliuc. tc l s phn tch mt chm tia saii<
trng thnh cc tia th n h phn niii sc khc nhau bng mt. lng knh th y tinh.
C hit su^t khng ch n h hng n quang l ca iih sng, m nh gii th ch di
cy s nh hng ctu phii nh s n g b phn x t b mt.
Ging nlu biu thc (.51) xc nh lii ca ( ta c mt. bni thc tU
cldug cho tc a n h s n g V trong mt ini tn tn g l:
V ~ y f^ l , (.<S)
(ty E v M lng ng l h n g sin nii v c tham t ca chut. T hipu thc

(.7) ta c:
n - c l v - y/ I y :, J I = . (r),.')'.*)
trou K, v |.ir tviig ng l hng s ctiii mi v tliin l.t.idug (li. Bi vi

phn ln cc ch t ch c t tiili nh. i-ir =s 1 do ;
^ 7 (.(iO)
Nlut nii trn (nic .4.1.3). hin tiig khc x c lin quan n s })h
cc in t Iiliiig t n s tdng cao ciia n h Siiig n h n thy: nhi vy th n h
plin in t ca ling s* in mi c th dic xc cnli t cc php (to ch it siuVt
Vng dng bi\i thc .6 .
Bi v s truyn ch 111 ca bc x in tt trong mt. Iii tr\tng l do s phn
cc in t.iV gy ra, lin kcli tluc ciia cc ng\iyii t hoc ioii cu tlinl c nli
luiig ng k ii c ln ca hi\i ng Iiy. Ni chung, nguyn l hoc ioii cn^
ln th s J)hii cc in t cug mnh. tc nh sang cng chm v chit siuVt
rng lii. Chit su t ca thy tinh Na - Ca tiu biu gan bng l.i. Cho thm cac
ion ln bari v ch (bng BaO v PbO) vo thiy tiiih s lin t.iig chit s u t ln
dng k. V (l Iihvt th y tinh nliiii cli ( cha ti 90% trng lii PbO) c cliit
sut khong 2 . 1 .
Cc gni tin h th c cii trc lp plnnt/ v cc tli y tiiih r ('hPtsu*t (taii
hng ( Iigha l khng ph tluic vo hng tinh th ). M t khc,cc tin h t.h
khng lp phiiig nh ng li c ch it su t ri b't ctns hitng. tc l chit sut, ln
nht (lc theo nh ng hing c m t (t ion cao nht. B ng .13 cho ch it sii't ca
mt s thy tinh, gni v polyiiie trong siit.
VT LIU HC 259
Bng 5.13. C hit sut ca mt s vt liu tro n g su t
Vt liu Chit sut Vt liu Chit sut

trung binh trung binh
Gm P o ly m e
Thy tinh Si02 1,458 PolytetraAoetylen 1.35

Thy tinh Na-Ca 1,51 Polyetylen 1.51
Thy tinh Pyrex 1.47 Polystyren 1,60
Thy tinh Flint nn 1,65 Polymetylmetacrylat 1.49
Corunng (AI2O 3 ) 1.76 Polypropylen 1.49
Periclaz (MgO) 1.74
Thch anh (SO 2) 1.55
Spinen (MgAIÔ^) 1.72
5.4.3.2. Phn x
KJii bc x n h sng i t nii tniig ny sang mi trng khc, mt phn nh
saii b hc x trn nit phn cch gia hai nii tnng. ngay c khi hai mi
l.ri('ing clii trong sut. phn x R biu th phn iih siig b phn x ti m t
) h n cach, tc l;
R - I\! / . (5.61)
troii.; d / v /(; - cuy c ca chm ti v chm phn x.
Nu iih sii ti vung gc vi int gii hn th;
R - - " 1) / ("2 + " 1)]^. (.62)
t rons: ( /| v 12 - Chipt ca hai mi t riin^.

Nii Iih nh siif ti kling viing gc vi Iiit |)lin cch tl R s ph thuc
v;i(i oc ti. KJii nh s n g (lc tn iy n t chn khng hoc khng kh vo nit. cli't
i;in s thi :
R = [(n, - l ) / O i , + 1)]' (.63)
vi clet .sut ca khng kli rt, gn vi n v. Nh vy chit iit ca vt rii cng

cao th d pliii x ciig ln. i vi cc thiiy tinh silicat tiii biii. c phn x vo
khong O.O. Chit. s u t ca v t rn ph thuc vo bic sng ca iih sng. do d
(l I)hn x cng bin ci theo bc sng.
Tn hao phii x 'i vi th u knh v cc dng c qiiaiig hc khc c th gim
(Uui k nu ph ln b nit phn x Iiliiig lp r t mng bng v t liu in nii
Iih Iiigi luorit (Mgp-^).
5.4.3.3. Hp th
Cac vt. liu phi kiiii loi c ih (c hay trong sut i vi nh sng nhn thy
v IIPU l trong s\i't. chng tlntiig hin inu. V' nguyn l. bc x nh sng b
2G0 C h n g 5. TMH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
lip th trong loi v t liu ny theo ba c ch cd bii c nh lung lu cc c tnii

tniyn qua. Mt trong ba c ch ny l s phn cc in t (mc .4.1.3). S hp
th bi phn cc in t ch quaii trng nhing tn s ln cii t n s hi phc ca
cc nguyn t c'u thnh. Hai c ch klic lin q\iau vi cc chuyn (li in t.
cluing ph thuc vo cu trc vng nng liig ctin t ca v t liu; cu trc vug
ca cc cht bn dn v cc cht cch in c trnh bv trong inc . 1.1.2.
Mt trong cc c c lih p th Iiy lin quan n Iiling kch thch in t nhy vl
qua khe vng. Mt c ch na lin quan n cc cliuyt 11 di cin t vo cc mc tp
c li t hoc kliiiyt t t nm trong khe vng.
Hp th phton nh sng c th xy ra do kch thch in t t viif ha tr (t
gii dy vitt q\ia khe vng v ti mt trn g thi cn trng t.rong vng d n nlu
bipu (in trn hnh .60a: xu't hin mt ctiii t t do trong vng dn v int l
trig trong viig ha tr. Nng lng kch thch E lin quan vi t n s phtoii b
ha'p t.li vn theo biu thc (.6). Nhng kch thch Iiy ch c t.li xy ra nu niig
htng pliton ln hn rng khe vng E . . ngha l nu;
/iv > (5.64)
hay vit theo bc sng:
hc ! X > E ^ (.65)
Hinh 5.60 C ch hp thu phton VI cc vt liu phi klm loai (a)

v s pht xa mt phton nh sng (b)
^ l h s n g th y c c bic sng ngii Iih't x,i ^ 0.4 |111 v di nhat

0-^ l-iin. co nng lng cc tiu ca nh siig nhn thy tng ng bng:
hc (4 J 3. in ' eV.s)(3. l o Iii/s)
/ = ------ = --------------------------------------- ---- 3,1 eV (.(36a)
4.10^ ni
/c (4.13.10'"eV.s)(3.10'"in/s)
^ 'niin ~ ~ 1.8 eV . 66 b)
ûinx /. 1 0 ' 111
VT LIU HC 261
Nhng kt q\i ny ni ln riig, nhng v t liu phi kim no c khe vng ln

hdii 3,1 eV s khng hp th mt n h sng nhn thy no. Nii c tinh khit cao.
chng' s hiii ra trong sut v c mu. M t khc, cc bu (ln no c khe vng hp
hn 1 . 8 eV s luVp th ton b ph n h sng nhn thay nh cc cluiyeii di (tin t t
viing ha tr iaiig vmg dn; nh vy chng u c. Cn nhng v t liii c khe
vng trong klioiig gia 1 . 8 eV v 3.1eV th ch lip th mt phn ph nh siig
Iihiii thay, do (t ta nhn thy chng m v c inii. Mi mt vt liu phi kim loi
tr nn c ti mt s bic sng n h t nh, ty thuc vo ln E ^ . V d. kini
cii c khe ving . 6 eV. l c i vi bc x c bic sng ngn hn 0.22|.ini.
S\ lip tlii bc x uh sng cing c th xy ra trong cc v t rn in mi c
khe vng rng do nhng chuyn di in t khng plii t vng ha tr ln vng
claii. Cc tp ch t hoc kluiyt t t khc c th to nn )ihng nu'c in t trong
khe vug nhi l nhng Iiic cton (cho) v acxept (nhn) (xem . 1.2.2). Bc x
nh sang vi bic sng thch lip c th b h'p th bi kt qu chuyn di in t
t hoc n nhng mc ny. Iiliii minh ha trn hnh 0 . 6 la. Nng lng in t b
hp th bi cc kch thch in t phi itc tiu tii bng mt phiiig thc no
theo n h iu c c h khc Iihati. V dvi. b n g SI ti hp trc tip in t v l trng
theo phn ng (liiili .60b);
in t + l tr o n g --------> nng liig i E ). (.67)
C th xy ra n h a g chuyn di ctiii t uhi\i bic nh c cc mc tp clit

nhm trong khe vng. Hnh .Glb cho thy kh nng plil x hai phton bng .-;
yiang in t\ t int trng thi trong vng dn xiing mt nic tp cht, ri li t
d nhy v vmg ha tr. Hoc l mt. trong cc bc clmyii di c th sn sinh mt
l)hi\on (hnh 5.6 Ic). y phn nng lng tng ng chc tiii t n dii dn
Iihit.
Hnh 5.61. C ch kch thich in t t mt mc tap cht nm trong khe vng do hp th mt phton
nh sng (a), pht x hai phton (b) hoc sn sinh mt phnon v mt phton (c)
262 C h n g f. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
Ciing Iihir vtng i ca nh sng, ciig ct bc x b h'p tlni I)li thuc vo

ctc tn h ca mi tn n g . Ciig bc x r-i' (truyii qua hay l khiii b hp lli)
gim lin tc theo khong cch X in nh sng i qua:
. (.GS)
trong r - citng bc x ti kliiig phn x:
p- h s^ hp th (o bng inni '). l c trng ring ca vt liu v t.luv
cti theo bc sng ca bc x ti;
.r- khong cch c o t m t ti tru v t liu.
Cc v t liii c gi tr /?111 hn c coi l cc cht hp th mnh.
5.4.3.4. Truyn qua

Xt trng lipn h s n g i qua int v t rn trong siit.(hiil) 5.62). i vi mt
chim tia ti c cing /chin vo int tritc ca m u ch t c cly /v h s
hp th p, citng c tn iy n qiia ti mt. sau ca m u l:
= I(- R ) 2 c '\ (5,()9)
troiig R - d phn x v gi th it rng c cng m t mi trng tn ti <1 phii
Iigoi. c nit trc v m t saii ca Iiiii.
Nhit vy. th n h
phii ca tia ti
tniyn qua v t liii Chm tia fi I,
trong sut ph tluic
vo nhng tn hao
chm lia
do hp th v phn tr n (ua
x. Hn na, cc
thng s' nh
phn x. hp th
v ct truyn qua
ctii ph tluic vo
bc sng nh sng
v phi tlia m n
biu thc (.). Hinh 5.62. S truyn nh srvg qua mi trng trong sut c phn xa
Hnh .63 biii th tai mt trc v mt sau v hp th trong mi trng

cc mi quan h ny
vi thy tinh
,Phn x
xanh. V d, vi nh
sng c bc siig
0,4 |im th t phn
tniyn qua, hp th
v phn x ln lt
vo khong 0,90;
O.O v O.O. Tuy
nhin vi bvc sng
0, I-Un th cc t 0.3 OA 0.5 0,6 0,7 0,8 .o 1.5 2.0 2^
phn ny c cc gi Bi/c sng , A(im)
tr ting ng
khong O.O; 0,48 v Hinh 5.63. s bin i theo bc sng ca cc t phn nh sng
0 . 02 . truyn qua, hp th v phn x qua mt loai thy tinh xanh

VT LIU HC 26:-
5.4.3.5. Mu sc
Cc v t liu trong sii t hin m u l do c nhng gii bc sng nh san g b hp
th chn lc. inii sc cni n h u c l kt qu t hp ca nhng bc siig c
tru y n q\ia. N\i s hp th xy ra ng u i vi t t c cac bc sng thy c
th v t liu li hin ra khng m ii. v d Iih cc loi thy tin h v c tinh khit cao.
kim cng v sap h ia n tin h th tin h k h it cao-
Tling tlniig. hp th chii lc l bng kch thch in t. Chng hii nh
tring hp cc cht b u dn c khe vng tr n g vi di nng liig pliton nh
sng nhii thy (1.8eV u 3.1eV). P h n nh sng nhn thy c nng htiig ln hn
E b hp th chn lc bi cc chuyn di in tit t vn g ha tr lii vng dn.
Ditng Iihiii. mt s' bc x b hp th Iiy li th p h t khi cc in t kch thch
Iihay tr v Iihiig trn g th i n n g lng thp ban ii ca chng. Si; tht pht
nv xy ra khng n h t thit cng' t n s Iilu khi hp th ni trong tring hp
chuyn di ctiii t bc x nhiu bc (hnh .61b) hoc kliiig bc x (hnh .Glc)
th li l nli hn. Kt qvi l niii sc ph thuc vo s phn b tn s ca c
chm sng truyn qua v trin sng th pht.
V d. ccini s\iiifit (CdS) c khe vng khong 2.4 eV. do n hp th nhng
phtn c nng lng ln hn 2,4 eV tng ng vi phn xanh v tm ci\a ph
an h sng nhn thy; )it s'li th p h t th n h nh sng vi nhng bc sng khc.
Cn n h sng Iihii tliy kliiig b hp th ch gm nhng phton c nng lng
trong khong t 1.8 ii 2.4 eV. CdS hin m u vu g da cam l do t lip chm
liniyii qua Iiy.
Trong gni cch iu, c Iihiig tp cht c th cng to nn cc nic in t.i
tro u s khe viig. Cc phton c nng liig Iih hn khe vng vn c kh niig b
hap th do h qu ca cc chuyn di in t trn cc nguyn t hoc ioii tp cht
d ( hiih .G la ); ng nhin, s xy ra m t phn th pht, v m u hin ra ca
v t liu vn l mt hm cia s phn b"cc bc sng c trong chm trviyii qua.
V d. nhm oxyt
hoc saphia u tinh th
v tiiili k h it cao khng
c niu. N h n g n ib i
(saphia cha thm o.
(tu 2% criii oxyt C r 2O;0 .
li c m u chi. lon
Cr *' th ay th ioii Al
trong cu trc tinh th
AI2OH v do . a vo
cc mc tp cht Iiin
trong khe vng rng ca Bc sn A ,J4m
saphia. C nhng bc
sng c th s b hp Hinh 5.64. truyn qua ca bc xa nh sng l mt hm
tli chii lc do h qu ca bc sng i vi saphia v rubi

.1 . > .......... .
ca nlnng chuyn di n hoc t nhng mc tp cht ny. tniyn q\ia Iilnt l
mt. hni s ca bc sng i vi saphia v riibi clc trnh by trn hiili 5,63. Di
vi saphia. d triiyii q\ia t thay i trn toii ph nhn thy, to r;i tiiili khiii
Iiiii. Tviy nhin, i vi nibi c nlung pc (nh) hp t.h m nh xy ra. mt. vu;
xaiih -tni (gan 0.4 Mm) v nit vmg viig- lc (gu 0.6 Mm). anh sng khng 1)
hp th (truyn qua) trn vi nh sng th p h t a li cho riibi m u (t thni.
Cc thy tinh v c c inii nh s c int ca cc ioii cluiyii tip hoc t
him. C cc cp ioii - m u iu hnh nh Cu' ; xanh- lc; Co' : xanh- tm ;
Cr '* : lc; Mii^' : vng v Mn : thm .
5.4.4. T N H C V T N H TRONG M CA CC C H T CCH I N
Mc trong Iii v c i vi cc v t liu in mi trong sut ph th\ic rt

uliiii vo c tnh phn x bn troiig v triiyn qua cu chng. Nhiu v t li\i din
nii vn l trong siit c th tr Iiii trong ni liay c nh hn x v khc x bn
trong. Mt chm sng lch hng v nha i l co Iihiu ln t u x, Tnh (IC sinh
ra khi UC ct tii x m nh n inc trn thc t khng CII mt chm iili saii ti
uo chc tn iy n qiia khng b lch ti ctc m t sau.
S t n x bn trong c th sinh ra theo Iihiii Iiguyii Iihn khc nhau. Cac
mu a tinh th vi chit siit khng ng hng tlurng l trong )11. c p hn x
v khic x ii xy ra cc bin ht, gy nn s phn to chm t i a . l S I soi
khc v chit s u t n gia cc h t ln cn khng ciig nh hng tiiili th.
lattice p a r a m e te r : unit cell X-
s h e a r strain (6.2)
niie rÂnge in a p a r a m e t e r
n ^ r i e t - r s t r a i n .6.2)
d ie ^ r! r ! prnv 8 .1 6 ) I
dielecfW co n A . ^lative
r tr u e strain (6
viscosity (12.7) J
Hnh 5.65. S truyn nh sng qua ba mu nhm oxyt.

T tri sang phi: vt liu n tinh th (saphia) trong sut, vt liu a tinh th sit
cht (khng xp) trong m v vt liu a tinh th (xp 5%) uc
Tn x cng xy ra trong cc v t liii hai pha. trong mt pha vi plinn

tii cao Iiin trong pha kia. Tn x chm tia xy ra qua cc min bin giipha khi
c s sai khc chit su't gia hai pha: sai khc cng lii th s tn x cng m nh
hn.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________
D o qua trnh c h to v x l, n h iu sn phnni gii c cha m t xp d\ chti

(luK nhng l nh p h n tn. Nlniig l xp ny l Iihng ni tii x iih sang c
hiu qu.
Hnh .G nii SI khc n hau v c tnh tniyii nh sug gia cc m\i nhm
xyt n tiiih ti. a tiuh th st ch t v xp ( xp ^ %). Trong khi inu n
tiiih th l hon toii trong s\i't th cc niii a tinli th st cht v xp li trong
lu v c.
i vi cc polynie uguyii cht, (khng c ph gia v tp cli't) mc t.rou
m J)h thuc tntc ht vo s kt tinli. T n x anh siig Iihn thy xy ra ti cc
bin gioi gia cc vng tinh th v v nli hnh chnh l do s klic Iiliaii v chit
su at.
Di vi cc in\i c t l tiiili th cao. mc ta n x tng dn n tnh trong
in. v th m ch trong mt s' tnng hp. (tn tnh c. Cc polyme v nh hili
li hon ton trong siit.
S.4..5. NG DNG CA CC HIN TNG QUANG HC
5.4.5.1. Pht quang (pht nh sng lnh)

Mt s v t liu c kh n ng hp th n n g hiig ri th ph t ra iih sn g Iihiii
t luiy (gi l s-// ) h t quauf). Cc pliton ca nh sn g )ht x c sin h ra t cc
clmu di ctin t trong v t rn. Nng lng c hp th khi (tin t\ b ay ln
trn g thi nang lng kch tlicli. cn n h sng nhn thay p h t ra khi n t t tr v
mt nic nng liig th p lin nu nh : 1.8 eV < /M'<3,leV. Niig luiig hp th
c th \fc cniiig cp th n h bc x in t n n g lng cao (gy ra cc cluiyn di t
viiii ha tr lu vng du) nlu l nh sng t ngoi, hoc th n h cc ng\iu khc
nh l chm in t n n g ling cao hoc l n n g hiig n hit, c hay ha hc. Hrtn
ni) s ph t quang cn c phii loi th eo ln ca thi gian tr gia h'p th v
th plit. N\i nh th ph t xy ra san Iit thi gian nh hn Iiliiii so vi mt
giy th hin Uiig ic gi l h u n h qu a n g (Auorescence), nu xy ra saii thi
gian lu hn th gi l n q u a n g (phospliorscence). C nit 5' cc v t liu c t.l
to th n h ch't. h u n h quang hoc ln quang, chiig gni nit s suiifit. oxyt.
volfraniat v int. s t ch t hu c. T hug tlutng th cc v t li\i tinh k h it khng
to c cc hin ting uy v to ra chng cn phi pha thm cc tp cht vi
Iing (t xc (tiili.
S p h at qviang c mt s ng dng thng mi. n hunh quang cu to bi
mt iig thy tinh, b int bn trong c ph bng cc v o l an iat hoc silicat theo
cng ngh c bit. iih sng cc tm (htc to ra trong int loi n thy ngn
phiig in. Hnh n h nhn thy trn m n truyn hnh chnh l sn phm ca s
)ha quang (pht, n h sng lnh). M t trong ca m n hnh (tc ph bng mt loi
v t liii s p h t hunh quang khi c mt. chm in t trong n hnh phng
n h an h ti mn. Cng c th th u tin Rntgen v tia ganiina biig cch dng
phtpho p h t n h s n g nhn th y khi chiu vo (t m t chm bc x khng nhn
thy.
266_____________________________________ C h n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
Mt s lp tip xc chnh litii P-N. nh III t trong IIIIC . 1.2.4. cng c the
dng to ra nh s n g Iihn th y nh int qu triih gi l i p h t quang
(electrohiminescence). Klii mt in th th u n t qua linl kiu, cc ctin t v l
trng s trit tiu ln n h an trong v n g ti hp theo biu thc (.67). Trong tntng
hp (t ing liig c sinh ra d\fi clug nh ^ng nhii thay. Nhng ctit pliat
q\iang (liglit - eniitting diode - LED) qvien th\ic ph t ra anh sng nlin thy ctc
s dng hin s. Mu sc c trng ca LED ty thuc vo v t liu bii (ln dc
bit, itc dng.
5.4.5.2. Quang dn
Tnli (ln ctin ca cc clit bn dn ph t.luic vo s ctin t t do trong viii;
dii v s lng l trng trong vng ha tr theo biii thc (.12). Nng lng nhit
gn vi cc dao ng m n g c th thc y cc kcl) thcli in t trong in t
t clo v l trn c to th n h nlnt trnh by trong mc .I.I.3. C th sn
siiih cc ht ti b xung thm nh cc chuyn di din t ctvc kch thch bi
phtou; clii in tng. Hin tiig ny gi l quang dn. Nh vy khi mt vt
liii quang dn c chiu sn g, dn iu s tng ln.
Quang dn ctc ng dng trong iny o nh sng chp iih. Dng in do anh
sng kch thcli ra chc cto. v ln ca n l mt lini s trc tip ca citii (t
bc x iih sng ti. Cacnii sxilii l v t liu ctdc dng ph bin troiig cac may (to
nh siig.
iih s n g m t tri c th clniyii i trc tip thcnh n n g lng ctin trong cc
) i.n m t tri.-, ch ng cng s d iig cc ch'! bn dn. H o t ng ca cc lin h k i ii
uy tlieo m t Iigha no c l ngitc li vi ctit ph t qiiang. Mt tip xc p -11
(titc s dii sao cho troig cc in t v cc l trng (t\tc kch thch hi nh
sn g u b ko ra khi tip xc theo nhng hng Iigc Iiliaii v to ra dn^ (tin
ngoi.
5.4.5.3. LAZE
T t c cc chuyn di in t bc x trnh by cc phn trn vi l t
pht, c ngha l. nit in t t t t mt. trng th i n n g htng cao xiing ml
trn g th i n n g lng tlip hdn m khng c m t kch thch bn ngoi no. Nhn
lu chiivii di n y c lp vi n han v ti u lu n g thi im ng\i nhiu, to ra bc
x khng kt hp; Iiglia l cc siig nh sng khng trng pha vi Iiliau. Nh\nf
vi tia laze, nh s n g k t hp ilc sn sinh bi cc chuyn cii in t khi ii t
Iit tc nhn kch thch bn ngoi; th t vy laze (theo th u t ng tin g anh
LAZER) chnh l t ghp t t ca "light amplificatioii by stim ulated eniisRon of
radiatioii" (khuch i n h s n g b n g s ph t bc x kch thch).
Tuy c Iiliiu ki\i laze khc n hau l hot, ng ca chng ii ic
gii thch b ng laze ch t rn rubi. Riibi n gin l n tiiih th AI2O. (saphia) c
pha thm 0 ,0 0 % ion C r '' . Nln gii thch trn (mc .4.3.). nhng iou ny
lm cho n ib i c inii c trng; q\ian trng hn l chng to ra cac trn g th i
in t q iiyt nh h ot ng ca la7e. c dng th anh vi hai cii pling son g
VT LIU HC 267
sou g v chtc ini n h n bng. C hai u \Mc in bc sao cho mt ii phn x

ton phn cn ctu kia truyn qvia mt phn.
T lian li rubi c chiu s n g b ng nit ii Iihy s n g xnoii (hnh .G). Do tac
dii Iiy t t c cc ion C r \ i trn g th i cd bn ca chiig. ngha l cc in t
chiin nhng inc n n g lng tlip Iih't Iih\ bivi din trn s hnh 5.66. Cc
;u
plitoii c b\fc sng 0 ,5 6 f.ini do ctn xiion p h t s kch thch cc in t ca Cr
clmyeii lu cc trn g thi
nang liig cao hn.
Nhng ctiii t ny c th n nhy sn^
tt trrl v trn g thi c
bn ca chng bng hai
cch khc nhau. Mt s
din t ri trc tip tr v.
ibtoi) p h t ra khng nni
trong- chm tia laze. Cc
(liu t khc t t xuiig
int trn g th i tru n g gian
.sivi bn (con iig EM
trn hnh 0.(57).
clnug c th htu li lii ti
3 nis tnc khi p h t x ti
)ht (con iig MG). Hlnh 5.66. S ca laze rubi v n nhy sng xnon
TroiiR cc qii trnh in t 3 nis l int thi gian ting ct di. iii n y cho thy
mt s lii cc tr n g thi siu bn c th b chim. Tnh hnh ny ctc ch r trn
hnh 5.68b.
Trng thi Kch th i ch
Hnh 5.67. S nng ing ca Ia2 e rubi

(c nu cc con ng kch thich v ging tt in t)
2tH C h n g 5. TNH CHT VT L CA VT LIU
Sit pht x pliton t pht khi u ca mt vi trong s* cc in t l kch

tliiVh. II r; c mt tliac l dn dp nhng pht x t cc in t ang cn trup;
tliai siu bn (hnh 5.68c). Troiig nhng phton lung song soiig theo trc cli ca
thniili rubi. c m t s ic tn iy n
qiia phan in bc nit phii; nhng
l)Jiton khc i li u )ii bc ton
Mj toc toan pnan Mj bc m! phn
phn .' b ])hu x tr li. /
Cn ihiig phtou khng c oO o 0 0 * 0 o o o o o o oo oo

o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo
)ht x theo hiiig trc ny th s oo o o o o o o o o o o o o
b th t lc. Chm n h s n g i ti i 0]
lui li) li dc th eo chiu di th an h : M { ; t ; ; ; i } t {
rubi. cng ca n t n g ln do c
nhiu pht x hn \c kch thch I *t t ! t t t t t- t ! -t-
(hnh .(38d). Cui cng nit chm ;
sn g Iaze cng tao. kt. hp v o 0^0

tp tn m g cao trong mt thi gian
nii (lc truyn qiia ctii m bc
C)
mt phan ca th a n h rubi (hnh
o o o * o o o
.67e). Chin sa n g n sc ny c 0 o-<>- o o 0 ^ 2
o o jlTo * 1
hc sng 0 .6 9 4 3 .1111.
Ingoy frJCkhi ( * cn gia isa khi
Mt lot cc ch t c th dng
phn x tip) tinb th) phn x)
cho laze. troiig c mt s" ch t kli
d)
v thy tiiili cng Iilu cc it tip
xc bn dii. L aze c nhi\i ng
(lng khc nliaii. Do cac chm tia
laze c Ihe hi t to ra s lm o o o ir c o o o 0 o o o i
f-o-o o o o -o 0 * 0 0 0 o 0 57-
Iiiig cc b. chng ic diig trong o o o o o_cc o o o o o H
cc qu trnh phu tlm t v ct gt. e;

gia cng kim loi. L aze cng chc
dng lm cc nguii iili s n g clio
Nguyn t Cr bi kch thch
o Nuyn t Cr Irng thi c bn
cac h thng tin qu an g hc. Xa hn
na. v cac chm tia laze l chm tia
kt. hp cao > cling c th ic Hinh 5.68. S biu din pht xa kch thch v
dng trong cc php o khong cch khuch i nh sng ca laze rubi
r't chnh xc.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 269
Chng 6
N MN V BO V VT L lf u
6.1. KHI NIM CHUNG V A n m n k im l o i

Trong qu trnh s dng, c'u trc v tnh cht ca v t liu c th b bin i
theo thi gian, d n n thoi ha v t liu. i vi v t liii kim loi, nguyn nhn
thoi ha clui yu l do qu triih n mu. Do vai tr quan trng ca v t liu kim
loi trong ph t trin kinh t. vn n mn v bo v chng lun lun c quan
tni nic cao.
Ngiri ta lc tn h tiu hao cho n mn v bo v kim loi ti cc qiic gia cng
nghip ph t trin chini khong 4.2% thu nhp q\i'c dn . V d. Php nm 1982
tiu hao 88 t iig , M nm 197; 70 t la .
ii mn kini loi l SI ph hy chng do tc dng in ha hay ha hc ca
mi tring x\in g quanh.
PQii nim g ch dng cho s n mn s t hay hp kim trn c s s t vi s to
th nh s ii phm n nin ch yii gm hyroxyt b hyrat ha.
Q \i trnh an inn kim loi \c chia thnh hai loi chnh: n Iin ha hc v
n mn in ha .
Aii mn ha hc cn gi l n inn kh l do phn ng ha hc ca kim loi vi
nii tring xu n g qu an h cha cht xm thc Iih\< 0 -2. Cl^. ... V d. kim loi khi
lum g u h it cao trong khng kh b oxy ha:
Me + 1/2 0^ -> MeO (Me l kim loi).
ii mn in ha l s n mn kim loi trong mi trng cht in gii, trong
s ion ha cia n g u y u t kim loi, s kh cia ch t oxy ha khng phi xy ra
ch trong m t p hii ng trc tip.
Tc n mii iu ha ph thuc vo in th in cc.
ii niii in ha ca kiin loi gm ba qu trnh c bn ; qii trnh aut, qu
trnh catt v qu trn h dn in.
Q u trn h a n t l qii trnh oxy ha in ha. trong kim loi clm yn vo
dung dch dii d ng ioii v gii phng in t; kim loi b n mn theo phn ng;
Me -> Me'" + ne.
Q u tr in h c a t t l qu trnh kh in ha, trong cc cht oxy ha (Ox) n hn
in t do kim loi b n inn gii phng;
Ox + nc Red ,
R ed l d n g ch t kh (Ox. ne).
270 C h n g s. N MN V BO V VT LIU
Ox l dng ch t oxy ha. thng l H' hoc O i. Nu Ox l H' th qvi truh

catt s l:
H' + e H,. .
Hhp +H i, ^ H2
(H|,p l hyro h p pli ).Ta gi l s n mn vi cht kh phn cc liyro.
Nu Ox l O 2 th:
- Vi ini trng axit. qii triih catt s l :
0 , + 4H ' + 4 e 2H;jO:
- Vi nii tniig trung tn h hoc baz. qii trnh catt s l:
0;, + 2 H 2O + 4e ^ 40H
Klii troiig d iuig dch c ulitng ioii kim loi c in th in cc diig hn kini
loi b n niii th qu trnh catt c th l:
Me" ' + n 'c Me
hoc Me"'' + n"c Me""' .
trong ct n' - n" + n"' .
H'
SO.
Hnh 6.1. S n mn in ha km trong dung d C h axit
Hnh 6.2. Cc pin cuc b trong Hnh 6.3.S pin in ha

kim loi b n mn
: cc iii t do kini loi b ii mn gii I)hng s di chiiyen
Q u trih d n i n
f ant ti catt. cn cc iou dch chuyn trong d\ing (lch.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 27_
Tm li ta c th tm t t cc qii trnh trn bng s n\i trn hnh 6.1 (ly

s :in mn kii tronp: dmig dch axit H^SO lii v d).
Nh\ vy trong qu trnh n mn din ha. kiin loi hot ng nh lut pin . ta
i l pin n nin cc b (vi pin).
Ni chung cc kim loi ii cha cc tp cht c in th in cc khc nhaii.
Cho nn khi nhng vo trong dung dch cht in gii, chng to th n h cc pin cc
b v qu trn h u inn b t ii (hnh 6.2).
6.2. TC N MN
Tc n niii c th o b ng ;
a. Tii tliat trng liig p,| l trng liig kiii loi tn th t trn mt n v b
int. trong mt n v thi giaii :
/U - I-,
Px\- ---------------- . nig/dm'^. n gy . (G.l)
s.t
t ro n g t I. h2 - tr n g liig inii k im loi trc v s a u khi b ii IIIII. nig;
s - din tch b m t kim loi, diii :
t - thi gian. ngy.
h. D thm Iilip tiili theo chiu su kim lo.i b n mii trong nit nin:
p, I . 0.036
p, = ------------------ , niiii/nni . (6.2)
trou ct p - trng liig riiig ca kini loi, g/cni .

Nioi ra. tc d an Iin c th c o bng int ct dii ii mn i hoc th
tch khi liyro th o t ra. ...
bu cliiig n niii ca kim loi c th chia th n h ba cp:
- Cc kim loi c p, < 0.12 Iiiiii/niii \c coi l r t bn chng ii mn;
- Cc kiiii loi c P| trong pliiii vi 0.125 - 1.25 niiii/ini i(c coi l (tt yu
r;ui;
- Cc kim loi c p, ^ 1-2 niin /nm ic coi l khng t y\i cu.
6.3. IN TH IN c c

Khi mt kim loi (Me) iig n h t c nhng vo trong dung (lch cht in
gii cha ioii Me'" ca n (v . Cii nhng trong' chiug (lch C\iSO() th gia kim
loi v ching dch c cn bng sa\i:
C)X> lpli
1
Me <----------> Me ' + 7C .
ki.
Klii c cn hii th gia in cc v diiug dch c in th in cc cn biiu E
t.iiii theo h thc Neriist:
C h n g f. N MN V BO V VT L i u
RT
E - ., + ------ \ n a . ((;.:)
nF
tro i)( R - h n g s kh, R - 8.31441 J/niol.K ;
T - n h it d tiiy t i . K :
F - hng i Karaay. F - 96 OO c/m ol ;
a - hot, ca ioii Me"' trong cliiVt in giai:
E - in th in cc tiu ch un ca k ini loi ng vi (lung (lch c hot
f/= l.
Trong thc t ta khiig th o (tc trc t.ip gi tr tuyt (ti cii (ii th (tin
('c cnn bng (tluin nghch) gia kini loi v ching (lch cha lui ca chiio-
N.i ta tiuiig o (tin thciii cc bng 1)11 in ha fin hai na pin : mt Iia
))in l iii ci.rc kii lo<i n^hin cu, cn na kia l ctiii cc so snh. Hnh 6.3 tiiili
by H piii (lin liu gm (in citc kim loi M e n h n g troii (hing (lch c C/M..I.' ~ 1
v ciii cc so s n h l in cc hyro tiu cln ia n c ctin th xc qiiy c laiiK
khiig.
Sc din ng ca pin trn hnh 6.3 l:
- Ej\ /Iip
/Mn - 0 - E\],. /_\|).
chnli l in th'din co tin clm nn ca in c\c. n^hin cu. B n g 1 clio
hil in tli din cc tin chun cn bng ca p h n ng oxy ha - kh ca mt s
kini loi v phn ng in lia,
S liu bng trii cho php (tiih gi ch iu lu ii lm vic ca pin in lia.
V (l. c Mit p iii iu ha gm hai na p in : na p iii th n h t gm ('c s;l
Iiliiing trong (hiiig dch cha ion P e ' c ho t d - 1. cn mVa pin t h h;u 1.1
mt (tin cc l)ng ctng Iihu g trong cluiif (lch c h a ioii C \ 1^' c h o t cl 1
Sc (tin ctii ca pin ( s l :
(Kc^ K i') - 0.3'1 - (-0 .4 4 ) = 0 .7 8 V.
Ni liai na piu th s c int dns in i qua pin. din t s i t ciu CI.C
st sang ctin cc iig Iigha l rli t in cc c in th .hp hdn (ant) n clin
cc c in th cao hn (catt). Trong tn iig ljp ny. trn (in cc s t c lhii n ,<4
aiit :
Fe Fe^' + 2o .
S at b ha tan. cn trn in cc Jiig s c p h n r n g catt:
Cii' + 2 e ^ C v i .
Tru (tin cc ng s c k t ta thm m t lp ng.
Tng t nln trn ta c th cii trc rn g tt. c cc kim loi vi iii tlit'
(iii cc tin chuii thp hn ca in cc hyro s b n mn tron axit khii;
chita oxy. ng tlii c s tlioat kh hyro:
2M e 2 M e "' +2/(
2nH ' + 2 ^ / c - > n H ,.
VT LIU
___ HC
____ __ 273
Ngic l i. in t h in cc ti u chun ca ng cao hii ca hyro, ng

khng th b a x it khng cha oxy ha ta n n mn. Nu trong axit c cha oxy ha
taii th p h n ng cat t s l;
0 , + 4 H '+ 4 e ^ 2 H 2 0 .
B n g 6 .1 . in th'tiu chun cn bng 25c ca mt s phn ng in cc
Phn ng in th tiu chun cn bng

so vi in cc hyro 0 , V
Au^ + 3e Au 1,50
O2 + 4H" + 4e <-> 2H?0 1,23

A g + e Ag 0.80
O2 + 2 H2O + 4e <-> 40H 0,40

+2e Cu 0.34
2H' + 2e Hp 0.00
+ 2e Pb - 0,13
Sn"* + 2e <-> Sn -0 .4 0
Fe^ + 2e Fe -0 .4 4
+ 3e Cr - 0.74
Zn^* + 2e *r-> Zn -0 .7 6
Al^' + 3e AI - 1.67
Mg^ + 2e <-> Mg -2 ,3 7
Na* + e Na -2,71
Phii iig n y c in th in citc tiii chiin l 1.23 V. ln hn in th in

cc tiii c liu a ii + 0 ,3 4 V c a p h n iig Cu -> Cu ' + 2c . ctng s b n nin.
Tiiy Iihiii cn Iii th m r n g h o t ca cc ion trong duiig dch tluiig khc
vi 1 . 11+ . ^ 1) n n imiii bit kim loi c b n mn hay khng, ta phi
tnh in t h cn b n g ca kim loi theo phng trnh N ernst (6.3). sa\i so siili
vi (in th cn b n g ca p h n ng k h phn cc catt.
6.4. NG HC QU TRNH N MN
(i.4.1. S P H N cc
Xt m t b n h in ha gni;
- m t ctin cc b n g Zn n h iiiig tron g dung dch inii kni c hot ay,j+ =1 ;
- m t iu CIC P t n h n g trong a x it c a -1 (hnh 6.).
Ni h ai in cc th s xy ra sit oxy ha km;
18 - VLH
274 C hng f. N MN V BO V VT LIU
Zn -> Z ii^ '+ 2 c

v s kh ion
2H' + 2 e-^ H2 .
Hnh 6.4. S lm vic ca pin in ha Fe-Cu Hnh 6.5. S pin in ha km-hyro
Lc ny in tli in cc s khc vi gi tr ghi trong biig 6.1 bi v h thng

khng cn tr n g thi cn bng.
S dch chuyn ca in th in cc khi gi tr cn bng khi c dng in i
qiia gi l s p h n cc v mc ca s dch chuyn gi l qu th:
r\-E-Eî , (6.4)
trong E - in t h in cc khi c dng i qua;
- in t h in cc trn g th i cn bng.
Gi s khi n m ch th iu CIC km c in th - - 0,621 V . Cn c vo
bng 6.1 ta tnh c:
n = - 0 ,6 2 1 -(-0.763) = 0,142 V.
Klii E, dng hdn Ech ta c p hn cc ant, phn ng trn in cc chi yu s l
phn ng oxy ha . K lii E m hn ta c phn cc catt, phn ng ch yii tru
in cc s l p hn ng kh.
Qu triih p hn ng trn in cc l m t qu triih phn ng d th gm Iihiii
giai on ni tip nh; khuch t n cht phn ng n b m t in cc, cht phn
ng trao i in tch vi in cc, ... Trong cc giai on phn ng ni tip .
giai on no chm n h t s q u yt nh tc ton b phii ng.
P h n cc gy ra bi s km h m giai on chuyn in tch gi l phn cc
hot ha hay l p hn cc in ha.
Phn cc gy ra bi s chm chuyn v t ch't n in cc hoc t in cc ra
gi l phn cc nng .
6.4.1.1. Phn cc
hot
ha
P hn cc h o t ha c m t bng h thc saii:
niii. = p log(i/o) , (6.0)
trong i - m t dng in, tc l ciig dng iii trn n v din tch :
V T LIU HC 275
ciiig dng in /
i -
s din tch in cc s
i - m t dng trao i, tc l m t dng din ti in th cn bng;
p - hng s biu th dc ca ng biu din quan h r||,i, = /Uog);
ng ny gi l viig cong phn c\c: gi tr ca p ph thuc vo
b n cht ch't. in gii v nhit .
Dii cng ng vi phn ng oxy ha (phn ng ant),
Du tr ng vi phn ng kh (phn ng kh catt).
b) LoL
Hinh 6.6. ng cong f| - log/ khi phn cc hot ha

............ quan h bc nht theo I.
------------quan h logarit hay l oan thng Tafel
Hnh 6 .6 a trnh by ng cong phn CIC ca phn iig: 2H' + 2c <-) trong
h n = /'(log). Tiiy Iihin m t dng in thp th gia qu th v m t
(liig c q uan h:
RT i
1- = ------ . ------- (6 .b)
n F
tc l c quan h tuyn tnh. Cho nu ing cong phn cc phi itc trnh by
nh hnh 6.6b: c thm phn ng chm chm (OA v OA') ng vi m t dng
thV-
6.4.1.2, Phn cc nng

Phn CIC n ng l phn cc gy ra bi s chm khuch tn v t ch t phn
ng ctu in cc.
Biii tlic gia qu th v m t dng (dng catt) c dng:
2.3 i
n.Hi = --------- log (1 - ) (6.6 )
n F ijj|,
trong R - h n g s'kh. R - 8.31 J /niol. K;
T - n h i t tuyt. 'i. K;
27G C h n g f. N MN V BO V VT LIU
n - s in t trao i ;
F - s Paraday. F = 9 6 OO c / m o l ;
^,1, - m t dng gii hn.
Hinh 6.7. Quan h r| = log/ khi c phn cc nng
Hnh 6.7a biu din quan h gia qu th v logarit m t dng khi c phn
cc nng . T hy rng, u tin qu th thay i khng ng k theo m t
dng, nlung khi m t dng t ti mt gi tr nht, nh th mi thay i t
ngt. Gi tr m t i gi l nit dng gii hn i khi c phn cc hot
ha ln lhii cc Iing u c nh hiiig n phn ng in cc. Klii y q\i th
ca q\i trnh in cc s l tng ca hai qu th k trn (hnh 6.7b) .
6.4.2. XC N H T c N M N BNG NG CONG

PH N c c
a) Trng hdp c phn ng catt ln aiit \i b km liin bi p h n cc hot

ha. Xt v d s n mn ca kin nhng trong diing dch axit. Qu trnh xy ra
nh sau :
Qu trnh catt; 2H ' + 2e -y Hi! . (a)
iQu trn h ant: Z u Zii"' + 2 c . (b)
Km .b oxy ha khng c s tch t in tch, t t c in t sinh ra bi phn
liig ha ta n km s c phn ng kh hyro tiu th ht. ngha l tc oxy
ha , v tc kh ,, bng nhau. Hnh 6.8 trnh by itiig cong pliii cc ca hai
phn iig (a) v (b) trn.
Trn hnh 6.8 itiig 1 v i ' l iig phn CI.C ant v catt ca plin ng:
2H' + 2c . cn ctng 2 v 2 ' l ng cong phn c ant v catt ca p hn
ng Zn <-> Zii^' + 2c. Cc ng cong i ' v 2 l ing p hn cc ca q\i trnh n
mn km trong mi trng axit. Nh trn ni. trong qii trnh n nin. t."c (t
oxy ha v kh phi bng nhau. iu ny ch xy ra khi clng 1 ' \ h 2 ct nhau.
S ct Iiha\i ca hai ng xy ra ti in th n niii v m t dng n inn
Îinr
VT LIU HC 277
Hnh 6.8. ng cong phn cc khi kem b n mn trong dung dch axit
Hnh 6.9. ng cong phn cc ca s n mn km trong dung dch axit khi qu trnh
catt kh hyro (1) b khng ch bi hot ha v khuch tn ng thi
Gia v tn th't trng liig P || c quan h sau:

A
Px\ = ------ km -t ; mg/dm^ ngy , (6.7)
nF
trong t - thi gian (s) trong int n gy m (24 h. 3600 s/h) , s
278 C h n g 6. N MN V BO v VT LIU
A - nguyn t ling ca kim loi;

I - ha tr ca kim loi:
- m t dng n niii. niA/dni^ .
b) Trng hp qu trnli kli hyro (qii trnh catt) va c phn cc liot ha
va c phii cc Iiiig , cn qu triih oxy ha ca kiin loi (qu trnh ii mn kim
loi, tc qu trnh aiit) th c phn cc hot ha. Trn hnh 6.9 ta thy diig n
inn lun nh hn hoc bng dng gii hn cho d ng cong phn cc ant. ca s
ha tan km (itug 2 a v 2b) b thay i: inni <
6.5. s TH NG KIM LOI

M t s kini loi hay hp kim trong nhiig iu kin ctc b it ca nii tnu
n h tc dng ca cht oxy ha hoc phn cc ant t nhin m t kh niig hot
ng ha hc v tr nn tr. Ta ni rng cc kim loi v hp kiii b th cng.
Cc kim loi Cr. Ni. Fe v hp kim ca chng rt d b th ctiig. H nh 6.10 trnl
by iiig cong phn cc ca kim loi c kh nng b th ng.
_ Thot oxy ÔH' 2HjO+02 +

Kh vc (U thu ng
Khu vc th dng
XMe + y HO - Mej.Oy f 2 y H " 'f2 y e
Khu vc hot ng
Me - 1-ne
__ I__ _____________
iogi
Hnh 6.10. ng cong phn cc ant khi kim loai bi thu ng
Trn iig cong phn cc (hnh 6.10) c ba khu vc:

- Ti klui vc iu th thp, kiin loi ha tan bnh thitiig: kliii vc hot iiy;
- Ti in th E i m t dng in t ngt gim xuiig ti gi tr r t nh:
kim loi tr nn th ng. Ta gi E^^\ l in th khi u th ctng. M t c dng
ng vi E| gi l m t dng ti h n iti,;
- 0 ciii th dng hn E,\ in cc b th ng hon ton, nit dng rt
nh; khu vc th ng.
Trn b m t kiin loi b th ng c pli mt lp oxyt bo v kim loi khi b
li tan;
X Me + y H 2O MeÔv + 2yH ' + 2ye.
V d. tru b m t nhm hiih th n h nit lp ph A1-20;. trn thp khng g: lp
ph CrÔ.i....
VT LIU HC _____________________________________________________ 279
Tip tc dcii chuyn in th v pha dng hn, c th lm cho m t dng

li t n g ln. Ta gi h in tng n y l s " qu th ng". in th ni ti tc
qu triih (int dng ) b t u t n g ln, gi l in th qu th ng Kim
loi b ha ta n th n h cc ioii c ha tr cao hn. i khi in th cha t ti in
th qu th ng, nhng m t dng in vn tng ln do c qu trn h oxy ha
khc xy ra trn in cc b th ng. V d, xy ra phn ng th o t oxy:
40H -> 0-2 + 2 H 2O + 4e.
6.6. NHNG YU T NH HNG TI A n m n i n h a
6.6.1. N H N G YU T BN TRO NG
6.6.1.1. bn vng nhit ng

N ic xc iili b n g in th cu bng E ci ca qu triih catt v J5,.b / i, ca
qii triili ant. V n tc b an u ca s n m n /n, /h(i tn h theo cng thc:
^r.b/c ~ -^cb/i
^ m /b tl = ----------------------------- > (6 -8 )
R
tro n g - i n tr ca p in n m n ( y ta b q iia S p li ii cc).
V d. trong mi tniig tru n g tnh (pH = 7) itc kh oxy th phn ng catt
s l :
2H* + 2e o H 2.
in th cn b n g ca phn ng kh hyro trn tnh theo cng thc :
= - 0 .0 5 9 pH = - 0,0 5 9 . 7 = - 0,413 V.
V v v n h n g kim loi no c m hn - 0,4 1 3 V s b n mn >0).
6.6.1.2. nh hng ca cu trc v tnh cht ca hp kim
N h ng hp kim n h iu pha ni chung kin b n bi v cc pha c in th k hc

Iihaii v do s hiih th n h cc pin n mn cc b.
Cc hp kim mt pha l dung dch r n thiig bn vi n mn hn.
Cho th m vo hp kim nh n g n gu yn t* bn vi n m n s lm cho in th
ca hp kim dch chuyn v pha dng hn v do lm cho hp kim c tnh bn
nhit ng vi n mu tt hn. Cc nguyn t ph gia thng c in th in
cc tiu chun dng hn kim loi chnh hoc c k h Iiiig to th n h lp th ng.
T am n ian th y rng, k h i h m lng cc n gu yn t' bn n mn trong hp kim t
ti ^/8 nguyn t phn th bn vi n inii ca hp kiin tn g ln t ngt (n c
th c cc gi tr 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 .5 ,6 v 7). G i tr ca n ph thuc vo loi dim g dch rn v
xm thc ca dung dch lng. V d, hp kim Fe-C r vi n gu yn t phn 1/8 (tc
0.125 n g u y n t p h n Cr) s b n trong axit nitric vi b t k nng no 2 5 c .
280_________________________________________ C h n g 6. N MN V BO V VT LIU
6.6.2. NHNG Y T BN NG O I
6.6.2.1. nh hng ca pH
n h h n g t r c ti p : in th ca phn ng catt kh H' hoc ph thuc

vo pH.
Phn ng 2H ' + 2c H -2 c
^ . 1.(2 1 - - 0.09 pH - 0,0 3 0 logPii^ (6.9)
^ . 1.(211+/I1^)= - 0 .0 5 9 pH khi p su t ring phn ca liyro l 1 atiii.
Cc pliu ng
O2 + 2H2O +4f? > 2H2O
O 2 + 2 H 2O + 4c ^ 4 0 H '
co 1 . 2 3 - 0 .0 9 p H -(-0.1 lo g P o . . (6 . 10 )
Pii,^ v P(),^ l p sii t ring phn ciia liyro v oxy. V vy khi pH thay i s
lm thay i vn tc n mn v bn Iihit ng vi n mn kiin loi.
n h h n g g i n tip
Ta c th chia kim loi th n h ba nhm:

- N liiig kim loi c m ng oxyt ha tan c trong axit ln kim (v cl. Zn. Al.
Pb. Sn ) th tc n mn th ay i theo pH;
- Nhiig kiin loi c m ng oxyt ch tan trong mi trng axit (v d. Ni. Co. Cu.
Cr. M i i ) th ch n g b n trong nii trng kim;
' N hng kiin loi c m ng oxyt khng ha tan c trong axit ln kim (v cl.
Pt. Ag. Ti ) c tc n mn khng th ay i theo pH.
6.6.2.2. nh hng ca thnh phn dung dch

Trong mi tritug tru n g tnh, cc m ui oxy ha (KCIO.-. K^CrOi . ...) lm cho
kim loi b thvi ng, tc n inn b km hm.
Cc anioii to th n h vi ion kiin loi cc mui khng tan tru aiit v catt s
lm gim tc n nin. V d;
F e " '+ H P O / - ^ P eH P O ,.
6.6.2.3. nh hng ca nng oxy

Qii trhili catt trong n mn nhi\i khi l qiia trn h kh oxy:
O 2 + 2 H 2O + 4e > 4 0 H
V vy tc n IIIII ph tluic vo nng oxy ha tan trong dung dch.
Ni chung khi t iig nng oxy th tc n mn t n g v ;
D
i /'' = - 4 F ------ ; (6.11)
X
trong D - li s khuch tn;
X - ch iu dy lp khuch tn;
- nng oxy ha tan.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 2
^
Tuy nhin khi Iing oxy vt qu mt gii h n no d th kim loi li b th

ng. V d, hp kim Fe-C r s b th ng khi c"() > 0.7 inl/1 dung dch.
6.6.2.4. nh hng ca nhit d

Troug tn t iig hp qii trnh catt l s kh ca ion H' th tc ii mn tii
theo nhit v qii th hyro gim khi Iihit tng.
Klii qu trnh catt l kh oxy th xy ra hai tntiig hp;
- N u h th n g kn th s t n g nhit s lm tn g tc n nin v klnicl)
tan ca oxy tiig;
- N ii h th ng h oxy th ot ra th tc n mn taiig lu theo n h it (tn
tn nhit 80C. saii s gim xung v tc n nin s r t nh uhit si
ca dung dch.
6.6.2.5. nh hng ca gia cng nhit
Gia cng n h it c iili hng rt ln n tc n mn. V d, khi hp kiin

C rlS N ilO (tc m in g nng ri lm ngui t t th cacboii s ti t ra trn bin gii
gia cc h t di d ng Cr 2;)C|j v s khucli tn Cr v c trong trng th i rn c thi
giaii xy ra, hnh th n h cc vng ngho Cr. Do vng bin gii giia cc h t s
b n inn.
6.7. CC DNG N MN
C tiii dng n mn iu hnh sau y:

a) n m n u : khi tc n nin Iiln nha\i trn ton b b n it kim loi. Loi
n mn ny t Iigiiy him v ta c th d on trc khi thit k cc thit b.
b) A n m n g a lv a n ic (n IIIII tip xc) : xy ra khi h ai kim loi hoc hp kim c
th n h phn khc n h a u c tip xc vi nhaii v nhing trong d\ing dch cht in
gii. Kim loi c in th ni hn s b n nin. V d, int inh c bng thp s b
n nin khi tip XIC vi ng th aii trong mi tring Iic bin.
c) n m n khe : n mn iu ha c th xy ra khi c s chnh lch nng ca
ioii hay kh ha ta u trong dung dch in gii v gia hai vng ci\a mt t m kini
loi. ii inn s xy ra ti kim vc c nng thp. V d. s n nin trong klie.
trong h^ sii hoc lp kt ta ca cu bn hoc sii phm ii inn. ti dung dch
b t ng v tliiii oxy ha tan. Qiiu trnh n inn xy ra lii tin ti nhng v tr
CIC gi l n in n khe. Cc khe p h i ii r ng ching dch th m nhp, nh ng
cng phi lip dving dch t dng. Clii\ rng ca khe thng c vi chc
luicroinet.
cl) n m n l : n inn cc b to tli n h cc l. Cc l p h t trin t b nit
vo s ii bn trong theo hng gn nh th n g gc . D n g n mn n y kh p h t hin
v lng kim loi b m t i khng ng k. nliitiig n r t nguy him v gim iig
k sc bu ca v t liu.
282_________________________________________ C h n g 6. N MN V BO V VT LIU
C ch n mn l c th cng giig nh n mn khe: qu trnh oxy ha xv ra

trong l. cn qii trn h kli c th trn b int kim loi. Mt l c th hiih thiih
trn b m t kiii loi ti cc khuyt t t nh vt xitc trn lp sn ph bo v hay
miig th iig ....
Ta thy riig cc niii c nh bng tlutng boii vi n niii l. Tri li thp
khng g troug nit chng mc Iio li n hy vi n mn l. Cho thm 2% Mo
trong hp kini lm t n g n g k bn vi n inii l.
e) n m n tin h g i i : xy ra u tin dc theo bin gii cc ht. Loi n mn ny
c b it hay xy ra vi thp khng g. v d nh vi hp kim C rlS N ilO nhi
trnh by trong mc 6,6.
S n mn tinh gii l mt vn cn h t sc lu khi h n cc loi thp
khng g. C th bo v thp khng g khi n nin tinh gii bng cc bin php
saii:
- N ung Iihit cao v ngiii Iihanh (ti) kim loi hay hp kim nhy vi n
mn tinh gii; ti nhit nung cc criii cacbit b ha tan tr li;
- G im hm hng cacbon xiing di 0,03% trng lng cho s to th nh
cacbit gim x\ing tl thiu;
- Hp kini ha th p khng g vi cc kim loi khc nh Iiiobi hoc titaii. N hiig
kim loi ny c khuynh hng to th n h cacbit m nh hn Cr. v vy Cr vn nm
trong dung dch rn.
g) n m n chn lc : xy ra khi m t cu t hay m t n gu yn t" b u tiu loi
khi dung dch r n ca hp kim. V d, s loi km khi ng thau.
h) n tnn - m i m n : ny sin h khi c s k t hp gia s ini mn c hc hoc
bo nin do ch't lng chuyn ng v tc ng ca mi trng ii mn. D nhiu
t t c cc hp kiin, kini loi trong nit chng mc no u nhy cni vi n mn
- m i inn. S n m n - m i nin c b it c hi cho cc hp kim c m ng th ng
bo v b nit. Nu m ng th iig khng n h an h chng v lin tc itc ti lp th
kiin loi s b ii mn r t nhanh.
M iin gim n m n - nii m n cn phi gim tc chu yn ng ca cht lng,
gim ma s t v va p.
i) n m n ng su t (cn gi l n mn nt) : gy ra do s k t hp gia ng sii t
ko v mi tniig n nin. Thc t c nhiig kim loi r rng l trd trong mi
trng, nh ng li b n mn khi c thm ng su t ko t vo. v t n t t vi x ii t
hin ri p h t trin theo plutng thng gc vi ng sut, du ti s ph hy kim
loi. S ph hy trong trng hp ny m ang c tnh ca ph hy gin inc d kini
loi hay hp kiin vii do. M t khc s ph h iiy x u t hiu ngay khi ng s\it c gi
tr thp hn r t nhiu gii hn bn. n g sut Ry Iiii )i mn n t khng n h t thit
phi do t t ngoi vo m c th l ng su t d sinh ra trong cc q\i trxh cng
ngh ch to tnc .
Biii php t*t n h t tr n h n mn ng su't l gim lii ca ng su t b ng
cch gim ti trng ngoi, tng tit din vung gc vi ng s\it. M t khc quy
trnh gia cng ch to v ch nhit luyn phi hp l gim ng sii't dit.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ ' 2 ^
6 .8. BO V KIM LOI
6.8.1. X L M I TRNG
Loi b cc cu t gy n nin : P hn ln cc kim loi dng c h to th it b

u bn trong ini triig trung tnh loi oxy. Ta c th trung ha dung dch
nit cch d d ng Iihing li kh loi oxy. ha tan ca oxy trong dung dch mrc
ph thuc vo n h i t . p su t ring phn ca oxy (Po.) v nng m ui ca dung
dcli. Loi tr O 2 c th thc h in theo cc cch sau:
- B ng cc phn ng ha hc :
O 2 + N q 2 s o ., 2 N a ,iS 0 |
O2 + N^H, 2H ,0 + N2 .
u h it cao liyrazin (N^H i) s b phn hy :
3 N 2H , N , + 4 N H ,.
Si dng hyrazin loi tr c Iigviy c to th n h nmi.
- B ng phng php v t l ;
m i Iing diing dch hoc nc ;
x l chn khng diiiig dch hoc niic, c th gim nng oxy n
O.OO ppni.
N hng phng php ny c dng loi oxy trong cc ni hi.
6.8.2. BO V K IM L O I BNG c c C H T l m c h m N m n
(CHT c CH)
l n li n g hp ch t Iii ta th m vo nii tn tn g n IIIII vi liig rt nh
nlutng c tc dng lm chm r rt tc n mn. Tc dng km hm tc n
mn ca ch t lii chm c th do m y n gu yn n h n sau:
- Do to th iih cc hp ch t khng tan . k t ta ln b in t kim loi bt k l
cat.t hay aiit.
V d: 2C rO ,^' + lO H ' + 6 c CrÔ;, + H2O ;
- Do hp ph th n h nit lp n p hn t trn b m t kini loi.
n h gi tn h h iu qii ca ch t lm chm n mn ta ita ra k h i nim "h
s tc dng bo v" Z:
Po - Pi-
z ^ ----------. 100% . ( 6 .1 2 )
Po
p, - tn th t trng lng kini loi trong dung dch khng c v c ch t lm
chm .
6.8.3. BO V I N H A
bo v in ha kim loi ta phi th ay i in th ca n ti khu vc bn

vi n m n (niiii dch) hoc klui vc th ng ca th Pourbaix (hiih 6.11).
284 C hng 6. N MN V BO V VT LIU
Trong tn iig hp th nht, in th n mn phi thp hn in th cn bng

iii cc - dung dch. Klii ta c s bo v catt. Trong trng hp th hai. in
th n niii phi ln hn in th cn bng in cc dung dch. Klii ta c bo
v aiit.
+2
6.8.3.1. Bo v catt 1
\ rh ng
\V
C hai phng php bo v
UJ
catt: bng aiit hy sin h v bng r e . s )
c
dng ngoi. : n mn
a. B o v b n g a n t h y s i n h -An mn
(proteet)
Min dich
Kim loi cn bo v c ni vi
-2 r
int kiin loi khc c in th in O 15
pH
cc m hn Oinh 6 . 12 a). Kim loi
c gi l an t hy sinh hoc Hinh 6.11 th Pourbaix gin n ca
prqtect. Cc itng coiig phn cc Fe 25c
k h i bo v b ng a n t h y s in h ctic
trnh by trn hnh 6 . 12 b.
Trc khi lp t protect. iig cong phn cc ant B v ng cong phn cc
catt A ct n hau 0, Tic n nin ca kini loi cha c bo v l i.. in th
ca kim loi s l (hnh 6 . 12 b).
Klii lp tliin protect th \fng cong phn cc catt vn l itng A. N lnig
by gi ta c hai iig cong phn cc ant: iig B l ing cong phn cc aiit
ca kim loi cn bo v. iug c l ca protect. Do ta phi cng liai npr B
v c c ng cong phn cc aiit tng D. ng D bt u t E t,' (in th
cn bng ca protect ) i qua X v ct ng A ti Y.
T Y ging iiig th n g song song vi tn ic honh n ct trc tu n g ta c
in th n mn ca h th ng . ng ct iig cong phn cc aiit B
ti z. T z k iiig th n g gc vi trc log ta tii c t'c n m n '. ca kim
loi cn bo v. T hnh 6.12b thy rng nh vy kim loi c bo
v, cn protect s b lia tan vi tc l ,,r- R rng protect t hy sin h
bo v kim loi ca ciig triih.
Cc protect th in g c ch to t Zn. Al. Mg hay cc hp kim ca chng. Cc
yii cxi c bn i vi v t liu kiin loi cho protect l ;
- C in th iu cc m hn v t liu cn bo v. l vi cc cng triih b ng
thp cacbon th p ( = -5 5 0 ...-6 5 0 111V), v t liu protectd phi c in th in cc
t -70 n -80 inV so vi in CIC (Ag/AgCl) bo ha. Ngi ta phn bit in th
h m ch v in th lm vic (in th khi protect lp trong m ch bo v vi
i tng v mi tritng c th);
- C dung hng cao v n nh. D ung liig Q [A.h kg ] l in liig do m t
n v khi lng protect s n sinh ra. n ni ln kh n n g lm vic lu di ca
protect theo thi gian;
- C phn cc ant nh bo ni xc su t bo v cao.
VT LIU HC 28;'
' '
0}
Hinh 6.12. S bo v bng ant hy sinh (a) v cc ng cong

phn cc tng ng (b).
1- thit b cn bo v, 2- v bc hoat ha (thch cao + betonit + NasSO^),
3- ant hy sinh (protect) ,
A- ng cong phn cc catt; B- ng cong phn cc ant ca kim loai cn c
bo v; C- ng cong phn cc ant co protect; D- ng cong phn cc ant
tng (cng hai ng B va c VI nhau)
N goi ra. cli i ln^ proticU cn tiic ilnh bi hivi s\uVt. ilin hu n [%]. l
t s gia dung hng thc t v (iim g lng l tliiiyl. . Hiu siuVt ni ln mc il
liu ch ca h protect.
V t liii protect in hnh dng bo v ii IIIM flin liu cho cic cng trnh
hang thp l inagi (Mg). km (Zii). nhni (Al) vn cc hp ki]u ca chng. Trong
bng nii cc clc tr ng in ha v v d iig dng ca s v t liu i)rotect. ph
biu.
b. B o v Citt b n g d n g n g o i
S ct bo v ca t t b ng dng ngoi v chng cong phn CIC khi bo v nu trn

hnh 6.12. Plii clua c dng ngoi th in th in cc kim loi b Tni IIIII s l
v tc ii mn tng ng s l N\i Iih mt Iiguii din t bn ngoi ta
(lch chuyn c th in cc ti gi tr E \ (hili G.13b) th tc n mn s l
' ii.n- N h\f vy k iin lo i c ho v m t phn. N ii in Mi in cc c
a ti b n g in th cn hng ca q\i trnh oxy ha kim loi E. i/' th tc ct ii
mii i, = 0 . Kim loi ic bo v h on toii. D ng in cn th it chta t Iigoni vo
c bo v hon ton gi l dng in bo v
Cc yii cii vi v t liu an t troiig phng php bo v h ng (lng ngoi l;
- tc ct tin hao khi ph 11 cc nh hoc khng ng k;
286 C h n g f. N MN V BO V VT LIU
Bng 6.2. Cc vt liu protectd ph bin
in th Dung Hiu
Vt liu h mch. lng, sut. Vi d v mi trng v i tng bo v
mv < A.h/kg %
Magi -1400 1100 Dng mi trng t, nc ngt v nc
v 50 l c in tr ring ln (n 10 000 Ocm :
hp kim -1600 1230 bo v tm thi (khong 2 nm)
-1000 780 Dng mi trng c in tr ring
Km 95 n 500 ic m ; bo v v tu bin, x lan. ...
-1055 815
-1000 925 Mi trng c in tr ring nh hn 500 Ucm

Hp kim
85 hiu sut in ha c th gim theo thi gian:
Al-Zn-Sn
-1050 2500 bo v cu cng ven bin (5. .10 nm)
Hp kim -1050 2290 Mi trng c in tr ring nh hn 150 2cm.
AI-Zn-ln 90 khng tt nhit thp; bo
-1100 2600 v dn khoan c' nh (10...20 nm)
Hp kim -1000 2750 Mi trng c in tr ring nh hn 150 icm ;
Al-Zn-Hg 95 bo v dn khoan c nh
-1050 2840 (10...20 nm)
(1) So vi in cc Ag/AgCI bo ha.
f hoc m/ irn
dn in loi 2
0)
Hinh 6.13. S bo v v ng cong phn cc khi bo v catt bng dng ngoi

1- tng kim loai cn bo v, 2- cht n dn in, 3- ant tr. 4- ngun in
mt chiu , ' in th cn bng ca qu trinh phn ng kh catt, Ect,'' - in
th cn bng ca qu trinh phn ng oxy ha ant ca kim loai
VT LIU HC 287
- c kh n n g lm vic vi m t dng bo v lii, ti h n g nghn

- c dn in cao. bn c hc bo m , d c h to.
T y theo cc iu k in c th, ngii ta c th si\ dng vt liii tlm c loi ti\i
hao n h a n h (tru 4 kg/A .nm ), tiu hao chm (di 1 kg/A .nm ) hoc v t liu tr
-4 '
(diti 10 kg/A .nm ). Cc ant b ng thp thuc loi tiu hao nhanh. Cc aut
b n g graphit. hp kim F e-S i hoc hp kim c s Pb c tc tiu hao thp. Cc
ant. ph P t hoc Ti thuc loi tr.
6.S.3.2. Bo v ant
N g u y n l ca s bo v ant khc h n bo v catt. Trong bo v ant. in
th' n m n c t n g ln sao cho n n in tro n g k h ii vc th ng ca th
Po\irbaix . Phng php bo v aiit ch p dng cho nhng kini loi c th b th
ng. H nh 6 .1 4 cho th y s in v iig cong phn cc ca bo v aiit.
P o te n tL o s ta t
E -----
B c
o) b)
Hinh 6.14. S in v ng cong phn cc trong bo v ant.
A- potentiostat, B- calt, C- in cc so snh; 1- ng cong phn cc catt.
2- ng cong phn cc ant khi c thu ng:
Ecb" - th cn bng ca qu trinh ant v catt.
Trong qu triih bo v an t ta phi n n g in th n nin ti in th ln hn

in th khi u th ngî,! (hnh 6.14b). Tc n mn by gi b n g |.ti'tc l
m t dng n m n trn g th i th iig. cn ch rng, iniiii cho dng n niii
n nh tr n g th i th ng ii th trong thi gian b t u bo v ant, dng in
phi vi t qua dng ti h n ,h . V d, bo v m t bnh bng th p Iim cha axit
H 2S O 1 nng, trong thi gian bt u bo v aiit ta phi cho qua m t m t dng
bng dng ti h n l 3 A/ni^. sa \i khi t trn g th i th ng ta ch cn cho
qua m t m t dng duy tr c 0.2 A/in^.
Bo v aiit i hi phi c iny mc in t phc tp v t tin n u ch s
dng trong cc mi tn iig n mn m n h (thiiig gp trong cng nghip ha hc).
288 C h n g f. N MN V BO V VT LIU
6.9. N MN HA HC (A n m n KH)
Aii inii kh ca cc kim loi l phn ng gia kini loi v k h bao (iuuih
cliiig, PluHi iig n y l s oxy ha xy ra trn b m t kim loi v t o th n h V ii n
mt. s' h]) clut no . Do c kim loi li b ph hy. Loi ii inn n y ch yt'n
xy ra Iiliit c cao. Trong cta s tritiig hp. oxy ca kh q u yn tac d n g V('i kim
loi to th nli cc oxyt. Vi vy )lia ii diti ta ch x t s oxy ha kini loi.
(.y.l. c CH N MN KH
Ging nlut qu trnh n mn trong diing dch, s to th n li o x y t c n g xy ra theo

c ch ctin ha. Qu trnh oxy ha
-
kim loi troiig kh q uyn gii hai
n o
yiai on (hiih 6.15) Iihvt sau: b
mt phn chia kim loi/oxyt c ' Me
pluii ng ;
0^' .
Me -> Me'" + nc .
b nit pliii chia o xyt /02 c plin ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ s ' \
K im toi O xyt
ng :
M e ^ O ^ 0,'i
i/ji U
1/2 0 ;. -> + 0 '.
Phnn ng tng s l : Hinh 6.15 S oxy ha kim loai
. , ...... m /^2 -
///Me' + ;/ ; /2 o -
Troiig rao phing trnh trii l, 11 l ch R v ha tr ca kim loi, 0 |,|, l oxy b
hp pli trn b m t kim loi.
Trou triih n mn kh. nit iniig (lp) rii ca s n phii n inii to th n h
trn b m t kiii loi. Ngi ta th y rng c SI \i tiu k h u ch t ii ca ioii kim loi
qua lp oxvt so vi khuch tn o^' (hoc S", C D vo trong lp oxvt.
6.9.2. M NG BO V V KH N G BO V
D iu kin kini loi b oxy lia l p s ii riiig p h an ca oxy t.roiiR nii

tn iig ])hi lii hn p sut. I)lin hy ca oxyt. V (l. phn ii 2A g;,0 4Ak + ()j
c a]) s\i't. |)lin hy oxyt Agô 400 K l 0 .6 9 a tn i tp h e. tc lii hn p s u t rin^
pliii ca ox troiig nii tr\iig l 0.21 atiiitp h e. n n t i nhit, cl bc khii b
oxv ha.
M ng bo v phi c nh n g tnh cli't sa u :
- Plii st cht, v phi bao ph ton b b m t ki 111 loi;
- Bn vi tc ng ca mi trituK:
- Phi c sv bm dnh tt vi kim loi nii;
- H s g i n n di ca oxyt phi gn vi ca kim loi.
Kli n iig bo v ca Iiiiig oxyt ph th uc v o t s E gia th tch riii CUI
oxyt v ca kim loi (t s P illin g - Bedworth):
VT LIU HC___________________ ___________________________________________________ 289
V^nxyt ôxvl ^ ô \y t PMe

E = (6.13)
^ ^ M f! ^ p O.X.VI P M ' P o x y t-A
trong ct Moxvi - p lin ti liig ca oxyt;

poxyi. p.\!<- - kh'i lng rin g ca oxyt v kim loi:
A - n g u y n t lng ca kim loi;
n - ch s' ca k im loi tron g oxyt.
PClii e > 1 . m n g c tn h bo v. l m ng oxyt ca Cd. Al. Ti. Zii. Ni. Cu. Cr.
Si.
Kin E < 1. m n g k h n g c tn h bo v. l uiig oxyt ca cc kim loi kim
v kim th.
T uy Iiliin Iili iig m n g c s 1 s bo v km v ng su t d rt lii.
Mt v i v ci n g d n g m iig o x y t bo v :
- D n g cng n g h a n t ha to lp Alô. st ch t trn cc sn phm AI
lioc hp k in i Al:
- T h m hoc ni crm , hoc h(tp kim ha Ihcp bng ml lmg crm Icn, khi
tl mng xyl C iO i l hnh Ihnh Irn b ml c kh nng bo v cao:
- S tlng gang silic cai) hoc rcro-silic: mng oxyl SO2 Ir trong nhicu mi
irYng.
6.9.3. N G H C T O M N G OXYT
KJii lp o x y t s t c h t v b in t t ln b m t kim loi tli tc pht trin m ng

li klng ch bi kh\ich t n ion. Gia s tng trng lng trn n v din tch vv
v tlii g ia n t c q u a n h h m parabn:
= k^.t + k-i, . (6.14)
troui . k-2 . - n h n g h iig s 'k h n g ph tlnic thi gian.
Cc k im loi Fe. C \ 1. Co b oxy ha theo quy lu t Iiy.
Klii lp o x y t xp (t s P illiiig -B ed w o rth e lii hn 2 hoc b hii 1 ) th gia s
t n g trn g l ng m n g trn n v d in tch v thi gian c q\ian h hii tiiyn
tnh:
w = k-. (6. l)
vi k.s l h iig s. T ron g iu k in n y, oxy lin tc thm nhp oxy ha b m t
kim loi v m n g o x y t xp. k h n g th n gn cn itc. Cc kim loi Na. K. Ta tiin
theo quy lu t n y.
Vi lp o x y t r t m n g (k h on g 1 0 0 0 ) to th n h n h it tvtiig l th'p th
gia vv v thi g ia n t c q u a n h logarit:
w log ( + :,5 ) (6.16)
vi k . kr l cc h n g s*. Cc kim loi Al. Fe, Cu n h it gn vi n h it mi
trng tu n th eo q u y h i t n y.
19 - VLH
290__________________________________________ C hng 6. N MN V BO v VT Liu
6.10. SN MN CC VT LIU GM

vi cc kim loi s n m n xy ra theo c ch in ha, cn vi cc v t liii

g'm s n mn gy ra do s ph h y ha hc,
Cc v t liii gm c dng n h iii do chng c bn chng n nin t ng i
cao. Thy tin h thng dng cha cc cht lng xm tluc. Cc v t liii ch u la
khng nhng cn chu c n h it cao m trong n h iu tn u g hp cn p h i bn
vi tc dng ca kim loi v m ui nng chy, x lng. v.v.
6.11. s THOI HA CA CC VT LIU POLYME

Trong qu triih s dng, cc polyiie b tlioi ha: tnli n n g c l. ha ca

chng b suy gim v ciii cng b h hng. S thoi ha ca ch t do ch yxx do
cc qu trnh lo ha v t l, lo ha v thoi ha ha hc.
S lo ha v t l gy ra bi cc yu t" sau :
- S di chuyn, s m t m t do bay hi v svf trch ly bi ching m i ca ch t ha
do lm bin i tn h ch t cia polyme;
- Tc dng ca dung mi ; cc phn t dung mi c kch thc n li c th thm
nhp vo cc m t xch phn t lm cho cc polynie b trng ln do trong cht
do x u t h in ng su't d lni cho n c th b nt, gy.
Ni ch iin g cc polym e vi CII trc tinh th bn hn vi d iiiig m i bi v cc
dung mi kh th m Iihp hn vo cc cu trc tinh th so vi cii tr c v nh
hiih
S th o i ha v lo ha ha hc gy ra bi cc tc ng lm b in d n g m nh
mch cao phn t. Cc tc ng l s oxy ha bi oxy (O 2) lioc ozon (O.i) lin
t lin k t m ch cao phn t. Do c tnh v in tn h ca p olyn ie gi m ng
k. Cc polym e n h y vi s oxy ha l polypropylen. p olybutaien, p o ly sty ren v
polyainit. Cc polym e clo ha khng Iiliy cm vi s oxy ha. O zon oxy ha m nh
hn oxy. Cc ch t chng oxy ha ca oxy thng dng l niiii th a n , cc am in v
phenoii.
S th o i ha q u a n g hc ; di tc dng ca tia cc tm b n t v n g a y c
m u sc ca polym e cng b gim . Bc x cc tni i khi cn t n g ciiig tc dng
ca oxy. Cc triiig hp k trn gi l s lo ha kh hu.
Cht n ih chng thoi ha quang hc l cc ch t niii to th n h m ng
chng s th m nhp ca bc x (v d. m ui than. TO 2) hoc l cc cli't hp th
tia cc tm .
S th o i ha do n h i t : s t n g n h it lin biu dn g c'ii trc m ch cao phn
t. S th oi ha n h it c th gy t m ch (v d ,tron g p olyetyleii) h oc s kh
oxy ha (v d, i vi m etyl polym etacrylat) hoc phn ng vi cc gc n g o i vi (s
to th n h HCl khi n h it phn nha polyvinyl cloriia). KJ trong p olym e c cc
mch lin k t m nh (nhi lin kt C-F) th c s n nh n h it trong th i g ian n g n
n h it cao hn 3 0 0 c . Trng hp gii hn. s thoi ha n h it c th gy ra s
chy, phii iig ta n h it m nh.
P hn //
C C LOI VT LIU
.
THNG DNG
TRONG CNG NGHIP

292__________________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
Chng 7
THP vn GRNG
Thp v gan g l n h n g hp k im trn c s s t v cacbon. s n p h m ciia ngnh

liiyn kim ni chung v n g n h lu y n kim en ni ring. T h p v g a n g c m t
khp mi ni: t dng c gia chili cho ti cc tc phm n g h th ii t. trong cng
nghip c kh (m y mc cng c v d n g c), tron g n g iih x y dng (nh ca. cii.
cig, ...), trong giao th ng v n t i (iiig s t. t u b in , t, niy bay, ...). trong
ngnh n ng hiig (khai th c th a n , d ii m, n h i t in v th y in)< tron g (luc
l)hng (v kh. xe c. ...), ch n g h in v n ch in i k h o n g 90% t n g khi Iitng vt
liu kini loi dng trong cn g n g h ip ca th gii.
Mc d n h iu loi v t li u nii ra i, Iihing v tr th en cht. ca th p v
gang vn cha b th ay i. bi v so vi cc v t liu khc (kim loi c iig Iih phi
kini loi ). vic s n x u t ra Iih iig hp kiin trn c s s t (th p v gan g) vi klii
lng ln l kh n nh v txng i r ti n v trn h t l do ng\t(ii ta c th ch
to ra cc loi thp v g a n g vi n h n g tn h ch t rt khc n h a ii nh lip kim ha
v n hit luyn v do vy ch n g c th th a m n \tc n h n g i hi rt a diiK
trong' thc t.
Trong cluiig ny s cp n cc loi th p v g a n g ch yu th i n g gp
trong cng nghip v trong i s n g ca con Iigi. 1?1 th p cacbon. th p lidp kim,
cc loi gan g v mt s hp kim c bit.
7.1. THP CACBON
7.1.1. T H N H P H N H A HC
Trong tlnc t. thp cacbon k h n g phi l hp kim ch gm c Fe v c (trong

hiig c < 2.14%) in do iu k in n'\i lu yn , c n h iu n g u y n t 'k h c c n g c mt.
trong thp, c l cac tp c h t th ng c n h Mn. Si. p . s . cc tp c h t n n h \ H. N.
o v cc tp cht, ngii n h in Iihi Cr. N i, Cii, w, Ti, Mo, V. ...
Tp cht, thng c l n h n g n g u y n t th n g x u y ii c m t tron g mi loi
thp, chng i vo thp t qiing st. t Iihin liu s ciiig khi hiyii gaiig. hor
t vic dng fero kh oxy khi tin h h iy n thp . T rong M u. Si l Iiliiig t.j)
ch, c li. ching n n g cao c tn h ca th p. T rong cc iu kin th n g thng ca
luyn kim chng c m t tro n g th p vi htiig cha M ii < 0,8%; Si < 0.6%. Cn p. s
VT LIU HC 293
\\ cac t p c h t c h i. c h n g lm cho th p b gin v kh hn. cho nn phi tm

i-ach h n c h s c n i t ca ch n g n mc c th c, thp ch t liig cng cao
(ti hi p h i k h c n g tr i t h a i tp ch't ny. Vi th p th n g tlung, liig cha
ca iDi n g \iv n t p h i n h hn 0,06% .
C ng n g h ip lu y n kiii s d n g n g y m t n h iu s t th p vn (ph liu) ca cc
n gn h k in h t qiic d n v q\ic p h n g th i ra (m y m c, xe c, v kh. ...) trong
Iih i u b p h n l in t th p hp k im . n n tro n g n h i u lo i th p cacboii tli iig th iig
vn c th c n it hiig nh cc n g u y n t' nh: Cr, Ni. Cii ( 0.2%); w, Ti, Mo.
V (< 0.1%); ch n g c gi l cc t p cli t n g u n h in , thng l c li v nng cao
c t n li cho th p .
N g oi ra tro n g th p cacboii th n g th iig cn ha ta n cc kh nit, hyro. oxy
vi lng cha r t nh Ii v ic xc n h ch n g r t kh k h n , chng c gi l cc
tp ch t n . vi cc p h i u g php p h n tch th n g th ng kh pht hin v ngii to
thng b q u a. N i ch u n g ch n g l n h n g tp c h t c hi.
Cc Iigiivn t k trn vi lng clii'a nh hn cc gii liii quy iih. nh
hng k h n g n g k n t chc v tn h c h t ca th p , k c cc ng uyn t c li.
cii gi l t p c h t (in k h n g gi l n g u y n t' hp k im ) b i v s c in t ca chng
vi hng ch a h n ch, ch y u do y u cu c a qii trn h cng ngh (n giii (c
bn) n h t ni k h n g c m t d n g no.
T m li th n h p h n ha hc ca th p cacbon th n g thng, ngoi Fe ra, c
gii h n Iih sau:
c < 2%: Mu < 0.-0,8%; Si < 0,3-0,6%: p 0,05-0,06%; s < 0.05-0,06% .
7.1.2. N H H N G C A C A C B O N N T CHC V T N H CHT

C A T H P C AC BO N
C acbon l n g u y n t
q u a ii tr n g Iih t. quyt
(lnh ch y ii n t chc
v tn h ch t ca th p
cacbon (v c th p hp
kim). T g i n pha F e-C
thy r n g k h i ling ch a
ca c tro n g th p t n g ln ,
hiig x n ie n tit c in g t n g
ln t ng n g v l m th a y
i t chc t vi c a th p ,
tr n g th i c n bng
(trng th i ), t chc t
vi ca th p cacboii, p h %c
tliuc v o hiig ch a ca
Hnh 7.1, nh hng ca cacbon n c tnh ca thp cacbon
c troug n. n h i sau: trang thi
294________________________________ ________________________ C hng 7. THP V GANG
c < 0 . 8 % - th p trc cng tch, t chc l ferit - peclit;

c = 0 , 8 % - th p cng tch, t chc l peclit:
c > 0 , 8 % - thp sa u cng tch, t chc l peclit * x in en tit II.
C tn h ca th p cacboii, ph thuc vo lng cha ca c trong 110. c trnh
by trn hnh 7.1.
Ta th y khi th n h phn cacboii tn g ln. bn v cng tng, cn do v
dai gim . R in g bn ch tn g v t cc i khi th iih phn cacbon vo cri
0.8 - 1 .0 %. vt qu gii hn ny bn li gim i (v c l cng l l (lo
troig tlic t t k h i g p th p c th n h p h n cacbon vt qua 1,3% ).
C th gii thch cc quy lu t trn nh sau: khi tn g lng clia cacbon. s
litng pha x n ie iitit (cng, gin) t n g ln. liig peclit tn g ln tng ng. cn
lng pha ferit (inm , do) gim i. T chc peclit gni hai pha x n ieiitit (cng) v
ferit (iim) xen k n h au , l m t t hp pha cho bn cao. N h vy khi t.ng liis
cha cacbon. bn v ciig tn g, do v dai gim xung. Klii lng cha
cacbon vt qu gii h n 0,8 -1.0% trong thp s x u t h in pha x n ieiitit II dng
li. cn tr s trt v to iu kin cho vic xu t hin v p h t trin ca vt Iit,
lm b n ca thp gim xiiiig.
V m t iih lng, c th th y c tn g 0,1%C, lm cng tn g thm klion
20-2 HB. gii h n bn (i,) tn g th m khong 60 - 80 M Pa, gin i () gim di
khong 2 - 4%. th t t i (v|/) gim i khong 1 - %. dai va p (oi,) gim cti
khong 200 kJ/m^ , ...
Do cacbon nh hng lii n t chc v c tn h ca thp n h i vy nn thp c
th n h phn cacboii khc n h au c c tn h r't khc nhau v do itc dng vo cc
mc ch khc nhavi. M t cch i th c th th y Iihi sair.
- Cc thp vi th n h phn cacbon thp (< 0,2n%C) ni cluvng m m , do. ct bn.
cng th p v h iu qu ha bu b n g Iihit luyn (ti v ram ) cug khng cao.
nn c dng lm cc k t cu xy dng, chi ti t qiia p ngui (l nhng sn
phm cn do cao. khng cn qua n h it luyn). Vi cc thp ny m iiii tn g hivi
qu ca n h it h iyn phi qiia th m cacbon lp b n i t ;
- Cc thp vi th n h phn cacbon trung bnh (0.3 - 0.%C) c c tnh tng lip
cao (do c s k t hp h i ha gia bn. cng, do v dai), do vy thch
hp cho cc chi ti t m y chii t i trng tn h v va p cao Iiliit trc tru yn lc, bnh
rng,;
- Cc thp vi th n h phn cacbon tng i cao (O. - 0.70%C) c cng cao
v gii hn n hi cao n h t, c dng lm cc chi ti t n hi Iiln l xo, nhp. ...
- Cc thp vi th n h phn cacbon cao (> 0,70%C) c cng v tn h chng nii
mn cao. c diig lm dng c ct gt, dng c o, khun dp ugiii, ...
N goi c tn h ra. cacbon cng nh hng n int s tn h ch t ha l ca thi.
Klii tn g lng cacbon, m t Ochi lng ring y). t th m (|i)v kh n n g
chig n m n ca th p gim i. cn in tr (p ) v lc kh t {H ,.) t n g ln.
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________ ' 2 ^
7.1.3. N H HNG CA CC N G U YN T KH C
M angcui: M aiigaii cc cho vo thp khi tin h luyn, di dng fero-M n, kh

oxy v livi hunh, theo cc phn ng sau;
FeO + Mn Fe + MnO , (7.1)
FeS + Mn -> Fe + M nS . (7.2)
MiiO Vc M nS ni ln. i vo x v b a ra khi l. Klii ha tan vo ferit lng Mn
(hr tha s n n g cao bn. ct cng ca pha ny. do vy lni tn g c tn h ca thp.
Tuy nh iu , do lng Mii trong thp cacbon t (< 0,8% Mii)nn tc dng ny khng
r rt. Tc dng ch yu ca Mn trong thp cacboii l kh oxy v hn c h s c
m t ca hii h u n h nh n ii cc phn ng (7.1) v (7.2).
S ilic : Silic c cho vo n h iu loi thp kh oxy mt cch trit hn
(cng vi Al). theo p h n ng sau:
2 FeO + Si ^ 2 Fe + SiO^ , (7.3)
( 3 FeO + 2 Al -> 3 Fe + a LO:, ) .
SiO^ . AI2OI Iii ln. i vo x v b a ra khi l. Lng Si cn li ha tan vo
ferit. cng nh M n. n n g cao bn, cng cho pha ny. N h ng trong thp
cacboii.liug Si cng ch trong gii h n nh hn 0,6% Si. n ii tc diig Iiy cng
kling r rt (cn AI chy m nh, h u nh khng cn li trong thp lng).
P h o tp lio : Photplio c m t trong thp t qung hay t th an (khi h iyii gang).
D dng ha tan trong ferit hay d ng lin kt Fe,P. n u lni cho thp b
siu. c b it l trn g th i ngui, l hin tng gin ngui (hay b ngui), do
vy phi h ii c h s c n it ca p di mc cho php, i vi thp cacboii thng
tlutiig Iih hn 0.06% p. R ing vi thp d ct. n n g cao kh n n g gy phoi,
htdng p c t h cao ti 0 ,0 8 - 0.15% p .
L u iu n /i: Ciig Iiiii pliotpho, lii hunh c m t trong thp t qung v nht
l t th an khi nu gaiig. C ng tinh (Fe + FeS) c n h it Iing chy thp 988"C).
nm bin gii ht. Klii n ung nng thp gia cng p lc. cng tin h ny b nini
v chy ra. lm th p b t bin h t. c cni tiig nh b ph hy gin, l
hin tiig gin nng (hay b nng), do vy phi hn ch s c m t ca s d\i
inc cho php, vi th p cacboii th n g thng nh hn 0.06% s . R ing vi thp
(l ct. Iing cao kh n n g gy phoi. hng s c th cao ti 0 ,08 - 0,30% s .
7.1.4. P H N L O I T H P CACBON
C Iihiii cch phn loi thp khc nhau, nhng thng gp cc cch sau.
Theo ch t l ng: T heo ch t hiig h iyn kim. tc l theo mc ng nli't ca
thnh phn ha hc, t chc v tn h ch t ca thp v c b it l mc cha cc
tp ch t c hi p. s , ngi ta phn ra cc loi thp sau:
- T hp c ch t lng thng, c th cha ti 0,06% s v 0,07% P;
- Thp c ch'! lng t*t, cha khng qu 0,04% s v 0.035% P;
- Thp c ch t lng cao. cha khng qu 0,025% mi n gu yn t;
- Thp c ch't liig c b it cao. cha khng qu 0,015% s v 0 , 020 % p.
29G__________________________________________________________ Chng 7. THP V GANG
Ch't. hiig ca thp do phng php luyn quyt nh. Plung php Marii:i
(hay phng plip l bng), vi tng l c tnh baz c th kh \c p. s . hiytMi
ctc thp vi ch t ling tng i t't; vi tng l c tnh axit c th hiyii thi) co
cht lng cao. T uy n h in theo Iihng thng bo mi nht, phitng php l bng
ngy m t t itc s dng v c th b thay th bi cc phng ph) khc. Phng
php L-D (l thi oxy t nh) lu yn thp vi n n g su t cao. chnt lng t thng
thirng n tt . Phitiig php l in (tlntng l h quang) luyn c thj) cht
liig cao. c kh nng kh p. s tt.
Thp cacboii c th gm ba loi cht htiig ii, thp lip kim c th gni ha
loi ch t lng sau.
Tkeo p h n g p h p k h oxy : Theo mlc kh oxy . phn ra ; thp SI. thp
lug v na lng.
Thp si l th p c kh oxy khng trit , ch dng fero-M n. Do vii cn
FeO , nn II c th tc dng vi c trong thp lng theo phn ng sa\i:
FeO + c -> Fe + c o t . (7.4)
Kli CO bay ln lm cho m t thp lng chuyn ng ging Iih n b si ln, do vy
c tn l thp si. Do kh c o vn cn to th nh n gay c khi rt khun nn s to
thnh m t s* bt kh trong thi thp c v gu nh khng c lm co tp truug
pha trn (hnh 7.2a).T rong qu triih cn nng tip theo, phn ln cc bt kh ny
c hn lin li lm cho thp tr nn st ch t hn. Thp si c th n h phn khng
ng nht, phn pha ngoi hu nh khiig c cacbon, phn li cha ihiu cacboii
hrtii. s phn lp ny th y r trong tm thp cn. Do ch dug fero-M n kh oxy .
lin ferit cia thp si cha rt t Si (< 0,07%) v do vy n rt do. cc tJii thp l
m ng rt thcli lip cho vic dp su. Tuy vy thp si kh hn. v klii liii. ti vung
nng chy s li xy ra hin titng "si" kh triih nh m t trn, lm xut
hin Iihiii r v u g m p hn v lm xii cd tnh ca nii hn.
Thp ln g l thp irc kh oxy trit , Iigoi fero-M ii. cn dng fero-Si v
Al. n n trong tlip cn rt t FeO, m t thp lng phng lng, v do vy c gi l
thp lng. Trong thi th p lng hu nh khng cn bt kh. nhng lni co li ln
(hnh 7.2b). S phn lp nh ni trn cng khng cn na. C ht lng thp lng
cao hn thp si. n h iiig khng kinh t v phi ct b phn lm co. (c khi ti 10 -
15% trng lng ca thi), chi ph cho vic kh oxy tn kin hn. Do cha nhi\i Si
hn (O.l - 0,30% Si), nn ferit ca thp lng cng hn so vi thp si. Thp ln g
thch hp cho vic hn.
Thp na ln g l loi tn m g gian gia thp si v thp lng, ch itc kh oxy
bng fero-M n v Al.
Thp cacboii thp c th c ba loi k trn. Thp cacbon trun g bnh c th l
thp ln g hoc na lng. Thp cacbon cao v thp hp kim hin l thp lng. Vt
c ch c ch to t th p lng.
Tho cng d n g : y l cch phn loi thng dng n h t, gm bn nlin
chnh:
- T hp cn Iing th n g diig, loi ny ch y\i dng trong xy dng v cac cng
vic thng thng tng t, ni chung khng cn qua n h it luyn;
- Thp kt cu. ch yu lm cc chi ti t m y. thng phi qua n h it hiyiK
VT LIU HC 297
- T hp (lng c. ch yii lni

<ln> c (ct gt. bin dng, o
Utng). tlnng b t buc phi qiia
nhit hiyii:
- Thp c cng dng ring. /
7.1.5. K H I U V CNG
DNG CA CC
N H M T H P CACBON
Gn Iih mi Iic u c cch

k lii thp ring ca ninh (phn
ph lc c trnh by kh c th d
bn (lc th am kho). N h in g th in g
Hnh 7.2. S cu to ca thi c thp SI (a)
(lc tu n t.hoo m t n gu yn tc sau:
v thp lng (b)
V I nh ng thp thng dng, k h i s
cliig khng cn qiia n h it luyn, c k h iu theo c tnh trn g thi ciing cp

(thng ha). Cn vi Iihng thp ni phi q\ia n h iii k h u gia cng ch to ra
sn phm (rn dp, ct gt. n h it hiyii) th c k liiii theo th n h phn ha hc,
hi v cd tn h ca chng cn th a y i n h iii sa ii cc giai on gia cng cl.
Nc ta clnta sn x u t ic n h iu thp v do v y cch k h iu ca ta cng
clua hon chnh, tuy n h in chng ta cng khng Iiii ngoi igviyii tc n\i trn.
7.1.5.1. Nhm thp cn nng thng dng (cn gi l thp cacboii cht liiiR
t.hiig)
H in ch n g vn chim ti 80% khi litng thp dng trong thc t. tlHiig

citc cung cp d ng qua cn nng (tm . thanh, dy. ug. thp hnh: chi . I. thp
gc. ...) t cc nh ly lin hp h iyii kini. vi mc ch ch yu lm cc kt
cu trong xy dng nh\f Iih, xitng. cu. cig, ct thp ca btiig. ... (ciig c th
SI cliig trong ch to may lm cc chi tit niy khng quan trng).
Bng 7.1. C tnh quy nh ca cc mc thp cacbon cht lng thng,
phn nhm A
Mc thp a t,, MPa (To, 2 , MPa 5 .%

CT31 > 310 - 20
CT33 320-420 - 31
CT34 340^40 200 29
CT38 380^90 210 . 23
CT42 420-540 240 21
CT51 500-640 260 17
CT61 > 600 300 12
Ghi ch: N\i l thp si th thm ch s, nu l thp na lng th thm ch 11 pia sau.
V d: CT33s, CT42n, ... Ngoi ra cn lu thp xut xng c tit din (ng
knh, chivi dy) cng nh c c tnh cng cao hn(so vi s'liu trong bng).
298 C hng 7. THP V GANG
Theo TCVN 176-7 Iihni thp ny c k hiu bng chi CT (C l cacboii, T

l thp), vi con s tip theo ch gii hn bn ko ti thiu (kG/ini'^). Iiuiii (i ra
MPa ch vic Iihii vi 9.81 (tliiig ly trn bng 10). Nhm thp ny li \fc chia
th nh ba phn nhm nh;
- Phn nhm A: ch quy nh v c tnh, ni khng quy nh v tliiili phn ha
hc (xeiii bng 7.1).
- Phn nhm B: ch qviy nh v th nh phn ha lic m khiig quy nh v c
tinh. Thp thuc phn nhm n y k hiu tliin chi B pha trc ch CT (xem
l)ng 7.2). t ' .
Bng 7.2. Thnh phn ha hc ca cc mc thp cacbon cht lng thng,

phn nhm B
Mc c, Mn. Si trong th 3, % s,% p,%

thp % % si na lng Jna. khng qu
BCT31 <0.23 0,06 0,06
BCT33 0,06-0,12 0.25-0,50 0,05 0,05-0,17 0.12-0,30 0,05 0,04
BCT34 0,09-0,15 0.25-0,50 0.05 0,05-0,17 0,12-0,30 0,05 0,04
BCT38 0,14-0,22 0.30-0,65 0,07 0,05-0,17 0,12-0.30 0,05 0,04
BCT42 0,18-0,27 0,40-0,70 0,07 0.05-0,17 0,12-0,30 0.05 0.04
BCT51 0.28-0.37 0.50-0,80 0,05-0,17 0.15-0,35 0,05 0,04
BCT61 0,38-0,49 0,50-0,80 0.05-0.17 0,15-0,35 0,05 0,04
- Phn nhm C: ic quy nh c v c tnh v th n h phn lia hc. C tnli

ging nhm A. cn th n h phn ha hc th ging Iiliin B. K liiii thm cli c
pha tnrc ch CT. V d nic thp CCT34s c c tnh tng ti C T 34s v th nh
phn tiug t BC T34s.
Cc mac phn Iihin A c dng lm cc chi tit, kt c\i Iii ch to chiig
khng phi qua gia cng nng (nh hn, bin dng do. n h it luyn), do clniig
bo tn t chc v c tn h ban u theo tiii chvin (bng 7.1).
Cc mc phn nhm B c dng lm cc chi tit, k t c'ii khi ch to c q\ia
gia cng nng (hu, rn. n h it luyn), do t chc v c tn h ban ctii khng tn
ti. M un vy cn b it th n h phn ha hc (c b it l cacbon) xc nh ch'
gia cng nng.
Cc m c phn nhm c c chuyn dng lm cc kt cii hn. Trong trng
hp n y phi b it c c tnh ban u ca thp bi v cluiig ic bo tn (khng
thay i) cc phn khng b n im g Iiiig. So vi hai phn nhm trn, phn nhii c
c ch t liiig cao hn.
C ba phn nhm c dng lm cc k t cu kini loi v clii ti t chii ti nh.
tc l c ng d ng rt rng ri trong xy dng. Trong nhm ny cn c Iiling
phn nhm c b it nh lm k t cu xy dng, ng tii. Jiii cn. ...
TCVN 709-93 quy nh cc m c clm yn lm cc kt cu thp trong xy dng
c mi lin kt b n g phng php hn v cc plutiig php khc, gm crfXCT34.
XCT38. XCT42. XCT2 vi con s' chi gii hn bn ko t th iu (kG/nim^) vi
th n h phn qiiy nh:
c<0,22% ; M n<0,8% ; S i= 0 .15-0.30% ; Al<0.02%; P<O.O%; S<O.O%.
VT L i u HC 299
7.1.5.2. Nhm thp kt cu

y l Iihin thp cacbon ch t lng t't. lng p. s thp hn. c th:
s 0,04% . p 1 0,03% v c quy iih c v th n h phn ha hc v c tnh, vc
clii" ch yii lm chi ti t niy. Theo TCVN 1766-7. nhm th p ny \c k
h i ti h ;iiig cli c (thp cacbon) v i con s ch li iig cacbon t n iiig b n h theo phn
vn. N u l thp si th th m ch s, Iiii l thp na ln g th thm ch 11 pha
sau. V d. C lO s l th p si. vi lng cacbon trung bnh l 0,10% . Chi t.it v
nhm thp ny xein b n g 7.3.
Bng 7.3. Thnh phn ha hc v c tnh ca nhm thp

kt cu cacbon cht lng tt
C tnh sai; khi thng la

Mc c. Mn. ^ 0.2 cng
thp % % MPa MPa % HB sau , kJ/m^
HB
C8 0,05-0.12 0,35-0.65 320 200 33 60 131

CIO 0,07-0,14 0,35-0,65 340 210 31 55 143
C15 0,12-0.19 0.35-0,65 380 230 27 55 149
C20 0,17-0,24 0,35-0,65 420 250 25 50 163
C25 0,22-0,30 0.50-0,80 460 280 23 50 170 900
C30 0,27-0,35 0,50-0,80 500 300 21 45 179 800
C35 0.32-0,40 0,50-0,80 540 320 20 45 207 700
C40 0,37-0.45 0.50-0,80 580 340 19 40 217 187 600
C45 0.42-0,50 0,50-0,80 610 360 16 40 229 197 500
C50 0,47-0,55 0,50-0.80 640 380 14 35 241 207 400
C55 0,52-0,60 0.50-0.80 660 390 13 255 217
C60 0,57-0,65 0,50-0,80 690 410 12 35 255 217
C65 0,62-0,70 0,50-0.80 710 420 10 30 255 229
C70 0,67-0,75 0,50-0,80 730 430 9 30 269 229
C75 0,72-0,80 0,50-0,80 1100 900 7 30 285 241
C80 0.77-0.85 0,50-0,80 1100 950 6 30 285 241
C85 0,82-0,90 0,50-0,80 1150 1000 6 30 302 255
o / ii r/:
- Cc mc cu cha 0,17-0,37 S i :
- Mu th c ng knh v chiu dy nh hn 80 mm :
- clai va clp cc thp th trng chi ha t t ;
- C tnli ca cc thp C75, C80, C85 cng ch trng thi ha t't (ti v rani cao).
7.1.5.3. Nhm thp dng c
y l Iihm thp c th n h phn cacboii cao (> 0,70% C). thuc loi thp cht
lng t t. \tc quy iih kh ch t v' th n h ph n ha hc. n h t l lng cha ca p
v s. c dng d lni cc dng c vi nng sut thp v trung bnh. Theo TCVN
1 8 2 2 -7 6 . Iihin th p ny ic k hiu b n g ch CD (C-cacbou. D-cliig c), vi con
s ch litiig cacbon trung bnh theo phn v n (xein bng 7.4).
Bng 7.4. Thnh phn ha hc ca nhm thp dng c cacbon
Mc Thnh phn cc nguyn t. % cng sau khi .

thp Si Mn HB
CD70 0,65-0,74 0,15-0,35 0.20-0.40 187
CD80 0.75-0.84 0,15-0.35 0,20-0,40 18^
CD90 0.815-0,94 0,15-0,35 0,15-0,35 192
CD100 0.95-1,04 0,15-0,35 0,15-0,35 197
CD110 1,05-1,14 0,15-0,35 0,15-0.35 207
CD120 1,15-1,24 0,15-0,35 0,15-0.35 207
CD130 1.25-1.35 0,15-0,35 0.15-0,35 217
Ghi ch:
- Cc ni.c u cha : s O.O.SOô s, s 0,035"
p. Nu ling cha p, s th<'p hn 0,025'o s
tlim clu A cui, biu tli thp chnt lng
cao.
- Ngoi ra, chng cn c th chn int lng
nh cc nguyn t, Iilu: < 0.20"o Cr; <
0,25% Ni. ...
7.1.5.4. Nhm thp cacbon c cng dng

ring
Thp dng ra y : ng ray xe la yu
cii c bn v tn li chng m i Iin cao.
(lng vi klii hng lii. th\tng c nh niy
ch to ring. D l loi thp cacboii clit 60 8
hng cao vi lng cha cacbon v Iiiaiigaii MC p , %
ti iig i cao: O.O - 0.80% C; 0.60 - 1,0% Mn.
Hnh 7.3. nh hng ca mc
Cn liig pliotplio v lu hunh thp: < bin dong khi ko ngui dn bn
0.0% S: 0.04% p. R ay hng c th tn dng ca dy thp c thnh phn cacbon
khc nhau
ch to cdc chi tit, v dng c Iih\f c.
(lao. nhp, dng c gia cng g, ...
D y thp cc lo i: D y th p c sn xu t t cc nh niv hiyn kim b n g cch
ko Iigiii. C t.iih ca dy thp ph thuc vo thnh phan cacboii v Iiic b in
d n g (xem hnh 7.3).
D y thp cacboii cao v ic bin dng ln khi ko Iigui (dng knh dy rt
nh khong 0.1 mm). gii hn bn ko c th t n gi tr rt cao; 4 0 0 0 - 400
M Pa. (nhng nu em th bn li gim i v cd tiili li ging thp ). D y
th p cacboii thp th ng c in triig kni hoc thic (d chng ii mn trong k h
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________ 3 ^
q\iyn ). dng lm dy in tlioi v trong sinh hot. D y thp c tliiih J)hii O.O -
0.70% c dii cun th nh cc l xo trn.
T rong k thut cn dng cc loi dy cj) c tl hn rt. cao. chnh l (lo cc .si
tlip Iili c ko ngui, c bn cao, bn li.
Thp l c dp n g u i: Tlip dp ngui tlutiig (ug tm iniig (l), i hi
pliai c tn h do cao. c b it vi chi tit, (lp su. Mun vy, Ivtng cacboii phi r^
th). thng ch O.O - 0.20% c . T chc ch yvi l ferit. Liig silic CUR phi
t hp (0.07 - 0.17% Si), v Si lm gim Iiiiili ct do cvia ferit. do vy thp la d])
sii tlu iig l thp si. v d. Cs. C 8 s, ClOs, C l s . ...
t n g kh n n g chng n mn trong kh qiiyeii. cc tni tlip l m ng c th
clc tr n g Sii (gi l s t ty), hoc trang Zn (gi l tn trng kni).
7.1.6. U NHC I M CA T H P CACBON
T hp cacboii vn idc dng rng ri trong ciig nghip v troiit rii snn^. (k)
hai u im cd bn sau:
- R tin. v d Ii'\i hiyii v trn ht. khng phi cliiK cc ngiiyn t hp kim
ilit tin;
- C c tn h n h t ctnh (chiig lin ct cng sau khi ti ca tlip c cao kbiif>
tlm a k n i th p hp k im c hng c t ng t ) v n h a t l c tn li CIIK ng li t t; (le
(iic. hn, cn. rn. dp. ko si. gia ciig ct gt. ... t.t hn so vi tbp h]) kim:
T iiy n h i n RO vi th p lip k im . th p cacbon c iihic ctieni cr b ii saii:
- bn trn g thi cu n g cp (thng ha) v rnp thi t.hp. Ri hn (tn
hi k h n g vit qu 7 0 0 M P a. cha k i klii tli ct do Vc ct (lai g i m i
rt m nh. Vi th p hp kii vi hng. d c th ci th iu tn h cht ny int carh
(nf k (s Iii sau);
- tliiii ti ca thp cacboii ni chung thp, kh c th ti tli mt clii t.it
co (htng kiili khong liHin. ni nm n ti thii phi chn mi trng ti m nh,
iu s clnii n nguy c bin dng n hiu v th ni ch y nt. v. Cac Iiuvii t
hp kim s ci th in ng k ct thin ti ca thp;
- bn v n li t l cng nliit ct cao (> 300" C) rt tlip. mt phn (lo
khng CII n iacteu xit Iia. m t Iilin co hin t\tng clo. y l yu Pin rnt c bii
ca th p cachoii so vi th p hp kim. ni khng th (lng n lm (lng c ct
Iilianh. hoc chi ti t lm vic nhit (t cao;
- bn chng mi mn: tiiy thp cacboii sau khi ti ng, c t ci kliiig
thua kni so vi thp hp kim c liig c tiig t, Iihng kh iiuR chng m i mn
kni liii. do trong thp cacbon hii Iilii khng c hoc c rt t cc loi cacbit hp
kim. int y\i t quan triig gp phn n iig cao bn chng m i J1111 cho tlip;
- bn cling ii mn ca thp cacboii ni cluuig tlip. iiRay c trong kh
quyn t.liiig- tli ng (c clnU. t hi Iic hoc k h CO-^), thp c th b g. Ch rii
cho th m mt. lng nh Cu l c th ci th in tt kh nng ny ca thp. CII
n\i cho vo thp int liig thch hp Cr. Ni. ...s lm cho thp tr lin khng g (s
Iii savi).
302 ________________________________________________________ C h n 7. THP V GANG
7.2. KHI NIM V THP HP KIM
7.2.1. T H N H PH N HA HC V C I M c a t h p HP k i m
Thp lip kiin l loi thp m ngoi st. cacbon v cc tp cht ra. ta cn
r' ifa vo cc n gu yn t* c b it vi m t htug nht, iili Inni th ay (li t rlic
v tn h cht ca th p cho hp vi y\i cii s dng. Cac nguyn t' c \a vo
int. cch c n lii v y ic gi l nguyn t hp kim . Cc ng uyn t hp kim
thng gp l: Cr, Ni, Mn. Si. w . V, Mo, Ti. Nb. Zr, C\ 1, B. N. ... v ranh gii v
hiig phn b it tp ch t v n gu yn t hp kim l nh saii:
M n : 0 . 8 - 1 .0 %; Si; 0.-0,8% : Cr; 0 , 2 - 0 . 8%: Ni: 0.2-0.6% ; W; 0 .1 - 0 . 6 %;
Mo; 0.00-0.2% ; Ti. V. Nb. Zr. Cu > 0.1%; B > 0.002% .
V d^thp cha 0.7% Mn vn ch c coi l thp cacbon (ngha l Mn vn ch
l tp cht), ch khi Ing Mn > 1.0% ]ii ctc coi l thp hp kim. Troii kin ct ch
cn c > 0,1% Ti (hoc V, Cii. Zr, ...) hoc > 0.002% B ciig c coi l thp h)
kiin.
Trong thp hp kim , litiig cha cc tp clit c h i Iilnt p. s v cc kh oxy .
hyro. Iiit l r't th'p so vi thp cacboii. Do vic kh tp cht trit liii v iiluVt
l do p h i cho vo cc ng uyn t lip k in i. nn ni chung thp hp k in i t ti n hn
so vi th p cacboii Iihiig b li. thp hp kim c nhng ctc (tiiii ni tri hn hnn
so vi th p cacboii, ha y ni khc i, m c ch ca vic hp k im ha nh sau.
V c tn h : T hp hp kim ni chiing c bn cao hn hn so vi thp cachoii.
th hin ctc bit r rng saii khi nhit luyn (ti v ram), do thni ti ca t,liCj
hp kini c ci th in rt n h i\i so vi thp cacbon. thp lip kim cii cao. ii vit
ny cn g r. T uy nliin cn th y rng:
- 0 triig th i khng n h it luyn, v d, trng thi . ct bn ca thp lip kini
kh ng cao hdn n lii i; so v i th p cacboii.
- S au n h it lu yn , th p lip kim c th t c bn r't cao, nhiig cng vi
s t n g bu. do v dai li gim i. do vy phi ch ti mi quan h iKiy
xc n li c tn h th c h lip.
- C ng vci SI t n g mc hp k im ha. tn h ciig ngh ca tli p s xu (U.
V tiih c h u n h i t (tn h cng nng v tn h bn nng): Thp cacboii c cVii;
cao sau khi ti. nh ng khng gil c khi lm vic n h it cao hn 200 " c . (lo
lu actenxit b phn h y v x m eiitit k t t. N h it cao hn. thp b biu diiK (lo
hin tiig do v b oxy ha m nh. ... Cc ngu yn t hp kim cii tr kh Iiaug
khuch tn ca cacbon. lm m acteiixit phn ha v cacbit kt t n h it cl rao
hn. v th II gii ic cng cao ca trng thi ti v tn h cliig do ti 600" c .
tnh chiig s oxy ha ti 800-1000"C . D nhiii niuii t dc tnh ch t ny. th)
cii c hp k im ha bi m t s' nguyn t' vi h t iig t ng cao. u vit, ny
ca thp hp kim itc ng dng trong thp dng c v th p bn Iing.
V cc tn h ch t vt. l v ha hc c bit: N lii bit, thp cacboii b g t roiig
k h iig kh . b ii m n m n h tro n g cc nii tn iig a x it. baz v nm i. ... Nh h)
kini ha ni c th to ra thp khng g. thp c tnh gii) n v n hi (lc hit.
VT LIU HC 303
thp c t tn h cao v thp khiig c t tnh, ... Trong nhng tn iig lip nhi vy.
plii dng nh ng loi thp hp kim c bit, vi th n h phn chc kliiig ch cht
cli (v d nhin l t tin).
N h vy c th ni rng, nguyn t^ hp kiin c tac dng r't. tt, thp hp kim
l v t liu khng tli th iu c troiig ch to m ay dng c. th it b n hit in.
cng nghi]) ha hc....... N thiig c lm cc chi tit quan trng nht trong
(liu kin lni vic nng.
liivi r hn v bn ch t cc tn h cli't qy ca thp hp kim. chng ta xt
qiia cac tc diig ca n gu yii t hp kini i vi thp, ni c th l i vi Rt v
cacbon. l hai n gu vn t c bn ca thp.
7.2.2. TC DNG CA NG UYN T HP k i m
C th ni. s c m t ca ngu yn t h)) kini trong thp trn g thi cn bng,

ch yu hai d n g sau: ha tan vo st. (a -F e. y-Fe) chri diig thiiig (lch rn v
kt hdp vi cacbon th n h cacbit hp kini.
7.2.2.1. S ha tan ca nguyn t hp kim vo st

K ln lia tan vo s t. cc n gu yn t hp kiii c th th ay tli P>-troiig niiiR,
(/.-Fe (m ng A2). gi l ferit hp kim . hoc trong nint y-Fe (niiiR A l). gi l
;uist(niit. hp kim.
Mt s u gu yn t nlu: Ni, Mii. c . N. Cu. ...khi ha tan vo s ni riiy
VUR n nli ca Y v lni h th p nhit, ct c h u y n b in a y (hnh 7.4). c bit
vdi Mii v Ni. khi lng ln (v d. Mn ln hn 10% cn Ni ln hn 20%) tlip s
co to chc axist.enit n gay c nhit, ct tlntdng. R ing Ni (ninf c l.hp ha tan
v hn vo y-Fe.
hp kim, % iN i,M n ) hp kim, 7c (C,N.C u )

a) )
Hnh 7.4. Gin pha st-nguyn t hp kim (loai m rng vng Y. thu hep vng (<)
a) khi ha tan v han vo y-Fe b) khi ha tan c han vo V-Fe.
Mt S n g u y n t khc nhv: Cr, V, Ti, Mo. w. N). Si, ...li thu hp v n g u

nh ca y v n n g cao n h it ch u yn plia y a (hiiii 7.5). R ing Cr (niiig A2)
c th ha ta n v h aii vo a -F e .
304 Chng 7. THP V GANG
Trong thc t th iig gp cc thp c hp kim ha biig mt lng khng

nhiu Mn. Ni v cc n g u y n t' ni rng vng a nh Cr. Si. V. w. Ti. ... trii thai
cii bng cc thp gm hai pha l ferit v cacbit. Cc thp kt. c'u v (iiiK c
tlntiig gp c t chc nh vy. n h im g ferit ny c c tnh khac hii so vi c tnh
ca ferit trong thp cacboii. Cc nguyn t hp kim ha tan vo st. dng thay
th. lm niug tin h th ciia II b x lch v mc x lch s cn g tng khi liui
ct Iiguyn t' hp kim cng lu. do vy lm clio ct bn, cng tng lu. cn
(lo dai ca thp s gim i. H nli 7.6 cho th y nh hiiig ca cc ng\iyii t hp
kini chnh (Cr. Ni. Mn. Si) n c tnh ciia ferit.
ing rrj<iyrr, / '

hp hp kim,%(AI,Sn,Pb,Zr)
b)
Hinh 7.5 Gin pha st-nguyn t hp kim (loai m rng vng u, thu hep vng y)
a) khi ha tan v han vo (X-Fe b) khi ha tan c han vo U-Fe
I r J 4 5 6 7 I 2 3 4 7
Lng nguyn i hp k i m , \ Ln; nûn t ' k im , %
0) b)
Hinh 7.6. nh hng ca nguyn t hp kim n c tinh ca ferit;

a) cng HB; b) dai va p 3k
Ta th y rng Mn v Si l hai ngu yn t l n i tng r't niiih (t ciig cng n lu i

bn. n h in g iig thi chng cng lm gim m nh do. clai ca ferit. V v y
trong thc t. vi thp hp kim thng tlung lng Mu. Si cng ch c dnR
trong gii h n t 1 n 2% . CII Cr. Ni c nic ha bn va J)hi v khng l n i
gim Iiinh do dai. nn c a duig trong rt Iihi\i loi th p Iip kini (rin g
Ni khng uhng khng lm gim dai m cn c phii ci thin tn h cht, n y. n
l ngityn t hp kini r't t't cho thp hp kim. n h t l tlip k t cu, nn phi h n
ch s dng ch v n t).
VT LIU HC 30
7.2.2.2. S to thnh pha cacbit trong thp hp kim
Ngii ta th y rng cc n g\iyn t' to cacbit u l cc kiin loi thuc nhm

clniyn tip (s in t phii lp d hoc /ca lp trong cha y ni c in t
|)liii lp s hoc d ca lp ngoi). C th vi Fe, n in t t n g dd l 6 , pliii lp 4.V
l 2 (xeni b n g 7.).
Trong tlip cacboii. pha cacbit chnh l Fe.,c (xnientit). Klii c m t u giiyii t
hp kini. ngoi kh n n g ha tan vo s t n hi ni trn. r't nh iu nguyn t
hp kiiii cn c kh n iig tran h gin h cacbon vi s t to th n h pha cacbit hp
kiin. Kli n ig n y tiy tlnic vo i lc ha hc ca nguyn t hp kini i vi
cacbon so vi s t. m i htc ny chiih do cu to lp v in t q u yt nh (xeni
bng 7.5).
C th tliV n gay rng trong thp hp kim, nguyn t' no c s' in t phn
l(]) / ca lp ngoi c n g ln hn 6 s khng c kh n n g to cacbit. n gay c cc kim
loi cluiyii tip nh Ni. Co v cc kim loi nh: Si. Al. Cu, Zii. chng ch c th to
thnh dung tlch rn vi s t (hoc cc pha lin kim loi khi liig ca cling
lii).
Bng 7.5. S phn b' din t trong nguyn t ca mt s kim loi
S th Kim K L M N 0 p
t loai 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 6s
22 Ti 2 2 6 2 6 2 2
23 V 2 2 6 2 6 3 2
24 Cr 2 2 6 2 6 5 1
25 Mn 2 2 6 2 6 5 2
26 Fe 2 2 6 2 6 6 2
27 Co 2 2 6 2 6 7 2
28 Ni 2 2 6 2 6 8 2
29 Cu 2 2 6 2 6 10 1
30 Zn 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
40 Zr 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2 - 2
41 Nb 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 4 - 1
42 Mo 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 - 1
73 Ta 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 3 2
74 w 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 4 2
Mt s n g\iyn t Iih Si, Co khng n lin g khng to cacbit ni cu Iigii cn c

kt hp vi Fe v cc n gu yn t' khc, tluic y c dng t do (graphit) hoc lm
thot c khi n u n g thp.
Ngc li, cc n gu yn t' c s' in t phn lp d nh hn 6 v ciig nh th
kh nng to cacbit cng niiih. Da vo l th u y t ny. ngi ta xc lp c
dy cc Iigiiyii t to cacbit m nh dn theo tht t:
Fe. Mn, Cr. w. Mo. V, Zr, Ti. Nli
20 - V L H -------------------------------------------------------------->
306__________________________________________________________ C hng 7. THP V GANG
Troiig Mn (i khi c Cr. W) khng to ra cacbit c lp. clo ai lc vi c ch

m nh hn so vi Fe ch t t. chng th ay th Fe trong xn ien tit. to ra x iien tit hp
kim dng (Fe.M ) jC. Cn Cr, w l cc nguyn t to cacbit. trim g biili. hoc l Iini
trong x n ieiitit hp kim Iih tru, hoc l to ra cacbit dng phc tp nh Cr^.iCii.
Cr 7C:<. Fe;iW;(C(i. c n h it phn hy thp, d ha tan vo a iisteiiit khi nung.
Tri li Mo. V. Zr. Ti. Nb l cc nguyn t' to cacbit m nh Iih\ MoC- v c . ZrC. TiC.
NbC, chng c cu to m ng tin h th dii gin v ch phn hy nhit rt. cao,
r't kh ha tan vo a iisteiiit, nhitng c tc diig gi h t nh khi n ung thp.
Ni chung, d l x m eiitit hay cacbit hp kim . chng ii c tc dng Iing cao
kh n ng cliig nii m n v tnh chu n h it cho thp.
7.2.2.3. Tc dng ring bit ca cc nguyn t hp kim ch yu
Cc nguyn t m r n g vng :
M angan: M angan khi ha tan vo ferit. c tc dng ha bn pha Iiy. VI
Ivtiig cacbon thp (< 0.2% C). Mii c tc dng h thp n liit chuvn bin (io
giii ca thp, nh ng vi hm hiig cacbon cao (> 0,% C) n li iii tn g nhit (l
cliuyii bin ny. Mii c tc dng t iig thm ti. vi 1 % Mn ng knh ti hn
l tln ivt ln gp bi ln so vi thp cacbon khng c M )1 (v do h s tng
thm ti ciia Mn l bn). Mn khng to cacbit ring b it m thay th Fe troii
Fe:(C. 'i vi chuyn bin khi ram tc dng ca Mii l khng ang k. Ngiti ta s
dng Mn ci th in tiili ch t ca thp c cng dug chung (khiig qua nhit
luyn) v n iig cao th m ti cho thp phi qua n h it hiyii. Mc d Mn kh r
Iihiiig him khi n ng vai tr l m t nguyn t hp kim c lp. bi v n ko
theo mt s uhic im sau; thc y h t tiiih th ln nhanh khi m iiig. tng tnli
gin rani. gim do v bn theo hng viing gc vi plntdiig cn.
Nikeii; N ikeii khiig to th nh cacbit, tc dng ch yii l tn g bii v d
dai va p cho ferit. Thp cha trn % Ni gi c dai tt n gay c nhit (t
rt th^p. Thp c 9% Ni c dng ch to cc bnh cha trong cc h thng lm
lnh. Ni cn c tc dving gi h t nh cho thp thm cacboii. H s' tn g thm ti
ca Ni l 1.4 (loi tru n g bnh).
Cc nguyn t m r n g vn g a :
Silic: Cng nh Ni. Si khng to cacbit. Klii khng c m t c . vi khong 2% Si
th chuyn bin a <-> y b c ch. Klii c m t c . v n g y s chc m rng (vi 0,35%
c vng Y s tn t i cho ti 9% Si). H s tn g th m ti ca Si l 1.7 (loi tn u ig
bnh). Si cn c tc dng tn g tn h n m li ram , n lnn g kling lni tn g tnh giii
ca thp. Si tn g kh n n g chng oxy ha cho thp n h it cao v tn g bn
chig do. bi v y Si c m t trong thp crni. Cng vi Mn (l. -2 % S i v o . -
0,9%Mn), Si c tc dng tn g gii h n n hi, ng dng sn xu t l xo,nhp cc
loi.
Crm: Gin pha Fe - Cr cho thy vng y b h n ch trong gii hn 12.8%
Cr. Klii c th m cacbon. v n g ny c m 'rng, ch ng hn vi 0 .% c . pha y c
th tn ti cho ti 20% Cr (xem h iih 7.). Cr to cacbit phc tp; CrvC. v Cr^.Ci.
N hng cacbit n y s ha tan vo a u steiiit khi n h it cao hn 900" c . Cr tnp
ng k th m ti (vi h s^ l 3.2). N cn c tc dng ci thin tnh chng rnm
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________^
v r bu rt Iihit cao. do II to ra cacbit. nh m n khi ram. c tc dii ha bn

lPt )ha. b li s ha m m ca in acten xit do gim chnh plung. Cui cng. Cr
(loM.:: vai tr hug dn i vi bn chng m i mn. Thp sau cng tch
(,0-1.1%C) m c 0.0-1.7% Cr ic dng rng ri ch to bi v vng bi cc loi
(k c trc laii. trc cn . ...).
Mlipen; M lipeii thu hp v ng y cn m nh hn c Cr. N u Iihir kling c
cacbon. VIIR 7 ch tn ti troiig phm vi < 3% Mo. Klii c cacbon (0.3% C). vng
/ c th tii ti ti 8 % Mo n h it 120"C. Mo l nguyn t" to cacbit m nh,
kh ha tan vo 7 khi im iig. cho nn troiig thp k t cu. litng Mo khng vt qu
1%. n lniig troiig tlip dng c v thp khng g. liig Mo c th cao hn Iihiii.
( n.( vi Cr. Mo t n g m nh th am ti (vi h s' l 3.8). Mo ci thin tnh chng
ram do n to ra ciig th hai khi rain (do hnh th n h pha M 02C) v lm gim
s n hy cm (ti vi giii ram.
Vanai; Tac dng ca V gn ging nh ca Mo. N thu hp v iig 7 v khiivnh
Inniu^ to cacbit cn m n h hn c Mo. R t kh c th ha ta n v c VQO 7, ngh a l
<ii ( {liiR lin kt v do vy li gim thm ti v ciig ca thp, v c Iih
iiiii. nam hiii ht. II c tc dng ngn cii s ln ln ca h t 7 khi nung, li
tac dug ch yu ca V. N goi ra V cng tng tnh chiig ram v tn g kh Ii.iig
cliiip ini mii cho thp. N thng ic s diig cng vi cdc nguyn t khc
(mIkV l v 6 i Cr). hm hdng' ca n khng vit qu 0 , 2 % .
Bo: Vi mt. lng rt nh (0.001% ), B tn g thiVin ti cho thp c lii hai
l;n. Tac dng n y th hin r thp cacbou th'p v tn n ig biih. v i thp cacbon
cao (> 0.7% C). tc d ng trn li khng ng k. c th l do B ic tit, ra
biu h t a u sten it, u gii c a s sin h m m peclit. M. h thp cha bo kh pht.
triini. cho php tit, kiii itc kh trong vic s diig cc ngiiyii t hp
kini.
Lii hunli: Mt. v i loi thp c htng s cao (0.08-0.13% ). n kt. hp vi Mii
lo ra M iiS Iim ln trong thp, c tc dng lm gy vn phoi thp khi gia cng ct
t. D chnh In thp ct nhanh.
(' tlip tni ta t tc dng ring l ca cc nguyn t hp kiin n tnh cht ca
llu']) nh\ sau:
- De t n g ( th m ti, Iigii ta s dng Mn hoc Cr v c Ni. Tc dng cc
iiuyii t ciig c nit. c tnh ch t hip ng, cho nn ngii ta thng p dng
nguyn tc "nlii\i loi nhng t lng" liii l n h iii htng ca Iit nguyn t' ii
l no :
- ci tliin tnh chng ram (gi c ciig ihit cao khi rajn). Iigi
ta s dng Cr. Mo. V v w . l nhng ngu yn t' to cacbit trong qu trnh ranr.
- n n g cao bn chng nii inn. ngi ta s dng cc nguyn t' to
cacbit (v d. Cr).
7.2.2.4, nh hng ca nguyn t hp kim n qu trnh nhit luyn

Cc Iiguyn t lip kim nh hng ln n qii trnh n h it hvii thp, c bit
l ii qu triih ti v rain, do vy c nh Inng qiiaii trng n c tnh, cty l c
308__________________________________________________________ Chng 7. THP V GANG
tnh ni b t ca thp hp kim. C hng ta s xt ln lt nh hitng ca cc nguyn

t hp kim ti tng m t ca qu trnh ti v rani thp.
Chuyn bin k h i n u n g nng:
Nh bit, p hn ln cc thp hp kim thng gp trng th i cn biig ()
c t chc hai pha; ferit v cacbit vi cc nguyn t hp kini phn b trong chng.
Klii n ung nng ti cng c chuyn biu; t hn hp ferit - cacbit th nh aiisten it
v s ph t trin ca h t a u sten it. Tuy nhin so vi thp cacbon. chuyn bin n y c
nhng im khc b it kh r rt.
Tr Mn. cc n gu yn t^ to cacbit hp kim khc \i kh ha tan vo austeiiit
hn so vi xn ieiitit. do cacbit ca chng bn vng v n iih hn so vi xn ien tit.
do vy miin ha ta n chng, i hi n h it cao hn v thi giaii di hn. Cac
nguyn t to cacbit cn g m nh th cng kh ha tan. TiC. v c rt kh ha tan.
cc cacbit khc kh ha tan so vi x m en tit hp kim v xm en tit hp kim li kh
lia ta n hn xn ien tit. V d, thp dng c cacboii CDlOO clia 1.0% c vi pha
cacbit l Pe.tC c n h it ti khong 780"c. thp ln O L100Cr2 c lng cacbon
tidng t Iihing c th m l,% Cr vi pha x m eiitit hp kiin (Fe,Cr).C c n h it ti
khong 830-850"C. cn th p 1 0 0 C rl2 V c lng Cr cao ti 12% v th m 1%V vi
pha cacbit CrvC.- v Cr2,iC(j, c n h it ti vt qu 1000c . N goi ra p ng u
ha th nh phn ca a u ste n it lip kiin cng kh khn hn. do tc khuch tn ca
cc n gu yn t hp kim th p hdn rt nhiu so vi cacbon. Do v y m iin ng u
th nh phn ha hc ca a iiste n it cn phi gi n h it lii hn.
N u thp c hp kim ha bng nhng nguyn t" to cacbit niiih, c hit, l
Ti, V, w . Mo th do s kh ha tan ca cc cacbit nni bin gii h t lni cn
tr s s t nhp gia cc ht. in gi c h t a n sten it nh nin khi m iiig nng,
y cn Iihn m n h v a i tr git h t a u steu it nh mn ca Ti: th p vi htng uli Ti
(0.1%) ii to nu m t liig khng lii TiC nm bin gii ht. c th luuig thp
cn n h it 9 5 0 -9 8 0 c trong thi gian di (3-5h) ni khng s lit lii. Ngoi
cacbit ra. nit s n gu yn t' hp kim c b it nhi Al. V. Nb. Ti c th to nn cc
pha oxyt, Iiitrit rt kh ha tan, cng c tc diig gi cho h t a u ste n it nh inii.
H ai nguyn t' khng to th n h cacbit l Ni v Si cng c coi l cc n gu yn t
cn tr SI p h t tri n ca h t a u s te n it, nhi<iig tc dng ny kh n g r. M a iig a n l
n guyn t' to cacbit duy n h t khng nhng khng cn tr li cn thc y s pht
trin ca h t a u sten it. C c h lin th h t a u sten it ca Mii clua gii thch itc.
Tm li do tc dng ca cc n gu yn t hp kim n hi vy nn khi ti, ni chim g
cc thp hp kim phi ic n u n g nng n n h it cao hn v thi gian gi n h it
di hn. song v ii gi c h t a iisten it nh mn.
S p h n ha n g n h i t ca a u ste n it v th m t i:
Klii ha ta n vo a u sten it, cc n guyn t' hp kim (tr Co) vi mc khc
nhau u lni chm tc phn ha ng n h it ca au steu it. tc l lni \tng
cong ch "C" dch sa n g phi.
N guyn nhn ca nh hng ny l do nguyn t hp kim liii chm s khuch
tn. lm cho chuyn bin khuch tn a iisten it th nh liii hp ferit - cacbit cn tlii
gian di hn. Lng n g u y n t hp kim trong a u sten it cng n hiu , tn h n nh ca
u sten it qu ngi cn g cao.
VT LIU HC 309
Cc n gu yn t" khng to th nh cacbit Iili N i.Si. Cu, AI v nguyn t' to

cacbit yu l Mii cii lm dch chuyn v tr ca ng cong ch "C" sa iig phi ni
khng lm th a y i hnh dng ca ng coiig (hnh 1.1 Oi).
Hinh 7.7. S chuyn dch sang phi ca ng cong ch C"

(ng bt u chuyn bin) ca cc nguyn t hp kim
a) thp cacbon v thp hp kim ha bng Ni, Si, Mn,
b) thp cacbon v thp hp klm ha bng Cr. w , Mo. V
Cc ngu yn t-to cacbit m nh nli Cr, w , M o .v khng Iihug lm dch chuyn

(ing cong ch "C" sang phi m cn lm tliay i hnh dng ca n: thnh hai
ng coiig ch "C" trn v di (hnh 7.7b). ug cong ch "C" trn ng vi
chuyn biu a iiste iiit th n h peclit, xocbit. tru stit, cn ng cong ch "C di iig
vi clm vn bin a u ste iiit th n h bainit. PGioiig n h it gia h ai itiig cong ch
"C" trn v di - kh on g 400-00"C - a iisten it q\i ngui c tn h n nh rt
lu. dii nic gi uhit rt lu. c th ti l o - 10^ giy (3-30 h) cng chiia thy c
('huyii bin.
N\i tch ring t ng n gu yn t' m t th tc dng dch chuyn ch "C" san g phi
ninli Iiht l Mo. ri tip n Mii. Cr. Ni. Vi cng liig Iihith, nhng kt hp
Iihiu n gu yn t hp kini ng thi th tc dng dch chuyn ng coiig chi "C"
sa n g phi s m n h hn. Trong thc t thng p dng cch hp kim ha nh vy
t c hiu qu ca ti v ram tt hn. N goi ra m t lng rt nh B
(0,002% ) ha ta n trong a u ste n it cng lm dch chuyn n iiih ng cong ch "C"
sa n g phi.
Cn h i\i rng cc n gu yn t hp kim ch lm dch chuyn chng cong ch "C"
sa n g phi khi clniig ha ta ii trong a iisten it, iu ny ch c th t c khi
n iu ig nng v gi n h i t th p n h i t cao v th i g ia n d i th c h hp phn l ii
cacbit hdp k im phn ha v cc ng uyn t' hp k im ha ta n vo tro n g a u s te n it mt.
hng ng k. T hp tu y ifc hp kini ha cao, nhng n h it n ung nng qii
th p (hoc th i g ia n gi n h i t qu ngn) phn l ii cacb it hp k im vn cha ha
ta n vo a iis te n it, c iiig kh n g t c y tc dng .
th m t i:
Do khi ha tan vo a iistei t cc n gu yn t hp kim lm dch chuyn iiig
cong ch "C" sa n g phi, nn lm 'uini tc ti ti hn v do thm ti tn g
310 Ch ng 7 THP VA GANG
ln. H nh 7.8 trnh by iili hitng ny ca cc n guyn t hp kini, Tlip hp kini c

tc ti ti hn th p (hnli 7.8a). do vy vi iu kin lm ngui nh Iihau. ng
vi s phn b tc Iigvii theo tit din ging Iihaii. thp hp kini c th ni ti
cao hn l.lip cacboii (2 > >|). N hiu trng hp chi tit kh ln bang thp h|) kim.
c tc ct ngui ca li ciig ln hn t,'c ti ti hn. do vy chi tit cc ti tha\t
v c tnh nhn ic l ng ii trn tou tit din.
T kim
Ti/i ian , log z

=1)
Hnh 7.8 S biu din s gim tc ti ti han (a) v s tng thm ti (b)
ca thp hp kim so vi thp cacbon (\/|^,, v \/,h2 l tc ti t han,
cn ri, v l thm ti ln it ca thp cacbon v thp hp kim)
Do thaiii ti tn g ln. hiii qii ha bn ca ti v ram vi tlip hp kiiii

dvrc ci th iii r rt. y l m t ii im ni bt ca thp lip kini so vi
cacboii. pht liiiy h t u v it ny. thp hp kim phi chc s dng trn g thi
sau nhit luyii (ti v raii). chu ti trng cao v tit din clii tit ln. S (lii;
thp hdp kiii) khng ng s khiig em li hiu qu kinh t - k th u t cao. V v.
vic chn thp hp kini cao hay thp lioii ton ph thuc vo kch thc tit, din
chi ti t ln hay uh.
Do t'c ti ti h n gim i, khi ti thp hp kini tlutng ciig iDi trng lm
ngui chm nh d \i hoc p dng cch t i phn cp. t i (lng n h i t, do v y c th
gim c bin dng v nt. Mt thp hp kiin cao khi duig cch lm Iigiii
tro n g kh ng k h (th ng ha) cng c th t ic t chiVc in a c te iix it. cc th p Iili
vy gi l th p t t i v h i u t iig cidc gi l hi n ti iig t ti.
Cc thp c tc ti ti hn nh v tlini ti ln l cc loi thp hp kini
sau: Cr-Ni. Cr-Mii, Cr-Mo. Cr-Ni-Mo, Cr-Mn-Mo. ... l c s ca cac thp lip
kim k t c\i hin nay.
Cn liii l cc ngu yn t" lip kim cli lm tn g thiii ti khi chng lia
tan trong au sten it. N ii chng cn nni li trong thp dng cacbit. chira tan (v
d. luing n h it cha cao hoc thi gian cha c di), th cc pha n y s
ng vai tr cc m ni k t tin h ra hn hp ferit. - cacbit (peclit. xocbit. tn is tit) do
vy lm gim th m ti.
C huyn bin m a cte n xit:
Cc n gu yn t" hp kim tuy khng nh hng ii ng hc ca chuyn hin
in actenxit n h in g li nh hng r rt n n h it d chuyn bin a u steiiit th n h
m a c te n x it v do n h hng c n hng a u s te n it d\t k h i ti.
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________3J_
Hai ngviyii t' AI v Co lm tng nhit bt u chuyn bin niactenxit (M,|).

CII Si khiig nh hng g. T t c cc nguyn t^ hp kim thing dng cn li (ii
l iii yiin in) M, v do vy lni tng hdiig aiisten it d sau kh i ti. Nguyn t lip
kim c tc dng ti iiii M,| mnh nht l Mn, tip n l Cr, Ni, Mo. Troiig gii
hn nh hn 4-%. c thm 1% nguyn t lip kim . im M(| ca thp thay i nhi
sau; Mii lm gim 4 c. Cr gim 3" c. Ni gim 26" c. Mo gim 2" c. Co lm tng
12"C. AI tng 18" c.
Do nh hng ny m Iiit s' thp hp kim cao c im M ,1 qu thp lin sau
khi ti c liig austenit d ln. dn ti cng khng t gi t r mong nuiii. T iiy
vy vic kh b austeiiit d c th thc hin bng phitiig php gia cng lnh hoc
ra 111 Iihit. thch hp mt vi ln austeiiit dit chuyn bin tip tc thnh
innctenxit. lc cng s t c gi t r cao nht.
Chuyn bin k h i ram :
Cc nguyn t hp kim, vi mc khc nliau. u cn tr cc ciiuyu biu xy
ra khi rain tlip. ni c th l n ba qii trnh: phn ha niactenxit. tc l ti t ra
cacbon t Iiiacteiixit; chuyn bin aiistenit d thnh niacteuxit rani; s kt t
cacbit.
Nhit, cn t.hit xy ra cc qu trn h trn vi cao hn so vi tlip cacbon
ting liig. V i d. chnh phng c /a ca inactenxit gim xung gi tr 1.005.
thi) c 1,4%C phi ram 2OC, nu thm 2%Si plii ram nhit ct 300" c . tlini
l.% Cr phi ra)ii 30"C. Do t ciig nh thp cacboii tiiig ing. tht;>
hp k in i phi c rain nhit cao lidn. Cng do nguyn nhn ny, cc thp h)
kiin gi c ct bn, cng cao ca trng th i ti nhit cao hn so vi thp
cacbon hay ni khc cti thp hp kim c tnh chu nhit cao hn.
Sci d c (tc t nh ny l v cc nguvn ti* hp kim c tc kh\irh tu cliiii
lin cn tr s chuyn di ca cacbon. lm qu trn h rain xy ra chm i. Cc
ngiiyn t' to cacbit mnh nh w , Mo, Cr c khuynh lutiig gi cacboii li trong
chiug dch r n n ia c te n x it v s ti t ra cacb it hp k in i k h i n ia c te iix it xy ra n h i t
(t cao hn so vi st cacbit. v d, st cacbit ti t ra khong 200'C. crni cacbit.
khong 40"C. volani cacbit v mlipen cacbit 550-G00'CDo khuch tn kh
kh n , cacbit hp k im c kch thc nh m n gp phn l m t n g c h t t cng,
h i ii t ng n y gi l ha cng p h n t n , cng vi k t q ii ca s chuyn bin
austeiiit thnh Iiiactenxit rain, l iii tng cng ca thp ti khi ram. cng
t iig tli n i Ii y vtc gi l cng th ha i. th n g gp tro n g th p crni cao v
volani cao.
T ita n v vanai tiiy l nhng nguyn t' to cacbit r t mnh, troiig thp
clu iiig thit iig tn t i dng cacbit n nh, kh i nung nng hu nh khng ha tan
vo austeiiit v do cng khng c trong m actenxit nn thc t hu nh khng
nh hng g n qii trn h ram.
M aiigan l nguyn t' to cacbit y\i, nn tc dng cn tr qii trn h rani l
khng lii.
Hai nguyn t' khng to thnh cacbit thng gp : Ni hu Iih khng nh
hng, cn Si ch c tc diig cn tr yu n qii trn h raii.
Tng kt mt cch h thng tc dng tt ca nguyn t hp kiin n c tnh

ca thp c th chia ra cc n h n x t sau: so vi th p cacboii. n h i t tlu iig thp
hp k im c bn cao hn l o fe r it l pha ch y ii ca th p ic ha bn bi sit
ha tan ca cc nguyn t' hp kim. N liiln g hiu qii ca Iiguyii t hp kim ch
ic p h t h u y y sau k lii th p c n h i t lu y n (t i v ra n i). do nguyn t' hp
k im khng n h n g l m t n g chiu dy ca lp ha bn. do c th m t i l ii in cn
nng cao c bn ca chnh lp ha bn na. Ngoi ra thp hp kini gi ic
bn. c itiig cao ca tr n g th i t i n h i t cao hn do cc nguyn t' hp k n ii
trong dung dch rn m actenxit cn tr s phn ha ca pha ny khi ram. Bng
7.6 triih by tc dng ca mt s' nguvii t' hp kim ch yu Vc cng dng ni bt
ca chng.
Bng 7.6. c tnh tc dng ca mt s nguyn t hp kim trong thp
Nguyn Nng cao Ha bn Lm nh Hnh thnh Cn tr Cng dng

t thm ti erit ht cacbit s ram ni bt
C trong mi thp
Cr Mnh Trung Yu Trung Trung nng cao
bnh binh binh thm ti, chng n
mn v chu nhit
Mn Mnh Mnh Lm ht Yu Yu Dng thay Ni
to nhanh to thp austenit
Khng; thc Trung Chng oxy ha,
Si Yu Mnh Khng y s binh, di ch to thp k
graphit ha, 250c thut in. Ihep
thot c mnh dn hi
Ni Trung Trung Khng Khng Khng Nng cao dai
binh binh to thp austenit
Mo Rt mnh Yu Trung Mnh Mnh Chng gin ram
binh loi II v nng cao
w Trung Yu Trung Mnh Mnh bn nhit
bnh binh cao
Mnh, nhng
V v c kh ha Yu Mnh Mnh Mnh Lm ht nh
tan vo y
Khng, vi TIC Khng,
Ti hu nh Mnh Rt Rt vi TiC Lm nh ht mnh
khng tan mnh mnh khng hn c V
vo ha tan
vo dung
dch rn
VT LIU HC 313
7.2.2.5. Cc khuyt tt ca thp hp kim

Cc thp hp kim c c tnh cao lii hii thp cacboii. chc s ilng nhi\i
trong ch to c kh vo cc cng vic quaii trng. T \iy nhin trong qu trn h gia
ciig v s (lng chng tlutng gp mt s* khxiyt t t nh luiig x\i n c tnh
u'u khng c nhng bin php ngn nga, khc phc.
Cac k lu iy t t t c th gp l:
Thin tch nhnh cy: Thp hp k in i cao cha int liig ln cc Iiguyii t
khc loi, k lii lm Iigui t trng th i lng, trc tin s kt tin h ra dung dch r ii
cha t cacbon v nguyn t' hp k iin (v dung dch rn ny c nhit nng chy
cao Iin kt tin h trc) to nn nhnh cy, sau nii kt tin h ra cUiiig dch rn
ginu cacboii v nguyn th p kim (loi ny c nhit nng chy tli p hdn nn kt
tinh sau) to nn vng gia cc nhnh cy. Do vy c s khc nhan v thnh phn
ha hc gia cc phn ca nhnh cy. c gi l thin tch Iih iih cy. Liig
nguyn th p kim cng cao. thin tch nhnh cy th hin cng r.
nh hng x u ca th i n tch Iili n h cy l ch th i thp hp k iin k h i em
cun s to thnh t chc th, lni cho c tn h khc Iiha\i theo cc pluiig khc
nliau. Ngoi ra thi thp hp kim vi t chc Iili iih cy r t d nt khi cn. rn. v
liii kt gia cc tin h th nhnh cy km v bn thn nhnh cy c tnh do thp.
Iign nga thiu tch nhnh cy trong cc thi thp hp kim . khi c phi
l 111 Iigiii chm to iii kiu khuch tn lni \i thnh phn. Tuy nhin bin
)lip ny khng em l i hiu qu kin h t k th u t v cc xiiig liiyn thp i hi
quay vng khiin c thi Iihaiih.
khc phc thin tch n li iih cy cn phi tin hnh khvich tn thi c
tritc k h i em cn, rn. Nhit l lOO - 1100" c vi thi gian di 8 - 1 0 h.
kliiich tn l nguyn ciig nhit luyn gi tli n h cao. v vy ch ap dng kh i tlic
s can th i t cho cc thp hp kiin yu c\i cao.
- hi tr n g : ni trng l mt dng klm yt tt r t nguy hiii ca thp hp
kim. l cc vt n t nh c dng lm 'in trng, thy r trn int. gy ca vt.
thi cn. Diii trng l ngun gc pht, sinh cc ph hy gin.
Dng klm y t t t ny ch xy ra tro iig thi cn ca cc thp hp kim c ct
t hm ti cao Iilu cc thp hp kim C r-N i, Cr-Ni-W (M o). khng xy ra trong thi
c ca m i loi th p v th i cn ca cc th p cacbon, th p hp k im a iis te n it v
1erit.
Nguyn Iiha xy ra iii trng l hyro. Hyro trong kh quyn ca l hiyn
ha tan vo thp lng v c iih l i trong thp rn. ha tan ciia liyro trong
thp rn gim dn k h i h nhit , c bit t di 200" c. ha tan ca hyro b
gim t ngt, do vy hyro bt buc phi thodt ra. Trong thp cn. rn vi mt
ln (do khng cn r xp), hyro khng kp thot ra ngoi thp rn. b tch t li
diti p sii t ln ti mc ph hy b phn, gy ra vt nt dng chn chim. Trong
thp c kh n g c 'm tr n g v cn r x'p l n i liy ro c th n n ii ic.
Ngoi hyro ra. SI chuyn bin pha (y ^ a hoc Y ^ M) khng ng u v
Lhi g ia n v n h i t . gia cc v n g ca tin h th c th n h p li ii ha hc (vng
n h n h cy v v n g gia cc n h n h cy) gy nn ng s u t bn tro n g , cng gp
314 Chng 7 THP V GANG
phii to un (tni trng. C ti v vy ni kling thay xvit hin (lii triig

thp cacbon v tlip hp kin i thp.
Bin pli)) tt nhi l ngn nga ce khng to thnh ni Iriio. nuiii vy
phi gim bt lng liydro ha tan vo tlip lng bng ccli sy kli ton b m
livi (st. th]) vn), nhin li\i v cht tr d\nig trc khi cho vo l hiyn. Dv l
hiu phap t tn kni. mang li hiu qu tt. Ng\ii ta cng c th (lng l)iii phu)
khac. troiig (l sau khi biii dng Iiiig lm ngui thp xung di Iihit k \
k lio n g O - 100" c r i gi n h i t tro iig th i gian (li t, v i ctn lid ii nnti
ty tluic vo ti t din thi), tc dng cch ng nhit, hoc lm ngui sau khi
bii dng VI tc chm (10 - l h ) hyro kp khuch tn ra khi ferit. Bin
phap kh h clni trng i hi thi gian di, kh tn km. Cac Iih may luyn
kim tin hiih vic kli b ni trng trong thi thp trc khi cung cap cho cac
Iih luay c kh.
- Gin ram : Vi thp cacbon khi tng nhit ram. ct dai va (p s tng v
dt gi tr ln nht khong nhit c G00-60"C ri gim i (hnh 7.9a). Nhng
nit. s thp kt. cii lip kim . quan h gia dai va p v nhit c ram c th c
hai gi tr cc tiu ng vi hai khong nhit (hnh 7.9b), ti cl thp b gin hrii
mc bnh th\ng rt uhiii. hin Utiig ctitc gi l gin rani.
A//)/f ram , c
.i b) Nhit ram ,
Hinh 7.9. Quan h gia dai va dp v nhit ram

a) ca thp cacbon (0,40%),
b) ca thp hp kim (0,30%c. 1,47%Cr, 3,4%Ni)
Loi gin xut hin khi ram khong 280 - 3O c . ng vi cc tiu th Iili t.
(hc gi l gin ram loi I. ni nguyn nhn ca n n nay cng clua r. C th l
(lo khi rani nhit ny. cacbit dng t.ni tit, ra khi niacteiixit. bin gii pha
dn ti pha liy gin, hoc l do a iis te iiit d\t chuyii thnh m actenxit ram l pha
gin hn lni ct dai va p gim i t ngt. Hin vn cha c bin phap c hiu
qu ngn uga gin ram loi L do n CII c gi l gin ram khng tlu i ii
nghch hay khng cha c. Cch tt nht l trnh khng ram khong nhit
c X T i t hin fin ram loi I.
Loi gin xu't hiii khi ram khong OO - 600c. tluiig gp thp hp kim :
Cr. Mn. C r-N i. Cr-M n. sau khi ram lni Iigui chm, ng vi cc tiu th hai
VT LIU HC________________________________________________________________ si
(l)inh 7.9b). ctc gi l giii rani loi II. Nii sau khi rani lm ngui n h an h (bng
cch nluuig vo nc hay dii m khng ngui ugoi khng kh nh cch rani
thng thng) th khng xut hiu cc tiu th hai ni trn, tc khng xy ra gin
ram. Song nu sau l i tin hnh ram lu trong khong OO - 600"c, tnh gin li
xiiat hiii. v vy gin rani uy m ang tiih cht tluiii nghch. Cng ging Iih gin
ram loi I. Iigviyii nhn cia gin ram loi II vn clua c xc nh r riig. C
ti)p l do khi lm ngui chm t nhit ram cao nlu vy to iu kin t.liiiii li
chu s tit ra cc )ha gin c kch tli\c r t nh bin gii ht. Bn cli't. cc pha
(l l g (ltrit. oxyt hay plitphit) v cch phn b' chiig cliita itc khang nli.
Bin phap ngn nga gin raii loi n l lm Iigiii n h a iili sau khi rani cao (liiig
cacli nhng chi tit vo du hay Iiitc). Vi chi ti t ln kh lm ngui nhanh, phi
(liiuR thi) hp kim ha thm bng 1%W hay 0,%Mo. Vic p dng c-iihit hiyii
r ii o tc (lng Iigii cn gin ram loi II.
7.2M. PH N L O I TH P HP k im
C th c cc pliing php phn loi tlip lip kim ch y\i sau;

Phn loi theo t chc t vi: Thng phn loi thp hp kim theo t chc t
trn g thi cn bng v sau khi tlutng ha.
Phii loi hto t' chc tr ii thi cn bng; Saii khi . t.lip c t chc cii
hng n (iih. vi bii. ciig thp Iiht. Theo lng cachoii tng (ln. c th c
cai' loi thp sau:
- t hp trc cng tch, vi t chc ferit. v peclit;
- t hp cng tch, vi t chc peclit;
- thp snu cng tch vi t chc ngoi peclit cn c cacbit th hni;
- thp lctbiirit vi t chc c cng tinh l(tb\irit;
- t.h) a \iste iiit vi t chc tlm n austeiiit (do itc hp kiin ha vi lng ln
Ii*;viyn t inci rng vng , nh Ni hoc Mn);
- thp fe rit vi t chc thun fe rit (do ic hp kim ha vi hng ln nguyn t
in ruf vns (X. nh\ Cr hoc Si).
Pliii loi t.heo t clic trng thi tlntng ha: T t chc sau khi aiistenit ha
ri lni ngui ngoi khng kh tnh (thiig ha) cac mu nh (iig knh 20111111).
t y mc hp kim hax th c cc loi thp saii;
- thp peclit. l loi thp hp kim thp, tnh n nh ca austeiiit qu ngiii
cliia l ii lni. vect ngui ct cln' "C" (hiih 7.10a). nn t chc Iili n c vu l
peclit. (xocbit. tn is tit);
- thp Iiiacteiixit. l loi thp hp kim trung bnh v cao. c tnh n nh ca
aiistenit qua ngui ln n inc vect ngui ngoi khng kh khng ct giii ch
"C" ni xung th n g v n g m acten xit (hnh 7.10b) lin t cltc nhn \c l
Iiiacteiixit (cn c tu l thp t ti);
- thp aiistenit. l loi thp hp kim cao bcii cc nguyii t" Iih i Ni. Mn m rng
vung y xung n nhit thng (hnh 7,10c). nn saii kh i ngui ngoi khng kh,
thp vn trng th i aiistenit.
Phn loi theo nguyn t'hp kim : Cch phn loi ny da vo tn cc Iigiiyii
t* lip kini chnh ca thp. V d. thp c cha Cr c gi l thp crin; cha Cr.
Mn itc gi l thp crni-niangan; chta Cr. Ni. Mo c gi l tlip crni-nikeii-
Iiilipen. ...Theo cch phn loi ny. bit \(c tnh cht, ca thp do uguyn t hp
kim chnh quyt, nh, v d. thp Ni c tnh do. dai cao; thp Cr-Ni-Mo c (t
th m ti cao v khng nhy cni vi gin rani loi II.. .
hp loaasteni
77/7777777777777777777/
Thi gian ----- -
c)
H n h 7 .1 0 . n g c o n g c h " C " c a c c lo a i th p
Phn loi, theo tng lng cc nguyn t hp kim : Theo tng lng cc nguyn
t hp k iiii. c cc loi SQ\1:
- thp hp kim thp, l loi ni tng lng cc nguyn t hp kin i nli hii
2,% (thng l loi peclit);
- thp hp kin i tn in g bnh, l loi m tng lng cc nguyn t hp kim t 2.
n 10% (l loi peclit.-niactenxit);
- thp hp kim cao. l loi m tng htiig cc n guyn t hp kim cao hii 10%
(c th l thp Iiiactenxit hay aii.steiiit).
Cch phii loi ny cho bit gi tr ca thp.
Pkn loi theo cng dng: y l cch phn loi thng dng nht. Cng Iilu
thp cacbon. theo cng dng, thp lip kim c phn ra cc nhm clinli sau:
- thp cn nng thng dng, ic dng vi khi lng ln. ch yu cliiig trong
xy dng v cc cng vic thng thiiig tng t. khng cn qua nhit hiyii khi s
dng;
- thp kt cu. l nhm thp ch yu lin clii ti t iny, thng phi qiia
n h it hiyii;
- thp dng c,l nhm thp cli y\i lm dng c. nht th i t phi qua nhit
hiyii;
- thp hp kim c bit, l nhm thp c cc t iili cht c bit (c. l. ha), v
d, thp khng g, thp c tnh chng mi IIIII cao, thp chi nhit, tlip c tiib
gin n v n li i c bit, thp khng t tnh. ... Phn triih by cc n li iii thp
c th dii cly s da theo cch phn loi nv.
VT LIU HC________________________________________________________________ 317
7.2.4. K H I U T H P HP k i m
Thp hp kim ic k hiu tlieo h thng cln v s: ch k hiu cc Iigiivii t

lip kim bng clinh k hiu lia hc ca n. s u ch lng cacbon tn u ig bnh
theo phn vn. s pha sau ng\iyn t no ch hng trun g bnh ca Iigiiy ii t ct
theo phn trni. nii lng nguyn t hp kin i Iio 1% th kliiig ghi con s sau
n. V d. mc thp IS C rM iiT i. cha 0.18% c. Iili hn hoc bng 1% nii ng\iyii
t'Cr. Mn. T i (thp thm cacboii): hoc mc thp 60S2 c 0,6% c. 2% Si (thp ii
hi).
Do nitc ta cha sn xut (t\fc nhiu thix nh't l thp hp kim. lin chii y\i
d ng th p n h p k h ii. M i IIIC c cch phn loi v k hi u ri n g ca h. ti n
cho vic tra cii. so snh hoc cluiyii ci tng ng, phn ph lc c t r iili by
cch k hiu thp v hp kim ca mt s nitc ln (Nga. Trviiig Quc. M. N ht
B<n. c. ...). Bn c c th tham kho khi cn.
7.3. THP CN NNG THNG DNG
7.3.1. T H N H PH N V T N H C H AT
Thnh phn ha hc:

i a s thp cn nng thng dng c lng cachon khiig vt qu 0.2% c.
D ci thin mt s t iili cht nh: bn c hc v bn chng ii inii t.roiig: kh
(iiyn. ... nfvi ta c th cho tli ni mt. s' nguyn t hp kiin nic vi lng
hoc thp, vi tng lng cc nguyn t hp kini nh hn hoc biig 2%. Nu tng
hrng cacboii v htiig nguyn t hp kin i hii na th c th ci th i ii r rt cac
tnh ch't ny, u h iiig s lni x'\i tnh do dai v n li t l tnh hn ca thp, in cc
tiih ch't ny l nhng yii cu li iig u i vi thp xy dng, ln h vc si cliig
ch y\i ca nhm thp ny. Ngoi ra cn do l clo gi thnh, vi thi) thng dng,
tliiug sn x ii t vi khi htiig ln. khng th hp kim ha mt cch ty tin.
Tnh cht:
- bn. c bit l gii hn chy ciia thp cng cao. cc kt. c'\i ciig bn v
cng gn nh. Ngvi ta tli y rng nii tng gii hn chy t 240-260 MPa (thp
CT38) ln 340-360 MPa. khi lng kt cu kim loi c th gim bt 20-20%. i\i
uy em li hin qu kinh t ln: ti t kim thp dng, gim nh khi htng xy
lp. t n g ic kh n n g ch u t i ca k t c\i n ln cn. toa xe, t, ... B n ^ cch lup
kim lia vi lng hoc bng cch gia cng thch hp sau khi cu. c th tng ghî
hn chy ln trn 300 MPa, thni ch ti trn OO MPa.
- Tnh co phi m bo. do cc kt c\i kin i loi khi ch to thing phi qua
uii dp, Iin n phi do. b iili thing 5 = 1 8 - 20%. vi nhng loi thp
mng ( dp in ii t) th > 2 - 30%.
- Tnh hn tt. Tnh hn phi c xem Iiln yii t* quan trng hng' u. bi
v phn ln cc tritng hp s dng thp thng dng phi qua hn. Hn bao gni
vic lm chy b phn clii ti t phi hn, ri lm ngiii n. Vng kim loi b chy
318 Chng 7 THP V GANG
lng v vng k cn (vng chuyn tip) trn kim loi nn. tuy luii trng thai
1'ii. nhng tr i qua mt chii trn h nhit: niing nng ln trn Iihit (t clniytMi
hin pha ri b lm ngiii. Nguy c xii't hin cc vt. nt vng uh hiit iihM
cng ln nu Iilu t saii khi hn b ngiii nhanh v trong mi hn xiit lii ii cc pha
cng v gin (cacbit. hp kin). Bi l ngi ta lun tm cch hn ch liii
cucbou v cc nguyn t hp kim i vi cc loi thp chuyn dng hn. Ngi
ta cng xac clnh kh nng hn ca thp bng cch tnh gi tr lng cacbon (MV
i (tng ng). M t trong nhng cng thc thng chtc diig tnh p li ii trn iii
c titng ng, do Vin hu qiiic t (IIS / IIW ) a ra nh\ saii:
Mn Cr + Mo + V N i + Cu
% C|(| = % c + ------ + ---------------- + ----------- - (T.)
6 l
trong thnh phn ca cc nguyn t' hp kim ctc tnh theo % trng lng. R
rng % C,.| cng cao th thp cng kh hu (cng d b ti). KJii phi tm cch
hn ch s x u t h i i cc k h u y t t t h n bng cch im u g Ii iig tn t c ch r n hn.
khng ch' c h t ch n ng htug s d ng k h i hn (cho ph lip 't'i kch tln c. c lii ii
dy v hnh dng, ...ca chi ti t hn), lm ugiii chm n nic c th c sau khi
liii. ...
- Tih chng n nin trong k li quyn. Nh bit, thp cacboii b n IIIII (ii)
trong k li q\iyii. nht l trong khng kh ni. b n mn mnh trong kh qiiyeii
cng nghip c Iihiu CO2. c o . H-^S. vng bin c nhiu ion c r . C th luui cho g
bng cch sn ph. Cuig c th tng kh nng chng n mn trong kh quyii
hng cch a tli n i vo thp int lng nh cc ng\iyii t* nh; Cr. Ni v c bit
l C\1 v p. ... C th s nu phn sau.
7.3.2. N H M T H P CACBON
nc ta. chnh l nhm thp CT nu mc 7.1.4a. Trong thc t

thvtiig gp cc loi CT33. CT34, CT38 v C T l. trong c C T l tluiig \c c;H
thnh cc thanh thp vn dng lm ct cho btng.
c tnh ca nhm thp ny l c gii hn n hi v gii hn chy thp
(< 300 MPa). nhng c do cao (= 10-30%). nng cao bii ca ct. thp cho
btiig. Iigi ta tin hnh ko gin cc thanh thp di t.hni ra (5-8%. Iili vy
k li iig n li iig t n g ic sc ch u t i cho btng in cn ti t k i m itc h t iig th ])
ch ra v ciig l m sch do ko g i n g b bong ra.
Nc ta cliia c quy iih cho thp lm ct btiig. f50iig theo cc qviy nh ca
ti ii cluiii GOST th cc mc thp lni c't btiig vc chia thnh cp: A -I (clio
thp trn trn), A -II. A -III. A -IV v A -V (cho thp vn). Cc mc CT38s v CCT38
c dng sn xut thp trn trn. Mac C C Tln v 18Mn2Si vc dng sn
xvit thp vn. cp thp nht l A -II. cn cc cp cao hn (A -III. A -IV . A-V) phi
dng nhm th p hp k ijn th p bn cao.
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________ ^
7.3.3. NH M TH P HP k i m V I LNG
N li iig pht trin gn y trong ln h vc sn x\i't thp cho php \fa vo s

dng mt s loi thp mi, mt trong s l thp lip kim vi hng. v thnh
l)haii ha lic. n ch klic nhm thp cacbon cht t. C th l lng Mn < 1.5%.
Iigoii ra n cn cha Iih liii 0,1% cc Iig\iyn t to cacbit Iii iih Iiln t V. Ti. Nlj (v
(Ivi. 0.06% Nli). Dini ni bt ca loi thp ny l c c tnh r t cao; gii hn n hi
t 100 n GO MPa. bu ko trong khong OO - 850 MPa v giii di cns
Idui ln (14 - 17?''o).
Diou ny c th gii thch l s gim kch tlutc ht v s c nit ca plia tli
hai tit ra ci thin ng k c tnh ca thp. Bnp cach cho thm nit lnK
Iih cac Iignyii t nu trn v q\ia gia cng c - nhit. luyn thch h]). c th l
kiii\ tra v khng cli Iih i t trong qu trn h cn v lc kt. thc cn. ciiig Iilnt
tc fl lm ngui saii khi cn. ngi ta c th nhn (tc cc ht. cacbit. v c . TiC.
NbC rt Iili Iiiii (kch thc c 10 nin) v phn tu fu trong thp nn, Tc dng
c a cac lut cacbit. t h liin hai nit: t h n h t , c h n g cn tr s ln ln ca h t
a iis te n it trong qu trn h cu nng (cii bo kch tluc ht ca tni thp cn
ii]: thnh phnm vo c - 10 th hai. v chng rnt nh mn v phn tn u
nii to in kin cho hiii tiiig ha bn c\i tnic.
C ui cng, do kch thc h t nh. cc thp Ii y c n h i t chuyn bPii t (PO
ani gin r t tha p. C li iig ctc s d ng (t l m cc chi t.it cti hi c gii hn ctn
hi c;ao, (lai va p n h i t th p m bo. l n lu iig tn h cht cn th i t
to cc 'n^^ dii kh. du (ln hoc cc kt caii vng bng fi hny khi ngi ta
IIIUII gi m nh tr n g hiig ca chi ti t, n h a t l tro n g ciif Iig h i i) t..
7.3.4. NHM T H P H A I PHA l N G H C H (F E R IT - M AC ^ E N X IT)
N \i Iih in tli p hp k in i v i h t iig k tr n vc s dng ch yvi Iih c gi(3i hn

(lu hi cao. th n s gy kh khn cho qu trn h to hiih bng hin cliig do
iiui. Ciig vi inc ctch Rini nh trng htng xe c cc nh ngliin c\ troug
cng nghip t ca M ia vo s dng nit Iih iii thp nii Iii gii hn n
hi ca chiig mc tru n g bnh, t 300 - 30 MPa. nhng bii ko ca cliiit .
sau k h i bin (lng do ng k. c th t n g lu xp x vi bn ca n li iii thp hp
kim vi htng (60 - 700 MPa). Hn ma ct do cng r t cao (= 25 - 30%) v c I
dii l diig cong bin dng ca cluiig lin tc. khng c im gy khc hay
(lon nani ngang sau bin dng n hi (xeni lin li 7.11). iu c ngha l c bn
tiig lin tc theo mc tng ca bin dng (tt nhin l kh i cha vt qu gii
hn hpn ca clnng). Sa\i khi to liiih bng rn clp. gii hn n hi ca chiig
kliiig thp hn OO MPa.
Nhm thp ny chc t tn l thp hai pha i nghch (ngitc nhan), v t
clic t v i ca ch ng gm nn ferit. kh n g cha x n ie iitit (nn rt. do) v cc "li ii
(to nh" m acteiixit (vi t l 10 - 20%).
320 Chng 7, THP V GANG
V thnh phn, chng thuc loi thp cacbou thp (0.08 - 0.10% C). nhng'
Iiiaiigau kh cao (1 - 1.5% M ii). t. c t chc n liit trn. Iigi ta s dng
nhit luyn v c-nhit luyn ch to, trc khi ciiiig cp cho ngi dng.
- Cch th nht; niing
100
thp ln n nhit Iini
gia A c l v Ac3. khong
Iihit ny pha fe rit hu nh
clua c thay i. ch c cc
"hn o peclit l chuyn
thnh austeiiit cha nliiu
cacboii. Saii khi ti, cc "hn
o" ny s chiiyii thnh
niactenxit.
- Cch th hai: ti trc
tip sau kh i cn nng s nhn
c ng a y t chc hn hp
e rit v m acteiixit. Trng hp
ny. phi kim tra cht ch
nhit kt thc kh i cn ct 0 10 20 20
Bin dng , %
(tiii bo t chc trc khi ti
Hnh 7.11. Gin ko ca: a) thp thng, b) thp hai
l fe rit v aiistenit. pha i nghich; c) thp hp kim VI lng
Vi nhm thp Iiy. ci (lu trn ng b khng c oan nm ngang v s
thin kh Iiiig ti ( thm ha bn do bin dang rt manh)
ti). Iigiii ta c th cho thm mt lng nh Cr (0,%) v Mo (0.4%).
7.3.5. NHM T H P HP k im THP
Thp hp k in i thp tiia nin tt. cc yu cii xy dng hin i do c gii hn

chv cao. tn h ch iig n n\n t t tro n g k h quyn v t ng i r. tro n g n h i \i
tn t u g hp. t l t n g gii h n chy vi t q\i t l t n g ciia gi th n li sn x ii t. clo
vy c hiii qu kin h t hn. Bng 7.7 trn h by mt s' mc thp tluic nhm ny
(cn gi l th p hp k im th p bn cao).
Cc thp mangan 19Mn. 09Mii2. 14Mn2 c tnh hn cao (d hu). T roiig (
19Mn dng lni cc ng ng dn du v kh 't di p lc cao. c ng knh
ti 820 n u ii; 14Mii2 dng l in v l cao. th i t b th u bi. Cc th p hp k im ha
phc tp nh IT M iiS i. 14CrM iiSi c c tnh cao hn. \c dng lni cc kt c\i
chu lc trong vn t i Iilnt: lm dm t. ng toa xe...... Cc s hin 3CrSi.
2Mii2Si ic d ng l m ct cho btng cng cao.
C mt. s' nguyn t' c bit l Cu. ch cn cho vo thp mt liig nh (0.20-
0,55%) cng ci thin ng k kh nug chng n mn cho thp trong kh quyn
( bn chng n mii tng khong bn ln), do n to ra mt lp bo v kiu oxyt.
nhng c c\i to st cht, bao gm cc st oxyt v ng oxyt xen k nhau. i k lii
ngi ta cn cho thm N i v Cr. mi nguyn t^ khong 0,% v c p (< 0.15%).
chng gp phn tng ciig tc dng cia C\1. Ngoi ra do c thm cc nguyn t
VT LIU HC 321
h(p k iiii ny m c tiih ca thp ( bn ko) cng ctic ci thin. cliiih l

tnng hp s lii ii hp kim ha phc tp lC rS iN iC u ca Nga v nhm thp vi
tn Corteii C) f:ac Iiitc phng Ty v N ht Bn. Loi thp ny \c dng li) cc
kt c\i kim loi cc khu cng nghip, cc cng trn h xy dng dn dng , giao
t.hiig vn t i (cu, dm t. ...) v vng kh hu bin.
Bng 7 J . Thnh phn ha hc v c tnh ca thp xy dng hp kim thp

T lnh phn cc nguyn t, % C tnh
Mc thp c Si Mn Cr nguyn Cfb . ^0.2- s.
t khc MPa MPa %
19Mn 0,16-0.22 0.2-0.4 0 ,7-1.1 < 0,3 490 340 22
09Mn2 < 0,12 0.2-0.4 1.5-1,8 < 0,3 470 340 21
14Mn2 0,12-0,18 0 .2 - 0 ,4 1 .2 - 1 .7 < 0,3 470 340 21

17MnSi 0,14-0,20 0 ,4-0,6 1 .2 - 1 . 6 < 0,3 520 350 23
14CrM nSi 0.11-0.16 0,4-0.7 0,9-1.3 0.5-0 ,8 500 350 22
ISC rSiN iC u 0,12-0,18 0,4-0,7 0.4-0.7 0.6-0.9 0,5- 500 350 21
0,8Ni
0,2-
0.4CU
35CrSi 0,30-0.37 0,6-0,9 0 .8 - 1. 2 < 0.3 600 400 14
18Mn2Si 0,16-0.20 0,6-0,9 1,2-1.6 600 400 14
< 0,3
7.4. THP KT CU
7.4.1. K H I N I M , DC
* I m v p h n l o i t h p K T c u ' .
Khi ni v thp kt cu.:

Thp kt cn l loi thp ch yii dng ch to cc chi ti t my (cc loi
t rc, bnh raiif. tlia iili truyn lc. l xo, vng bi. ...). So vi loi thp thng dng
nu mc trn, chng c s diig vi khi hiig t hii. nhng th\ic loi cht
liig cao hn v c Iih i ii chng loi hn v thng phi tin hnh nhit luyii
phat. huy ht kh nng lm vic ca chng. Do vy vic la chn, s dng hp l
1lip kt. cu trong ch to c kh s a l i hiu qu kinh t - k th u t ln.
c ieni cia thp kt cu:
- V tnh cht. Do ic s dng ch yu lm chi ti t my. thp kt cu phi
(tt. c hai y\i cu c bn sau: c tn h cng ngh tt trng th i gia cng (gia
cng p lc v gia cng ct gt) v c cd tn h tng hp t t trng th i lm vic (clui
vu l dai va p cao ca phn li v ciig b nit cao chng nii mn.
chu ti t t trong qu trn h lni vic).
- V th iili phn cacbon: m bo ic cc tnh cht Iiii trn, thp kt cii
th iig l lo i th p c th n h p h n cacbou th p v t n iiig b n h , tlii n g tro n g gii
hn 0,1 - 0.6% . cao nht cng khng qu 0,60% (tr cc thp cluiyii dng, chu
nii mii Iiln thp vng bi).
21 - VLH
322________ ____________________________________________ Chng 7. THP V GANG
- V nguyn t' hp kiii: Cc nguyn t hp kim cho vo thp kt cu chii y-^\i

nng cao c thm ti (ng knh ti thu c th t 25 - 200 niiii) v iiiiK cao
c tn h trng th i cimg cp (ha bn ferit). nlntug nu nhiii qu s lin xii t i;ili
cng ngh v nng cao gi thnh. Do vy cc nguyn t^hp kin i trons tlip kcM cYii
c dng vi s liig t. thng ch 1-3%. c bit cng ch 6-7% V (l. ( r. ^'u.
Si vi lng mi nguyn t' khong 1-2% (v qu gii hn ny do. (lai yiuiii
thp). Ni l 1 - 4%. ... nng cao thm ti. ngi ta thiiig (lng cch hp k.ni
ha phc tp (nhiii loi. t lng). hoc cho thm mt lng nh B (0.001-0.002^^0).
Ngoi ra cn c th cho thm T i (< 0.1%) vo thp Mn trn iih ht. to . thm Mo. w
vo thp C r-N i trn h gin ram loi II.
Cc loi thp kt cu v c im nhit uv chng:
- Thp thm cacbon, l thp c thnh phn cacbon thp (1 0.25% C). triUi>
th i c\ing cp c do. dai cao uhiig kni bn. Iiug cao cl bn. ct cng lp l)
int, phi qiia thi cacboii. ti v raii thp.
- Thp ha tt. l thp c thnh phn cacbon trun g bnh (0.3-0.%C). trii;
th i cvuig c'p c c tnh tng hp kli cao. c c t.iih tng hp cao nlit. I)hi
qua nhit luyn ha t t (ti v ram cao) nhn c t chc xocbil raiu. vi ('c
chi ti t i lii c cng b m t cao chng mi mn th sa\i nhit hiyii ha lt.
CII phi qua ti b Iiit v ram thp.
Thp n hi, l thp c thnh phn cacbon tng i cao (0.5-0,7% (')
Chng t ic gii hn n hi cao Iih t khi t chc l tn istil. rain. huf nhit
luyn ti v ram tn u ig bnh.
- Thp kt. cii c cng dng ring nh: thp d ct, thp vng bi. thp (l (, ..
7.4.2. T H P T H M CACBON
Thp thm cacbon l loi thp c lng cacboii thp (0.10-0,20% C), (liio (l
cli to cc chi ti t t.niyn lic (bnh rng. cam. clit xch, (ta ma st. ...). (li hi
trong li do dai chu va p. sau k h i thm cacbon. ti v ram tli'p, c b mt. ciii
vng chu c mi niii.
c im v thnh phn ha hc:
- V thnh phn cacbon; m bo li chi tit c dni va i) cao. th uli
phn cacbon ca thp nm troiig gii hii 0.10-0.20% c. Hin nay c XII lnf'<ui
dng thp vi lng cacbon trn di 0.30% Iiiig cao bn ca li. nht l vci
chi ti t ln.
- V cc nguyn t h p kin i; i vi thp thm cacbon. cnc ngiiyii t h) kim
ngoi kh nng lm tng tnh thm ti CII plii c tc dnf Mic d n \ (linc khiiq
cn tr) sv thm cacbon vo thp v khng lin ht ln. thii l cc nguyn t
to cacbit; Cr, Mn. Mo. V, T i......Kling dng loi thp ch hp kiin hng Mu vi u
lm ht ln (trong tnng hp ny phi c thm Ti gi clio ht nh). Dr hil
n g iiy ii t Ni ngoi tc diig tng thm ti cn c tc dng gi ht uli v
n i iih dai va p. cc thp tli in cacboii t't nh't c th cha ti 2-4% Ni.
Cn cac n gu yn t nh Si. Co khng ic coi l ngiiyii t hp kim (ti vi t h)
tli m cacboii. v chng ngn cn c t.h'in vo thp.
VT LIU HC 323
S khac nhau v cht liig gia thp cacboii v thp lip kim th'ni cacbon
l thp hp kini c th ii ti ln hn nn bn li cao. t bin dng kh i ti v
lin (hc chi tit ln hii. c th thm nhit cao hn. K lii cng b mt nh
nhau th i l.iih chng mi mn ca thp hp kin i cao hii do to nn cc cacbit 011
(lnl) vi phn tn cao.
C( t ih ca cac thp thm cacboi sa\i khi thm c. ti v ram th'p nh sau:
- (t rn<> b Iiit: 9 - 63 HRC. li; 30 - 42 HRC;
- d (lai va dp; = 700 - 1200 kJ/ni'~;
- (l bn ko: fT|, = 600 - 1200 MPa.
(i i hn (li cn dai v bn lng vi thp cacbon v hp kim thp, gii
hn 1reii ii.u' vi cc thp tt Iili t trong h thp thm cacboii.
Cc tai' thp v v d ng dng:
Cac )ii(; v th iili phn ha hc ca cc thp thiii cacboii ph bin nht ic
I liili by bii 7.8.
Bng 7.8. Thnh phn ha hc ca cc thp thm cacbon
Mc thp Thn h phn cc nguyn t. %

c Cr Ni Mn nguyn t khc
C10 0.07-0,14 < 0.25 < 0,25 0,35-0,65
C20 0,17-0,24 < 0,25 < 0,25 0,35-0,65
15Cr 0,12-0.18 0,70-1,0 - 0,40-0,70
20Cr 0.17-0,23 0,70-1,0 - 0,50-0,80
15CrV 0,12-0.18 0,80-1,1 - 0,40-0.70 0,06-0,12V
20CrNi 0,17-0,23 0,45-0,75 1,00-1,40 0,40-0.70
12CiNi3A 0.09-0,16 060-0,90 2,75-3.15 0.30-0,60
12Cr2Ni4A 0,09-0,15 1,25-1.65 3.25-3,65 0.30-0,60
18Cr2Ni4MoA 0.14-0.20 1.35-1.65 4,00-4.40 0.25-0,55 0,30-0.40Mo
18CrMnTi 0.17-0,23 1.00-1,30 - 0,80-1,10 0.03-0.09T
25CrMnTi 0.22-0.29 1,00-1,30 - 0.80-1.10 0,03-0,09Ti
30CrMnTi 0.24-0.32 1,00-1,30 - 0,80-1.10 003-0.09T
25CrMnMo 0.23-0.29 0.90-1,20 - 0,90-1.20 0,20-0,30Mo
- Nhm thp cacboii; Bao gm cc mac CIO. C l. C20. C2 v i khi c CT38.

Cling (ldc cliig lm cc chi tit Iih (hoc mng), hnh dng n gin, yii
t aii chng mi niii cao b mt ni khng yu cu bn cao. Kling nn thm
I i l i i t . qua 900"C (v d b ht. l i i ) , sau k h i t . l i ' n i phi t i hai ln v mi tritng
ti l;'i nc nu d biii dng lii.

- Nhm thp criii; Bao gm cc nic l C r. 20Cr. lC rV.
( hiig (tirc dng lm cc chi ti t nh (O < 30nini), yu cu chng mi mn cao
(1 b mt v chu ti triu ig bnh, nh cc clit piston, trc cam t. trc gia xe p.
trc pctan, hanh rng c iniin nh, ... C th thm nhit 900-920"C. ti
Iroiig d iiii nn f bin dng.
324_____________________________________________________ Chng 7. THP V GANG
- Nhm tlip crm -nikeii: Bao gm cc mc 20CrNi. 12CrNi3A. 12Cr2Ni4A.

18Cr2Ni4WA.
T r mc ii, cc mc sau u c lng N i cao (3-4%). c thin ti rt cao.
m bo bn v dai va p cao, c dng lm cc chi tit thm cacboii chi
ti trng cao nht. Mc cui ciig (18Cr2Ni4W hoc 18Cr2Ni4Mo). t.iig ng vi
cc s lii ii 4815-4820 ca M (cha 0.1-0.20%c. 3.%Ni. 0.25%Mo). ctic dng
lni chi ti t c bit quan trng (nlnt bnh rng, trc ca ng c my bay. tu
bin. ...). c th dng c trng th i khng thm cacboii. ch ti v rani tlip e
lm cc chi ti t chi ti trng r t cao nhng khiig yu cvi chng nii niii, Iioi
ra cng c th dng trng th i ha t t (ti v ram cao) vi clii tit. chu ti va dp
r t cao.
Nhc im ca nhm thp N i cao l t, kh ct gt v quy trn h nhit hiyn
phc tp.
- Nhm thp crm -m angan-titan: Bao gm cc s hiii IS C rM iiT i. 2C rM iiTi.
30CrM iiTi. 2CrMnMo. Trong M n l nguyn t thay th cho N i lin tug
thm ti v gim s tp tru n g cacbon qu cao b mt. Cn T i v Mo lm nh ht,
nu c th thm c nhit cao ti 920-90"C v do vy rt. ngn thi gian thm,
Chng c dng ct s n x \i t h n g lot cc chi ti t ca t. Jiiy ko (cc baiili
rng hp s. bnh rng cu sau. cc trc qiian trng).
7.4.3. T H P HA T T
Thp ha tt l loi thp c hng cacbon trun g bnh (0.30-0,0%C). ch to

cc chi ti t c liii ti trng tiih v va p cao. yu cii bn v (t dai cao. C tiih
tng hp cao nht ca thp t c bng cch nhit luyii ha t't. (ti v ram cao),
nn c gi l thp ha tt.
c m v thnh phn ha hc:
- V thnh phn cacbon; m bo c s kt hp t't Iih t gia bn v d
ai, thp ha t t phi c liig cacbon trun g bnh 0.30-0.0%C. mt s' tring hp
yu cu bn cao v dai khng cao lm c th dng ti 0.%c.
- V nguyn t hp kiin: Cc nguyii t hp kiin c dng tng tli n i ti:
Cr. Mn, Si, Ni, vi lng mi nguyn t khong trn dvri 1%. lm ht )ih v
trnh gin ram dng T i (< 0.1%). Mo (< 0.3%). Ngoi ra CII dng B (< 0,005%) k t
hp vi Cr. Ni, M n tng thm ti.
Cc mc thp v v d ng dng:
Bng 7.9 trn h by cc mc thp ha tt tlniig gp Iiht.
- Nhm thp cacbou; Gm cc mc C35, C40, C4. CO. trong thiig dng
nht l C45, c s dng lm cc chi ti t nh v chu t i khng lii, Iih tr c
truyn, thanh truyn trong cc ng c t nh. mt s bnh rng quay chm
Cbnh rng b ng). ...
VT LIU HC 32
B n g 7.9. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s thp ha tt
Thnh phn ha hc. %

Mc thp Cr Mn Si Ni nguyn t
khc
C40 0,37-0.44 < 0,25 < 0,8 < 0,37 < 0.25
C45 0,42-0,49 < 0 25 < 0.8 < 0 ,3 7 < 0,25
40Cr 0 ,3 6 - 0 .4 4 0 ,8 0 - 1 ,1 0 < 0.8 < 0 .4 < 0 .3
40CrB 0,37-0,45 0 ,8 0 - 1 ,1 0 < 0,8 < 0,4 < 0 .3 0.002-0,005B

40CrMnB 0 ,3 7 - 0 ,4 5 0 ,8 0 - 1 .1 0 0 .7 - 1 .0 < 0.4 < 0.3
SOCrMnSi 0,28-0.35 0.80-1,10 0,8-1,1 0,9-1 .2 < 0,3
40CrNi 0,36-0.44 0,45-0.75 < 0.8 < 0,4 1.0-1,4
40CrNiMo 0 ,3 7 -0 ,4 4 0.60-0,90 < 0,8 < 0.4 1.2-1,6 0,15-0.25Mo
40CrMnTiB 0,38-0,45 0,80-1,10 0 ,7 - 1 ,0 < 0 ,4 < 0,3 0.03-0.09T
0,002-0,005B
38CrNi3MoV 0,33-0,42 1,20-1.50 < 0,8 <0,4 3.0-3.4 0 .3 5 - 0 .4 5 M O
0,1-0,2V
- Nhm thp crm: Gin cc inc 3Cr. 40Cr. 40CrB. 4Cr. OCr. trong
thng gp l 40Cr. ctidc dng lm cc chi ti t chu t i v tc trun g bnh Iiln
cc loi trc, b iili rng hp sca cc my ct gt.
- Nliin thp crin-niaiigaii, crni-inangan-silic.' Gm cc mc 40CrMn,
40CrMnB, 30CrMnSi, SCrMnSi, trong thng gp l 30CrM iiSi c c t iili v
tinh cng Iigh tt. cliig Iih i ii trong ch to t nlut cc kt cu chu lc.cc chi
t b phn l i . ...
- Nhii thp crni-niken; Gm cc nic 40CrNi, 4CrNi, OCrNi, 40CrNiMo
(cho thm Mo tr n h hin tiig gin ram), loi ny titng ng vi cc s hiu
4130- 4150 ca M (0,3-0.%c, l% Cr, 0,2%Mo), dng lm cc chi ti t chu ti
ln yu cu tin cy cao nh trc v t ca h thng l i t, ...
Nhng mc c liig N i cao (3-4%) v c thm c Mo. V. Ti. w , ... chig gin
ra 111 Iih\; 38CrNi3Mo, 38CrNi3M oV (hoc 18Cr2Ni4W). l cc loi t"t nht ca
thp ha tt. dng lni cc chi ti t quan trng, chu t i nng nh trc rto
tiicbin. cc chi ti t chu t i ca iny nn kh, cc chi ti t my bay. ...
Nhi.t luyn thp ha tt:
- N hit luyn s b: N hit luyn s b nng cao tnh ct gt (cho gia cng
th). Vi thp cacbon v crm sau kh i bin dng nng idc em hon ton. Vi
tlip crm -niken thp c th dng cch thng ha thay cho . Cu vi thp crni-
Iiiken cao (l-2% C r, 3-4%Ni). l loi thp niactenxit, khng th dng gim
cng c. Ii phi thng ha (thc cht l ti) ri ram cao. Gia cng tin h c th
tin hnh sau nhit luyn ha tt.
- N hit lu yii kt thc: l ti v ram cao, nhn c t chc xocbit ram,
c dai va p l ii nht. Vi nhng chi ti t va chii va p va c liii mi mn
(banh rng, trc, cam, clit, ...), sau kh i nhit luyn ha tt cn phi qua ti Le
326 Chng 7. THEP VA GANG
int. ha nhit luyn (iih\f thm cacbon. thin Iiit. thni cacbon-nitc. ...) d naiH.'
cao cng, kh nng cliig lii mn v cliu mi. S hiu thp HHCrMoAl chuycu
thm Iiitci cng thuc h thp Iiy.
7.4.4. TH P xN H l
Thp n hi l loi thp c lng cacbon tng i cao (0.5-0,7%C). saii ti v;'i
ra]ii tn in g bnh nhn c t chc tru s tit rain. c gii li ii ii hi cao. (lc (iiiiiti
ch to cc clii ti t n hi nh l xo. nhp cc loi.
c i i L' th n h p h n ha hc:
- V thnh phn cacboii; L xo. nhp v cc chi tPt ii hi khr ini vic (li
tc dng ca ti trng tn h v va p. yn cvi kliiig ct\(c c bin dng (io khi lam
vic. Iiniii v y hng cacboii k h ng c qu th p (v c n g k h n g t' (iia cao dt'
trnh pha hy gin khi l m vic), do hng cacbon thch h) l U.r)-().7o('.
tluiig ic gii hn trong phm vi 0.-0.6%.
- v cc nfuyn t hp kini; vi thp ctii hi. nguyn t hp kin\ ch yu h'i
Mn v Si. vi hiig cha 1-2%. v chng nng tnh (tn hi cho thp. N roi ra oii
cho thm cc Iigiiyi t Cr. Ni. V tng thm ti v ii nh tnh dii hi.
Ch nhit luyn v gia cng b w t:
t c gii hn n hi cao nht, thp plii \fc nhit hiyu (l (' l rlic
tn is tit rani bng cch ti v ram trun g bnh. Vi t chc ny t l ../ai, t ii
gn t i 1. N goi ra, t n g kh nng c h u mi ngrti tJ to ra tr n l) mt nit ii^
sut nn d bng cch cii. phiui bi. ln p, ...
Cc mc thp n hi:
Cac inao thi) (ii hi thing cliig (lc trn h by t.ren bng 7.10.
Thp n hi tlmc loi tlip peclit ( t.riig thi thiiig ha), chng: c can.
ko thnh cc tm. l. dy CIIII. Iin thnh cc hnh (lng khr nhn\i.
Nhm thp cacbon C6. C70 v Iiiaiigan GOMn. 6Mn, 70M ii l cac loi th)) l
xo thng, chng ctic cn ko thnh cac ban thnli phani tit, (lim nli v rhtrtr
cung cp trng thi qua nhit luyn (ti v ram trun g bnh). Ngii s clu^
ch vic to hnh (biig cch ciin ngui) thnli l xo. sau ch cn t.hVp ( 2 ri0 -
30"C) kh vng sut.
Bng 7.10. Thnh phn ha hc ca cc thp n hi
Mc Thnh phn cc nguyn t,%

thp c Mn Si Cr nguyn t khac
C70 0,67-0.75 0.5-0.8 0.17-0,37 < 0.25
65Mn 0,62-0,70 0.9-1,2 0,17-0,37 -
60S2 0,57-0,65 0 ,6 -0 ,9 1,50-2,0 -
GOSiMn 0,55-0,65 0 ,8 - 1 , 0 1,30-1,80 -
50CrV 0,46-0.54 0 ,5-0.8 0,17-0,37 0 ,8 - 1.1 0.1-0.2V
60Si2CrA 0,56-0,64 0.5-0 ,8 1,40-1.80 0 ,7-1,0
60S2N2A 0,56-0,64 0,5-0 ,8 1,40-1,80 - 1.4-1.7Ni

VT LIU HC 327
Nhm thp S2. 60S2. 60SiMn tng ng vi cc s hiu 924-9260 ca

M (cha 0.-0.60% c ; 1.4-2.0%Si ; 0.6-l,0%Mn), c gii hn ii hi cao.
t.hii ti ti. (lng ch to l xo. nhp c chiu dy ti 18nini troiig t. niy ko.
xe la. tu bin, dy ct. ng h. ...Ch khi luing phi bo v trnh thot cacbon
(vi cu nhiu Si).
Nhm tlip 60Si2CrA. 60S2N2A c thm ti ln (trn Onim) dng ct ch
to l xo. nhp ln chu ti Iiiig v c bit q iia ii trng.
Cc mc 50CrV. OCrMiiV c tnh cliig rani cao. c th ch to cc l xo nh.
cliu nhit ti 300"C nh l xo siipap x.
7.4.5. T H P K T CU c CNG DNG R IN G
7.4.5.1, Thp d ct
Thp d ct l loi thp chuyn dng gia ciig ct gt vi nng svit cao trn
cc may ct t ng. Mun vy thp phi c cng va phi (150-20HB) v nht
l phoi thp phi d gy. khng bni dnh vo dao, m bo tc ct cao v b
Iii t chi ti t Iih.n bng. Chng \c dng lm biiliig, c. vt. bc, bnh rng v
cc chi ti t Utiig t khc vi sn liiig lu. yii cu chnh xc cao v kch tlnc
v (l nhii bng b mt. song khng i hi c liii ti trng cao.
c dim thnh phn ha hc:
m bo cng va plii. liiig cacbon ca thp khng qu 0.50%.
|)lii d gy. tlip phi cha lu liii n h v phtpho cao hn gii hn bnh thTug
{().1-0.3%S: 0.0-0.1%P). iig thi lng M ii cng plii cao gim tc hi ca
s. chng tc dng vi nliau to ra MnS, pha Iiy b ko di theo phiiig cn, lm
gim tn li lin tc v bn ca thp theo chiii ngang, lm phoi d gy. Cn p c
iiig k iih ln. k h i lia tan vo fe rit lni tng tnh gin ca pha ny do lni
)lioi nh vn. Cng do c Iihiu p v s nn c tnh ca thp b x\i i: gim do
v ct dai iig thi gim c bn ii v tiih chng n mn.
Cc mc thp v v d ng dng:
Bng 7.11 triih by th iih phn ha hc v c tnh ca nit s' mc thp cl ct.
Bng 7.11. Thnh phn ha hc v c tnh ca thp d ct
Mc Thnh phn ha hc. % C tnh

thp c Mn s p Ob, MPa f>, % '1'. % HB
12S 0,08-0,16 0,60-0.90 0,08-0,20 0,08-0,15 420-570 22 36 160
20S 5-0,25 0,60-0.90 0,08-0,12 10.06 460-510 20 30 168
30S 0,25-0,35 0.70-1,00 0,08-0,12 < 0.06 520-670 15 25 185
40MnS 0,35-0 45 1,20-1,55 0,18-0,30 < 0,05 600-750 14 20 207
Gh ch:
- Cc mc trn u cha khong 0,15-0,35% Si.
- C tnh clc o dc theo plung cn nng.
Mac 12S tng ng vi cc s hiu 1108-11 l ca M. chuyn dng cli

to vt. buliig. ai c v cc chi ti t nh c hnh dng plic tp trn cc liay cl. t.
iig. Cac s hiu cn li tng ng vi cac s hiu 1120-1151 lm cac chi tit
chu lc cao hn.
Vi Iiguyii l t iig kh nng tch phoi nu trn, ch to d ct. ngoi
p. s. ngi ta CII s dng cc nguyn t' nh: Pb, Se, Te. ... cho vo thp vi liif
clrta khong 0,1- 0.3% nii nguyn t, chng khng ha tan vo thp m nni xen
k gio cc ht e rit nhi tp cht, do c nhit nng chy thp, chng b IIIPIII
chy ra trong qu trn h ct lm vn phoi thp, ci thiu ang k tnh ct gt. cho
thp. Soug cng lii y l cc n gu yn t c hi cho sc klio COII ngii v lni
gim cd t.uh ca thp.
7.4.5.2. Thp ln
ln ( bi hay a) l chi ti t tluiig gp trong my inc cc loi, cliii

vtc lm t loi thp hp kim chuyn dng - thp ln. v c ch to cac nh
iny cluiyn mn ha - nh my bi.
Cc h mt lin vic ca ln bao gin; vng , bi, a. K lii Iciii vic chii
chu ng sii tip xc cao vi s liig chii k ng sut lii, do trit ln vi iiâ\i,
tug thi im chng b mi mn im, ... tha niii cc yii cu lm vic .
thp l ii phi c bn nii tip xc v cling mi mn cao. do c plii c cng
cao v ng nht.
v im v thnh phn ha hc:
bo ctni sau kh i ti c cng cao v tnh chng mi mn tt. litiig cacb(Hi
ca thp phi cao (khong 1%). bo m khng c clim Iiim htnt tp cht phi
kini loi phi thp (t hii 0.02%S: t hn 0.027%P) v kliu^ c r xp. Ngoi ni t.o
chc ca t.hp phi ng nht, khug c tliin tch cachit, cacbit ch phi nh mn v
l)hn l) u. Tn li l loi thp c cht, ldiig r;Vt cao.
D tng thm ti bo m c tnh ng dn t ngoi vo Irong li thp \tc;
hp k in i ha bng 0,6-1,%Cr. i khi c c Mn, Si. v Mo.
Cc ic v d. ng dng:
Theo TCVN 4805-90. thp ln \c k hiu bng ch OL vi con s^ ch li iig
cacboii theo phii vn v lng nguyn t* hp kim tlieo phn trm. Hin chiuig ta
s dng pli biu hai s^ hiu thp ln sa\i;
%c %Cr %Mn %Si
OL100Cr2 0.95-1.0 1,3-1,65 0.2-0.4 0,17-0,37
OLlOOCr2SiMii 0.9-1.0 1,3-1,60 0,9-1.2 0,40-0.65
Mc OLlOOCr2 tiiig ng vi s' hiu 2100 ca M (1%C, l,5% Cr) v
I I I X l ca Nga.
Tlip ln nu trn l loi thp tt, v thnh phii tng ng thp dng c,
do vy cc Iih my c k h ngi ta cn dng lm trc cn ngui, tar. bn reii.
dng c o, cc chi ti t vi phun cao p, ... Vi loi 0 ln nh (c chiu (ly liuc
iiig knh bi nh hn 20min) c th dng loi thp c lng crni thp lidn (cli
khong 0.%Cr). Uiig ing s hiu llOO ca M.
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________ 3 ; ^
Vi cc ta r t ln (ng knh t 0,5 n trn 2 m) ngi ta dng thp

tlia in cacbon loi tt nhi 20Cr2Ni4A.
Cac ln lni vic trong mi trng u mn (nc bin, diing dch a xit s\m furic
-l% . d iiiig dch kim) phi dng thp khng g crni cao (loi 18%Cr) v cacbon
cao (0.9%C); 90C rl8.
Cc ln ch\i nng n 400-00"C (trong ii^ c tiicbin ca my bay) phi
d ii^ Mip gi loi 90W9Cr4V2Mo hoc 8W6MoCr4V2, ...
7.5. THP DNG c
7.5.1. K H I N I M V PH N L O * I
Th]) dng c l loi thp diig ch to cc loi dng c gia cng kim loi v
cc vt livi khc (iih i g. cht do. ...), khng ph thuc vo phng php gia cng
c th no. Iigii ta lun yii cu cc dng c c cht htng cao. v in kin lin
vic ca cliiig thing khc nghit.
C th ni i vi thp dng c, i hi v int cht liig lii ii l ch tiu s
mt. Mc d s lng thp dng c ch chim khong 0.1% lng thp dng ca tli
gii, nhng s hriig cc loi thp dng c li r t nhiu (ring M c ti trn
7 loi), bi v ini loi cl thch lip vi nhiig ng dng ring bit (c th) no .
7.12 gii thivi int vi loi thp dng c ca M v phii vi ng dng ca
cling.
T iiy Iihin c thun li cho vic nghin cu, ngi ta thng chia dng c ra
lm ba li chnli saii; dng c ct gt. dng c bin dng v dng c o lng. Thp
(hiii d ch to cc dng c ny c Iih iig yu cii riiig bit khc nhau, chng t.a
s (i sii xem x t tiig loi int.
7*5.2. T H P DAO CT
Trong cc phii xng hoc cc nh niy c kh, ng\iyn cng ct gt bao gm

tin. phay. bo. khoan, doa. ...c khi liig ln hn c. khng my chi ti t trn h
(hc ct gt.
7.5.2.1. Yu cu di vi thp lm dao ct

cng cao: y l yii cu t th i ii u tin, v c th ct gt ic.
cng ca dao phi cao hn han cng ca phi. Trong tntng hp gia cng cc vt
liu d ct nh hp kim mu. thp gang thng thng, cng ca phi khng qu
200-20 HB. cng ca dao khng di 60 HRC. Cn k h i phi gia cng cc vt
liu kh ct nh i thp, gang hp kim cao (thp bn nng, thp khng g. gang
aiistenit. ...). ct. v t liu giii. ... cng ca dao phi cao hn ma. lc khng
cliig dao bng thp m phi dng nhng vt liu c cng cao Iih cc loi hp
kim cng itc nu tro iig ching 10.
:^30 Chng 7. THP V GAMG
Bng 7.12. Mt s loi thp dng c chnh ca M (Tiu chun SAE/AISI)
Thnh phn cc nguyn t, %

Loi thp. Cng dung
k hiu Nguyn
c Mn Cr V w Mo Co
t' khc
w - Thp ti nc : Dung c gia cng g
-W1 0,6-1,4 - - - - - dng c cm tay,
-W2 0,6-1.4 0.25 - - - - dng c chu va p
nhit thng, ,,,
s - Thp chu va p ;
-SI 0.5 - 1.5 2.5 - - - - Dng c thy lc. ko.
-S2 0.55 0.8 - - - - 0.4 2Si khun du, ...
Thp lm vic nhit thp (O. A, D) ;
o - Thp ti du :
-01 0,9 1.0 0.5 - - - - - Dng c ct, du,
-02 0,9 16 - - - - - - khun dp ngui.
A - Thp ti trong khng khi ;
-A2 1.0 - 5.0 - - 1.0 - - L ko si, trc cn
-A4 1,0 2,0 1,0 - - 1.0 - - nh. ...
D - Thp cacbon v crm :
-D2 1.5 - 12,0 - 1,0 1.0 - - Trc cn. khun dp
-D3 2,25 - 12,0 - - 1.0 - - ngui, calip, ...
H - Thp lm vic nhit cao
-H10 0,40 - 3.25 0.4 - 2,5 - - Khun p kim loi (AI,
-H21 0,35 - 3.5 - 0,9 - - - Mg), khun c,
-H42 060 - 4 0 2.0 - 8.0 - - khun rn. dp, ,
T - Thp gi h volram :
-T I 0.75 - 4.0 1,0 18,0 - - - Dao tin, phay, bo,
-T6 0,80 - 4,5 1,5 20,0 - 12 - mi khoan, . .
M - Thp gi h w v Mo ;
-M I 0,80 - 4.1 1.0 1.5 8,0 - - Dng cu ct nhanh,
-M2 0,90 - 4.0 2.0 6,0 5.0 - - c tnh chng mi
-M30 0.80 - 2,0 1.25 2,0 0.8 5,0 - mn rt cao
p - Thp lm khun p polyme :
-P1 0,17 - 2.0 - - 0,2 - 0,5Ni Dng c n p nha,
-P2 0,10 - 2.6 - - - - 1,25Ni ...
Tnh chng mi mn cao: K lii lni vic, dao ct lun b ini st vo piii v
phoi, bo m tui th ca dao v tnh chnh xc gia cng, (lao phi c tnh
chng ini inn cao. T iili chng mi mn ca dao tric ht ph thuc vo cng
ca II. ctiig cng cao tnh chng nii niii cng cao. Tuy nhiu vi liai th]i
cliuig c c (t cng nluf Iiha\i. thp no c clu'a nhiu cacbit d phan tn du hii.
thp s c tnh chng mi inii cao hii (v d. tlip G D I2 c tn h chng mi IIIII
cao lin thp CD8. tuy c hai c cng cng sa\i khi ti).
VT LIU HC 33:
'r ih c ih ) : Tnh cng nng l k h nng cluy tr cc c n g cao nhit

it r;n). n tlirc xac (lnh haii Iihit ram ln nht, (vi thi gian ram lli) m (
C';i vt liu lii dao khiif dii 8HRC. y l mt ch tiu rt. qiian t.ruK,
uo q\iyt <nh tc ( ct gt ca dao. Bi v k lii khi lm vic, nht l khi ct nhanli.
(lo nii s;U vi J)iii v phoi in dao c tli b Iiu iig Iing muli lit, t chc c d
rinq cao l uiactonxit c th b phn liy (giiig Iiliit n b raiii).l in d cug ca
iaiii (li. kiui nng ct, gt b în. V d. thp dng c cacbon ch c tnh ciii
IKHIU' tloii klioiig 200-20" c. troiig khi thp gi c tli gi c cns cao u
klnKUi ()0-()r)0"C. (lo tnh chng ram ca II cao hn thp cacboii.
XOi la y\i cau cli y\i trn. thj) lni dao phi c ct bu UII cao (trii;
li((|) (la<i litMi) hoc (l hn xon cuo (tnng hp mi khoan) v (t dai va (li) cii.t;
khon.u (lc (pia l.hp trnh m. gy li ct.
7,5.2.2. Thp dao ct nng sut thp

hio Ct Iiauo; m\uit thp l Iihiig loi clao ct ni tc ct ct. ch khong -IO
Iii/|)li. i') cli to n li iig loi (lao ny c th dng thp cacbon v thp hp kim
tlui).
TI c) cacboi: D ch to dng c ct niig sut thp, c th dng thp dng c
caclxin loi CDT. CD8, ... CD13 (xem bng 7.4). chng tng ct\ng vi cc s hin
VVl. \V'2 c Tki M (bng 7.8). Saii khi ti v ram thp, chiig c cng trn 60HRC.
(t (t' hno (ni ct t. Cao thp sau cng tch, ngoi inacteiixit. cn c xinenit II
luMi co tnh olin. nii mn cao hn so vi thp tnc cng tch v cng tcli.
Nhc (lieiii ca tlip cacbon l c tli iii ti th'p. lin ch thch lip lin cao
(;l nh. liiih (U.UIK (ln gin v nht l clo tiih cng IIII tluVp nn ch ct vi ti'
(1<> kltu ( u a n\/)h (d:\o rt nng su't tluYp hoc rlng c cani tay).
T h c ) /i) k m i t h p : Cc nguyn t' lidp k im thiiig clng i vi tli p clnf c
lip ki MI th|) l Cr. Mn. Si. w . Trong c Cr (khong 1%) v Mn (1-2%) tng (l
th iii ti; Si (khoii 1%). w (4-%) e tng cvng v tnh chng nii mn.
Mt vi mac tlip dng c lidp k iiii thp ctic nu liiig 7.13.
Bng 7.13. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s thp dng c hp kim thp
Mc Thnh phn cc nguyn t, %

thp c Cr Mn Si w
130Cr05 1.25-1.40 0,40-0,60 - < 0,35 -
1 00Cr2 0.95-1,10 1,30-1.60 - < 0,35 -
90CrSi 0,85-0,95 0,95-1,25 - 1,20-1,60 -
90Mn2 0,85-0,95 - 1.5-1.7 - -
140CrW5 1,25-1,50 0.40-0.70 - < 0,30 4,5-5,5
Mac ii v mc ciii c hiig c ra t cao (1.3-1,4% ), ling Cr th'p (0.%), nn

(l thain ti thp, c th ti trong nc v do vy t ciig rt. cao (6-68HRC).
lrug cacbit di Iihiu (20-30%) nu c kh nng chng nii mn cao. c th dng
332 Chng 7, THP V GANG
lii (lao co cc loi (k c dao co ru). Ring mc 140CrW cn xc gi l thp

kim cng, dng gia cng tin h cc vt liu cng.
Mc 100Cr2 tng ng mc thp ln OLlOOCr2 (hoc s hiu 52100 ca
M), c th dng lm dao tin nng sut thp (tc ct Iih hdn 10 in/pli). Tuy
Iilii ii Itic 100Cr2 khng th thay th inc OL100Cr2 lm ln v hng cha p.s
ca n vii cn cao khng in bo yu cu tr iih iin min ca tlip ln.
Cc inc OOCrSi. 90Mn2 ting iiig s' hivi thp cliig c ti du 0 2 ca M.
(c dng ph biii v t\ng i r (do hp kim ha bng M ii v Si), c thm ti
tt. c tnh cing nng ti 20-260"C. t'c ct c th t n 10-14ni/ph, c tlip
dng ch to mi khoan, tar. bn ren. dao phay. ... kch thic nh. K lii nhit,
luyii hni tran h tlio d t cacbon (thp c Si) v tr iih ht. lii (thp c Mn).
7.5.2.3. Thp dao ct nng sut cao (thp gi)

Thp gi l thp dng c hp kiin cao. dng lm dng c ct vi nng siit
cao. So vi tlip dng c cacboii v hp k iin thp nii. thp gi c tc ct cao
gnp 2-4 ln, tui th cao gp 8-10 ln. tnh cng nng t n 60-600"C, tc (t
ct t 25-3 in/ph v c thm ti cao (li ii nh ti th ii ti t din bt k).
Thnh ])/in ha hc v tc dng ca cc nguyn t:
Thnh phn ha hc ca nit s loi thp gi c nu bng 7.14.
Ngi ta thitng chia thp gi ra lii) lia i Iilini: Iihin c niig sut ct bnli
t.lnrng (c tc ct khong 2m/ph) v nlim c Iiiig sii't ct cao (c tc ct
khong 35 m/ph lioc cao hn).
Bng 7.14. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s' loi thp gi
Mc thp Thn h phn cc nguyn t, %

c Cr w V Mo Co
Nhm thp gi c nng sut ct bnh thng
80W18Cr4VMo 0,70-0,80 3.8-4.4 17,0-18,5 1 .0 - 1 .4 < 1 -
90W9Cr4V2Mo 0,85-0.95 3.8-44 8,5-10,0 2 ,0 - 2 , 6 < 1 -
85W12Cr3V2Mo 0,80-0,90 3,1-3 ,6 12,0-13,0 1.5-1.9 < 1 -
85W6Mo5Cr4V2 0.80-0,88 3,8^.4 5.5- 6.5 1 .7-2.1 5,0-5,5 -
145W9V5Cr4Mo 1,40-1,50 3,8 ^ .4 9,0-10,5 4,3-5,1 < 1 -
Nhm th p gi c nng sut ct cao
90W18Cr4V2Mo 0,85-0,95 3,8-4.4 17,5-19,0 1 .8 -2 ,4 <1 -
95W9Co5Cr4V2Mo 0,90-1,00 3,8-4,4 9.0-10,5 2 ,0 -2 , 6 < 1 5,0-6,0
95W9Co10Cr4V2Mo 0,90-1,00 3,8^.4 9.0-10,5 2 .0 -2 . 6 < 1 9,5-10,5
150W10Co5V5Cr4Mo 1,45-1.55 4.0-4.6 10,0-11,5 4.3-5.1 < 1 5.0-6,0
160W12Co5V4Cr4Mo 1,55-1,65 4 ,0 ^.6 12,0-13.5 4.3-5,1 < 1 5,0-6,0
90W18Co5Cr4V2Mo 0,85-0,95 3.8-4,4 17.5-19,0 1.8-2.4 < 1 5,0-6,0
130W14V4Cr4Mo 1,20-1,30 4.0-4.6 13.0-14,5 3,4-4.1 < 1 -
90W6Mo5Co5Cr4V2 0,85-0,95 3,8-4,4 5.5- 6,5 1 .7-2,1 5.0-5.5 5.0-6,0
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________ 333
Cacboii ca thp gi thay i trong plini vi 0.7-h% bo iii cng v tnh

chng mi mn cao cho thp. Cc s" hi\i c lng cacbon cao (1.2-1.0%) c tiili
chng m i niii rt cao. v c n h iu cacbit d ( w c , v c , MoC. ...).
Crm c trong mi thp gi vi lng khong 4%, n c tac dng ch yu l
tng thin ti. chiih nh vy thp gi hu ulu c thm ti bt. k, c tli ti
trong gi (khng kh nn), hoc ti phn cp e gim bin dng dng c.
Volin l Iigiiy ii t' hp kin i quan trng nht ca tlip gi (cho nn c c
nc dng l\fiig % w k hiu thp gi), vi lng cha 9-18%. to cho thp tnh
cng nng cao. qxiyt iili nng sut ct gt. w l Iiiiyn t to cacbit. mnh,
trong thp gi II ch yu nni dng MeuC. kh i lu iiig nng nhit cao . mt
phn Me,;C b phn ha ha tan vo avisteiiit do vy sa\i khi ti niacteiixit c cha
Iiliiu w . K l rain cacbit MeiiC ch ti t ra khi inactenxit nhit cao lidn
0-70" c. m bo tnh cng nng cia tlp gi khong trn chti 600"c.
Vanai l nguyn t to cacbit mnh, v c r t kh ha tan vo aiistenit khi
ninig. chug phn tn ctii trong thp lni ta iig mnh tnh chng nii nin cho
thp. Trong ini thp gi lng V t nht cing khong 1-2%, khi htng V cao hn,
tnh chng mi mn tng ln nhng tnh mi li km (i. Dt khc kh i d cng phi
t.iiR liig cacbon tng ng, nu khng htiig cacbon hiii dng trong mactenxit.
kliiig . s lni gim cng ca thp.
Cbaii l nguyn t khng to cacbit. n ha tan vo st. vi iitiig 0-10% Co.
tinh ciig Iiii ca thp gi chtc ci thiu dng k.
Mlipen c!c (ha vo thay th volfra iii (t), bi v trn r t nhiu mt. Mo
kha ging W; ki\i mng tin h th. ctng knh Iiguyn l tiug t nhau, tnh cht
ha lic ging uhaii, cmg l nguyn t to cacbit. trong thp gi n cng to nn
nhivi loi cacbit ging vi cc loi volfram cacbit. ... nn chng c th thay th ln
cho nha\i. Tlieo tn h ton, 1% Iigiiy ii t Mo thay th c cho 1% nguyn t w .
nhng Mo ch nh bng na w , do vy theo t l trng lng. 1% Mo thay thc
cho 2% w . u vit ni bt ca thp gi W-Mo l thin tch cacbit nh. tnh do
trng th i nng t t nn d bin dng niig. Tuy vy thp gi W -Mo kh nhit, luvii
hdn so vi thp gi w (d b qii nhit, oxy ha v thot cacbon hn).
T chc ca thp gi trng thi c, sau kh rn v :
Do thnh phn cacbon v hp k in i cao. thp gi thuc loi thp lbiirit ( trng
thi c hoc trng thi ), thp liactenxit trng thi thng ha. c triiig c
bn ca thp c l t chc khng ng nh^t (xem hnh 7.12a); vng ging "xng
c" l lb\irit cha Iilii ii cacboii v nguyn t lip kim . viig sng l inactenxit.
v austenit d\t. vng ti l hn hp xocbit - tn is tit ngho cacboii v nguyn t hp
kim.
e c ic cacbit ng u. thp gi c phi qiia bin dng nng nhiu lu ri
ein . t chc nhu c kh ng u (xeni hnh 7.12b); gm cc ht cacbit nh
in ii phn b' u trn nn xocbit. hoc peclit, vi cng khng qu 240-26 HB,
cl dng cho gia cng ct.
;1 c:h<ing 7. THP V GANG
Hin nay cng c xu lnng dng

thp gi c (kling qiia bin dng),
clo til kim clvc clii ph sn xut.
Quy t.riili ch to dao ct thp gi c
Iilut sa\i; (c chnh xc - - gia cng
c - ti kh b lburit - - gia cng
c - ti thng - rani - mi sa. Dao
ct bng thp gi c cng c tnh
cng nng v chng nii inii
Ti thp :
Ti l nguyn cng c uglia
qiiyt nh tnh cng Iiiif ca thp
ci so vi thp tlnng. nhit ti
thp gi l rt cao (r230-1290"C). vi
mc (lch ch yu ha tan n a) trang thi sau khi c, c lburit, cacbit
mc ti a cc nguyn t lip kiin vo khng u(x 100);
b) sau khi rn v , cacbit ng u ( 1000)
austeiiit (hnh 7.13), saii k h i ti
chng Iini trong niacteuxit. m bo tnh cng nng cho thp khi lm vic. Mi
trng ti thp gi l dii nng (60-80C). hoc ti phn cp trog b imii IIOII
chy (400-t00"C) ri ngui ngoi khng kh.
T chc ca thp gi sau khi ti (hnh 7.14) gm; Iiiactenxit. uustenit, (li (;0-
40%) v cacbit chf (15-20%), vi cng 62-63 HRC.
Hnh 7.13 Mc ha tan nguyn t' hp kim Hinh 7.14. T chc t VI ca thp gi
vo austenlt theo nhit nung 80W18Cr4VMo sau khi ti ( 1000)
Ram thp fi:

Ngoi mc ch Iih i vi cc thp khac, rani thp gi cn nhiii liini gim l ii
austeiii di saii khi ti, tng cng cho thp. Nhit ram trong Iihiii vi 550-
70"C v phi rain nhiu ln (2-4 ln), mi ln Ih . N\i rain th ) hn CC t roHT
Ihp s khiig c chuyn bin g Iii, cn nu rani trn fOO"r s lm cacbit kt m
VT LIUHC 33.'
l m m c c n . C iii k h n g th e r a m mt. l n v i th i g ia n l u v i a \i.s to n it (l s

k h n g c h u y n h i n h t t h n h n ia c te n x it s n u nit. l n riH .
(ûy triih nhit luyn kt tlnc thp i SOVVlSCr^VMo xc nu trn lih ii
.IT). Can nhan Iiinli riif ch l iii t.heo quy trn h ( ini (l tiili cn^' nuf lt
nhVt v cho nns siit ct gt cao nht. Nii ch caii ctt cng trn th
khii: cn ti nhit (l cao nh vv . cli f) trn 1000" ( l irc. iilu tiit khng cho
iKin sual ct cao.
d
3C
HPC
r.i 6.,6S
Hnh 7.15, Quy trinh nhit luyn kt thc thp gi 80W18Cr4VMo
lum " cno kh luiiK ct it ca thp gi. sau khi ti, r;nii VI mi hdii CM
llii' li ii hiih thm cachon-iiitd Iilt (t tlip (550-70"( ) troif 2-3li. lo r:i l|)
iham 0.02-().(J'l in iii. c (t cng b mt cao 1000-1100 c th taii' tiioi tii cho
(1;h ) ci. riO -200% .
( ' i f ( U , c i a t h c ) g i :
Cc IIKC thp gi c nng sut ct hhili thng 8()W18Cr'lVM().

)OWf)(>4V2Mo. 8W l2Cr3V2M o. aW(MonCr4V2, M 5W 9V5Ci'iM o) vi t.nli riiR
IIOIIK klin (lu (K)"C. (lng lm (lao ct vi t(; (t cai khoiiR 2nni/pli. "['roii (l
s hin (lu l loi c cUu Iiln iig v a ii ctvc va dng luc ta. n t dig (id ii; vi
s hiu T l ca M, Mnc 8WGMoCr4V2 t.itiig (tdng vi s hiu M'2 cn M, c
t.iili iKUig khng th u a km nic au. n h n g cha t, v o lra in hdn li c tn h cn
iik Ik ' tt. nu trio n viip; s tic ii Iih i u .
Cic Miac; th|) i c nng sut ct cao c tnh Iiii; cat) ti (;O-()^10"( , c
tli ct vi tc d 35 in/ph, diir d gia cng cac thp kh rt Iih th]) kliiis: u.
th) l)n Iiiii c t clic; austenil. ...
Xvi hng hin Kiy l ngny I';inf (lu nliipu cc loi lli) gi in(i. i'( cha Mo.
V. Co vi clun.n c tnh cng nnR v kh nong cliiiK Mii IIIU tt..
336____________________________________________________ Chng 7. THP V GANG
7.5.3. TH P K H U N DP N G U I
Chng ta quy c gi thp lm cc dng c biu dng do kim loi l thp lm

khun dp. Cn c vo nhit bin dng, c th chia chiig ra lm hai loi: loi
bin dng do phi kim loi nhit thiig l khun dp Iigiii; loi biii (lng
do plii kim loi nhit cao (i vi phi thp khng c nh hdn 1000"C) l
khun dp nng, Do iii kin lni vic khc nhau nn v t li ii dng l jii khun
cng khc nhaii.
iu hin lm vic v yu cu i vi khun dp ngui:
bin dng do ic phi kim loi trng tli i ngui, cc khun dp ngvii
c liii p lc r t l ii. ch u IIU, c h \i nia s t v va p, do v y th p lm k h ii n clp
ngui ph i t \c cc yu cu v c tn h saii:
- cng cao; y l yu cu u tin, tuy khng i hi cng cao nh (lao
ct. nlniig cng phi t \(c khong 56-62 HRC. ty vao loi klm ii. chin (ly v
ciig ca phi thp (v d. ct thp bin th, cng ca khun phi trn GO
HRC. nhng nu cao qu 62 HRC n d b st in khi lm vic).
- Tnh chng mi mn cao: bo ni lni vic lu di ca khun (tlnnt yu
cu ti hng vn. tlicni ch hng chc vn lu dp), u phi c tnh chiis mi MIII
cao ft gi ctc tn h clinh xc v kch tliic ca snu phaiii.
- bn v dai m bo chu ic ti trng va p d nic va phi.
Nh vy kh\iii (lp ngui c y\\ cu v cd tnh tng t. nh dao cat, tr yu
cau v tnh cing nng. Cc khun p bin dng vi tc ln b nt lm vic ('O
ti b nung Iiiig ti 350-40 "C. nii cn tiih cng nng nic nht (lnh. Vi
cac kh ii ii ln yu cii thm v tham ti v t thay i kch thc kh i ti.
Cc thp lm khun dp ngui:
t c cc yii cii v c tnh nu trii. ihp lni kliu ii dp Iigui phi c
thnh phn cacboii cao. thng nic xp x 1%C, Iiii khun chu va p nhiii th i
dng loi c lug cacbon thp hn (0.4-0.6%C). Liiig nguyn t hp kin i chc
quyt nh bi kch tluc klm ii. tnh cng nng v tiih chng mi niii.Thng
dng cc Iig\iyn t Cr. Mu, Si. w tiig thm ti.N hit hiyii kt. thc' (ti
v i k lu i n dp n g u i t ng t nh i v i dao ct: t i v ra m th p . CP d t ctic t
chc m a c te n x it ra n i. Iih i t ra in c th ly cao hn cht. t v i cng kh n g yu
cn cao bng. Bng 7.l nii th n li phn ha hc ca mt. s thp khun cli)
ngui.
- Thp cacbon; Vi khun nh. t i trng khng ln. hnh cliig dii gin, c th
cluig thp cliig c cacboii nh CD100-CD120. c thiih phii nu trong bng 7.4.
- Thp hp k in i thp; Vi khun c kch thc tn in g bnh (b dy th<nli klnin
70-100 inm) c th dmg cc loi thp hp kim th) nh lOOCr. 100CrWMn.
100CrWSiMn, chng tng iiig vi cc 9. hin 01. 0 2 ca M. (o chiig c
thm ti cao hn thp cacboii. Cac nic c M n sau k lii ti kch thic t tlia y ci (do
c lt lng nh a iis ie n it cii).
VT LIU HC 337
B n g 7.15. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s thp khun dp ngu
Mc h n h phn cc nguyn t .%
thep Cr w .Mn Si nguyn t
khc
100CrW M n 0,90-1,05 0.9- 1.2 1.2-1,6 0.8-1.1 < 0 .4
lOOCrVVSiMn 0,90-1,05 0,6- 1.1 0,5-0,8 0,6-0,9 0,65-1,0 0,05-0,15V
210Cr12 2 . 00 -2.20 11,5-13,0 < 0,35 < 0 ,4
160Cr12M o 1,45-1,65 11.0-12,5 < 0 .3 5 < 0.4 0,40-0,6Mo
130Cr12V 1.25-1,45 11.0-12,5 < 0.35 < 0.4 0 .7 - 0,9V
110Cr6W V 1,05-1,15 5 .5 -6 .5 1.1-1.5 < 0 .4 5 s 0,35 0.5 - 0,8V
40C rSi 0,35-0,45 1.3- 1,6 < 0,40 1.2-1.6
40C rW 2S i 0,35-0,44 1.0- 1,3 2,0-2,5 < 0 ,4 0 0,6 -0.9
- Thp crni cao (loi 12% Cr); ch to cc khun dp kch thxc ln. chu
ti uiig. yu cu phi chng ini mn cao, Iigii ta diig loi thp cha 12% Cr,
nhir cac niac 21 0C rl2 (tng ng s'hin D3 ca M), 160C rl2M o (tiiig ng
s hiu D2 ca M). 130Crl2V. Nhm thp ny c mt s c im sau:
C tli n h plin cacboii r t cao (1,3-2,1%) nn hiig cacbit d nhiu, do vy
cli ii c tnh cliug mi lii r t cao;
C thm ti ln (100-200 nim trong du) nn c th diig lni klnin c
kch thc ln;
C th p ng nhiu ch nbit hiyn (ti v ram) khc Iilia ii t. ic
ch t iu cd tnh ciiig uh s i) nh kch thic ca khun theo yu cii s dng.
- Thp crin trung hnh (5-G% Cr); D l nic 110Cr6WV (tng dxng vi s
hiu A2 ca M). t b thin tch cacbit hn. c thm ti tn in g bnh (70-80 Iiiin
troiig' (lii). thch hp ch to cc kliii n l ko si, bn ln ren, ...
- Thp hp kin i thp c h iig cacbon trung bnh Iili 40CrSi, GOCrSi,
40CrW2Si (n tng ing vi cc s" hin S l, S2 ca M), sau khi ti v rani
thch hp c th (tt cng 4 HRC. diig oli to cc khiin dp chu va
d]) va phi.
Tntc (lv trong ciig ngh ch to khun dp ngui, thing phi gia cng c
t Itu fti ch iili xc tnc khi tin hnh nhit luyn c\i*i cng, do vy d c nguy c
1) )liP p h a in (k liu n b bin d iig . Iiit. v) gy l n g p h v t li u v cc q ii trn h
gia cng trc ct. Hin nay mt s" c s troiig nc c th i t b ch to khiin
hng tia la in, cho nn c th tin hnh Iihit hiyn tr\tc c khi, in bo
( ciig cu thit. f5a\i cl dng tio la cin gia cng liig khun. N hi vy va
nni bo tnh chiih xc v nit kch thc khun, va to th ii n li cho vic nhit
hiyn. Ngoi ra vi nhng kluin c b mn, cng nh phng php ny, c th
khi phc nln nii ni khng cn Iili t hiyn li (s b cng nln kt thr) Iih
trc y vn lin.
22 - VLH
7.5.4. TH P K H U N DP NNG
iu kin lm vic v yu cu i vi khun dp nng:

K lii lm vic, khun dp nng c iiii ti trng ln v va p. hiii tip xc vi
phi c Iilii t cao hn 1000" c. e m bo ctiii kin lm vic n lii vy. thp
dng ch to khun phi t vc cc yu cu c tnh saii:
- bn v dai cao bo m kliiig b bin dng hoc gy v kh i lni
vic. V phi thp ic nung n Iihit cao, trng thi austeiiit. c cViig thp
v do, nn cng ca khun ch cn khong 30-40HB;
- Tnh chng mi nin cao bo ni tui th ca klu i ii dp hng Iighu.
hng vu sn phm;
- Tnh chu nhit cao th hin hai mt: gi c c tnh nhit lin vic
(do phi c nhit tru 1000"c nn khun cng phi gi c c tnh, tc l c
tnh cng Iiiig n khong 00-700"C), m t khc phi c tn h chu mi nhit t"t
(do nng -ngui xen k Iilia ii kh i khun lni vic). Do vy cc thp lm khiin (lp
nng u l thp lip kim.
Ngoi ra. do khun dp nng thvng c kch thc ln nn ct i bo c tnh
ng nht, thp cn phi c thni ti ln.
Cc thp lm khun dp nng:
Do cng khng cn cao un thnh phn cacboii ch cn tn u ig bnh, khong
0.4-0,6%; i khi ch 0,3%c. Cc nguyn t' hp kim m bo tnh thm ti, tiili
bn Iing. tnh chng ram tt Iihi: Cr. Ni, Mo. \v. ... Bng 7.1G Iiii Mt s' thi)
khun dp nng thiug dng nht.
- Thp lm khun rn: Cc khun rn thvng c kch th\ic ln, chu va ctp
Iinh, b mt. b nung Iiiig ti 00-50" c. tluiig dng cc nic OCrNiMo,
OCrNiW. OCrMnMo. nc ta tlutdng clii^ mc u v II c crt tnh cao vn cti
n h t, c th ti thvi k h u n ln (3 00 X 3 0 0 X 4 0 0 inni). c th l 111 vic l u nh it
trn 00"C.
- Thp lm khun chn, p; Cc khun cliii p c kcli thc b hii so vi
khuii rn. Iiluug chu nhit cao lin (do tip xc l\i vi phi tlip nng ) cho
lin thp lni khiin phi c tnh chig ram tt. thng dng tlip cha crin (2-
%) v nht l w (2-8%) nh cc mc: 30Cr2W8V. 40Cr2WoMoV. 40CrW2VSi.
trong mc \i ting ing s hiu H21 ca M.
Bng 7.16. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s thp khun dp nng
Mc Thnh phn cc nguyn t',%

thp c Mn Cr w (Mo) NI (Si) V
OCrNiMo 0,50-0,60 0,50-0,80 0,5-0 ,8 (0,15-0.3) 1,4-1,8 -
50CrNiW 0,50-0,60 0,50-0,80 0,5-0 ,8 0.4 0,7 1.4-1.8 -
SOCrMnMo 0,50-0,60 1.20-1.60 0.6-0.9 (0.15-0.3) - -
30Cr2W8V 0.30-0,40 0,15-0,40 2 .2 -2 ,7 7 .5 - 8 . 6 - 0,2-0.5
40Cr2W5MoV 0,35-0,45 0,15-0.40 2,2-3,0 4 ,5 - 5.5 - 0 ,6 - 0 ,9
40Cr5W2VSi 0.35-0,45 0,15-0,40 4,5-5,5 1 .6 -2 . 2 (0 ,8 - 1 ,2 ) 0.6-0.9

VT LIU HC_______________ ________________________________________________ 3 ^
Hiii nay c kluiynh hng diiK" hp kim ciig e cli to khuu dp v khun
ko thay clio thp hp kun. vic cteiii li hiu (|\ia k iiili t ln. V d khun l
ko si lin biig t.lip dng c ch k dc O-O kg dy thp l ling, nu thay
bii klm n hp kim cng c th kn cic t(i 100 k (ly tlip. K liii n dp bng
thp dng c c th dp c 3000-000 sn pham. nu thay bng hp kim cng
th c tli dp c O vn ti 1 triu sn phni.
7.5.5. T H P L M DNG c O LNG
iu ki. ii vic v yu cu di vi dng c do:

Trong sn xvit c kh tluiig xuyii s (liig cc rh.ing c cto vi cp chnh xc
khac Iihau; )a n m e . tlntc cp. thc cto di. do gc, dng, calip. ... chng
thng x\iyn c st vi chi ti t cn o. (lo (l b mi mn. biii dng lin sai kt
qii (to. D ho m chnh xc ca (liig c o. th)) dng phi t. itc cc yu
cu sau:
- C d cng v tnh chng m i mn cao. vi cac dng CI cp chnh xc cao.
cng c th ti G3-6 HRC:
- Kch thc khiig tiia v i trong sut thi Rnii lin vic l ii di. S n nh
kcli thc cl\rc cii bo bi hai ch tiu; h s Rn n nhit Iih v c bit, l SI
n ctiili ca t clic t vi trong phm vi nlnt c lm vic bi v nu c Iihi\i t
chc khng n nh, n s ti|) tc bii (ti theo thi iaii v lm thay i kch
tluc. l 111 Riu c'p chnh xc ca (liiR c).
Ngoi ra thp cn phi c kh nauK mi biii c;io v t bin (tng khi nhit
luyii. i vi cac dng c o cp chnh xac thap. cac yu c\i kp trn c th gim
ht v lic (l k h iil khe.
Ckic t/) l i d n g c d o :
IXVi V('i cc (lng o c'p chnh xac cao. thng (luuK llip c thnh phn cacboii
cao (khong 1%C) sa\i khi ti c t chc inactPiixit v cacbit ch. c ct cng cao
v cling li IIII tt. v c th t d bng cno khi mi. Cc ngviyn t hp kini
thng dmg l Cr v Mn vi lng trn chri 1% mi ngiiyii t, m bo ti trong
(lau o t hin (iig. Trong Mn ngoi tc tlng taiiy: (t thm ti cn c tc dng
gi kch thc khng thay i (so vi trc kin ti) (lo II lang cht t hiig austeiiit
(l. Thng dng cc s* hiu lOOCr. OLlOOCr2. 100CrWMii v HOCrMn. bo
in kh nng chng nii niii cno v kch tluc n (iil). smi khi ti khng ram ni
tin hiih Ra ciig lnh hoc ha gi n li ii to 120-140" c trong thi gian di
(24-48 h).
i vi cac dng c (!o cp chnh xc thnp c tho dng cnc loi thp sau:
- Thp th'iii cacboii C l. C20. lC r. 20Cr. ];K>Ni3A. ...sau khi tli'm cacboii
qua ti v ram thp;
- Tli) ha tt. CO, C sa\i nhit luyr, hoa tf (lont ti b mt phn lcni vic
baiig dng in cm ng cao tan;
- Thp 38CrM oAlA qiia tli iii nitci, ap dng cho cc (lng c o c kch tlnc
ln v hnh cliig plic tp.
340_________________________________________________________ Chdng 7. THP V GANG
7.6. THP V HP
KIM C
BIT

7.6.1. Thp v hp kim c tnh chng mi mn cao

Saii nit thi gian lm vic, cc chi ti t my b nin i do s Jiia st l ii nhau
gia chng, do tc dng ca mi tn iig l ii vic; dng nc. kh. clo s m i st, ca
cc ht. cng ln b nit chi tit, ... C ch Iii mn trong cc trng hp l khc
nhau.
Cc thp v hp kim c tn h chng mi mn cao dng trong k th ii t c bn
dng clinh sau;
- Thp c ciig cao v khng c im mm saii k lii ti nh thp bi, thp
khun dp ngui loi 210C rl2, ... Hoc c th dng cc thp khc nng cao cng
b m t bng ccli ti b mt, ha nhit luyn,
- Thp c ct cng khng cao Iilu n g c th ti bin cng lp bmt. k h i l ii vic
nn c tn h chng mi mn r't cao nh thp H atfiiid;
- Thp c cng thp nhng c kh nng t bi tr ii nh thp graphit;
- Hp kin\ trn c s cacbit c hoc thiu kt;
Dng \i \c trn h by cc mc tng ng tru. Mc ny ch i s\i
vo ba dng CII l i ,
7.6.1.1. Thp Hatind (thp mangan cao)

Thp H a tiiid c p dng trong cng nghip t cul th k trc. n nay n
vn c thnh phn nh lic ban ii; 1,3%C v 13%Mn (t l %Mn/%C = 10). vi k
hiu l 130M nl3 (ch c ngha l c). l loi thp c, c t chc austemt
(do cha nhiu M ii l nguyn t ni rng viig y) vi c cng thp (khong 200HB).
do dai cao. K lii lm vic b ma st diti p lc ln v chi ti trng va p. lp
b nit ca thp b bin dng do, xy ra hai qu trn h san;
- Bin cng do bin dng ngui: mng tin h th auRtenit b x lcli, cc ht b
chia nh thnh t chi'c siii h t (hay blc);
- To thnh mactenxit: di tc dng ca ng sut cao. nit phn austenit
chuyn bin thnh m actenxit v \c gi l m actenxit bin dng. Do lng cacbon
ca thp cao (1.3%) nn m actenxit to thnh c cng r t cao.
Kt q\i l lp b bin dng do v bin cng c cng cao ti 600HB. c tnh
chng nii mn rt. cao. Hdn na. trong q\i trn h lm vic uii lp c b mn i th
lp mi l i b bin dng do v ha bn. v mt ny. thp H atfind tt hn hn cc
thp c ti b m t hoc ha nhit luyn.
Do c t chc austenit, thp c dai cao. bn tt: |, = 800-1000 MPa.
a ,2 = 400-500 MPa, = 50-60%. =2000 kJ/m^. nn n c th lm vic tt di
ti trng va p.
Tnh chng ini niii ca thp 130M ul3 t c gi t r cao nh't k h i n c t
clic hon ton austeiiit. Sau khi c. ngoi a iis te iiit vu cn c inangan cacbit tit
ra (do lng c v M n ca thp cao). M ui ha tan ht s cacbit ny phi nung
nng thp ln n 100-1100"C, gi nhit ri lm ng\ii nhanh trong nc (gi l
ti), t chc au ste iiit ic c" nh l i hon ton nhit thng.
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________ 34_
Cng dng ca thp H a tfiiid d cli to cc' chi lit chii mi mn mnh di p
sut cao v di ti trng va p nh: lii ray. rng ^r;ui xc, xch xe tng, xch xe
ko, my i. c bin my p . v niy ngliin. bi Ii^ln, ...
c lu :
- Sau k lii c khiig th tin hnh gia cng c thp H a tfiiid bng cch ct gt.
cch duy nlit c tli tin hnh itc l ini. do vy phi clui k h i th i t k, ch to
cac rln tit baug thp ny;
- Thp Iiy c tnh cliiig mi mn khng cao klii b mi st. do khng thch
hp vi plm ii ct. do y cc ht ct cng c chuyn ng vi t'c nhanh
Iili ng vi i) lc nh.
7.6.1.2. Thp graphit ha

Nu trong t chc ca thp kt cu thng thng c graphit th mc du khng
lin tng cng nhng l i tng mnh tnh chiig nii mn o tc dng bi trn
ca gra ph it trn b m t ma st. Loi thp Iiy ditc gi l thp gra ph it ha.
c (hc thp graphit. ha Iigi ta phi dng phi thp cacbon cao 1.0-2%
v liig silic cao 1-2% ri ti ii hnh graphit. ha theo ch gn nh gang do.
Trong qua trn h g ra p liit ha. mt phn xm entit b ha th iih graphit. Sau
khi , thp c t chc gin hn hp eril, xinentit v graphit. Ty thuc vo hrng
cacbon vn cli n h it hiyii. lng graphit trong tli) c th bin i trong p h m
vi rng.
Sau khi t.i, cng ca thp c th t. ti 68H1C. li c g ra p liit bi trn tt
nn thp c tiih chlig mi mn rt. cao. V (iii. cliig tlip graphit ha lm khun
ko v k lu i ii dp ngui, tui th ca kliuii 'ao 2 -3 lu so vi thp 2lO C rl2.
Ngoi ra c th (lng thp uy trii^r [\\[\\ thay t.llii lip kim Cu ch to bc
lt ( tr\t) v cc chi ti t klic lii vif troiiK (tin kin ma st.
7.6.1.3. Hp kim cacbit c

Nh bit, pha cacbit trong thp <;o tc dng nng cao khc nng chng mi
mii cho thp, v chng c cng rt cao v bn viif. Bng cch no c th
ch to ra vt li ii gni ch yu l cc loi cachit. rhiinp rhc chn s c t iili chng
mi niii r t cao. Hin nay troiig cng Iighii)]. Ct) hiii pliiig php chnh ch to
ra lo i v t li u ny: p h it n g php liiy ii kJH bt (tlii u kt) v p lu t n g php nu
chy (c). Phitug php i t bt ri qvia p v thin kt. s ic cp trong mc hp
kin i cng ca ching 10. Mc ny ch cp (tu sii pluuii ca pludiig php nu
cliy, l cc hp kDi cacbit c.
Hp kim cacbit c l loi hp kim trn c s ca Fe. cha mt lug ln cacbon
(t lidn 4%) v cc nguyn t to cacbit. (ch yu l Cr. ngoi ra c th dng w , V.
Mn, ...), do vy t chc gni mt liig ln cac loi cacbit (40-60%). bo m tn li
chng m i mn r t cao, dng trng thi c hoc trng ln cc chi ti t v dng c
chu mi mn.
lin cc clii ti t my nng Iigliij). bunke. xe ch qung khng chu va p
Iihiu, c th dng cc hp kin i 2OCr28. H00Cr23R2Si2Ti. T dic ca hp kim
gni int htiig ln cacbit th nht v ldbiirit (cnchit v Miacenxit).
342_________________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
lm cc chi ti t va p tng i cao nhi rng iny xc, ii ba chn, c

th dng cc hp kim 3OCr7Mn7Si. 300Cr26Ni4Si4M ii. T chc ca hdp kim gm
cc phii t cacbit. nh m n trn nn aiistenit-niactenxit.
lm cac chi ti t chu ti triig va p cao nh dao ct t cng, gu may
xc qung st, ... c th dng cc hp k in i llO M iilS , 300Mii4.
110 C rl4W l3V 2 M iiS i trng ln b m t chi tit. T chc ca hp k in i gm cac
phn t cacbit trn nn austenit hoc aiisteiiit-m actenxit.
7.6.2. TH P KH N G G
Thp khng g bao gm mt h hp k in i trn c s Fe ni tn h cht ch yn ca

n l bu chiig n mn trong cc mi trng khc nhau. T iiy gi l thp khng g.
nhng cn hi\i titng i so vi thp thng. Thc ra mi loi thp khng g ch c
tnh chng n mn cao trong mt s mi tn iig nht iih v ngay c trong mi
tnng n vn b n mn vi tc nh (khng ng k) v ic coi l khng g.
C th da vo tc n mn (chiii dy lp kin i loi b n inn trong n v thi
gian, mm/nni) nh gi tnh "khng g", v d:
- Trong ini trng n mn yu (khng kh. nc ngt. ...). c cc inc sa\i:
uu tc n mn khng ln hn 0,01 niii/nni : thp ic coi l hon ton
khng b g;
nu tc n mn khng ln hn 0,1 min/nin : thp ic coi l khng g;
Iiii tc n inn ln hn 0.1 Iiiiii/n m : thp coi l b g.
- Trong mi trng n mn m iih (dung dch axit, nuil, ...), c cc inc saii:
nu tc n mn khng ln hii 0.1 inni/iini : ic coi l chu axit, nmi
(tt);
nu tc n mn khng ln hn 1 mm/nm ; ic coi l khng g (t yii
cu);
nu tc n mn ln hn 1 inm /nm : coi l b g.
Tc n nin cn c nh gi bng mc gim khi hng trn n v
din tch trong n v thi gian (g/m^ li). Trong triig hp khng c hin Ung n
mn CIC b. gia hai i lng ny c ni quan h sau: 1 g/ni^ h = 0,122 nim /niii.
Crm l Iigiiyi t hp kim c vai tr quyt nh i vi tn h khag g ca
thp. Vi lng cha khng t hn 12% Cr. thp s tr nn khng gi trong mi
trng oxy ha do to ra lp mng th ng trn b m t ca n. Cn mt cch gii
thch khc l kh i fe rit cha khng t hn 12,5% Cr, in th in CIC ca n tng
ln ting ng vi in th ca pha xm entit (hay cacbit ni clumg). nng cao
kh nng chig n mn in ha mt cch r rt, lm cho thp tr nn kh iig g.
7.6.2.1. S lc v cc loi thp khng g

Nlng loi thp khng g c th aiisten it ha nh i t cao, sau k h i lm ngui
c chuyn bin thnh m actenxit thuc loi thp khng gi m actenxit. Loi ny c
thnh phn crin khng ln hn 17%, CII hng cacbon c th cao ti 1.1%.
K lii thp c lng cacboii thp (t hdn 0.08%). nu th nh phn crii ln hn
12% s c t chc hoii ton ferit. ngha l mi khong n h i t , d c nung n
tn gn nhit nng cliy II cng khng chuyn thnh austenit, v d c ti
trong nc n cng khng chuyn thnh m acteiixit. l loi thp khng g ferit.
Loi ny c th cha t 12 n 30% Cr.
VT LIU HC 343
V N i l nguyn t m rng vng y. n c kluiynh hvng n mh ha pha

austenit. T y theo th n h phn Cr, Ni. c m mt vi loi thp khng g c t chc
a u s te iiit ngay c n h i t thp hn nhit thng, l thp khng g austenit.
Cr t
Hnh 7.16. Gin Schaeffler - t chc ca thp khng g ph thuc lng Cr, Ni quy i:
M - vng tn tai ca mactenxit; u - terit. y - austenit
Ngoi ba loi thp khng g k trn, cn c nhng loi thp khng g m trong
t ciic c c fe rit v austeiiit. l thp khng g ferit - austenit. Cui cng cn
gp loi thp khug g ha cng tit, pha phn tn.
xc nh t chc ca thp khng g khi bit thnh phn ha hc ca n,
Iigi ta thng dng gin Schaeffler (hnh 7.16). Trn gin ny, trc honh
biu th htng Cr q\iy i (tng ng), c tnh theo cng thc sau;
Cri = %Cr + %Mo + l,.%Si + 0,.%Nb (7.6)
tit iig ng vi tc dng tiig hp ca cc nguyn t m rng vng a. Cn trc tung
biu th lng N i quy i (tng ng), ic tnh theo cng thc sau:
Niu, = %Ni + 30.%c + 0,5 %Mn (7.7)
tiig ng vi tc dng tng hp ca cc nguyn t^ m rng vng y. Cc vng bn
trong gin cho bit t chc ca thp khng g sau khi nng chy ri ngui
ngoi khng k h (m ii nh), hoc saii khi austenit ha ri ngui nhanh trong nic
(thao tc ny gi l "ti", nhng thc ra gi l i t chc ca thp nhit cao).
Bng 7.17 nu m t s loi thp khng g ca M c phn loi theo t chc
Iih i nu trn.
7.6.2.2. Thp khng g mactenxit

N lii bng 7.13 cho thy, lng crm trong loi thp ny t 12-17%, nu vt
qu gii hn tr n s tr thnh thp aiistenit. Nu lng crm mc gii hn di
(12,0-13%) th liig cacboii phi hn ch khng vt qu 0.4% trn h to thnh

qu nhiii pha cacbit crm dn ti lm ngho crm phn kin i loi nii v gim
kh nng chng g ca thp. chnh l trng hp cc loi thp khng g m ta
vn thvng qiien gi theo cch gi ca Nga (12X13. 20X13, 30X13, 40X13), tirdng
ng vi cc mc thp ca ta l 12C rl3, 20C rl3. 30C rl3. 40C rl3. Nii tng hng
crm ln ti 17% th lng cacbon c th .cao ti 0,9-1,1%. (nhi s' hiii 440 hay
440B ca M) tng c tn h (ch yu l cng) m vn m bo tnh chng g.
Bng 7.17. Thnh phn ha hc v c tnh ca mt s loi thp khng g
S hiu thp Thnh phn cc nguyn t. % Trng C tnh. MPa

(SAE/AISI) Cr Ni nguyn t' khc thi Q,2 .%
Loi mactenxit:
410 < 0,15 12.5 ti v 700 1000 20
420 > 0 15 13.0 ram 1375 1760 10
440B 0,75-0,95 17.0 400 c 1900 1950 3
Loi feht:
405 < 0.08 13.0 0.2 AI 275 450 25
430 < 0,12 17.0 345 650 25
446 < 0 20 25.0 < 0.25N 350 560 20
Loi austenit:
301 < 0.15 17.0 7.0 275 750 50
304 < 0,08 19.0 9.0 250 580 55
316 < 0,08 17.0 12.0 2.5 Mo 290 580 50
316-L < 0,03 17.0 12,0 2.5 Mo 260 550 50
347 < 0,08 18.0 11.0 Nb hoc 275 655 45
Ta > 10.%c
Loi ha cng tit pha:
361(17-7PH) 0,09 17,0 7.0 1.2 AI ha gi 1550 1650 6
Nhit luyn thp khiig g loi ny cng bao gm; aiisten it ha. ti v ram.
N lii t austenit ha kh cao (950-1100C) do Cr nng cao im chuyn pha
a <-> y v cu phi ha tan cacbit crm vo y. Do lng Cr cao nn thp ny d ti.
c th ngui trong du hoc trong khng kh vn c th nhn c inactenxit.
N lii t ram t y vo yii cu c th. nhng liu trnh gin ram loi I I vng
nhit 350-75C bng cch ngui nhanh trong du. Nu ngui chm trong vng
nhit trn s liiih thnh Cra/Cc, n l nguyn nhn lni thp b gin v gim
kh nng cliiig n mn.
Cng dng ca thp khng g m actenxit c th tm t t nh sau: loi cacbon
thp nh 12C rl3, 2 0 C rl3 (tng ng s hiu 403, 420 ca M) c cng dng
chung, lm trang sc. c v t khng g, chi ti t chu nhit (di 450C) nh cnh
tucbin hi. b phn crcking du m. ... Cc s' hiu vi liig cacbon cao hn nh
30C rl3. 4 0 C rl3 (tng ing vi s" hiu 420 ca M), c cng v gii hn n
VT LIU HC____________________________________________ __ ________________ ^
hi cao hdii. dng lm l xo khng gi. dng c o. ...Cc s hiu c lng cacbon cao
ti 0.9-1.0% c cng cao. nh cc s' hiu 440. 440B ca M dng lm dng c
m (dao. ko), chi ti t chii nhit v chu mi mn nlu siipap x ca ng c izel,
bi l iii vic trong mt s' mi trng n mn, ...
Ni chung thp khng g niactenxit c tnh chig ii mn cao trong khng kh.
nc sng, nc my. do hiu ng th ng ha ca crm nn khng b n mii
trong a x it H N O 3, cn trong cc axit khc chng b n mn. c n lu rng trong ba
loi thp khng g chnh, thp m actenxit l loi c tnh chng n mn km nht.
Thc t thiig gp thp vi lng crin ti thiu 12. - 13 % va bo in
tn h th ng ha ca lp b mt, nhng do mt phn Cr to vi c thnh cacbit
nn n khng th tham gia to ra mng th ng lm cho thp c tn h chng n
mn kin i.
7.6.2.3. Thp khng g fert

Ty theo lirng crm, thp khiig g fe rit ic chia th n li ba nhm:
- Nhm thp cha khong 13%Cr, nh s' hiu 40 ca M, loi ny cha r t t
cacbon (nh hn 0.08%). Cho thm 0,2%A1. nguyn t m rng vng a, s ngn cn
s\ to th n h a iiste n it khi nung v to tlu in li cho vic h n, c diig nhiu
trong cng n ghip dii m;
- Nhm thp cha ti 17%Cr nh s' hiu 12Crl7 (tng itiig s'hiu 430 ca
M), l s hiii th p khng g ferit c diig Iihiu n h t, v n c th th ay th
thp khng g a iiste n it kh i iu kin s dng cho php, li khng cha N i nn r
hn nliiu. c dng nhiu trong cng nghip sn x ii t a xit HN O 3. ha thc
phm, kin trc, ... Nliic iin ca thp ny l kl\ hn, k h i nhit vit qu
90"C. vng gii mi hn tr nn gin v l ni xy ra n mn theo bin ht. C
th khc phc hin titng ny bng cch h thp lng cacbon hoc cho thm
0.8%Ti vo thp, nh s hiu 08C rl7T i;
- Nhm thp cha t 20-30%Cr n h i s' hiu lC r2T i (tiiig ng vi s hiii
446 ia M) hay 15Cr28, v Ivng crni cao nn chng c tn h chiig oxy ha cao
(khng b trc vy nhit cao 800-900"C).
Ni c liiiiig thp khng g fe rit c gii hn ctii hi cao hn thp austenit. nhng
nic ha bn do bin d ng do li thp hn. nn chng thch hp cho vic gia
cug bng bin dng do ngui (cn, ko. g, dp, ...). bn chiig n m ii ca
clnuig ph thiic liig crm c trong thp, nhng tt n h t trng th i . hn
ch hin tiiig n mn cc b (n inn im) phi tng hng crm ln tr n 20% v
t't hii l cho thm khong 2%Mo. cho php s dng thp trong kh hu bin, nc
bin v trong mi trng axit.
7.6.2.4. Thp khng g austenit

Cc thp khng g k trn, pha y khng tn ti hoc ch tn t i nh i t cao.
Nu cho thm Ni, nguyn t' m rng vng . vi lng thch hp, s lm cho thp
c t chc Y ng a y c n h i t th p h ii n lii t thng, l cc lo i th p kh ng
g a \is te n it.
346 C h n g 7. THP V GANG
Thp khng g a u ste iiit in h iih l loi 18.8 hay 18.9 (18%Cr v 8-10%Ni).
Phn cui ca bng 7.13 trn l thp khng g loi uy ca M. Biig 7.18 d\i
v nn thnh phii ha hc ca mt s thp khiig g loi ny quen bit o
luc ta.
Bng 7.18. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s thp khng g
crm-niken c t chc austenit
Thnh phn cc nguyn t, %

Mc thp
Cr Ni Ti Mn Si khng ln hn
12Cr18Ni9 < 0,12 17-19 8-10 2.0 0,8 0,035 0,02
17Cr18Ni9 0,13-0.21 17-19 8-10 2.0 0,8 0.035 0,02
12Cr18Ni9Ti < 0.12 17-19 8- 9.5 0,8 2.0 0,8 0,035 0,02
4Cr18Ni10 <0,04 17-19 9-11 2.0 0.8 0,035 0,02
8Cr18Ni10 <0,08 17-19 9-11 2.0 0.8 0,035 0,02
8Cr18Ni10Ti <0,08 17-19 9-11 0,7 2.0 0.8 0,035 0,02
12Cr18Ni10Ti 0,12 17-19 9-11 0,8 2,0 0,8 0,035 0,02
Nhng u im ni bt ca nhm thp ny c th tm t t nh sa\i:

- Tuh chng n mn cao. chng hon ton n nh trong nc sng, nc biii,
trong hi nitc bo ha v qu nhit, trong cc dung dch mui. Trong cc dung
dch a xit chving c tnh chng n mn cao: n nh trong a x it HNO. vi mi nng
v nhit . trong a x it H2S0.t ngui, trong axit HCl long, ngui. Bi vy chng
ic dng trong cng nghip sn xut axit, cng nghip ha dii v thc phm, chi
tit chu nhit ti 900-1000" c.
- Tnh do cao (5 = 40-60%). d cn, dp, g tr iig th i ngiii, r t thch hp d
ch to cc th i t b ha hc (lm bnh, ng, ...). Cng do c c\i to mng lp
phng diu tm n khng b gin ngay c khi ht ln do qii nung v nht l
khng c im chuyn bin do gin, do vy c th dng nhit r t thp nh
vng bng gi. hoc lm bnh cha kh ha lng, trong k tlu i t lm lnh.
- C tn h m bo, mc dii khng ha bn c bng nhit luyn (do khng c
chuyn bin pha), nhng l i ha bn mnh bng bin do dng ngui: trng thi
(hoc trng thi ti c t chc hon ton aiistenit). chiig c do cao, nlnng
bn thp: 1,=750 MPa. (|,2=250 MPa, nhng sau bin cng bng biii dng
ngui c th t bn r t cao: 1,= 1000 MPa, (12=750 MPa. hon ton p ng
yii cii chi ti ca cc th i t b ha hc. S ha bn ny l do phn lu austeiiit
phn b bin dng mnh chuyn thnh m actenxit (gi l m actenxit bin dng,
ging nhi trng hp thp chng mi mn mangan cao 1 3 0 M iil3 nu trii).
Cng chnh do nguyn nhn ny. thp b bin cng r t nhanh sau mi ln bin
dng, c th bin dng tip phi em thp nhit thch hp.
Do nhng Itii im trn, thp khiig g austenit l loi thp \c dng ph bin
nht, v d nh M. thp khng g austenit chiii ti 70% tng hng thp khiig
g. K liiig nhng trong cng nghip ha hc m c tro iig cc ngiih cng ngliip
VT LIU HC 347
kliac v lin gia diig. Nhng nhc im ca loi thp khng g C r-N i Gi
18.H) Iiu trn l;
- t tin, do cha nliixi Ni. C th gim gi thnh bng cch dng M n thay
th' mt phn Ni. v d 1 0 C rl4 M iil4 N i4 T i thay cho 1 2 C rl8 N ilO T i ch to mt.
s chi tit ini vic tro iig mi trng n nin yu (axit hu c, mui, kim) trong
cn^ Iigliip lia thc phm; hoc 10Crl4M ii24Ni3 thay cho 12C rl8N i9 v
17Cr8Ni9.
Bng 7.19. Thnh phn ha hoc ca mt s loi thp austenit chu axit
tt Nc.mc thp Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Cu Ti
Nga: 0,2-
25X25H18M T 0,28 <0,8 1-2 2 4 -2 7 17-19 2,3-2,8 1 -1.5 0,4-07
06XH28MT <0,06 < 0,8 < 0.8 2 3 -2 5 26-29 2 ,5 -3 2,5-3 0.4- 0,7
rOCT.977 -75;
X23H28M03 T <0J)6 < 0,8 <0,8 2 2 -2 5 2 6 -2 9 2 ,5 -3 2 ,5 -3 0.4- 0.7
Trvng Quc;
Cr18Ni18Mo3- <0,10 < 0,8 < 0,7 17 -1 9 17-19 1. 8 - 2.2 1.8-2,2 >7x%c
Cu2Ti
M:
AlSi - 310 < 0,25 < 1.5 <2 24 -26 19-22
Php:
AUSTAAS:
6 Z15CNS25- 20 0,2 <2 22-27 1R-23 2 0,4
CHLB c:
X12CrNiMoTi < 0,12 <1 <2 19-21 16,5-18,5 2-2,5 1.8-2,2 >0.4
18-18
Nht Bn:
8 STA. < 0.2 <2 <2 15-20 10-15 8 1 1
G/ii ch: Cc nic thp trn cha 0.02-O.O.ToS; 0,025-0,04r)"oP. Ring nic s 8 (ca Nht
Bii) c cha t hn 1%V.
- li gia cng ct gt do do qiianh. phoi kh gy. C th ci thiu bng cch

clio tli iii sleii hoc liu hunh vi lng khong 0.10%. d nhiu l c lm gim
clut t kh Iiiig chng n mn ca thp;
- B n mn trong mt s' tntng hp s dng c th: Iihv b n mn theo bin
ht. vng nh hng nhit ca nii hn hoc chi tit phi thing xuyn lm vc
khong 400-800" c. n mn tp trung (dng im, dng hang hc), n mn di
ng sut v hi\i ng tch lu do n mn v mi. ... do c s ti t pha crm cacbit
vng biu li t lni ngho crm vng lin k v vng s b n mn nhanh hn.
C the khc plic hiu tng ny bng cch gim liig cacboii trong thp n mc
348_________________________________________________________ C hng 7. THP V GANG
c th chrc nhit cc mc 4 C rl8 N ilO hoc 316-L cia M t cacbon d hn. Hoc l
cho thm cc nguyn t to cacbit m nli hijn Cr Iiln Ti. Nb hay Ta uh\ cc inac
12C rl8N i9T i. 8 C rl8 N ilO T i, 1 2 C rl8 N ilO T i hoc s* hiu 347 ca M. tng kh
nng l m vic tro n g m i tr n g c io ii c r (IIIC bin, k h h u bin), cng n h i
vi thp ferit, phi cho thm 2-4%Mo, nh cc s hiu 316 hay 316-L ca M.
ch to cc kt cu hn lni vic trong axit H^so. v a x it HrPO) nng phi
diig loi thp khng g austenit c htiig cacbon thp hii Iihung lidiig crm v
nikeii cao hn h 18.8 nu trn v phi hp k in i ha l%Mo. l-2% C u v m t vi
nguyn t to cacbit m iih (Ti. Nb. V, ...) trong d Ni. Mo. Cu m bo tn h ii nh
ca thp vi axit, cn T i bo ni loi tr n mn tin h gii. Bng 7.19 tr iih by
thnh phn ha hc ca mt s" loi thp thuc nhm ny ca mt s^ nc tr n th
gii.
7.6.2.5. Thp khng g austenit-ferit

Nu tng lng crni v gim lng nikeii (18-28%Cr > -9%Ni) thp s c t
chc l h ii hp Y v a, l th p kh n g g a u s te n it-fe rit. v d n liit mc
12Cr21NiTi.
c ijii q iia ii trng ca loi thp ny l c tnh ca chng r t tt: hu nh
khng c hin titiig gin ca thp ferit, cn gii hn ii hi li cao gp 3 lu so vi
thp austenit. Ngoi ra bn chiig n mn m bo. c bit trong iu kin
chu p lc (ii inn ng sut) hoc chu ii nin tp trun g (n inn im) v n
IIIU diig hang hc trong kh qviyii c tn h xm thc mnh (ng x, l van x, ng
dn hi ha cht, ...).
7.6.2.6. Thp khng g ha cng tit pha (thp austenit-mactenxit)

Thp khng g ha cng ti t pha t Iih't c hai u im; c th tin hnh gia
cng bng bin dng ngiii v ct gt trng th i tiiig mm; tip n c th
ha bn bng ha gi vng Iilii t tng tli p tr n h s bin dng hoc
l s oxy ha. M t v d cho loi thp ny l s hiu 361 (hay 17-7PH) nu trong
bng 7.13. N hit luyn loi thp ny nh sau:
- Nung ti nhit 1050c ri lm ngui ngoi khng kh. T chc nhn c
l austenit. c th tin hnh gia cng to hiih bng bin dng do hoc ct gt
trng thi ngui;
-''Nung ti nhit trong khong 70-950"C ri lni ngui ngoi khng kh. T
chc nhn c gm nn l a u ste iiit v cc ht cacbit vi s' htng t y vo nhit
Iiuiig;
- Lni ngui tip xving t 0 n -75 c (gia cng lnh) chuyn mt phn
hoc ton b austenit thnh m actenxit;
- Ha gi nhn to khong 525 c trong Ih . c tn li ( bn , cng) s t
cc i. l s ha bn cu trc nh ti t ra cc phn t nh m i N iA l v N i ,A1.
Loi thp ny dng ch to mt s chi ti t my lm vic trong in kin
chu ii mn li cn c cng, bii t\ng i cno (nhitng khng nhit cao
hn nhiu so vi nhit ha gi).
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________ ^
7.6.3. THP V HP k im c h u n h i t (LM VIC NHIT

CAO)
Cc v t liu kini loi lm vic nliit (t cao 00 npha quan trng trong nn
kin h t quc du v qiic phng, n l vt liu khiig th tlii ii dc ch to cc
chi ti t ca ng c (t trong, phn lc), l nuiiig. thit b nhit in, v kh. tn
la, my bay. tu v tr. ...
7.6.3.1. Yu cu i vi thp v hp kim im vic nhit cao

Cac chi ti t my lm vic nhit cao phi (tt ic hai yii cu sau:
- C tn h n nh nng (tnh bii ha hc nhit cao);
- C tiih bn nng (gi ic bii c hc nliit ct cao).
Tinh n. nh nng l kh nng ca kim loi chng li s jh liiiy ca nii
tn iig nhit cao (khng k h i nng, sn phîi chay ca ng c cha cc kh c
hi nh COv. so^, HiiS, ... mui niig cliy v bc hi cha nhi\i ion C1 , ...). Trong
dng pli hy nguy liini v thng gp iiluVt l s oxy ha nhit cao. txic
l to thnh cc vv oxyt kim loi. Di vi truK hp c th l st v thp, lp vy
oxyt c l PeÔ., Pe.O.i. FeO. trong ch yii l FeO c cu to mng khng st
cht, qii trn h oxy ha nhit cao pht trin lm ii li v thp b ph hy r't
ahanh.
tng kh nng chng oxy ha cho thp nhit, cao thng dng cc
uguyii t hp kin i Cr. AI v Si. Cac iviiyn t ny khi b oxy ha to ra cc oxyt
utng ng l: Cr,iO.. A I 2O .,. SO2 . chnp c cu to Iiins Rt cht, to ra mng bo
v vng chc trn b m t thp. Lng Si v AI tlnu; (lng troiig gii hu 1-2%
mi ugiiyn t (v nn Iihiu qiia. lp nhin oxyt in. (l b bong, lm gim kh
nng bo v thp). Hing crin l ngiiyn t h]) kini chiig oxy ha quan trng, c
trong mi thp lm vic nhit cao. Nhit, ( lm vic cng cao. thp cng phi
cha nhiu Cr hn, v d 600-6C can 9%Cr. (i 800"( cn 14%Cr. 1000" c cu
26%Cr { bo m s oxy ha inc Inig/cni^ trong lOOli).
T n h chng oxy ha khng ph tliuc vo t chc co thp (ferit hay aiisteit),
)i) ch pli thuc vo thnh phn ha hc. ch yn l liig Cr. Hai thp e rit (loi
Cr cao) v a iis te iiit (loi C r-N i) nu c cng liig clia crin th kh nng chng
oxy ha ca chng l Iih\ nhaii.
Tnh bn nng l kli nng ca kiin loi chu c ti trng (tc l gi ic
bn) nh i t cao. N la bit, khi kiin loi lm vic d uhit ct cao, dii tc dng
ca t i trng khng i v tli p hu gii hn chy trong thi giaii di. kim loi vn
b bin dng do mt cch chm chp, (c gi l (lo. l s ni tip Iiliavi Itit
ccli l ii tc ca hai qu trn h ngtc Iihau; bin dng do gy ra la bn v kt.
tiiih l i gy ra th i bn (xem mc 4.0,4). Hin tvng (lo tr nn c bit nguy
lu iii kh i nhit lm vic cao hii nhiu so vi nhit, kt tin h li. k in i loi s b
l)in dng do v dn ti ph hy sau int thi gian Iio . nng cao t iili bn
nng phi tin mi cch chng li hin tng bin diig (lo k trn.
K in i loi c Iilii t Iiiig chy cng cao c tnh hn nng cng cao. K lii c cDig
n h i t nng chy, kim loi no c nhit, kt. tii i li cao li ii s c tnh bn
350_________________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
nng cao hn. Mi yu t nng cao nhit kt tin h l i cii lni tng tn li bn
nng.
T chc ca hp kim cng nh hng n tnh bn nng, c th trng hp ca
thp: thp c t chc a u ste iiit c tn h bn nng cao hn so vi thp c t chvc ferit
hay hn hp fe rit v cacbit (do aiistenit. c nhit kt tin h l i cao hn).
Do nhit cao bin gii ht km bn hn so vi bu troug lit, qu trnh
bin dng do dn ti ph hy thng xy ra tnc tiu bin ht. do vy ht
cng nh (tc bin gii cng nhiu) tnh bn nng cng km, in ny Iigitc l i 50
vi bn trng th i ngui. Thc n g lii iii chng m inh rng hp kiin c t chVc
mt pha vi ht ln c tnh bn nng cao hn 50 vi h t nh,
i vi thp, cc nguyn t' hp kim nh; Mo. w . Nb. Ti. Zr c tc dng to ra
cc pha ha cng phn tn (cacbit, Iiitr it) v c tc dng chng do. cc ngiiyn l
nhi; Ni, M n c tc dng n iih t chc a iiste iiit, ... u c tc cuig nng cao tnh
bn nng.
7.6.3.2. Thp lm supap x

Trong cc ng c t trong, siipap x l chi ti t l ii vic troiig cc i\i kin
nng Iiht: chu t i trng cao. chu nhit cao ti 650-700" c, b n mii v mi
mn trong dng sn phm chy.
cii to supap x cho cc ng c t. my ko loi nh v va, thng dng
thp Cr-Si, nh cc s'hiu 40Cr9Si2, 40Crl0Si2M o. y l loi thp m acteiixit (
trng thi thng ha). Sau k h i ti nhit 1000-100"c tro iig du v rani
nhit 700-750C cng ngui trong du ( tr n h gin ram loi II). cng t
dc trn di 40 HRC. Tnh bn Iing cao ca thp ny l do Cr. Si v Mo. ('hng
va c tc dng chug oxy ha, va c tc dng chng ram. tr iili s kt t ca
cacbit.
lm siipap x cho cc ng c cng sut, ln hii c th dng niac
30C rl3N i7Si2. v t t n h t l dng thp bn nng austeiiit vi mc
4 C rl4N il4W 2M o , do cng ciia n thp nn phi cteii thm nitd plin cn ca
siipap, cn phn a (nni) v cnh vt ca siipap itc hii p bng hp ki 111 stelit
(hp kim cng kiu Ii'u chy, c klio iig 35%Cr, 1-2%C. cn li l Co).
Supap np c nhit lm vic k li iig cao nn c th ch to bng tlip
40CrNi.
7.6.3.3. Thp lm ni hi v tucbin hi

Hin nay cc ni hdi ca cc nh niy nhit in thng hot ng vi cc
thng s: nhit hi nc 540"c vi p s ii t 250 atmtphe hoc nhit 60'c vi
p sut 160 atmtphe. S hn ch ny khng phi do nhng kh khn v k thut
Ji ch yu do khng c thp bn nng ting i r c th m bo cho ni hi
lm vic l ii di (hn 100 OOOh) nhit v p siit cao hii.
v cng dng, cc thp ny l i c chia thnh hai nhm: nhm thp Iii hi
v nhm thp bt cht.
Nhm, thp ni hi: v i ni hi p sii't thp v trun g b iili (di 60at.) vi Iihit
lm vic khng vt qu 40"C c th dng thp cacboii thp CT34, CT38. C l.
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________351
C20. Cc ng qu nung hi. iig dr lidi lm vic nhit, (t cao hn (540-60"C)

phi diig thp hp kin i cacboii tli')) loi peclit Iilut 12CrMo, 12CrMoV. lin
cnh tucbin hi lni vic 540-560"C phi dng tlip hp kim cao hdn. thuc loi
mactenxit, Iih l C rl2 W N iM o V , 12Crl3. l C rllM o V . Cc ni hi p sit siu cao
phi cliig thp hp kim cao loi austenit nh 9C rl4N il9W 2N bB .
Nhm thp bt cht: Loi thp c dng lm cac chi ti t bt cht trong
tlii t b ni hi-tiicbin nhit buliig. vit cy. ... chng c tc dng lm kn cc mi
ni. nit. bch. Yii cu c bn ca chiing l< c gii hn chy cao. Thng dnig cc
niac ;au SOCrMo, 35CrNi3MoA. 38CrMoAlA. 2oCr2MoVA. 40C rN i2M oAy... i khi
dng c thp cacbon C30.
7.6.3.4. Hp kim bn nng

Thp bn nng t t nh't l loi thp hp kim cao c t chc a iiste n it cng ch
chu (hc nhit ct 70-800"C (di p sut, hng trni atnitphe), clo b hn ch bi
nhit nng chy ca Fe. M iiii t. c lnh bn nng cao lin phi dng cc
hp kim trn c s Ni, Cr v cc kini loi c nhit d nng chy cao hn nh w ,
Mo. ...
Hp kim bn nng trn c s Ni ni hai loi chnli l Iiicrm v niniiiic.
Nicrni l hp kim ca N i v Cr (i khi c c Fe Iia) v vi lng cacbon rt
thp. c t chc plia. Loi hp kiin ny c c t.iih th p nhng chu c
nliit. cao. thng ic dng lm (ly in tr.
Nim niv l h|) kim bn nng tt. gni bii nguyn t N i-C r-T i-A l (khong 20%
Cr, 1%A1. 2%Ti. cn li l Ni), c k lii\i l Ni77Cr20Ti2Al. y l loi hp kin i
ha bn tit pha phn tn. sau khi t.i (1 lO nO -llnO T v ha gi 700-70"C. t
chc gin + y' ( trong d l diiiig fl('h rnJ '; N : t:in Cr. Ti. AI c miig lp
pling din tm nh austeuit. cn y' l cc pluiii t. rn siii nh ctc tit, ra trong
q\ia trn h lia gi c tc dng ha bn y. Iiii mmg t.ip tc ln trn 80"c th y' s
chuyn thnh . tng ng vi cng t hc Ni iTi v mt. tc dng ha bn). N\i hp
kim ha niniiiic bng B. Ce. w , Mo. (o. ... s tny lnh bn nng ca n ln rt
nhin. Chng ctc ng diig ch t.ci cac c\ tit lm vic nliit. cao trong
cac dng c phii lc, tucbiii kli, ...
Ngy Iiay k th ii t ch to tn la. t\i vv tr v cac my bay Ru ii c bit
ch n cc kim loi kh chy v hp kim ca chng. M t s b phn trong cc
thit. b k trn phi chu \c Iihit c 1600- 2000"C. tc l vt qu nhit
nng chy ca Fe. Ni. Trong cc trng hp ny ch c th ding hp kim kh chy
trn C s Cr (T,,,= 1850'C), Mo (T,=2600'C). w (r,-3 41 0" C).
Hp kim bn nng trn c s Cr c th lm vic nhit, (l cao ti 1100" c (di
hn) v ti lOO" c (ngn hn), do Cr c nhit kt tinh li cao ti 800"C.
Hdp kiin bn nng trn c s Mo c th lm vic lu di lOO" c.
Hp kim bn nng trn c s w c th lm vic lii ili 2000-200" c.
H in nay ngi ta ch nliiu n cr. vt. liu chu Iiliit trn c R ca cc
hp cht kh chy nh cacbit, n itrit. oxyt. borit. ... l lo.i vt liu giii. c
trn h by trong chng 9.
32 C h ng 7. THP V GANG
7.6.4. HP k i m c i n t r l n ( l m B I N t r , d y T
NNG CC LO I)
Trong cng nghip dng hai loi hp kim in tr, l fechral v Iiicrm,
thnh phn ha hc ca chng ic nu trong bng 7.20.
Pcchral l hp kim trn c s Fe-C r-A l. vi cc mc Fe82Crl3A14,
Fe77Crl7A15, Fe69Cr25A15. Do liig cacbon r t thp (khng quc 0.15%) Iin
khng gi l thp. Hp k iin c t chc l dung dch rn ca Fe ha tan Cr. Al, c
mng lp phng th tm (ferit) v khng c chuyn bin th hnh k h i nung.
Fechral c lu im l tn h n iih nng cao. in tr s ii t ln v kh r. nhing
Iihc im l do dai thp nn kh cn, ko th n h t ii, dy hn so vi nicrin.
Bng 7.20. Thnh phn ha hc v dc tnh ca mt s hp kim c in tr ln
Tn Thnh phn cc nguyn t, % p a ^max>

hp kim c Si Mn Cr Ni AI c
Pechral:
Fe82Cr13AI4 <0,15 ^ 0. 1 <0.7 12-15 < 0,6 3.5-5,5 1,26 5.10'^ 1000
Fe77Cr17AI5 <0,12 <0.2 < 0,7 16-19 < 0.6 4,5-6.0 1,30 1 .1 0 ^ 1000
Fe70Cr25A15 <0.12 <0,2 <07 23-27 < 0,6 4,5-6.5 1,40 1150
Nicrm:
Ni80Cr20 <0,15 0.4-1,3 < 0.7 20-23 75-78 < 0,2 1 . 11 1100
Ni60Cr15Fe22 <0,15 0.4-1,3 < 1.5 15-18 55-61 < 0.2 1,10 2 .1 0 ^ 1050
Ghi ch:
- p l in tr sut 20" c, n v o l .mmVm,
- (X l h s'nhit ca in tr, n V o l 2.mm^/m."c,
- r,;,x l nhit lm vic gii hn, " c,
Ncrm l hp kim ciia N i v Cr (v Fe), vi cc s' hin Ni80Cr20.

Ni60Crl5Fe22. T chc ca n l dung dch rn ca N i ha ta n Cr (v Fe), c
mng lp phng din tm ca N i nn r t do dai. d cn. ko th n h tm , dy in
tr. c dng r t rng r i trong cc l nung cng nghip cng n h i cc l th
nghim, bp in, bn l in, my sy cc loi. ... Nhic im ch yu ca Iiicr iii
l t v cha nh iii Ni.
7.6.5. H P K IM C T N H G I N N N H I T V N H l C B I T
7.6.5.1. Hp kim c tnh gn n nhit c bit

Cc hp kim c tn h gin n c bit u tr n c s Fe-N i. H s' g i ii n nhit
ca cc hp kim h Fe-N i bin i theo iig cong phc tp nh trn h by trn
hnh 7.17. T c th thy h s a ca Fe l 11,6.10'^ n u thiTi vo 2%Ni gi
tr a tng lu gp i (a = 21. 10'^). cn nu thm vo 36%Ni gi t r a l i gim i 8
ln (a = 1,5.
VT LIU HC 33
Bng 7!.21 .Thnh phn ha hc v cc c tnh ca mt s hp kim

c tnh gin n c bit
Tn K Thnh 3hn cc nguyn t' % Tinh cht nhit

hp kim hiu Ni Co Cu Fe (X .10 6 Khong T,c
Invar Fe64Ni36 35.0-37,0 cn 1.5 -60 n + 1 0 0
Superinvar Fe64Ni32Co4 31.5-33.0 3.2-4.2 0 ,6 - 0.8 lai 1.0 -60 - + 100
Covarl Fe53Ni29Co8 28.5-29.5 17.0-18,0 4,5-6 -70 - +420

Covar2 Fe50Ni33Co7 32.5-33,5 16,5-17,5 6-9 -70 - +470
Platinit Fe48Ni47Cu5 46.0-48,0 4,5-5,5 9-11 -70 - +440
Ghi ch: a l h s'gin n nhit, n v o l "C ' (hoc K ')
Bng 7.21 trn h by th n h phn ha lic v cc c tnh gin n nhit ca mt

s hp k iin diri hih, gm my loi chnh sau:
N hi in v a r superinvar: Iiiv a r (c ngha l khng thay i) c thnh phn
36%Ni + 64%Fe v c a - l, . lO 'V "C nh nu trn. S iipe riiivar c thnh phn
32%Ni + 4%Co + 64%Fe vi a cn nh lu n ca iiiv a r (a^l.O.lO'*^/ C).
y l cc hp k im c h s gin
n n h i t r t nh, c th coi Iih khng
thay i kch thc tron g khong
nhit, t -70 c n +100" c . l i c
c tnh, tn h cng ngh v tn h chng
n inn t't, nn c dng rng ri
liu cc chi ti t yu cu chnh
xc gn nh\f tiiy t i tron g iu kin
cao ng n h i t ca mi trng kh
quyn.
Nhm coar v p la tin it: Nhng
loi hp k in i thuc n li n i ny dng e
gn. hu. nh V(i thy tinh, do
0 20 40 60 80 100
chng c h s gi 11 II n h i t bng ca /00% Fe oN!
th y tin h . Covar 1 c th n h phn
29%Ni + 18%Co + 3%Fe, c a = (4.- Hnh 7,17. H s gin n nhit ca cc hp
6.).10''V C, bng a ca tl iy tinh kim Fe-Ni nhit thng
chu nhit.
Covar 2 c th n h phn 33%Ni + 17%Co + O%Fe, c a - (6-9).107 "c. bng a
cia s cch in.
P la tin it c th n h phn (46-48)%Ni + %Cu + (47-49)%Fe, c a = ( 9 - ll) .1 0 ^7 c
bng a ca th y tin h thng (loi khng chu nhit). Ch p la tin it c Iigha l ging
p la tin v phng din gin n nhit.
Cc loi covar v p la tin it c dng rng ri trong cng nghip ch to bng
n in v in t, cc b phii kiin loi hi) gn vi th iy tinh, s.
23 - VLH
7.6.5.2. Hp kim c tnh n hi c bit

Nh bit, mouii n hi (E, G) ca k im loi ii gim kh i n h i t tng.
Trong kh i moduii n hi ca int s' hp k im tr n cd s F e -N i h ii n lu khng
thay i kh i nhit thay i (trong phm v i AT vo ), l cc lin va r (c ngha
l n hi khng thay i). Chng ic dng ch to cc chi tit, n hi (l xo.
nhp cc Ini) ca cc kh c v c cu chnh xc, nh m thoa, dy tc ng h. ...
Bng 7.22 trn h by th nh phn ha hc v n h i t lm vic gii hn ca mt s
linvar.
Bng 7.22. Thnh phn ha hc v nhit d lm vic ca mt s linvar
Elinvar Thnh phn cac nguyn t'. % ' max

Ni Cr Co(Mn) Ti AI Mo
1 35.0-37,0 11,5-13,5 (0.8-1,2) 2.7-3,2 0.9-1.2 4.0-5.0 100
2 41.5-43,5 5.3- 5,9 2.4-3,0 0,5-1.0 100
3 43.5-45,5 5.0- 5.6 2.2-2.7 0.4-0.8 200
4 15.0-17,0 19.0-21,0 39 -41 6.4-7,4 400
{1.8-2,2)
Cc linvar c h s" nh i t ca modiin n hi r t nh (18-23). 10 *7 "c. tc

10 ln nh hn ca thp cacbon v 20 ln nh hii ca thp austenit.
m bo tn h n hi ln v n mh. cc lin va r itc ti v ha gi nhit,
600-70C. Chng c cung cp dng l mng (0,1-0.20) nim, hoc dy c
ng knh (0.3-0,)nim.
7.6.6, T H P V H P K IM T T N H
7.6.6.1. Thp v hp kim t cng

V t liu t cng dng lm nam chm v n h cu. Yu cu c bn ca v t liu
t cng l c lc kh t ln, nng lng t (J5.T),;,X cao v tn th t t tr cao
(vng t tr "bo"). T t c cc yu t^ gy ra x lch mng u c tc dng lm tng
H,. v cng l cc yu t lm tng cng ca thp v hp k in i, do vy c t ii l
"t cng".
Trong thc t thng dng cc loi vt liu t cng sau:
- Thp cacbon, vi cc mc CD100-CD120, sau k h i ti t c t chc
niactenxit. chng c - 48-52 kA/ni. B , - 0,8-0,85 T;
- Thp hp kim . thng dng cc thp Cr, C r-W , Cr-Co, ... V d thp Cr-Co,
vi (-9)%Cr, (5-l)%Co, sau kh i nhit hiyn thch hp, c th t - 90-10
kA/m. 0,8-0,85 T;
- Hp kim t cng h F e -N i-A l (aliii), F e -N i-A l-C o (aliiico).
Dy l cc h hp k im t cng thng gp trong thc t (chng chim ti trn
80% s^ ling Iiam chm vn h cii cng Iighip). K li c vi cc thp t ciig dng
trng th i bin dng (rn), cc hp kim h a liii v alnico ic dng tr n g thi ik
VT LIU HC 35
(do n gin, khng rn ic) v qua mt q\i trin h nhit luyn c bit trong t
trng; imiig ti 1300" c ri lm ngui V I tc : 10-20"c/s trong t triig mnh
2000-3000 kA /ni. trong qu trn h lni ngui c SI tit pha st. t phn tn c nh
hng.
N\i ngay t khu c c kt tinh cln Inng cc ht tin h th sp xp
theo hing c li n h t cho vic t ha th hp ki 111 s c cc c tnh t cao hn
na.
Bng 7.23 trn h by th nh phn ha hc v tnh cht, t ca mt. s' hp kim t
ciio tluic cc n li iii khc nhaii.
Bng 7^23. Thnh phn ha h c v cc tinh cht t ca mt s hp kim

t cng thng dng
Tn Thnh phn cc nguyn t. % Tinh cht t

hp kim Ni AI Co Cu nguyn t' khc /-/.kA/m Bf,T
Hp kim c:
Alni 24,0-25,0 13,0-14,0 3.0-4.0 0,2-0,3Ti 500 0,95
Alnico
1 18.0-19,0 8.5-9,5 14.0-15.0 3.0-4,0 0.2-0.3T 600 0,75
2 13.5-14,5 7,5-8.5 23.5-24,5 2.5-3,5 600 1.25
3 13.5-14,5 8,0-8.5 24 0-26,0 3.5-4,0 > 0,03Ti 650 1 33
4 13.5-14,5 8,0-8.5 24.0-26,0 3.54,0 J 0,03Ti 720 1,30
0,8-1,ONb
14.0-14,5 6,8- 7.2 34.5-35,5 3.3-3,7 4,7-5,0Ti 1900 0,75
0,05-0,1 Ce
Hp kim bin dng:
Vicalloi 51,0-53,0 11,0-13,0V 500 1.00
<4Cr
Hp kim bt:
Ferit BaFei2,9 2500 0,50
Vt liu vi tinh th, v nh hnh:
NdPeB Nd,Fe,,B 9500 1,60
Trong cng Iig lii p cn gp cc hp kim t cng bin dng, trn c s Fe-Co-Mo
(coiiiol). C u -N i-C o (cunico). Fe-V-Co (vicalloi), Fe-Cr-Co. ...Chng c cn thnh
cc bng l, tni. dy c chiu dy v ng knh khc nhau, (i khi r t iniig. vi
chin dy ch vi i-un). V d. hp k im vicalloi vi 2%Co. 13%v, 3%Cr, cn l Fe, c
500 kA /in. IT .
Ngoi ra CII c hp kim t cng dng bt p v thiii kt. (hoc bt t r i u
trong nn cht do). V d nh loi ferit t cig trn c s st oxyt v bary oxyt.
hay stronxy oxyt, c th nh phn tng ng vi cng thc BaPeiÔ, hoc
SrPeivOi.). Hoc loi hp k im t cng trn c s st c cha bo, neodyii, c thnh
phn tng ng vi cng thc Nd-^Pei iB. c th sn Kut. bng plutng php ngui
n lia iih t hp k im lng, to th iili cc bang, l rt. mng (thuc nhm v t liu vi
tin h th. v nh hnh), c H,.. Br v rt. cao.
356 __________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
7.6.6.2. Thp v hp kim t mm

Vt liu t mm dng lm li my bin p, stator my in, nam chm in
cc loi. ...Yu cii c bn ca v t liu t mm phi c lc kh t H r nh, kh nng
t ha cao ( t thm |I ln), tn th t t tr nh. tc vng t tr "gy". Do lip
kim phi trng th i cn bng nht (trng th i ), t c yu t' gy x lch mng
nht v ht ln, cng chnh l nhng yii t' lm thp v hp k im tr nii min
do. do vy c gi l t "mm". Cc v t liu t mm thing gp l;
St nguyn cht k thut: Phi chn loi cha cng t tp cht cng tt,;
% c < 0,04, tng lng tp cht nh hn 0.6% ( giiti n mc t. a cc yii t
gy x lch mng ca Fe). Mun c h t ln phi eni bin dng vi mc ti
hn (2-8%), ri i kt tin h li. Loi ny c - 80- 350 A/m , |i = (0.064-0,32). 10 *
Tm/A. Nhc im ch yu ca Fe k th ii t l in tr qu nh (p = 0 , in in m ^/iti)
nn dng Fuc (dng in xoy) lii. gy ra tn th t ln v n iig lng (mt. phn
in nng bin thnh n h i t nng lm nng my v k h c), nn ch dng cho cc
th i t b c dng in mt chiu hay dng in xung nh.
Thp k thut in (thp S i hay tn S): Loi ny ic s dng ch yii tro iig
cng nghip, lm nam chm in, li my bin p, sta to r my in, ...Liig
cacbon trong gii hn 0,01-0,1% v cc tp cht cng phi hn ch bo ni t
chc ferit. Nguyn t" hp kim ch y\i l Si (nguyn t m rng vng a), k lii ha
tan vo ferit, n nng cao in tr ch pha ny (p = 0,55-0,60 Qmm^/m), lm gim
tn th^t Fuc, ngoi ra Si cn c tc dng tng t thm a v gim lc kh t
gi t r cm ng t bo ha ln >1,6-1,7T). Thng l iig Si khng vit qu 4%
(nu cao qu lm thp gin).
lm li my bin p, stato my in c th d iiig thp vi lng Si gii hn
trn (3,8-4.4)%Si, v y l cc chi ti t tn h , khng 5b ph hy gin.
e lm cc chi ti t my ng nh phn ng v cc cc ca m y in, phi
dng thp vi liig Si thp hu (2-3)%Si bo ni bn ng (do quay), thp r
hn, mm d dp hn, nhng tn th t nng hng cao hn. Trong k th ii t ch to
my bin p, k h i s dng loi thp c te x tiia phi chn sao cho ph i iig cn tr n g
vi ng trc ca li my bin p. s gim n h i ii tn th t ring, do c th gim
trng lng v kch thc my (t 20-40% trn g hiig my).
Hp kim c t thm ban u cao (h}} k im pcrmaloi)-, Cc perm aloi c in
c thnh phn 78%Ni; 21,5%Fe; cn l tp cht M n, Si. tn g in tr (gim tn
th t Fuc), c th hp k im ha bng Mo, Cr, M n. Cu. Perm aloi t t n h t c thnh
phn 79%Ni, 4%Mo. cn l i l Fe, c t th m ban u = 2.2 .lO ^ T m /A v
= 15.10-'Tm/A.
Cc permaloi c dng rng r i trong cng nghip v ngoi cc tn h cht t
cao. chng cn c tnh gia cng ct v dp tng ti d, iln iig l ii l ng sut d
(sau gia cng c) lm xu t tn h ca hp kim , do vy sau k h i gia cng c cn em
li v trong qu tr ih lp rp phi tr n h va p.
Ciig vi permaloi, cn c th s dng cc hp k im F e -A l-S i (alsifer) kli iig
cha cc kim loi t tin, l i c r t cao ( 35. 1 0 ''Tin/A). lc kh t nh. in
tr ln v tn th t t tr nh hn c. N h in g hp kim ny gin, ch c th dng
trng thi c (dng v t c iih h iih th n h mng).
VT LIU HC________________________________________________________________ 357
7.6.6.3. Thp khng t tnh

Trong thc t nhiu k h i cn v t liu khng nhim t, nhng li c cd tnh tt.
phi dng thp khng t tn h th a y cho hp kim mu (Cu. Al). l cc loi thp
c t chc austenit. v d Iih nhm thp khng g Cr-Ni h 18.8. thp chng mi
mn H a tfin d, ... nhng cc loi ny hoc l t, hoc l kh gia cng.
Trong thc t th \ iig gp l cc loi thp (tic hp kiin ha biig Mn. Cr. Al.
Mo, ... v cha t Ni, vi l iig cacbon tning biih, bo ni t chc hon ton
austeiiit. nh cc s'hiu 5M n9N i9C r3. 4Miil7A13. ...
7.6.7. H P K IM N H H N H
C int s" hp k im c bit, v d trn cd s Fe-Ni, Fe-Ni-Co, Fe-Mn,

Cu-Zn. ... vi th n h phn xc nh c hiu ng "nh hiili" nh chuyn pha thun
nghch a iis te n it m a c te iix it do tc dng ca Iihit hoc ngoi lc.
K lii s thay i hnh dng b cn tr, bn thn hp kim s sinh ra lic v nh
vy cling c ng dng n lii nhng ci km kp cht hoc b phn iu khin t
ng theo kiu ng m cva hoc b t t t n. ...
Hiu ng nh h iih c th c phn lin ba loi ;
Loi kiu n.g. m t chiu: Hp k im saii khi ti thnh m actenxit s n ra, kh i
nung nng tr l i tro n g phm v i AT no s nh li hnh dng ban u (trc khi
ti) lm n co li, do chuyn bin Iigc niactenxit austenit. Hiu ng gi do
Iiy idc ng dng, v d lm cc vng kp cht, ni cc u iig cng li vi
nhau (theo ki u mngxng).
Loi hiu ng h a i chiu: Hp k im c hiii dng Iihiii ln theo hai chiu
ngc nhan (iih th tp luyn nhiu ln clio quen) ng vi hai qu trn h nung
nng v lm ngui tron g phm v i AT no . (l cho hp kim nh hnh dng ca
inuh. Sau ct, m i k h i Iiiiiig niig hay lm iifui trong plim vi AT cho trc ,
hp kim s th a y i hnh dng theo s "tp luyii" trc , nh chuyn bin thu ii
nghch n\actenxit austenit.
Loi c hiu ng g i n hi: K lii tng dn ngoi lc. hp kim b bin dng,
ban ii l biu dng u hi tuyn tn h , tip n l bii dng n hi phi tuyn
km cliuyn pha a u ste n it -> m actenxit, nhng bin dng ny s m t i hon ton
sau k h i b n g o i lc. H i u n g k i u cao sii ny th y r k h i St th a y ci h n h dng l
ng k m lc bn ngoi th a y i t.
Cc hin ng nu tr n ic m t mc 4.4 v hiih 4.20. Tng ng vi 3 loi
hiu ng trn, ngi ta ch to cc loi hp kim c kh Iiiig t i to h iih dng (nh
hnh) sau:
- Loi hp k im c hiu ng "iih hnh" mt chiu: Iili ngoi lc. xy ra chuyn
bin a iis te n it m a c te iix it (khi a > M^) lni mu b biii dng, in ii ii mu tr li
h iih dng ban u ch vic Iiiiiig mu qua vuiig nhit - Af xy ra chuyn
bin m actenxit -> austenit.
- Loi hp k im c hiu ng gi n hi; khi > M^. xy ra s gin di do
chuyn biii au steiiit > m actenxit. khi ngoi lc giii. vi < A.S niii s co li
358__________________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
trng th i ban u, do xy ra chuyn bin m a cte iixit a u ste iiit, m khng cu c

tc dng ca Iihit .
- Loi hp kim c hi\i iig "nli hnh" ha i chiii; khng cn tc dng ca ngoi
lc. ch nh tc dng ca nh i t , to ra vng bin dng tr Glii tng n h i t , xy
ra chuyn bin m actenxit -> austenit, lm m b co li; k h i gim n h i t , xy ra
chuyn bin ngc austeiiit inactenxit, l n i in ii b gin di ra, n ln tiig theo
iiig cong khc, to ra vng tr, ging nh h i ii tng t tr).
Lc tc diing ca s nh hnh c nguyn nhn n h i t ng v c hc.S chuyn
i thun nghch aiisten it <-> Iiiactenxit xy ra khng nh khuch tn, do vy n c
lu im l khng b hn ch s ng diig trong vin g n h i t thp, nlung c
nhc iin l s thay i th tch t, nn li.c km theo khng ln v hn ch kh
Iing ng dng ca n. v m t ny, cc hp k im tr n c s Fe c nhiu ii vit, hii
so vi nhng hp kim trn c s Cu-Zn, C u -Z ii-A l hoc N i-T i.
H iii nay nit vi hp kim nh h iih trn c s Fe-N i-C o. Fe-M n, v d Iilu hp
kim; 30%Ni + 10%Co + 4%Ti, cn l i l Fe; hoc hp kim 30%Mn + l% S i. cn l i l
Fe ang ic nghin cii c th dch chuyn phm v i n h i t ng dng theo
nuiii. Bng cch cho tli m Al. Si v T i s to ra s ha bn ti t pha. cn tr
chuyn bin austenit m actenxit kh i lm Iigii i, lm cho cc tm m actenxit tr
nn nh n iii hn v Ii iig liig n hi tch lu clio vic tr l i tr n g th i a u s te iiit
ln hn, chuyn bin s xy ra vng n h i t th p hn, ph hp hn vi nhng
ng dng trong thc t. Trong hp k iin u, n iacten xit c cu to n i iig lp
phng, cn tro iig lip kim th hai, m actenxit c cu to m ng lc gic
(mactenxit e).
Vic nghin cu tip tc nhm t c cc mc tiu chnh sau:
- To c vng bin dng tr ln hn trong cc hp k im c hiu ng hai chiii
vi vug nhit ng dng hp thch hp;
- To c bn c hc cao hn c th to lc iu khin ln hn;
- C bn mi cao v gim s xuiig cp ca hiu ug nh h iih.
M t vi v d ng dng ca hp k in i nh h iih m cc t i li ii nu l:
- Loi hiu ng mt chiu: klip III iig (kiu m iigxng, cn bn v kn), cc
loi inh tn, kp, ch ni dy in, dng q u ii o,
- Loi hiu ng hai chiu: b iu chnh kiu van x, t ng b t v t t n,
cc loi tay my. ti ng ng m ca s nh kn h (trng cy c. rau qii n h i t i
cc x lnh),
- Loi hiu iiiig gi n hi gng knh : kp rng, cc zoiig kn. b ha li i p
lc cao, ...
7.7. s L c V THP NIT

N li bit, tro iig thp cacbon hoc thp hp k im thng thng, n it gn nh
khng c m t hoc b coi l tp cht n (v lng cha r t nh, kh xc iih v
thng b b qua). Nhng pht tri n gn y trong liih vc nghin cu v tli p
mt s nc cng nghip pht trin, x u t hin m t h thp mi vi litng Iiit
VT LIU HC____________________________________ ___________________________ 3 ^
cao (HNS v i t t t t cm t ting Anh High Nitrogen Steel) m ta gi t t l thp

llit,
X \i t p h t im cia n h n g nghin cu ny l ch gia nit v cacbon c
nhiu im tng ng (v hn th na c nhng m t Iiit cn tr i hn so vi
cacboii, s ni sau).
M t v i s" liu so snh gia cacboii v nit nlnt sau:
c N
- S' th t tro n g biig tu n hon; 6 7
- ing kn h nguyn t (nm); 0,170 0.170
- K li nng ha tan tron g thp lng (% trng hng): 4.3 0,044
- K li nng ha ta n trong a-Fe (%triig lng): 0 0
- K li nng ha ta n trong y-Fe (%trng hiig): 2.14 2,80
- K li nng lin k t vi k im loi: to cacbit to I iit r it
N lu vy ngoi tr kh nng ha tan ca Iiit vo thp lng thp, cn cc ch
tiu khc l t\ng ing. ngoi ra inacteiixit c liay N cng khng c g khc nhau.
Do vy ngi ta hon ton c c s a nit vo thp thay th mt phn hoc
thay th hon ton cacbon. V'ii l ch lm th no ia Iiit vo thp.
7.7.1. CC PHNG PH P CH TO THP NIT

Do kh n n g ha t a n ca N vo thp lng trong iu kin p s u t kh quyn
r't thp nn khng th n'u hiyn thp nit trong iu kin biih thng nhi nii
luyn thp cacboii, m phi p dng cc phng php c bit sau:
N u luyn l i bng phng php d in -xi di p sut cao (PESR, vit t t t
ting A nh Pressurized Electro-Slag Reinelting). Phitiig php nu luyn l i bng
in-xi l m t tro n g cc phirng php tin li hivn tlp, ( y ch khc l dng xi
cha n it n h u SiiN.i v di p s ii t kh mt khng thp hn 42 bar. Bng phng
php ny c th ch to c Iihng t.hi thp Iiit cao nng ti 20 tn.
Phng php luyn k im bt (PM, vit t t t ting A iih Powder M etallurgy):
Thp lng c phun tron g k h A r to bt vi ht nh hn 100fi.m, sau em
trn vi bt C rN , qua h t chn khng v p tnh (hri p sut cao v thiu kt
1200c . s xy ra phn ng:
2 C r N ^ Cr,N + N. (7.8)
N it nguyn t s th m vo thp v c th ti cng.
Phng php th m n it (CH, vit t t t ting Anh Case Hardeniiig): Phng
phap ny ging nh th n i Iiit cho thp thng thng, p dng cho trng hp chi
ti t ch cn to lp ha bn tr n b nit vi nic ch chng g v chng mi
mn.
Do vic a Iiit vo thp khng d dng nhi ia cacboii, cho nn thp Iiitt cao
ch irc ng dng tron g nhng tr\ng hp m s c m t ca nit ein li
nhiig hiu qii r r t so vi cacbon. Di y l tin t t nhng u im ca Iiit
so vi cacboii v t tm ra ln h vc ng dng cvia thp Iiit cao :
- S c m t ca N nng cao kh nng chng n mn cho thp, nht l vi hin
tiig b n mn dng hang hc (l) Ca thp khng g h aiisten it v h mactenxit.
M t khi kim loi b n mn dng l, do cc hyroxyt kim loi khng ha tan trong
nc, Iiii trong l. l ni hay ngm nc, thng tha ion H '. lm tng a x it v
l b n mn tip. Nvi trong thp c m t N s to th iili N H '*4 lm gim liig ioii
v lm gim a x it l v do tng kh I.ng chng n mn cho thp. Do vy
N thing c a vo thp khng g li austen. t v^ h m actenxit nng cao tnh
chng n mn.
- Cc st I iit r it v n itr it hp kim c cng cao, cu to mng st cht hn so
vi xm entit v cc loi cacbit nn lp thm nit c tnh chng nii mn v chng
n mn cao hn so vi lp thm cacbon. c ng dng trong ln h vc ch to dng
c gia cng kim loi, chi ti t chu mi mn v chu n mn cao;
- Trong cc loi thp v hp kim chu nhit, nu c m t N, th saii khi ti v
ram s ti t ra pha CrN c cu to lin mng vi mactenxit, kh b kt t (ln lu)
v tng tnh bn nhit cho thp. Trong k lii cc pha cacbit khng lin mng vi
m acteiixit nn ln ln nhanh (kt t), gim kh nng lm vic nhit cao cia
thp. Do vy thp nit cao c ng dng trong lnh vc thp v hdp kim bn
nhit.
7.7.2. MT S LOI TH P NIT CAO V CNG DNG CA

CHNG
Bng 7.24 triih by thnh phn ha hc ca int s' loi thp Iiit cao c
nghin cu v ng dng C H LB c.
Nhm thp khng g austenit nit caoi Thp khng g a u ste iiit thiig gp l
nhm thp C r-N i loi 18.8, nhng do N i cn tr s ha tan ca N vo thp nn
nhm thp ny khng thch hp cho vic a nit vo.
Bng 7.24. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s thp nit cao ca CHLB c
Nhm Phng php Thnh phn cc nguyn t, %

thp sn xut c N Cr Ni Mo V Nb
Thp khng g nit cao:
A PESR 0,15 0,38 15,3 - 1,10 - -
B PESR 0.33 0.33 16,2 - 1 10 - -
c PM 0.04 1,60 15,0 - 1,00 5
D CH 0,23 15,0 - 1.00 - -
Thp chu nhit nit cao:
E PESR 0,08 0,20 10,4 0.3 1,50 0.23 0,04
F PESR 0,04 0,15 1.0 - 0.40 - -
G PESR 0,17 0 22 4.a - 1,20 0,90 -
H PESR 0,05 0,27 5,5 - 3,20 0,10 -
1 PESR 0,87 0,21 3.9 - 4,90 2,10 -
Thng N c a vo nhm thp C r-M ii nh loi 18.18. Nu p sut riiig

phn pN -2 = 1 bar th lng iV.nax = 0,5% v 0.2 = 450 MPa. Nu pN^ = 40 bar th
VT LIU HC _____________________________________________________________ 3 ^
lng = 1,2% v ,2 = 900 MPa. tc l tng gp i, cn nu em bin dng

ngui tip th c th t 0 (^2 - 200 MPa, tng gp nni ln. Ngoi ra thp hu nh
khng c nhy cm vi n mn di ng sut. Dng dy (cp) t loi thp ny c
th lm cc kt cu trong xy dng (treo, coiison, ...). trong ln h vc ch to my
in (thp khng nhim t bn cao lni vng buc ca rotor my pht in,
Nhm thp khng g mactenxit riit cao. Mt vi s hiu thp khng g
m actenxit Iiit cao c nu trong bng 7.23 trn, v d Iih s' hiu A c thnh
phii l C r-lM o -0 ,1 5 C -0 .3 5 N c bn chng n mn cao hn khong l ln so vi
tlip cacboii, thch lip ch to bi cho ng c my bay. lm dng c chu n
inii trong iu kin c HCl G p nha, dao ko m, ...).
Thp khng g m actenxit ch to bng phng php luyn kim bt. c thnh
phn l C r-lM o - N fb -l,6 N (s hiu C) hoc l C r-lM o -6 V -2 ,5 N . Lng N cao bo
m cho thp c tnh chng mi mn cao, ch to dng c chu mi mn cao.
Thp thm nit: V d nh s' hiu D c thah phn 15C r-lM o-0.2N , c
thni 110C trong 20h, sau ti ngay trong du ri ram 450 c, c th to
itc lp thm dy ti 2mm. ng dng lm bi tc cao, cn cng b nt, nhiig
li do cliu ic lc ly tm ln.
Vt liu kt hp nn kim loi (MMC, vi t t t t ting Anh M etal M a trix
Coinposite); Trong k h i trn nguyn liu to compozit nn st, thp, cho thm bt
CrN. Troiig qu trnh p v thiu kt nhit cao s xy ra phn ng phn hy
(7.8). N Iigiiyn t i vo nn kim loi v c th ti cng c. Coinpozit loi ny
cliu ini mn tt, thch hp trong cng nghip ch to dng c v cng nghip ha
cht.
Thp bn nhit n it cao: M t s thp bn nhit (chu nng) nit cao c Iii
trong bng 7.19.V d, s' hiu F c thiih phn lC r-0,4M o-0,15N th\ic loi thp
ni hi, chu nhit ti 650"c v c bn gp hai ln thp ni hi cacbon c thnh
phn hp kim tirng ng. Hoc l s hiu G c thnh phn 5Cr - lM o -lV -0 .2 N ,
c ,12 = 1500 MPa c dng lm khun l p kini loi lng (Al. Cu. v hp kim
ca n). Thp c thnh phn 12Cr-lM o-0,3V-0.1C-0.2N c dng lm cnh
Uicbiii hi, iig qua Iiuiig, ... c bn nhit 600c cao hn khong hai ln so vi
thp khng cha nit tng ng.
7.8. CC LOI GANG
7.8.1. C I m c h u n g c a g a n g
Gang l hp kim Fe - c vi lng c ln hn 2.14 %. Thc t, trong gang lun c

cc nguyn t khc nh Si, Mn, p v s. Gang thng dng thng cha; 2.0-4,0 %C;
0.4 - 3,0 %Si; 0.2 - 1,5 %Mn; 0,04 - 0.6 %P; 0,02 - 0.15 %s.
lln nghin cu s h iih thnh t chc ca gang, c th dng gin pha Fe-C
(s dng gin pha Fe - Gr cho gang xm v Fe - Fe.'iC cho gang trng). V ngoi
Fe v c ra, trong gang cu cha nhiu nguyn t khc na. c bit l Si. nn
nghin cu s h iih thnh t chc ca gang nht thit phi kho st gin pha ba
cu t Fe - c - Si. Cc m t ct ng ca gin ny vi cc lng Si khc Iih a ii

mt ct ng c nu trn hnh 7.18.
-^L y

+3
' o t + 6
1,0 2,0 3,0 ,0

6.0% Si
Hnh 7.18. Mt ct ng h cn bng gin pha Fe-C-Si vi %Si khc nhau
Cc mt ct nu cho th y Si l uguyn t th u hp vng Y (h thp ng A.

v niig cao iig A 3). K lii lng Si ln hn 8 % th vng y thc t khng cn tn
t i na. Si cn to ra khong nhit cho vng ba pha (a + y + gr) nm ngay st
trn ng A\, lm cho gang r t d graphit ha k h i chuyn bin cng tch, nhng
lm phc tp cho qu tr iih n h i t luyn gang sau ny.
n h an h chng p h n on t chc ca gang khi k t tin h cng tin h v c th
s dng gin trng th i Fe - c cho n gin, ngi ta dng kh i nim cacbon
ng lng (C,11,%) v mc cng tin h (5k):
1
Cdi = c + ------ (S i + P ) . (7.8)
3
Cc
(7.9)
4.3
trong c, Si. p l hm lng (%) cacboii, silic v photpho c trong gang.
c trng ni bt n h t trong t chc t v i ca gang l cha l b u rit trong h
n nh gi v gra ph it trong h n mh. S h iih th n h cc t chc ny l hu qu
ca s kt tin h ln th nh't (t lng sang rn), c b i t l s k t tin h cng tinh,
quyt iih. K h i kt tin h theo h n iih gi, ta c gang trng, hu h t cacbon
nm dng lin kt trong hp cht PeaC. Nu gang kt tin h theo h n iih ta
c gang xm, y phn ln cacbon nm dng graphit.
So vi thp, do c graphit. gang c bn thp nhng l i r, d sn x u t v li
c mt s tnh cht c bit nh tnh gim chn tt, chii xiin g n h i t tt, chu ini
mn trong iu kin bi tr n khng y . c tn h c r t tt nn c s ng
r t rng r i trong cng nghip.
VT LIU HC 363
7.8.2. S H N H T H N H G R A P H IT TRONG GANG
7.8.2.1. Cc dng graphit

G ra p h it trong gang c th tn t i cc diig khc nhau. H ili 7.19 gii thii
cac dng g ra p liit c bn.
Hnh 7.19. Cc dang grapht trong gang Hinh 7.20 Dng khng gian ca graphit tm
cng tinh ngui chm
G ra p h it t'm (dng I) l g ra p h it thng gp nht trong gang. Dng khng gian
ca u c Ihe hin tr n h iih 7.20.
G ra p h it tm phn nhnh v chia ct rt mnh ht cng tinh, cc mp ca n
thiig nhn v l ni tp tru n g ng sut khi c ti trng tc dng. Trn m t ct
dii knh hin vi. g ra p h it t m c hiih phin nh nhn, nm phn cch vi nhau.
V th gaiig xm c tn h cht c hc th'p nhng li c tn li cht l hc. c bit l
tnh c r t tt. T y theo th n h phn ca gang v iu kin ngui, graphit tm
cn ic phn lm nm loi: A. B, c, D v E. Cc dng graphit ny c th hin
trn hm h 7.21.
Dng A n h if h n h 7.21 l dng ph bin, ph hp v thiig gp gang xm
Iigui chm. Cc dng g ra p h it B v c do th to ina lm x ii tnh cht c hc ciia
gang. G ra p h it qu ngui D, E khng pht huy c u im ca graphit, l i thc
y qii trn h ph ii h y a iis te n it thnh fe rit khi chuyn bin cng tch nn l
nhng dng khng mong mun v ch thch hp trong mt s tn iig hp s dng
c bit.
G ra p h it cu (dng V I) l dng graphit ph bin trong gang bn cao (gang cu)
nh bin tn h gang lng biig cc cht cu ha grapliit nh Mg, Ce v cc nguyn
t t him khc. N li g ra p h it dng cu l dng chia ct t nht nn k iin loi nn
chng t b tp tru n g ng sut k h i c ti trng tc dng. V vy, gang cn c c tnh
cao gii bng thp.
G raphit giun (dng I I I ) l dng tru n g gian gia g ra p h it t m v g ra p h it cu v

l dng ph bin trong gang giun. Dng g ra p h it ny c hnh th n h nh bin tnh
gang lng bng lng nh cc nguyn t cu ha g ra p h it n h ir Mg, Ce v cc nguyn
t t him hoc bin tn h phi hp cc nguyn t" cu ha g ra p h it vi cc nguyn
t kh cu nh Ti, AI, ... Dng khng gian ca g ra p h it giun c th hin tr n hnh
7.22, G raphit giun cng phn nhnh mnh tron g h t cng tin h nh\ng cc nip v
iih u t v trn nn phi hp cc tn h cht c hc t t ca gang cii v tiih c
cng nh tnh cht l hc t t ca gang xm.
VT LIU HC 36
G ra p h it qu bng (dng V) l graphit dng cm v tn ti ph bin trong

gang do.
Cc dng v cc cp ( in ii) ca graphit tni v cu c th xem trong TCVN
3902-84.
7.8.2.2. Qu trnh graphit ha ca gang khi kt tinh

KJii so snh nng lng t do ca gang lng vi nng lng t do ca hn hp
(7 + Xe) v (y + gr) theo n h i t (hnh 7.23) cho thy ; nng liig t do ca graphit
lun nh hn nng lng t do ca xnientit trong mi khong nhit . V mt
ny. g ra p h it l pha n nh nht. Nling cng to niii ca xm entit l i nh hn
ca g ra p h it r t nhiu v th n h phn v cii trc ciia xm entit r t gn vi gang
lng. V vy. g ra p h it c th trc tip .tit, ra t pha lng hoc phn hy t
xinentit.
Hnh 7.22. Dang khng gian ca graphit giun Hinh 7.23. S thay i nng lng t do ca
gang lng v hn hp (y + X), (y + gr)
theo nhit
c im ca gang xm k h i kt tinh l c plin ng cmg tinh. Ngoi ra, pha
ti t ra u ti u i vi gang trc cng tinh l austenit cn sau cng tiu li l
graphit. Cng tin h au ste n it v gra ph it c to ra trong khong nhit tng 'i
hp. t 113C n 1147"c. T rng thi ha l ca gang lng cng nh iu kin
Iigui c nh hiig trc tip ti qu ngui ca gang.
thc y qu tr iih g ra p h it ha ca gang khi kt tinh, c th s dng mt s
bin php sau :
- a vo th n h phn ca gang cc nguyn t thc y qu triih graphit ha
(c gi l nguyn t' g ra p h it ha) nh Si, Al. Ni. Cii, Co , ... v hn ch cc
nguyn t' ngn cn qu trm h g ra ph it ha (cc nguyn t' cacbit ha) nh Mn. Mo,
s. Cr. V ...... Nu ly h s g ra p h it ha ca Si l +1 th mc nh hng ca cc
nguyn t' khc nh san:
Nguyn t : Si AI Ti Ni Cu M ii Mo s Cr V
H s g ra p h it ha ;+1 -t-O. +0.4 +0,35 +0.2 -0,25 -0,3 -1,0 -1.0 -2.0
y. dii + l thc y qu trn h graphit ha,

d\i - l cn tr qu trn h graphit ha.
- Lm gaiig ngui chm trong khong chuyn bin cng tinh:
- Bin tnh gang lng bng cc nguyn t" thc y s to mni graphit lioc
to ra vi chng cc oxyt, I iit r it c tc dng lm tm mm kt tin h graphit nlu
fero - silic. silico - caiixi,
- Kling nn qu nhit gang lng qii cao lm m t i cc tm mm kt tinh
graphit do chng ha tan vo gang hoc ni ln b m t gang lng.
Kt qu ca q\i triih graphit ha l h iih thnh trong gang graphit c th
dng r. khc Iihau n lii c nu trn. Dng graphit ic to ra ng vai tr
quyt iih ti tnh cht ca gang. S to ra cc dng graphit khc Iih a ii l do
thnh phn ca gang, iu kin ngui v c bit l qu trn h bin tnh quyt
nh.
C ch h iih thnh cc dng graphit tm. giiin v c\i c in t trn hnh
7.24.
o)
Hnh 7.24. C ch hinh thnh cc dng graphit khc nhau;
a) giai on u; b) giai on trung gian; c) giai on cui ca s kt tinh
K lii kt tin h cng tinh, graphit (gr) ic ti t ra chi yu t pha lng (L).
gang xm. k h i pht trin, graphit t'm b austenit (A) bao bc khng hon toii.
u graphit hiii tip xc vi pha lng v kt tin h di ra cho n lc kt thc qii
trn h kt tinh. 0 gang cu, gra ph it b austenit bao bc hon ton. Sii pht trin
ca g ra p liit thng qua qii trn h khuch tn ca cacbon t pha lng qiia aiistenit
ti mm graphit. Cn gang giun, s kt tin h ca graphit nm v tr triin g gian;
lc u chng tip xc vi pha lng nh knh dn lng, ti thi im nht nh,
graphit b austenit bao bc hoii ton, s kt tiiih tip theo nh qu triih khuch
tn cacboii t pha lng vo gra ph it tng t nh trong trng hp gang cii.
Do s pht tri n ca graphit tm ch yii theo hitiig thng gc vi b mt.
lng tr ca tin h th graphit, nn trng th i rn s tip xc ca a \is te iiit vi
graphit ch yu thng qua m t c s ca graphit. 0 gang cu. sif pht tri n ca
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________________ ^
tin h th graphit ch yii theo liiiig tli iig gc vi mt c s ca graphit. cng l

mt tip xc vi austenit. Nh cc vng lch xon trn b m t graphit cu ni cn
c thm nhiu m t lng tr ca n tip xc vi austenit. Trong gang giun, graphit
pht tri n ch yu theo m t c s v mt phn theo m t lug tr ca graphit. S
tip xc gia a u ste iiit v graphit ch yu theo m t lng tr ca graphit-
Nhng iii nu trn c nh hing r t ln n khuynh hng graphit ha ca
gang kh i chuyn bin cng tch.
7.8.2.3. Qu trnh graphit ha ca gang trng thi rn
Qu tr ih gra ph it ha trng thi rn l qu trn h chuyn bin t chc t
trn g th i cn bng khng n nh ca xm entit dng Fe, c hoc (Fe,Me);i c v
ca dung dch rn qu bo ha cacbon thnh cc t chc trng th i cn bng n
nh grapliit.
Trn nhit vng chuyn bin cng tch, qu trn h graphit ha ic th hin
cc phng trn h sau:
- i vi gang trn g v gang c cha xm entit t do:
Fe:C -^3Fe(C) + C(gr) . (7.10)
- i vi gang xm;
Y-Fe*(C)-Pe (C) + C(gr) . (7.11)
Q ii trm li graphit ha k h i chiiyii bin cng tch xy ra theo cc phng triih
sau:
- K l gang ngui tidng i nhanh:
y-Fe ( S ) p + C(gr) , (7.12)
- K lii gang ngui r t chm;
y-Fe(S) ~^Fe(C) + C(gr) . (7.13)
- Gi gang lu khong di nhit ( chuyn bin cng tch mt cht (i vi
gaiig thng thng l 650 - 750 "c ). s c phn ng graphit ha xm entit trong
peclit:
F e ,c ^ 3Fe(C) + C(gr) , (7.14)
y y-Fe(C), y-Fe*(C). y-Fe(S) l austeiiit bo ha c. austenit qu bo ha c
v austenit c thnh phn c im s trong gin ct pha Fe - C; Fe(C) l ferit; C(gr)
l c dng graphit.
N hit vy, ty theo t chc ca gaiig nhn c saii kh i kt tinh, thnh phn
gang v iu kin ngui m qu trn h graphit ha xy ra khc nhau. Sitgraphit
ha x n ie iitit theo phn ng (7.10) rt in hnh cho qii trn h gang trng ra
gang do. C ch gra ph it ha ca chng xy ra theo bn giai on k tip nhau:
- Cacbit phn hy ;
- Nguyn t cacbon ha tan vo dung dch rn;
- Nguyn t cacboii khuch tn trong dung dch rn;
- Nguyn t cacbon kt tin h ln mm graphit.
M m graphit c hnh thnh bin gii hai pha xm entit v dung dch rn.
T . gra ph it pht tri n nhanh hn v pha dmig dch rn. Trong siit qu trn h
graphit ha, lun tn t i graient nng cacbon trong dung dch rn t int phn
chia austenit / xinentit ti austenit / graphit. S kt tin h ca cacbon ln graphit
368__________________________________________________________C h n g 7. THP V GANG
lm ngho cacbon trong dung dch rn austenit tip gip g ra ph it. gi dc

trng th i cn bng, xm entit phi phn hy v cacbon t x m e n tit s ha tan
vo austenit. Kt qu l cacbon khuch tn t bin gii a u ste n it / x iiie n tit ti bin
gii austenit / graphit kt tin h ln graphit. T u y nhin, s x u t hin g ra p h it cn
km theo s tng th tch nn xung quanh g ra p h it s x u t hin trng ng suat v
s khuch tn ca cacboii cn b nh hng ca tr iig ng sut ny. Qu trn h
trn c tip din lm cho graphit ln ln dn.
Trong gang xm. y hu ht cacbon tn t i dng g ra p h it th qu trih
graphit ha k c nhit cao v c k h i chuyn bin cng tch ch cn theo hai
giai on: khuch tn cacbon trong dung dch rn ti g ra p h it v k t tin h cacbon ln
graphit. ng nhin qu triih graphit ha theo phng tr iih (7.14) cn km theo
qu tr ih phn hy xm entit trong peclit.
ng hc ca qu trm h graphit ha gang tr n g ph thiic vo qii trn h to
mm v ln ln ca mm graphit xy ra theo bn giai on nu. Qu trn h no
c tc b nht s quyt iih tc qu trn h g ra p h it ha. Q ii trm h to mm
graphit c tc dng n ng hc qu triih g ra p h it ha. M m g ra p h it xiu tin x ii t
hin vng khuyt t t mng, vng tp tru n g ng sut v cc vt r t vi, ... V
vy, tng tc graphit lia, ngoi tm bin php tng hm ling Si trong gang
cn phi dng cc bin php lm tng m t lch bng n h i t luyn s b gang v
lm nh ht t chc ban u nh lm ngui nhanh v t c tro n g khun k im loi
hoc bin tn h gang..... Ngoi ra. nhit gi cng cao th tc to m m cng ln,
s graphit ha cng nhanh. Tic to mm g ra p h it l ii n h t vo u giai on
graphit ha. Qu trm li v sau b c ch nhiu hn do nh hng ca cc nguyn t
cacbit ha nh Mn. Cr, ... lm n nh cc cacbit (Fe Me). c tro n g gang. ng
hc ca qu trm h graphit ha ca gang xm tr n v trong khong chuyn biu
cng tch ph thuc vo hai giai on nu, song qu trn h k t tin h ca cacbon
ln graphit ng vai tr quyt nh. Nng hiig to li n i v k t tin h ca cacbon
ln mt lng tr ca graphit nh hn r't nhiu ca cacbon ln m t c s. Do .
kh nng graphit ha k h i chuyn bin cng tch ca gang giun l in iih n h t saii
n gang cii ri mi ti gang xm gra ph it tm .
Tng hm lng cc nguyn t' graphit ha nh c , Si v l m gang ngiii chm
qua vng chuyn bin cng tch s lm tng qu trn h g ra p h it ha. T chc cul
cmg ca gang s l a-Fe v graphit. Tng hm lng cc nguyn t' cacbit ha Iih\
Cr, Mo. Mn. V, ... v cc nguyn t" ii iili peclit nh Ni. Cu ciig I ilii lm gang
ngui tng i nhanh s gy cn tr qu trn h g ra p h it ha k h i c liiiy ii bin cng
tch v t chc nhn c cui cng l peclit v graphit.
7.8.3. GANG TRNG

Gang trng l gang c t chc lburit ng vi gin pha Fe - c h n nli
gi. Ty theo thnh phn ca gang m trong t chc ca chng c th cha peclit -
lburit (gang trng trc cng tinh), l bu rit (gang tr n g cng tin h ) v
lbiirit - xm eutit I (gang trn g sau cng tin h ). T chc t v i ca gang tr n g
c trn h by trong chiig 2.
VT LIU HC 369
G aiig tr n g thng thng cha c, Si thp. Gang trng cng tin h v sau cng
t iiili ch c to ra k h i lm ngui chng rt. nhanh.
G aiig tr n g c cng r t cao v t ti 40 - 60 HB. cng cao nht ca
gang ng vi t chc n ia c te iix it - cacbit. tiig tnh chu Iihit, chu mi mn c
va p, g a n g tr n g cn ic hp k im ha bng Cr. Mo v Ni. Do cng, gang tr n g
khiig th gia cng c c. Gang trng t c s dng m ch ra gang do,
c cc chi ti t chu m i mn nh bi nghin xim ng.....
7.8.4. G A N G X M V G A N G X M B I N T R N G
7.8.4.1. Gang xm
Gang xin g ra p h it t^m l loi gang ic dng r t ph bin v chim ti 80%
tng gi t r gang c. T chc ca gang xm bao gm graphit tm, thng dng
nht l dng A v nn k im loi c the l ferit. fe rit - peclit hoc peclit. Hnh 7.25
gii th i n t chc t v i ca gang xm peclit - ferit.
Dng g ra p h it tm A cng t. cng Iih mn v phn b' u. nn kim loi l
peclit cng m n th c tn h ca gang cng cao.
T h nh phn v tc ngui ca gang khi c c nh hng qiiyt nh ti s
hnh tli n h t chc v tn h ch"t c hc ca gang (hnh 7.26 v 7.27).
6 %s/
Hnh 7.25. T chc t vi ca gang xm Hnh 7.26. T chc ca gang ph thuc vo

peclit - ferit (x200) thnh phn c v Si
G im c, Si v C,1| cng nh tng tc ngui (tng ng vi gim iig knh

luii th), t chc ca gang s th a y i t fe rit ti fe rit - peclit v peclit. Tng
ng. bn ko cia gang tng lu. Tip tc gim Sk v tng tc ngui, trong
Rang s x u t hin x m e n tit t do dn ti lm x'ii tnh cht c hc cm gang. Thnh
phn ca gang xm thng thng dao ng nh sau: 2,8 - 3.6 %c : 1,2 - 2.8 %Si ;
24 - VLH
0,5 - 1.6 %Mn : ti 0,6 %p : ti o .l %s . Hp kin i ha gang bng 0.2 - 0,5 %Cr ;
0,3 - 1,0 %Ni ; 0,3 - 0,4 %Mo ; 0,4 - 1.0 % Cu ( ty theo thnh phn c th ca
gang m dng phi hp cc nguyn t hp kim theo t l nh gia cc
nguyn tT cacbit ha v g ra ph it ha khng xut hin cacbit t do kh i kt tinh
cng tin h ) s lm cho peclit trong gang tr nn nh m ii v do d, nng cao tnh
cht c hc ciig nh tn h chu mi mn v tn h chxi n h i t, cho ang.
N h ii chung, gang xni do gra ph it chia ct r t mnh nn kim loi, cc n li v
mp ca graphit u nhn { l ni tp trun g ng sut kh i c t i trng tc cliig )
nn gang xm c bn tng l thp, c bit c tnh do r t km. C tn h cia
gang xm ph thuc vo t chc nn kim loi c th hin bng 7.2 . Tuy
nhin, gang xm c bn nn tt, c kh nng t bi trn (do c graphit) k h i lm
vic iu kin chu ini mn na kh, c tn h chu xung nhit v tnh gim clin
t t l i r t r nn c s dng r t rng ri ch to thn v b iny. cc chi ti t
chu lc khng ln, khng yu cii tn h do dai trong nhiii ngnh cng nghip
khc nhau nh ngnh ch to my. my nng nghip, luyn k i i i ,
, fo 5c.%
10 Peclit +ferit
1,05
\ ^ MPq
0.8 0 .9S
Peclit
Lburit 0 .8 5
0,6 f p e c l it
1 1 1 1 T ------- 1------- 1--------1_____1____ 1____
a)' ng knh mu- , mm b) ^
u V n g k in h m u , mm
Hnh 7.27. nh hng ca mc cng lch S v ng knh mu c

ti s hnh thnh t chc (a) v bn ko (b) ca gang
Bng 7^25. C tnh ca gang xm ph thuc vo t chc t vi
T chc Gii hn bn ko. cng. do,

MPa HB %
ferit < 150 150 s 0.5
erit - peolit 150-^200 200 s 0.5
peciit 2 1 0 ^4 0 0 200 ^ 250 = 0.2
V it Na]i, gang xm c k hiu GX vi hai cp S'ch gi t r ti thiu ca

bn ko v bn un ca gang vi n v l kG/min^.
Bng 7. 26 gii thiu th nh phn v tnh cht ca mt s' mc gang xm thng
dng.
Cc mc gang GXOO, GX12-28, G X l -3 2 l cc loi gang xm cha C,1| cao. T
chc t vi ca n gm: g ra p h it nhiu, th to v nn kim loi l fe rit - peclit. C tn h
ca gang ny thp nn ch c s dng cho cc chi ti t khng chu lc nhng li
chu va p nhit tt.
VT LIU HC 371
Bng 7.26. Mt s mc gang thng dng (theo tlu chun ASTM)
Gii hn Gii hn Mc tng

Mc gang K hiu bn ko chy min do cng ng theo tiu
tiu chun min min. max HB chun
ksi MPa ksi MPa % Lin X c
Gang xm
No.208 A 48 20 138
N0.25B A 48 25 172 c 8-36
NO.30B A 48 30 207 c 1^0
N0.35B A 48 35 241 c 4-44

NO.40B A 48 40 276 c 8^8
N0.45B A 48 45 310 c 2-52
NO.50B A 48 50 345 c 5-56
N0.55B A48 55 379 c 8-60
NO.60B A 48 60 414
Gang cu
32510 A 47-84 50 32.5 10 156
35018 A 47-84 53 35 18 156
22010 A47M-90 340 220 10 156
40010 A220-88 60 40 10 149-197
45008 A220-88 65 45 8 156-197
45006 A220-88 65 45 6 156-207
50005 A220-88 70 50 5 179-229
60004 A220-88 80 60 4 197-241
70003 A220-88 85 70 3 217-269
80002 A220-88 95 80 2 241-285
90001 A220-88 105 90 1 269-231
280M10 A220M-88 400 280 10 149-197 B 0-10
310M8 A220M-88 450 310 8 156-197
310M6 A220M-88 450 310 6 156-207
340M5 A220M-88 480 340 5 179-229 B 5-5
410M4 A220M-88 550 410 4 197-241
480M3 A220M-88 590 480 3 217-269
550M2 A220M-88 650 550 2 241-285
620M1 A220M-88 720 620 1 269-231
Gang do
0-40-18 A 536-84 60 414 40 276 18
5-45-12 A 536-84 65 448 45 310 12
0-55-06 A 536-84 80 552 55 379 6.0
10-70-03 A 536-84 100 689 70 483 3,0
10-90-02 A 536-84 120 827 90 621 2,0
Ghi ch: Sau cc k hiu mc gang c th c cc ch A, B. c, s ph thuc vo ng
knh mu thi, y, B ng vi mu ing knh l 30,5 mm.
372__________________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
Cc mc gang GX21-40, GX24-44, GX28-48, GX32-2 k h i nu phi pha thm

nhiu thp vn trong phi li ii gim C,11, sau bin tn h grapliit. ha bng FeSi
hoc CaSi nn c graphit t'm s* lng t, mn, phn b' \i. t chc nn k im loi l
peclit; do . c tn h ca gang kh v chng c s dng cho cc chi ti t chii lic,
chu mi mn. ...trong ngnh ch to my.
Hai mc gang GX3-56, GX38-60 k h i n ii phi pha nhiu thp vn. bin tnh
bng FeSi hoc CaSi v hp kim ha thp bng Cr (0.3-0.7%) v N i (0.5-0,8%) nu
graphit t. m ii cao, phn b' u v t chc nii k im loi l peclit nh mn. Gang
ny c c tnh cao, c dng cho cc chi ti t dy, t i trn g niig.
Cc mc gang hp kim thp ngoi c tn h cao CII l 111 vic ic tron g i ii kin
nhit hi cao (500-700 C), chu mi mn, chu n mn tro n g in t s' mi tring
nht iih .V d, gang dng trong cng nghip iezen nh blc x ila iih cha
0.25-0,50%Cr; 0,3-0,5 %Ni; gang c secmng n chic c hp k im ha bng
0,25-0,35%Cr , 0.35-0,50%Cii (hoc N i ) v 0.08-0.18 %Ti. ...
7.S.4.2. Gang xm bin trng

Ngoi gang xm b iih thng, trong thc t cn gp gang xm bin trng.
Gang ny c t chc th a y i t ngoi vo trong: ngoi cng l gang trng, lp
trung gian l gang hoa rm (cha c lburit v g ra p h it t do ) v tron g cng l
gang xm.
Gang bin trng thng c thnh phn thch hp v c to ra int lp trng
b m t bng cch lm ngui r t nhanh lp b m t k h i c (v d dng khun kim
loi).
Gang xm bin tr iig cha; khng qu 3,5%C; 0,7 - 0,8%Si; khng qu 3 %Mn;
p, s cng th p cng ti.
tng v thay i lp bin trng, gang cn c hp k in i ha nhiu n h t l;
1.5 %Cr; 2,5 %Ni (phi bo m t l N i/C r = 3 - 1 ) ; 0,5 %Cu (t l C ii/C r = 3);
0,6 %Mo (t l Mo / Cr = 2 - 4) v ti 2 %v. ciig ca^gang bin tr iig gim dn
t ngoi vo trong. cng lp trng c tli t ti 450 - 650 HB. cng ln nht
ng vi t chc niactenxit - cacbit k lii hp k iin Ira gang t i 4 % Ni v ti
1.5 %Cr.
Gii hu bn ko ca gang bin trn g c th t 100 - 550 MPa. Gang cvi biu
trng cho bn cao nht.
Gang bin trng thng c dng c tr c cn. bnh xe gong t u ha, cc
chi ti t cam, m ghin, u phun ct, u phvui b i ......
7.8.5. GANG CU
Gang cu cn c gi l gang bn cao c g ra p h it dng cu nh bin tnh
biig cc nguyn t cu ha gra ph it nh Mg, Ce v cc nguyn t t him. Sau
k h i bin tn h cu ha, gang lng cn ic bin tn h ln ha i bng cc nguyn t
graphit ha nh FeSi, CaSi chng bin tr n g cho gang.
Nh cc cht bin tn h cii ha m gang lng tr lin sch cc tp cht nh s
v kh. lm tng qu ngui cho gang v to cho g ra p h it p h t tri n ch yu theo
VT LIU HC 373
hng th n g gc vi b m t c s cn tiiih th graphit.. Do , grapliit k t tinh

th n h d iig cu.
T ch c t vi c a g a n g cu bao gm grapliit cu v nii kim loi l ferit. ferit-
peclit, peclit. T chc t vi ca g a n g cnu erit - peclit d\c gii th iu trn hiih 7.28.
Do g r a p h it d n g cu - l dng t b tp trung ng su't khi chu ti - nn
g a n g cu c b n v do cao. hon ton c th gia cng b in dng ic. C th
p d n g cc plutiig p h p n h i t luyn thp cho gang cii c th t c t chc
n n kim loi k h c n h a ii nh: xocbit, bainit, niactenxit, ... v cho cc tnh ch t m ong
nuin.
Hnh 7.28 T chc t VI ca gang cu Hinh 7.29. T chc t VI ca gang giun

ferit - peclit (x 200) terit - peclit (x200)
G an g cu th n g ch a C ,11 cao v bng 4.3 ' 4,(5 % (tnh theo cng thc 7.8)
chng b in tr n g v do g ra p h it diig Ci st cht, t chia ct nn kim loi nn
khng l n i g i m n g k tn h c h t c lic ca gang. Hm liig Si khng nn qu
cao (nh hn 3.0%) k h i n h hng ii c do (lai ca gang. H m l iig s sau
b in tn h c u ha b n g M g p h i nh hu 0.03 % th gang mi nh n c graphit
cu, Iiii h m l ng s tron g g a n g lng baii u cii th'p cn g t't khi tii cht
b in tn h v h n c h t p c h t " v t en " do MgS to ra s lm gim tn h ch t c
hc ca g a n g . H m l n g M n c chn ph tlnic vo loi gan g cu: vi gan g cu
ferit tr n g th i c l ng M n nh hn 0.2%. gang cu peclit chng c th ln ti
1.0%. L ng p c n g t c n g t t v p lm gim tnh do dai ca gan g cu. T hnh
p h n ha hc c a g a n g cu dao ng nh sau; 3,0-3.6%C ; 2 ,0 -3 ,0 %Si ; 0.2 -1 .
0 % Mn ; t hn 0.1 5 % p ; t hn 0.03%s : 0,04-0.08% M g. G ang cu c bn v
do dai cao, c b i t s a ii khi n lii t hiyn thch hp.
G an g c u th eo T C V N c k hi\i bng ch ci GC vi hai cp ch s ch
gia tr tl tlii ii c a gii h n b n ko ( kG/inin" ) v do 5 (%) ca gang.
G aiig c u ferit m c G C 4 0 -1 0 cho 2 400 MPa. r, >10 % v cng t 16-197
HB. G an g c u p eclit m c G C 6 0 -2 c bn cao \, > 600 M Pa, r, > 2 % v cng
1 9 7 -269 HB. c b it gan g cu sau khi ti ng n h it t t chc bainit c

th t \ = 1 0 0 0 -1 3 0 0 M Pa. r, = 4 -8 % v HB = 3 0 2-369.
G ang cu c s dng sn x u t cc chi ti t chu lc ln v chu ti trng va
p. chu m i m n nh trc k h u u t, cam , bnh xe rng, ... Do r. gan g cii c
dng n h iu th a y th thp v gan g do.
7.8.6. GANG G IU N
G ang giun l gan g c grap hit dng giun - l dng trung gian gia gra{:lnt
tm v graphit cu. C th thc hin cc phng php sau s n x ii t gang giuii:
- B in tn h g a n g lng b n g lng ch ia cu ha graph it Iih cc ngun
t" Ce. cc n gu yn t' t h im v Mg;
- Bin tn h g a n g lng b n g phi hp cc n gu yn t cu ha graph it nh Mg, Ce
v cc n gu yn t' t him vi cc n gu yn t kh cu nh Ti, Al. cling khviviih
hiiig to x m e iitit t do k h i iig rn, gan g lng cn c bin tn h lu hai bng
cc ch t g rap h it ha nh FeSi, CaSi, ...
T chc t vi ca gang bao gm 80-100 % graphit dng giun v 0-2C %
graphit dng cu, n n kim loi l ferit. fe r it-p e c lit. peclit v c ng c th l cc t
chc n h n c sa ii cc qu triih n h it lu yn khc n h aii n h i xocbit, bai.iit.
m actenxit, ... H nh 7 .3 0 trnh b y t chc t vi ca gan g giun ferit - p e c lit .
Bng 7,27. Tnh cht ca cc loi gang khc nhau

(theo H. Kowalke v w . Knothe)
Tnh cht n v Gang xm Gang giun Gang cu

o
bn ko, a''b MPa 1 0 0 -4 0 0 300 - 500 4 0 0 - 1000
Gii hn chy, ao 2 MPa - 240 - 440 250 - 750
bn nn, MPa 5 0 0 - 1400 600 - 700 600- 1200
do. 65 % - 5 -2 2 7 -2
cng. HB30 MPa 1 0 0 0 -3 0 0 0 1 3 0 0-2800 12 0 0 -3 3 5 0
Mun n hi, E 10^ MPa 7 5 -1 5 5 120-160 1 6 0 -1 8 5
dai va p, 3 k j - s 10 1 0 -1 8
bn un vi ti
trng thay i MPa - 1 6 0 -2 0 0 1 6 0-4 00
dn nhit
(20 - 400 C) W/(cm.K) 0,46 - 0,59 0 .4 3 -0 .3 5 0,42 - 0,25
T hnh pliii ha hc ca gan g b an u c h to gan g giun cng gn giSng

nh gang cu: c,n = 4.3%; c = 3.2-3.8%; Si = 1.5-2,8%; Mii = 0.2-0.8%; p = 0,15%;
s c th ly trong k h on g rng nh n g tt n h t l 0,03% . Cc n gu yn t k hc 9aii
bin tn h giun ha cn li: Mg = 0,013 - 0,023% (nu ch bin tnh bng Mg);
Ce = 0,02-0,06% (nu ch b in tn li b n g m ischm etal); 0,01-0,025% M g v
0.10-0,25% T i ( khi b in tn h phi hp M g v Ti). T nh ch t ca gan g giun n m gia
VT LIU HC 375
gang xni v gan g cu. nliKng c tuh gan vi gaiig cu cn l tn h v tnh c li

rt gn vi gan g xm (xem b ng 7.27). C tnh ca gan g do lng graphit cu v
nn kini loi q u yt nh. T ng liig grapliit cu. bn v d ca gan g u
tn g ln. G ang giuii ferit c do kh cn gang giun peclit c bn cao. Do cc
tiih ch t tt cia m iih, gan g giun ic dng th ay th ga n g xm bu cao v gang
cii. C hng c dng nhiu cho cc chi tit chu lc, chu va p n h it trong cng
nghip iezeii (np v blc xilauh); cc chi tit chu m i m n nh secm n g, phanh
tu cao tc; c b it l cc chi ti t chu va p n h it nh khun c thi thp, ng
x ca t. ...
7.8.7, GANG DO
G ang do l g a n g c graphit. dng cm (cn gi l qu bng) c hiih th nh

do t gan g tr n g trc cng tinh ( ng vi t chc peclit - l b u r it). T chc t
vi ca g a n g do bao gm graphit dng cm v nn kiii loi l ferit, ferit - p e c lit .
p e c lit . H iih 7.30 gii th iu t chc ca gang do ferit - p e c lit .
Hnh 7.30 T chc t vi ca gang do Hinh 7.31 nh hng ca Si n v tr cc ng

erit - peclit (x 500) chuyn bin cng tich khi nung v lm ngui gang
G ang tr n g trc cng tinh ra gang do c tng lng (C + Si) nh hn

3 .7 -3 ,8 %. V t c gan g thng c th nh m ng (nh hn 10 - 20 mm), gan g kt
tin h trn g h on ton. H m lng Si \c chn sao cho khng x u t h in graphit t
do v th ng thng b n g 0,4 - 1.7 %. Mii dng trung ha s nn c xc nh
theo hm ling s c trong g a n g theo cng thc ; Mn = 2S + 0.2 (%).
p l tp ch t lm gim tn h do ca gang nn hm lng ca n cng
th p cn g t't. Cr c b it n guy him v chng lm cho cacbit tr n n rt bn
viig nn ko di thi giaii ; cn kling ch hm ling ca n mc thp n h t
(t hn O.O - 0 ,0 7 %).
C hai loi ga n g do:
- G ang do t m trn g cha 2.80 - 3,40% c ; 0,40 - 0,80% Si; 0,20 - 0.50%Mii;
0.12 - 0,25 %s, th ng c n u trong l ng nn cha hm lg c cao v Si
376__________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
thp. Vic gang do tm tr n g c tin h n h trong mi trng oxy ha (dng

qung s t to mi trng kh CO) t chy bt c. Vic c tin hnh theo ch
: gi n h it 9 8 0 - 1060 c trong 60 - 120 h sau lm ngui tng i n h an h
to ra t chc p eclit - grap h it cm . Thc t. t chc ca gan g th ay i t Iigoi vo
trong nh sau; lp mng ngoi cng l ferit do th o t c , lp tru n g gian tip theo l
ferit - p eclit - grap h it cm v lp ch yu pha trong l peclit - grap hit cm.
- G ang do t m en cha 2 ,2 0 - 2,80%C; 1,00 - l,60% Si; 0,20 - 0,50%Mn; 0,12
- 0,16% s, thng c n u trong l in, cha c thp, Si cao nn c trong mi
trng tru n g tnh. C h * gang do t m en nh sau:
phn h y cacbit 9 5 0 c trong khong 20 h;
erit ha bng cch l m ngui chm v t c vi tc 3 - 5 c / h vng
n h it 76 0 - 6 8 0 c hoc lm ngui tng i n h an h v t c xung va di
nhit chuyn bin cng tch ri gi Iihit cho ti khi peclit phn ha lit
th n h ferit v g rap h it cm.
T chc cu cng ca gan g do tm en l ferit - grap hit cm. T uy nh in, tv
theo iu kin lm ngui giai on ferit ha trong v di vng chuyn bin cng
tch m t chc n n kim loi ca gaiig do c th l ferit. ferit - p eclit hoc p e c lit .
e n ng cao hiu qu kinh t, gim gi th n h v t c, cn r t Iign giai on
b ng cc bin php sau:
- Tng hm lng silic bng cch gim hm lng cacbon ti mc cho php ca
gang do v bin tn h gang lng bng cc nguyn t"chiig xm n h B. Bi, Sb,
- B in tn h gaiig lng b n g cc n gu yn t thc y s to m ni graph it khi
nh Al;
- Lm ngui n h an h v t c trong khun kim loi v cc bin php khc Iihni
tn g citng s to m m graphit khi n h it luyn: dng cc hi\i itng dng iu, ti
gang trc khi , nung chm ti n h it phn hy cacbit hoc gi nhit,
3 0 0 - 4 0 0 C trc khi .
Vi cc bin php tin tin k trn, hin nay ngii ta c th r t thi gian ii
gang do xuiig ch cn 1 2 - 2 0 h.
G ang do c tn h ch t c hc tng i cao. c b it l tn h do tt nn c th
gia cng p lc c. G ang do c k hiu bng ch ci GZ vi hai cp ch s' ch
gi tr ti thin ca gii h n bn ko ( kG/mm^ ) v do ( % ). V d, cc
m c gang GZ35 - 10 co \ > 350 M Pa, 5 > 10 %; GZ70 - 02 c > 700 MPa v
5 > 2 % .
Do t, g a n g do ch c dng cho cc chi ti t nh, th n h m iig.chu va p
trong cng nghip m y ko. t, m y dt v m y nng nghip.
7 .8 .8 . GANG C B I T
7.8.8.1. G ang c h u n m n
G ang chu n m n t t ch y u l gan g hp kim cao. C hng c th l gang xm

hoc g a n g cu. K hi hp kim ha gan g b n g cc n gu yn t' Si, Cr, N i vt khi m t
gii h n xc iih, chng s lm th ay i in th in cc ca cc pha v to ra
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________ 3TJ_
int. lp m ng oxyt lm th ng ha qua trnh n iin ca chi ti t trong cc mi

trng h ot tnh. G ang chu n mn gm:
- G aiig silic cao ( cn gi l hp kim s t-silic ) c t chc nn kim loi l ferit v
ferit giu silic. T h n h phn ca gang ny ng vi th n h phn cng tin h v nm
trong gii h n sau: 0,5 - 1,0 %C; 12 - 17%Si; 0.3 - 0 , 8 %Mii; nh hn 0,1 %P; nh
hn 0.07% s. G ang silc cao c bn km . cng cao. gin v kh gia cng. G ang
n y lin vic c trong mi trng H N O 1, S0.J, Ha P 0.1 , trong HCl nng nh
hn 30 %. Klii t n g Si ti 17 % v th m 3. - 4.0 %Mo. gan g s lm vic c trong
HCl vi ini n ng .
- G an g crm cao c t chc erit - cacbit c th n h phn sau: 1,0 - 2.2%C;
o. - 2 .%Si; 0,3 - 1.0%Mn; 20 - 26%Cr; nh hn 0.1%P; nh hn 0,1%S. G ang
crin c c tn h kh nh ng cng cao. kh gia ciig c. C hng lm vic tt trong
H N O ;,. H.iPO.i , trong diiiig dch nnii v trong cc ch t hii c khng hoii nguyn.
- G aiig n ik en cao loi n iresit c t chc nn kim loi l a u ste n it cha;
1.8 - 3,0%C; 1,0 - 2,75% Si; 0.4 - l.% Mn; 14 - 30%Ni; nh hn 0,4%P; nh hn
0 . 12% s c c tnli kh. d ct gt. C hng lm vic tt trong H 2 so,, . HCl, trong axit
c tnh oxy ha y ii v kim iu kiu chu n mn, ini mn v chu nng.
7.8.8.2. G ang ch u nhit

m bo cho g a n g c th lm vic c n h it cao, cn th it phi hp
kim ha gan g b n g cc n gu yn t' Si, Cr. AI vi mt hm hng xc nh, to
ra trn b m t ga n g m t lp oxyt bn. st ch t lm cho gan g khng b oxy ha v
tnrng n tip theo. T y theo cc n gu yn t hp kini ic dng m c cc loi gang
chu n h it sau:
- G ang hp kim silic cha 1.6 - 2.%C; 4.0 - 6,0%Si; 0.4 - 0,8% Mn c t chc
n n kiin loi l ferit c th lm vic ic 600 "c nu l gan g xm v 9 5 0 - 1000
"C nu l gan g cu;
- G ang crm cao cha 2.4 - 3.6%C; 12 - 18%Cr c t chc cacbit cng tin h v
p eclit lm vic c trong iu kin chu mi nin v chu n hit. G ang cha 2,5 -
2 .9 %c . 2 5 - 29 %Cr c t clic cacbit cng tinh, m acten xit. a iste n it v ferit lm
vic n h it ti 90 0 "c. G ang c hni ling cacboii thp hn 1,0 - 2,0 % c v 25 -
29 %Cr c t chc cacbit cng tiiih v erit lm vic trong iu kin b n mn v
ini mii ti 1 100 "C;
- G ang n ik en cao loi n iresit c t clic a iisten it nhv nu trn lm vic
ic n h it 80 0 C;
- G ang Iihin cao cha liig AI lii hn 7 %. in h nh n h t cho loi gan g
n y l "cliugaii" vi th n h plin ha hc dao ng trong khong 1.3 - 1,7%C;
1,3 - 1 . 6 %Si; 0.4 - l,0% M n; 1 8 - 2 5 %A1. Clm gan c th lm vic n h i t ti
9 0 0 "c. B in tn h cu ha graphit c th lm tng bn v ci th in tn h ch t lm
vic cho gang.
7.8.9. C I M N H I T LU YN GANG
Qii triih n h it lu y n gan g khng lm thay cti d ng ca grap hit m ch lm

th a y i n n kim loi. Qu trnh chuyn bin t chc nii kim loi ca gan g khi
n u n g nng v lm ngiii v c bn ging qu trnh xy ra trong th p n n c th p
d ng cc c h n h it lu yii ca thp cho gang. T uy vy. qu trnh n h i t lu yn
378__________________________________________________ C h n g 7. THP V GANG
gang cng c n h m g c im ring do c s khc nhau v th n h phn ha hc v

c bit, l qii trnh grap h it ha chi phi.
Cc qii trnh n h it Kiyn lm th ay i t chc nn kim loi v do . lm thay
di tnh ch t tng t nh thp ch c s dng rng ri cho gan g do. gan g cu
v gang giun v y grap b it d n g ph hp, c c tiih cao. i vi gan g xm ,
thng ch p dng cc d n g n h it lu yn ny cho cc mc gang c bn cao, c
bit l cho gan g xm lip kim thp.
c trng ni b t ca gan g l do iu kin grapliit ha rt khc Iihaii khi c
nn t chc baii u ca ga n g triic khi n h it liiyn r't khc n hau v th ay i t
ferit, ferit - peclit ti p e c lit . Do . th iig phi gi n h it v thi gian rt khc
n hau t y theo t chc b an u ca gan g c th bo ha cacbon cho a iiste n it t
cacbit trong peclit hoc t graphit. Vic bo ha cacbon cho a u ste n it t graphit.
thng xy ra chm chp n n cn n h it cao hoc thi gian lu hii.
0 gang, s th in tch ca cc n g u y n t Iih\ Si, Mii v cc n gu yn t hp kim
rt r rng t tm h t (xu ng quanh graphit) ti bin gii h t tin h th. V vy. ngay
trong m t tin h th , qu trnh chuyn bin pha khi n h it liiyn xy ra cng khc
nhau.
Nh bit, Si l n g u y n t n n g cc im cng tch khi nung v lni ngui
ln pha Iihit cao. ng thi to ra v n g ba pha (a + y + gr), nh n ii trn hnh
7.31. V vy, khi n h i t lu yn , cn th i t phi chn n h it a u ste n it ha cao ph hp
vi lng Si thc t c trong gang.
Da vo v n g ba pha uy, c th n ung gang y t ic t chc
ferit - a u ste n it vi h m lng ferit xc iih ri. tin hnh cc dng n h it hiyii
khc n hau n h n ic gan g c t chc ferit vi cc t chc sau n h it lu yn nhi
xocbit, b a in it v m a cten x it ram , ... bo m cho gang c bn cao trong khi vii
gi c do tt.
c im ni b t k hc ca gan g do hu qu ca qu trnh graphit ha l c th
n h it cao (950 - 1050 C) phn h y cacbit nh trong qu trnh gan g do
hoc m m n h it va di im ch u yn bin cng tch (650 - 750 "O nhn
m t phn hay hon ton t chc n n kim loi l ferit, m bo cho gan g c cng
thp v do cao.
N goi ra. i vi g a n g hon toii c th dng cc phng plip kh ng sii t
nh nu phn n h i t lu y n thp.
VT LIU HC_____________________ 379
Chng 8
KIM LOI vn HP KIM Miû
Trong chng 7 cp n cc hp kini trn c s st. N h ng v t liu ny c

nliii u im nh tn h cng ngh tt, gi thnh r. c th th ay i c tn h trong
mt khong kh rng b ng cch th ay i phng php ch to, p dng cng ngh
nhit liiyn v hp kiin ha. N h vy chng c ng dng kh rng ri. Tuy nhin
trong int s' ln h vc cng nghip, s dng gang, thp t ra km hiu qu, v vai
tr cc kim loi m u tr n n quan trng, thm ch khng th th ay th.
Theo p hn loi h in h n h th kim loi m u bao gm t t c cc kim loi v hp
kini khng trn c s st. N h v y chng loi cc kim loi m u rt a dng. Phm
vi s dng chng rt khc nhau. Trong khun kh cho php ca chng ny ch
cp n cc kim loi v hp kim m u ch yu. c ng dng rng ri v ng vai
tr qiian trng trong cc liih vc kinh t v i Rng Iihit ng, nhm , m agi. titan.
m t s kim loi d chy v cc hp kim trn c s ca chng. P h n cui chng
trnh by cc v t liu kim loi ng dng v n g nh it cao.
8.1. NG V HP KIM NG
ng v hp kim ca n c con ngi pht hin v s dng t thi c i
(thi k ng). L m t kim loi c nhng tnh cht qu nh do cao. kh
n n g chng n mn tt trong n h iu mi trng, c bit l dn in v dn
nhit, rt cao, v t liu kim loi ny c nghin cu, pht trin v ng dng rt
rng ri. Theo tn h ch't v cng dng, cc hp kim ng c phn loi th n h cc
nhm , v d, Iihm cc hp kim c v nhm cc hp kim bin dng, hoc nhm c
th ha bn b n g n h it lu yn v nhin khng c c im ny. Tiiy vy. cch phn
loi th ng dng hn c da vo thnh phn ha hc.
Theo cch ny cc hp kiiT n g ic chia thnh hai nhm chnh: latn g (cc
hp kim Cu vi Zii) v brng (cc hp kim Cii vi Sr. hoc vi m t s' n guyn t
k h c )' .
T iu ch u n nh Iic V it N am . TCVN 199-7. quy iih k hiii cc hp kim
ng Iihi saii:
(1) L h I h k c n i l rtiii r h a i i , br i i B - Tir t h a i i h .

380_______________________________________ C h n g 8. KIM LOI V HP KIM MU
- i vi latng: b t u b n g ch L ri ln lt cc k hiu Cu. Zn. sau l

k hiu cc n gu yn t hp kim n u c. Cc con s ng saii mi k hiii n gu yn t
ch hm lng tru n g biih th eo phn trm (trng liiig) tng ng ca n.
V d. k hiii L Cu Zn 4 0 Pb2 c n gh a l latn g cha tru ng bnh 40%Zn. 2 %
Pb v phn cn li (58%) l ng.
- vi briig: b t u b n g ch B tip theo l Cu ri n k hiu n gu yn t
hp kim chnh to ra brng . P h u CII l k hiu cc n gu yn t' hp kim ph.
N guyn tc ch hm lng tru n g biih theo phn trm ca cc n gu yn t c trong
brng hon ton tng t n h trong k h iu latng.
V d: k h iu B Cu S ii4 Zii4 Pb2, c Iigha l briig thic c tlin li p hn ha
hc trim g bnh: 4%Sn. 4%Zn, 2,5% Pb v p h n cn li (89,5%) l ng.
8.1.1. NG
ng l ng n g u y n cht, m u . M c d khi lng ring ln

(8,940 g/cin Iiliiiig do c c cc ch ti u c l ha tnh tng i cao, n n ng
\c s dng kh ph bin. Di y kho s t cc c im chnh ca ng v nh
hng ca m t s tp ch t thng c trong n.
8.1.1.1. c im ca ng
ng l kim loi rt do v c cu to tin h th kiu lp phiiig tm m t. Nli
c tnh ny ngi ta b in d n g n ng v n gui ng rt d dng.
Klii chu bin dng do. ng b h a b n rt m nh. V d: ng . sch
99,97% Cu, trn g th i ban u cha b in dng c gii hn bn ko 220 M Pa, gii
hn n hi 70 M Pa, sa u b in d n g do vi mc bin d ng 60% cc gi tr t\Wng
ng tng ln 425 MPa v 37 MPa. Tnh cht ny t c s cho mt trong nhng
phng php ha bn ng v hp kim ca n: bin dng ngiii.
Trong tring hp cn gia cng ct gt th do cao ca ng gy kh gy phoi
li l m t nliic im . Trn thc t, ci th in tn h gia cng ct. gt ca n ngi
ta thng s dng cc n gu yn t hp kim th ch hp.
ng nng chy 1083C. chy lon g ca ng nh, v vy kh n n g in
y khun c km . T nh h n ca ng k h tt. C th p dng nii kiii hn i
vi ng. Klii h m liig t p ch t, c b it l oxy tn g ln, tn h h n ca ng gim
i r rt.
Trong cc mi triig thng gp; nc. nc bin, khng k h hoc 'mt s nii
tritng ha ch t nh kim , a x it hu c, ng n nh chng n m n rt tt.
ng ni bt v tn h d n in v du n h it cao. Trong dy cc kim loi. Iiii so
s n h cc ch tiu n y. ng ng th h ai sa u bc. ng vi sch 99.9% Cu
sau c in tr rt nh. 2 0 c b ng 1.7241 n cm v dn n h it kh lii, bng
385 W /m .K
8.1.1.2. nh hng ca cc tp cht

Ph thuc vo phng php v trih cng ngh, ngi ta c th to ra ng
vi sch khc nhau. Tp ch t trong ng r't a dng, c th c phn th n h
ba nhm chnh nh san:
VT LIU HC 381
- Cc tp ch t ha tan trong d\ing dch ri ca ng. N hm ny gy n h hing

xii n du in. Trn hiih 8.1 cho thy dn in gim nhan h khi hm
lilig tp ch't trong ng t n g ln.
m 30 so 10 so so io 30 20 w
Hm lu'ng B i , %
Hm lng , %
Hnh 8.1. nh hng ca tp cht n Hinh 8.2. Gin pha h Cu-Bi

dn in ca ng
- Cc tp ch t h u nh khng tan trong dung dch rn ca ng v to ra t

chc cng tinh d chy (Bi. Pb, ...). Cc tp cht ny lm gim c tn h, c b it l
" co. liri xu kh n n g gia cng ap lc. nht l khi can, ko n h it cao. T
giii pha ca h C ii-B i (hnh 8.2) ta thy thiih phii ng vi im cng, tinh
gn trng vi Bi n gu yn ch t (99.8% Bi). Klii kt. tinh, t chc cng tin h vi n liit
chy thp (2 7 0 C) v r't gin ny s to ra sau cng v phn b' th n h lp m ng
theo bin gii h t. V v y n chnli l nguyn nhn gy v phi khi cn nng, ltt
gin khi bin d ng ngui.
- C c tp ch t c th titng tnr vi ng tao 1100
1 " 1
hp ch t ha hc. Trong nhm n<y. oxy ng 'l ------ -------- H ,

, ------------- 0 ,39 - _
quan tm n h t v u d ln vo ng khi ch
1
to v gy tc hi khng nh. ng sau
lOO 't----- ( i ^ _
tin h lu yn in phn t sch kh cao (hn '.c 1
c i o+C t/Ô ,

99.9 % Cu) nh n g vn cha m t hng oxy. d
l r't nh (khong 0,04%). I
900 1. i
Trn gin pha h C u -0 (hnh 8.3). ta Cu o. 0,2 0,3 .4 o.s
th y oxy tn ti chii yu dng CuO thuc t. Hm lng 0 , %
chc cng tin h (Cu-Cu-20 ) v ch ha tan rt t
trong diing dch rn ca ng (0,008% Hnh 8.3. Gin pha h Cu-O
106"c. gim n h an h xung 0.002% 600"C). T
chc (CU-C 112O) cng v gin, lm xu kh nng gia cng bin dng Iigiii ca
ng, n h it trn 4 0 0 c nguyn t H tr nn hot, khuch tn trong dung dch
rn xen k, do v y phn ng hon nguyn ( 8 . 1 ) to hi luc xy ra vi tc kh
nhanh;
H , + CU2O = 2Cu + H 2O . (8 . 1)
Hi nc to th n h theo phn ng (8 . 1 ) tch t, gy ap su t ln ph hu

ng, sin h ra n h iu vt nt t vi phn b ri rc trong ton chi tit. Do vy iig
382 C h n g 8. KIM LOI V HP KIM MU
tr un gin. H in tng n y cn gi l b n h gin hydro. T rn th c t. ngi ta

trnh ng c tp ch t oxy trong cc m i tr n g c l n hydro hoc tr iili s d ng
u n h it trn 4 0 0 c . N gay trong cc tr ng hp c lin q u an n h ii (hn vay
hoc hn ni), khng cho php s diig ng c l n oxy. T rong cng n g h ip , nh
plnng php tin h lu yn b n g n u chy ng cc m tron g k h q u y n bo v, ngii
ta sn x u t ra ng khng oxy (OFHC. O xygeii F ree H igh C onductivit.y) vi lini
lng oxy rt nh (t hn 0 .0 0 3 %). c do cao, dn in ln v h on ton
khng nhy cm vi gin hydro.
D a trn i lc m nh ca p vi o , n g i ta ch ng cho th m m t lung p
hp l vo ng chuyn ton b lng oxy c m t v d n g P 20 <. N u hiig p d
khng qu 0,000% . dn in ca ng h u n h k h n g b n h hing. K lii vt
qu 0,04% photpho d lm gim m nh d n in ca ng.
Tuy vy, trong trng hp ny ng l i c k h n n g ch n g h p ph oxy khi gia
cng bin dng nng hoc khi hn. ng c c inii n y gi l ng kh oxy.
N c BI dng rt tt ch to cc iig dn hoc b trao i n h it. B n g 8.1
trnh by k h iu v cng dng m t s ng .
Bng 8.1. K hiu, cng dng mt s ng (TCVN 1659-75)
S Mc Hm lng, % ng dng
TT Cu Bi Pb 0 p Tng
1 Cu99,99 99,99 0.0005 0,001 - 0.001 0,01 Lm dy dn in

2 CU99.97 99,97 0,001 0,004 0,002 G,03 Lm dy dn hoc
ch tao hp kim cht
lng cao
3 Cu99,95 99,95 0,001 0,004 0,02 0,002 0.5 Nh Cu 99,97
4 CU99.90 99,90 0,001 0005 0,05 0,1 Lm dy dn in
ch to brng khng
Sn
5 Cu99,90 99,90 0,001 0,005 0,01 0.04 0.1 Nh Cu 99.90
8.1.2. LAT N G
L atng l hp kim ng, trong km l n g u y n t hp k im chn li. v c bii t
chc v tn h ch t ca latn g c q u yt n h bi h m hng Zn.
8.1.2.1. Thnh phn ha hc, t chc v tnh cht

T chc ca latn g vi h m lng Zn k h c n h a u tr n g th i c th xc nh
c trn gin pha h Cii-Zn (lnh 8.4). K lii t n g d n h m lng kin, s ln
't xut hin cc pha khc n h a u vi tn h c h t r t khc nha\i.
Pha a l dung dch rn th ay th ca Zn tron g Cu. M iig tin h th c a pha ny
thuc kiu lp phng tm m t. v t h do ca n k h cao. 44"C. v iiig tn
VT LIU HC 383
ti ca pha m rn g n 39% Zn.

1100
Do c ch h a b n d u n g dch rn.
gii h n b n v gii h n ch y ca 1000 -
pha a t n g th e o h m lng Zn.

Kii u iig h a b n b in d n g ca
pha a r t ln (hiih 8.5). Klic vi
thiig tliiiig khi bn tng, -
do s gim, tro n g trng hp ny.
t iig h m ling Zii k h n g ch l m
tiig gii h n bii m cn lm t n g
do. do t gi tr cc i
ti k h o n g 30-32% Zn. sa u
gim i r t n h a n h .
Pha p ic h n h th n h n n g
km cao hii. y l hp c h t
in t ng vi cn g tlic CiiZn c Hnh 8.4. Gin pha cn bng h Cu - Zn
kiu in u g lp phng t m khi.
Th'p hn 460c. p h a p k h n g tr t t chuyn sang trt ti ha v ic k hiu l P'.
Trong khi pha p k h do, c th cliu b in dug do d dng, th pha P' li kh gin,
kh n n g ch u b in d n g r t km .
(0 iO 30 ^
Hm lng Zn,%
b)
Hnh 8.5, S ph thuc c tnh (khi ko) vo hm lng Zn cc trng thi

bin cng khc nhau (1/4, 1/2, 4/4) v trang thi R :
a) gii han n hi; b) gii han bn ko, c) gin di
Trn thc t cc latng.ch cha mt hug kni gii hn, thiig khiig vitt
qua 45%.
T h eo c im t chc n h i t thng, ngi ta phn bit, hai loi latng;
lat n g a (hoc la t n g m t pha) c h m lng km thay i t -3% v latiig a-P'
(hoc la t n g h a i ph a) vi h m lng Zn ln hn 35%. Trn hnh 8.6 trnh by t
chc t vi ca la t n g m t p h a (C u-30% Zii) v latng hai pha (C \1 - 40% Zn).
T h n h 8 . ta th y c tn h c a la t n g mt pha tng khi hm lng Zn tng,
k lion g 30% Zn h u h t cc ch ti u c tnh nh bn. do u t gi tr cc
ai.
384 C h n g 8. KIM LOI V HP KIM W1U
L atng m t pha c m u sc p. do. d bin dug, h n, ni tt, gi th n h thp

hii ng , v vy tr n n ph bin n h t trong s" cc hp kini ng.
T;
H n h 8 .6 . T chc t vi c a latng m t pha (a ) v latng h a i p h a (b )
So vi latn g
m t pha th latn g
hai pha cng hn v
km do hn. Chnh
do pha kh gin
nn kh n n g gia
cng bin d ng
ngui ca latn g hai
pha rt km . T uy
vy n h it cao c
th d d ng bin
o)
dng latiig n y v
so vi P', pha p do Hlnh 8.7. Hih tng nt (a) v thot km (b) trn cc mu latng
hdn nhiu. cha 30% Zn
Klii tip xc vi
ini trng n m n (v d, hn hp kh cha NH.. diiiig dch in ly, ...). latiig vi
hm lng km tng i ln (trn 20 %) thng b nt hoc th ot km (hnh 8.7).
N hm khc phc hin tiig n t latiig, ngi ta tin h n h lu 2 7 0 -3 0 0 C
kh trit ng su t d - n gu yn n hn gy n mn nt khi c nii tring hot
tnh.
i vi h in tiig th ot km . phng php hiii qu n h t ngan cn n l
hp kim ha. V d, khi ia vo latn g 0,04% As. c th lm cho hin tng (liii
ha ny hon ton khng x y ra.
8.1.2.2. nh hng ca nguyn t' hp kim

ci thin hoc to thm tn h cht mi cho latng Iigxi ta thng tin hnh
hp kim ha. Mt s' n gu yn t' hp kim th n g cliig a vo latiig l Pb. Zn. Al.
Mn. Fe v Ni.
VT Liu HC 385
C h vi h in lng t 0.4 - 3% c tc diig ci thin tn h ct gt nh lm d gy

phoi v gim nia st.
Ci latiig d ct cha ch ctc p dng rng ri ch to nling chi tit
k hng qua bin diig trong cng nghip ch to ng h.
Thic a vo latn g vi hm kiig nh (khong 1%) nhm n n g cao tnh
chng n inii trong nc bin. Latng vi thnh phii 29% Zn - 1% S n - 70% Cu
(cn gi l latiig hi qun) rt thng dng trong ngnh ng tu.
N hm hon ton c th th ay thic lm tng mnh tn h chng n m n v xi
nin trong lUc bin.
N hm , m an gan v s t tlutng c phi hp vi nhau khi a vo latiig nhm
to h t nh. t n g c tn h v t n g kh n n g chng n mn.
N ik eii ci th in m nh tn h chng n m n ca latng. N khc phc hin Ung
nt v th ot kni. t n g c tnh, iig thi tng kh niig chu gia cng p lc. Hp
kim ng cha 17-27% Zn. 8-18% Ni c m u sc tidng t lip kim N i-A g c gi
l niayxo (m aillechort). M ayxo c t clic int pha rt do. m u sc p. chiig n
mn tt. ic lu tin s dng ch to cc chi tit quang hc, dng chnh xc,
tran g tr v trong cng nghip ng h. Do dn in nh, ngii ta th ng ng
dng hp kini ny lm dy in tr.
Trong b ng 8.2 trnh by th nh pliii. k liiu mt s latng th ng dng.
Bng 8.2. Thnh phn, k hiu ca mt s' latng
K hiu Thnh phn, Trng C tnh

Tn TCVN CDA % thi '^0,2- S,
MPa MPa %
Latng LCuZn30 260 30Zn 303 110 66
Latng LCuZn40 280 40Zn 375 120 45
Latng LCuZn29Sn1 464 29Zn-1Sn 400 175 45
hi qun
Latng LCuZn38AI1Fe - 38Zn1AIFe 380 - 50
Latng LCuZn29Sn1Pb3 - 292n1Sn3Pb c 234 83 35
May so LCu2n27Ni18 770 27Zn18Ni 420 190 40
8.1.3. BRNG
Brng l hp kim ca ng vi cc Iiguyii t' hp kim khc nh Sn. Al, Pb, ...
N gv nay. tr cc latn g ra. c th coi t t c cc hp kim ng cn li l brng.
Di y ch kho s t nit s briig thng dng: brng thic, brng nhm,
brng ch v briig c c tn h cao - brng berili.
8.1.3.1. Brng thic

Trn hiih 8.8 l gin pha cn b n g h Cu - Sii. ta th y r ig vi hm ling
Sii nh hn 13,0% h thng c mt plui a. y l dung dch rn th ay th ca Sii
25 - VLH
trong Cu. c kiu m n g lp phng tm m t tng l do v bn do c ch ha

bn dung dch rn. V k h o n g k t tin h lii, qu triih thin tch xy ra kh m nh
nn ch iig vi hm lng Sii kh nh (8 % Su), trong iu kin lm ngui khi c
thng thng, x u t h in pha p. P ha p khi lm ngui tip, chuyn bin thnh
pha y v sa u th n h pha . Qu
triih chuyn bin pha ^ [a + e]
35 0 C v s ti t pha s trong dung
dch rn a di 350c khng xy
ra c v tc cc p h n ng Iiy
qu nh. B n ch t p, y, , e u l
cc hp cht in t, c ng nhng
gin, nhit thng cc hp kim
cha t hn 8 % S n sa u c t chc
m t pha a ng n h t, kh do. chu
bin dng tt. Klii h m hng Sn
vt qu 8%, n h t l khi ln hn
10%. t chc cc hp kim n y gm Hm lng Sn , %
hai pha (a - ). H m lng S n c

Hnh 8.8. Gin pha cn bng h Cu-Sn
dng troiig cc briig cn g nghip
khng vt qu 16%.
Cc brng thic bin d n g thng cha t hdn 8 % Sn ( m t s' nc cho php
n 10% Sn). c c tn h cao v tn h chng n mn trong nc bin tt hii latng.
Trong th n h phn cc briig thic bin dng, thing ia thm* m t ling nh
photpho (t hn 0 . 1 %) kh oxy. m t lng km va phi ha bn v th ay th
thic, cng c th m t lng nh ch ci th in tn h ct gt v gim h s" nia st.
Cc brng th ic c s dng lm cng tc in. iig thi, m ng ngn, a ly
hp, l xo, bnh rn g v i k h i lm bc lt.
So vi latng, brng th ic t hn. Cc brng cha nh iu hdn 10%Sn rt kh
bin dng v s c m t ca m t t l n h t nh pha gin 5. T h ay v tnh b in dng
km, chng li c tnh c tt: nhit nng chy thp, tnh in y khun cao,
h s co n gt nh. Do tn h chng n mn tt, ngi ta st dng cc brng Iiy lni
hg dn trong cc h th n g t i hi.bdni, van v.v. N u ch n c tnh cao, kh
nng chng mi mn v m a s t tt, cc brng thic cn c dng lm trts ng
lt. pinhng, v.v. Trong tr ng hp n y s c m t ca pha 5 v ch (Pb) t o tlini
cc u im lm vic trong iu kin ina s t v mi lin.
Nh tnh c t't. c b i t l kh n n g in y klm n cao, h 5' con gt nh,
briig thic cha Zn v Pb c s dng rt h iu qu c cc tc p h m ngh
thut: tng i, ph iu, ha ti t trang tr, v.v. B ng 8.3 truli by th n h phn
v k h iu m t s' briig th ic th ng dng.
V T LIU HC 387
Bng 8.3. Thnh phn, k hu ca mt s brng
S K hiu Thnh phn. Trng C tinh

TT TCVN CDA % thi (S, ng dng
t,?
MPa MPa %
BCuSnP 0,15 5Sn-0,1P 324 131 64 ng dn khi, tay hn,
v.v.
BCuSn5Zn5Pb5 836 5Sn-5Zn-5Pb c 255 120 30 Khp ma st, vi
nc, bm
BCuAI5 380 65 ng, tm c cng
dung chung, tin xu
BCuAI9Fe4 952 9AI-4Fe c 550 185 35 Van, bm, bnh rng,
gi V V
5 5BCuPb30 30Pb c trt v.v.
6 BCuBe2 172 1,9Be-0,2Co 500 210 48 L xo, mng n hi
ti v.v.
ha 1420 1260 2
gi
8.1.3,2. Brng nhm

Tlieo gin pha h Cu - AI (hnh 8.9), ta thy cc hdp kiin chi'a t. hn 9.4% AI
c t clic m t pha a. Pha a l dving cicli rn thay th ca AI trong Cu. c kiu
m n g lp phng tdm m t kha do v bn. Vi vy cc briig nhm m t pha c tng
hp c tnh cao. kh n n g chng nii mn v pii hi) mi tiiig i lii. Do s hiih
tlinh lp AlÔ ( trn b Iiit. cc hp kim ny chu nt t.t khi lm vic trong kh
cniyn cng n gh ip lioc tip xo vi u(c biii. Ni t;i s dng briig Iihiii mt
) h a (t 5-8% Al) kh rng ri. v d ch t.o b Iignp t hi. h thng trao i
n h it, l xo ti dng, cc chi ti t niy bdin. (lng cho lnh thy, v.v. Klii tng
lim lng nhm (ln hn 9,4%) s xu t hiii pha |3. Pha in t p Iiy ng vi cng
thc Cu.iAl c m n g tin li th kiu lp plung tin khi, ch n nh trn 566"c v
cliu bin rliig kh tt. T i 56" c xy ra cluiyii bin cng tch;
P -> [a '+ j. (8 . 2 )
Pha Y2 cng l hp ch t ctiii t. ciii^^ v gin.
Sau phn ng cng tch (8.2). bn tiig khng (tau k. trong khi dai
phn hu gi 111 m nh, hp kiin tr nu gin. T\iy vy, n\i lm ngiii n h an h bng
cch ti troiig nc, pha p s chuyn biu khng khuch tan to ra P' c kiu m ng
sa u phng. Ngc vi m acteiix it troii thp va cng va bn. in acten xit to ra
khi ti brng ulini cn m m hn c t chc eutectoid [a + Y^]. Tuy vy. khi ram
n iacteiix it ny 500'c s n h n c hiu ng lin bn (tang k m khng lm gin
hp kim do pha y-2 tit ra dng Iili Iiiu. Cc brng nliiii cha khong 10 - 13%
AI sa ii n h it lu yn ti v ram t c c tiil cc kh nng chng n m n v m i
inii tt. N gii ta th ion g a thm Fe v Ni (t nig cao bn nng, ci thin
388 C h n g s. KIM LOI V HP KIM MU
thm tnh chng n mn v chng oxy ha. TroiiT biii <s.3 trnh by th n h phn
v k hiu mt s brng Iihni.
Hnh 8.9. Gin cn bng h Cu-AI
8.1.3.3. Brng chi Nh IriTi nguyn ' Pb

'C 10 20 30 iO so so -,0 8U $J
Ch hu Iih
kling tan trong Cu.
Trii gin ct pha b
Cu - Pb hnh 8.10 ta
thy cng tinh to
ra tliiili phn
99.96% Pb. Nh vy
qu trnh kt tinh
cc hp kini Cii - Pb
thc ch't l qu
trnh phn tcli ch
khi Cu. Thm na.
do kh liig ring
ca hai cii t rt
khc nhau (11.34
g/cni'^ (t vi cli v
8.94 g/cni' c vi
iig) nn hin Phn trm trng lung Pb
tiiig thin t.cli

trng Ivng rt. Hinh 8.10 Gin cn bna h Cu-Pb
m anh.
VT LIU HC 389
B ng cc bin php cng n gh thcli hp, ngiri ta to nen s phn b' ng u

cc phii t Pb inni xen vi pha Cu rn. T chc Iihi vy s t.hch hp cho cc hp
kim trt. D o v y hp kini Cu - 30% Pb tr nu rt. thiip (liig cho nic tin ny.
Kiii lni vic trong cp ma st. cli mn t.rc, to ra cac rnh cha du bi
t.rii- B n th n ch c th tr nn cht hi trn khi t(j th ih m ng m ng bc
qiianli ngng trc. Vi c im Iiy. 0 trt <' .hp lm vic kh tt. Iigay c trong
iu kin ina st na kh. Do h s dn Iihit cao. tntt. c th chu tc quay
ln v t, b nguy c qua ti cc b. tng c tnh, tiig tui th. trt t brng
ch c cli t.o dng b im etal trn Iiang lt hng thp. C ag c tli cho thm
Iiguyii t hp kim Iih Ag. Sii v Ni tug ciig v kh n n g chng m i mn
cua v t liu ny ln. T h n h phn, k hi\i ca brng ch cho trong bng 8.3.
8.1.3.4. Brng berili

Briig berili l th h hp kiii) ng ini, n c nghin cii v p dng ngy
cng nhiu do c irc cc ch ti\i c tnh nh bn, kh Iing chng mn, chiig
nii. bn nng, c b it l gii hn n hi rl cao. N cing l v t liu chng n
niii tt.
Briig berili thDg Phn frm nguyn lu 8e
ch khong 2% Be. T
chc cn bng Iiht
thng gin hai pha
a v y. Pha a l ciiing
dch rii th a y th ca
Be trong ng, lia tnii
2.70% Be u h it rt
cng tinh 8 7 9 C. Klii
giim n liit (. ha
tan Be trong ng gim
nhanh, v d 80"C
ch cn 1,4% (linh
8 . 11 ). Pha y to th nh
hoc do phn ng cng
tch:
P > [ + yJ (8.3)
hoc do ti t pha t
dung dcli rn
a > Y (8.4) Hinh 8.11 Gin pha h Cu-Be
v bii cht, y l pha tr t t l):i vi miig lp phng tm khi, s n phm
ca phn ng ti t pha (8.4) vng nhl d tlip (300 - 320"C) c kch thc Iih
mn phn tn gy hiii ng ha bn rt Iiinli. Nh vy sa u n h it lu yn (gm ti
70 - 790" c trong mc. ha gi 300 - 320"C). brng berili cha 2% Be t gii
hn bn. gii h n cliy rt cao (0 |, - 1 250 MPa. 2 - 1 0 0 0 M Pa) v niun dn
hi ln {E - 133 0 0 0 MPa).
Briig berili c tn h hii tt. gia cng ct. gt cl dng, co th rhu n hit, khng
p!iat tia la khi b va p. N ic s dng lni l xo. iniig n hi v cac chi tit
cti hi chu nhit, u hi v dn iii cuo. Thnh phn v k hiu brng beiril
in hnh cho trong bng 8.3.
8.2. NHM V HP KIM NHM
V phng din sn x u t v ng diig, nlini v hp kiin Iihni chim v tr th

hai sau thp, s d nln vy v v t li\i ny c cc tnh ch't ph hp vi Iihiu cng
dng khc Iiha\i. trong mt s" tniig hp khng th thay th ic.
8.2.1. NHNG C T N H CH Y CA N H M
N hm Iigiiyn ch t c inii trng bc. Kiii loi ny c cc dc cim ch y\i

saii;
- Khi liig ring nh: Vi khi liig ring bng 2.7 g/cni *. so vi st. nhm
nh hn khong gn ba lii. Ch tiu ny rt q\iaii triig i vi cc lnh vc. khi
i lii s gim khi Iviig ca chi tt v ca c h t liiig n nic nh Iih.. v d.
Iignh hng khiig, du hr.nh v tr. hoc cac phng tin giao thng vn ti.
- Tnh dn in cao: dn in ca nlini ch b ng 62% so vi ng. Tuy vy,
do khi lng ring ca ng ln hn nhm khoiig 3.3 ln nn khi vi cc c tnh
v in ging n h au , tru yn dng in c cng Iilii Iihau, dy (ln nhm ch Iili
bng na dy dn ng v b n u n g nng t hrtn.
- Chng n mn tt; Nh lp oxyt Alô 1 c cu trc s t cht to th nh trii b
nit. nhm v hp kim nhm chng an mn kha tt,. T\iy nhin do clu cly qiia
m ng (khong vi angstron). nn lp nhm oxyt t nh iu c kh Iiiig bo v chiig
n nin km . B ng k th ii t aiil ha. Iigiti ta c th Iihii ic m ng oxyt AI2O:!
dy h n g chc inicrm t. c kh niip bo v cao.
N hm v hp kini nhii vi lp niiiK aiit ha nv c th ng dng lm cc
cu kin trong Iignh x y dng (khim g ra. tm p. ...) m khng cn cc biii
php bo v ph thm.
Tuy vy trong m t s' mi triig n mn. di tc dng ca ng s\i't, tiih hoc
ng, hp kim nhm c th b n inn di cc dng khc nhau; n mn im , n
mn dii iig siit, n\i n nin, v.v. Trong cc tr\ii: hp c t.li uy. th n h phn
hp kim v triig thi gia cng iih hiig kh m nh (tu tc n lun .
- bn thp, do cao; M ng tinh th cna nhm thuc loi lp phng tm
m t. do vy nhm tng i do. 0 trn lliai Iihni kin bn I, = 60 MPa.
,).2 = 20 M Pa) v chu bin d ng nng cng Iih\ ugiii ctii rt tt.
- N h it nng chy tirtng i thp: N hm nng chy 6 6 0 c . y l mt.
thiin li cho qu trnh n'u h iyn hp kii khi c. Hn iia nh n n h it kt
ln. nhm lng ng c chm , c th tPii huh bin tnh v tii) h iyn tng rni
d dng. co n gt ca Iiliin ln. do vv ctin y klm n kin, tnh iic in
nhm khng cao.
VT LIU HC 391
8.2.2. PH N L O I V K H I U
Trong qvi trnh n gh in cu, pht trin, ngy cng c n h iu hp kim nhm mi
ra i. phn loi chng, ngi ta can c vo cc c im quan trng nht.
- Theo tnh cng ngh, cc lip kini nhm c phn th n h hai loi chnh; hp
kim bin dng v hp kini c.
Hp kim nhm bin dng diig ch lo cc bn th n h phm hoc chi tit
bng gia cng p lc nng hoc ngiii.
Bng 8.4. K hiu v trng thi gia cng hp kim nhm
Nga My. Canada
K ngha K ngha
hiu hiu
H p k im n h m b i n d n g H p k im n h m b i n d n g v c ;
M mm F Trng thi phi th
T Ti v ha gi t nhin o v kt tinh li
TI Ti v ha gi nhn to H Trng thi bin dng
H Bin cng H11 Bin dng vi mc bin cng nh
Bin cng khng hon ton H12 Bin dng vi mc 1/4 bin cng
H1 Bin cng mnh (> 20%) H14 Bin dng vi mc 1/2 bin cng
TH Ti, ha gi t nhin, bin cng H16 Bin dng vi mc 3/4 bin cng
T1H Ti. bin cng, ha gi nhn to H18 Bin dng vi mc 4/4 bin cng
T1H1 Ti, bin cng 20%, ha gi nhn to H19 Bin dng vi mc bin cng rt ln
H2X Bin dng tip theo hi phc (X
H p k im n h m c ; bin i t hai n 9)
T1 Ha gi nhn to sau c H3X Bin dng tip theo n nh ha (X
T2 bin i t 2 n 9)
T4 Ti TI Ti sau bin dng nng, ha gi t
T5 Ti. ha gi mt phn nhin
T6 Ti. ha gi ha bn cc l T3 Ti. bin dng ngui, ha gi t
T7 Ti, ha gi n nh nhin
T8 Ti. ha gi bin mm (qu ha gi) T4 Ging T3 nhng khng c bin
dng ngui
1 T5 Ging T 1 nhng ha gi nhn to
T6 Ging T.4 nhng ha gi nhn to
T7 Ging T6 nhng ha gi
T8 Ti. bin dng ngui, ha gi nhn
to
T9 Ti, ha gi nhn lo, bin dng
ngui
Cc hp kini nhm c dng c cc chi tit, c hnh dng v cng d ng kliac

nhau.
Trong s cc hp kiii Iihm bin dng ngi ta CII pliii b it loi c th lia
bn b ng n h it lu yn v loi khng ha bn b ng n h it luyn (hnh 8.12). Triig
th i gia cng thng c ch r kni saii ccc k liiu hp kiin bng nhng qiiy c
ring ph thuc vo cc qiic gia hoc t chc khc uha\i v (vin l tiu chu aii vi
liu. Trong b n g 8.4 trnh by cc k hi\i trng thi gia cng cc hp kiin nhiii ap
dng N ga. M v Canaa.
Theo th n h phn ha hc, ngi ta phn cc hp kiiii nhm th nh n h iu h,
trong mi h ngoi AI ra cn c m t hoc hai ngu yn t hp kim chnh na. Mt. s
h hp kim nhm ch yu l; Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Mg. Al-Mii. Al-Si , Al-Mg. Al-Mg-Si.
Al-Zn-M g. A l-L i. v.v.
Tiu ch u n V it N ani
(TCVN 1 8 5 9 -7 5 ) quy ctiih
k hiu cc hp kim nhm
nh sau: b t u bng k
hiu Al. tip theo l k
hiu cc Iiguyii t hp
kim chnh, sa ii l cc Hp kim AI Hp kim AI c
nguyn t hp kini ph. bjh dm
ch hni lng theo
phn trm , Iigi ta dng
u
cc con s t sa u k hiii
tiig ng. N u l hp
kini c, nii k h iu d t
AI p/n trm nguyn / hp kim
thm ch .
V d 1 : K hiu hm khn ho bn hng nhit iuyn
AlMg. n gh a l hp kim
nhiii bin dng c h 111
Hinh 8.12. Phn loi hop kirn AI theo gin pha
ing tru n g bnh ca Mg
l 5%.
V d 2: K h iu A lS il2M glC A i2M n 0.6D n gha l hp kini Iihiii chc. cha
trung bnh 12%Si; l%Mg; 2%Cu v 0,6% Mu.
K h iu hp kim nhm cc mic trn f,he gii rat khc uhau.
Theo tiii chun rO C T ca N ga, nhm v hp kim nhn) idc k hiii big s
phi hp gia cc ch ci v c<c con s. T uy nliiii. cc k hiu ny khng phn iili
mt quy lut cht ch no trong ton b h thng cc hp kini nhm, cc nc
nh M, C anaa v n gay c Ciig ha Lin bang N ga (gn y). Iigi ta s dng
h thng k hiu gm cc con s^ (thitng c bn ch s) k hin hp kim )ihiii.
T i\i chun ca H ip hi nhm (A luniiniiiii A ssociation. AA) quy nh k hiu hp
kim Iihni b ng cc con s Iiln trong h ng 8 5.
VT LIU HC 393
B ng 8.5. Tiu chu^n k hiu hp kim nhm theo Aluminum Association
Hp kim nhm bin dng Hp kim nhm c
H thng hp kim Loi k H thng hp kim Loi k

hiu hiu
AI 2 99% 1000 AI sch cng nghip 100,0
Al-Cu v Al-Cu-Mg 2000 Al-Cu 200,0
Al-Mn 3000 Al-Si-Mg v Al-Si-Cu 300.0
Al-Si 4000 Al-Si 400.0
Al-Mg 5000 Al-Mg 500.0
Al-Mg-Si 6000 Al-Zn 700.0
Al-Zn-Mg v Al-Zn-Mg-Cu 7000 Al-Sn 800.0
AI - cc nguyn t khc 8000
thng s thng n h t ca M (niied Niin\bering System . UNS ) k hiu cc

hp kim Iihni bng cch s dng k hiu s ca hip hi nhm vi tip ii l A9
(ti vi lip kim bin dng v AO i vi hp kim c.
Trong bng 8.6 trili by k hiu int sloi nhm v hp kim nhm vi tb-nh
plin ha hc khc n h au theo TCVN v AA.
Bng 8.6. Thnh phn, k hiu mt s hp kim nhm
H K hiu Thnh phn.

hp kim TCVN AA %
H p k im b i n n g .
AI sch AI 99,60 1060 99,6 AI

Cng nghip AI 99,00 1100 99,0 AI
Al-Cu v AICu4.4Mg0,5Mn0.8 2014 4,4Cu-0.5Mg-0,8Mn
Al-Cu-Mg AICu4,4Mg1.5MnO,6 2024 4.4Cu-1.5Mg-0,6Mn
Al-Mn AIMn1,2 3004 1,2Mn-0,12Cu
Al-Mg AIMg1,4 5050 1,4Mg
Al-Mg-Si AIMg1SiO,6 6061 1Mg-0,6Si-0.2Cr-0,3Cu
Al-Zn-Mg AIZn4.5Mg1,4 7005 4,5Zn-1,4Mg-0.12Cr-0.4Mn-
0,15Zr
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu AIZn5, 6Mg2,5Cu4,6 7075 5,6Zn-2,5Mg-1.6Cu
H p k im c
Al-Cu AICu4,5 295,0 4,5Cu-1Si

Al-Si-Cu AISi5.5Cu4,5 308,0 5.5S-4.5CU
Al-Si-Mg AISi7MgO,3 356,0 7Si-0,3Mg
Al-Si-Mg-Cu AISi12Mg1,3Cu4MnO,6 12S-1,3Mg-2Cu-0,6Mn-1 Ni-
0,2Ti
8.2.3. NHM SCH K T H U T
Ph tlm c vo phng php s n xut, sch ca nhm rt, khc nhaII, bin
i t 99.0% AI n 99.999% Al. N hm vi sch c bit cao l v t liii qu diig
trong cc cng trnh n gh in cu.
bn ca Iihm sch k tlu i t thp do cao. saii bin dn g hin i'tng ha
bn t ic ting i lii.
Phan trm nguyn f AL
Do tnh dn in v ,0 so eo 70 Ba 90 s
1600 T
dn n h it cao. khi liig -----n----- r------ 1

ring nh. nliiii scli k
SOO
th u t ic cixing rng ri
ch to cp ti in noo -L
trong kh quyn, cc ng
bc x n h it hoc cc chi liOO
tit troiig h thng bay

t o o 1- i i
hi. Tp ch t trong nhm ^ 0 , i s ' % j I50
rt a dng, tuy vy Si v
r
OSX US !
100 "-3S
I -
Fe ng cli n h t v
chiiig thng c v gy 1000 .
nh hng rt m nh. Nu 312
900
ng ring th tp ch t Si
t tc hi, hu n h\ khng
soo
lni gim c tnh, thm Nhi/ J s-
O ir it
ch cn iih hng tt ctn loa (
tuh ctc. (lo to cng tiuh ^-Fp) 3.35
(Al-Si), h th'p n h it BOO
SSI,4
chy, tn g kh n n g in s*7.3 - (AI)-
y khun.
500 V t
\
Tri li, theo gin 400 - \2 00
Phn trm aguyn t A
trn hnh 8.13, ta th y st I

:
c th tng tc vi nhm , 300 - i IIS
l
1
to pha Al;Fe rt gin, kt
Z00 ... 1100
tin h dng hnh kini th 45. .5 0
pf)n trm trng ln4l
55
to. C ng tinh (Al-Al.-Pe) 100 .

x\it hin n gay khi hm
lng Fe rt nh v phn
Fe 10 20 30 50 60 70 83 30 AL
b theo bin gii ht. T
Phn trm trng nj AL
-.hc ny gy gin hp kim
\ tn g n h y cni vi ii Hnh 8.13. Gin pha h Al-Fe
ir.ii in ha do chnh
ln h th iu cc gia AI v PeAl.i kh ln.
Klii tn ti ng thi c F e v Si s x u t hin cac pbn liu kiii loi diiga(Al.
Fe, Si) v p (Al. Fe, Si) va gin va k t tiih dng tm th to. Trong tn n g h))
n y do v tn h n ih chng ii mn ca nhm cng b gim ninh.
VT LIU HC 395
8.2.4. HP k i m n h m b i n d n g
Nln t.rnh by trn, da vo kli nng c lioc khng th ha bn bng

Iiht. luyn, ngvi ta phn cc hp kini nhm bin cliig th n h hai nhm Iih;
- N hm th n h t gm cc hp kim khng th ha bn bn g n h it luyn, bn
cua cluiii (tc ci thin nh cac phiiig php nhi; hin dng ngui, hp kim ha
hn diuig dch r n hoc to plia th liai Iili IIIU.
- N hm th hai gm cc hp kim c th ha bn bng n h it luyn, bn ca
chng tn g ln ch vii nh ti v ha gi.
8.2.4.1. Hp kim nhm bin dng khng ha bn bng nhit luyn
a. H p km h Al-Mn
Phn trm nguyn i Mn
Theo giii pha 20 30 uo 50 60
Al-M ii t.rn hnh 8.14,

Mii r tliP to vi AI 1300 _
lu.ip ch a i lin kiiii loi
200 ...
Pha ny khi phn

IIOO
ta 11 Iih iiiu troug nn
(luiig (lch rn a s gy 1000
ha bn. D ha ta n ln
Iihnt ca Mn trong
(iiiiig dch rn a t
xic 6 0 'T l 1 . 8 % v
gim rt n h an h trong
viuig nbit t 40'C
- 60"C. D ay iig thi
30 io 50 60 70
cng l v n g n liii
Pnan Ir m r n g ing Mn
ti ca ln cac
lip kim Iihni cng
Hinh 8.14 Gin pha h Al-Mn
nghip.
L\ng inaiigan
troiig cac hp kim nhm ny thng tlnng dao riiR troiig khong t 1 n 1 , 6 %.
N h\tiig do iih hiiig ca cc hp cht tlung c l Fe. Si. ha tan ca niaiigan
troug dung dch rn a gim di r:Vl nluiiih. V d vi s c m t chng 0.1% Fe v
0.60% Si, dung dch rn a ch c th ha tan 00"c iic khong 0,05% Mn. iu
ny gii tlicli v sao cc hp kini bin dng Al-Mn khiig th ha bn bng nhit
luyn.
D t n g bu. trong tnrng hp ny s dniip |ih()iig php bin dng ngui s
rt lii\i qii v hivi ng ha bn bin dng t. clc kh ln. T hm na, do s
hiili th n h pha a (A l-F e-S i-M ii) klii kt tm li dng Iili m n phn tn, n h it
kt tiiih li ca hp kini tn g ln. gp phii duy tr ii (liili k t qii ha bn to
ra.
396 C h n g 8. KIM LO V HP KIM MU
Mt c im rt PnSn trm nguyn t

ng chi ca hp ^ 10 20 30 40 S so 70
kim A l-M n l xu
hiig th in tch Mu 600
v to duiig dch rn
500
qu bo ha bt
thng khi k t tinh.
UO
S phn b' khng
ng \i thiili 300
phn c th dn ti
nhng k t qu xu. 200
chng h n ljn gim
iJ
n\nh c tnh, c 30 io SO 60 70
b t l dai va p.
Phn trm trng lVng A
do to th n h t chc Hnh 8.15 Gin d pha h Al-Mg
h t th vi s phn
b" h t rt chuli lch gia cc phii m u sa\i khi k t tinh li.
Cc hp kim A l-M n chu gia cng bin dng ang v ngui tt, c tn h h n v
chng ii m n trong kh q u yn cao hn Iihin sch k th ut. N li vy chng c
si dng rng ri thay th vt liu ny khi c yu cu cao hn v c tnh.
b. H p k i m h A l - M g
Theo gin pha h A l-M g (hnh 8 .l ), ha ta)i ca m agi trong nlim ln

n lit c th t l% 4 0 1 ^c. Klii h n h it . ha tan ny gim i v pha
P(Al(M g 2) tit ra t diiiig dch rn. c XII hing phn b' dng hi theo bin gii
ht. T chc dng li p liu T.c rnt nhy cm vi i nin di ng sut. Chnh VI
vy trong cng nghip h n ch si dug cc hp kiii cha hing nh nagi (t hii
8% Mg). ph bin hn c l loi di 4% Mg.
Do lng inagi nh, hiu ng ha bu khi ti v ha gi qu nh nn thc t
b qua. a thm m t lng nh cc kim loi chuyn tip nh Cx (0.1-0,2% ).
Mn (0.3-0.5% ) cho php gim n h y cm vi n nin diti iig su t. St dng
phng php bin d ng do ha bn cc hp kim loi ny s rt c h iu qu.
Cc tp ch t Fe. Si gy n h hng x'ii n c tiili. lm gim ch t lng b
m t khi gia cng, v v y cn h n c h ch ng inc thp n h t c th. Cc lip kini
A l-M g thuc iTit trong n h n g h hp kim nhm nh nh t, c tn li h n tt, ii nh
chng n mn kh quyn, b lit sau cng p. kh Iiiig gim chn kh m nh
v gii h n bn mi ()) triiig (i ln, (.hjig ic dVing rt rng ri. c b it trong
cng nghip ch to t v xy dng ciif; trnh.
8.2.4.2. Hp kim nhm bin dng ha bn bng nhit luyn

Cc lip kim nhm bin d n g ha bn bng n h it lu yn l Iihin v t liu kt
cu quan trng, n g y cn g c n gh in cu v p h t trin m nh. Di y s trnh
by m t s" h thng dng v c tn n g nht.
VT Liu HC 39'
a. H p k i m A l - C i i v A l - C u - M g
Cc hp kim h n y thuc loi (c ngliin cu. sn x u t v ng dng cng

n gh ip sm nht. S aii bin dng, ti v ha gi. chng r hiii ng ha bn rt cao.
Trong Ihi.c t. ch n g cn c gi l (luvra.
T heo gin pha Gnnh 8.16) ta thay ha tan ca cc pha e (CuAlii). v s
(CuMgAl^) t n g ln khi ta n g nhit (. Do rc ({ini ny. co th d dng nhn c
dung dch rn a qua bo ha bng Cirli ri. Khi ha gi. ph thuc vo n h it v
thi s;ian i nhit, si.t tit pha xay rn C(. t.liP f'i cac trng th i khc nhau nh vng
GP. cac pha cln iyn tip gi n (tnh o. S' lioc cac pha n nh e (C 11AI2), s
(CuMgAlv) kch thc rt nh. phn tuM \i trong nn (Imig dch rn a. T t c cc
pha Iiy u to ra hiu ng ha bn ang k. Tuy vy, s hnh th n h t chc gm
hn hp vng G P vi cc pha gi ii cah 0'. S s cho ta cc ch tiu c tnh ln
nht.
<3j
A - 1 -2 o-3
X - 5
)
Hinh 8.16. Mt ct ng nhit gin pha ba cu t h Al-Cu-Mg 200c (a) v 500c (b)
1 - AICu4,2Mg0,25Mn0.4 . 2 - AICu2,6MgO,35MnO,1 .
3 - AICu4,3Mg0,60Mn0,6 , 4 - AICu4,3Mg1,50Mn0,6 i
5 - AICu4.0Mg2,0Mn0,6 ,
Nii m bo c h ti v ha gi n lu nhau, tiig hm hdng Cvi v Mj>, mi

cch hp l s lin tng hiii qUc ha bn do t l khi litng cc plui ha bn tioiig
nn a tng. Klii th ay i h m hiig ng v Iiiagi theo hng tn g t l Mg/Cu.
bn nng ca hp kini s t n g ln. s d nh\t vy v t l Mg/Cii tn g s ko theo
s tn g khi liig pha s (CuM gAl 2) v gim bt pha 0 (CuAl^) (linh 8.1(5). Ngidi
ta xc n h u rng pha s CCuMgAl2) n nh n hit hn pha 0 (C\iAl.). ngiia l n
tit ra t diuig dch rn a n h it cao hn, tc tch t nh hn D chnh l
nguyn n h n khin cho cc hp kim A l-C \i-M g vi pha ha bn l s (CuMgAL) co
th gi c bn tng i cao n khong nhit, 200-20%C.
Cc tp ch t Fe, Si gy n h hng x\i n c tnh ca iiyra. C hiig c t h to
ra cc pha dng Cu^PeAly. va gy gin hp kim do kt tinh dng th to. va lm
gim hin qu n h it lu yn do chim gi m t litng iig ctng k cn th it to
pha ha bn. Trong thc t ngi ta c gn g gim thp hm hng cc tp cht
ny. khng ch t l ca ch n g xp x lhau to ra cc pha dng a (Al-Pe-S i-
Mii). kt tin h th n h h t nh. t nh hng n do. khiig lin gim hiu qii
ha bn khi ti v ha gi.
Tru c s A l-C u-M g. khi a thni ng thi Fe v Ni vo thpo t l 1/1 ngi
ta to ra cc hp kim nhm bin dng bn nng.
Bng 8.7. C tnh mt s hp kim nhm bin dng ha bn bng n h i t luyn
K hiu Trang C tin T Lnh vc

TCVN AA thi <^0.2 <^b. M'. ng dng chnh
MPa MPa %
AICu4,5Mg0.5MnSi 2014 c 100 200 20 Hng khng t
T4 ' 290 420 18
T6 430 480 12
AICu4.5Mg1.5MnO,5 2024 0 100 200 20 Hng khng, k cu,
T4 320 460 18 khung c vit, hng th
T6 390 470 10 thao
AICu2,5Mg1,5MiFeTi 2618 T6 280 420 - Hng khng siu m.
g.1.
180' 300* ' tucbin
AICu6,5MnO,5Ti T6 280*^' 410'^' 12" Kt cu, chi tit c nhit
lm vic t -250 n
+300"c
AIMgSi1,5Mn 6070 0 70 145 20 Chi tit chu hn kt cu
T6 365 400 12 tu thy
AIZn4.5Mg2.5CrMnZn 7005 0 35 200 20 Vt liu cho vn ti b v
T6 295 360 13 dng st, cc sn
phm ko si
AIZn5.5Mg2,5Cu1,5Cr 7075 0 105 230 17 Cng nghip hng khng,
T6 500 570 11 qun khi, gy trt tuyt
G /ii ch : 1) (1(1 ( 2r)0''
2) (lo () i.SV( '

VT LIU HC 399
V d, hdp kim y\IC u2.M gl.6N iF eT i (AK4-1 theo rO CT v 2618 theo AA)
cha 2.3% Cu; 1.6 Mg; 1,0% Ni; 1 . 1 % Fe; 0.18% Si; 0.07% Ti c kh n n g d\iy tr c
tinh kh cao. n t u 2 3 0 C. s d nh vy v trong lp kim hnh th nh pha n
iih Iiiig dng Al)FeNi. gy ha bn dung cch rn tt v ch tch t. ln ln nhit
trn 2 3 0 C.
Ngvi ta cng to ra m t s hp kim nhn bin d n g ha bn b ng n h it
luyn c kh n n g lm vic rt tt r) vng 2 5 0 -3 0 0 ^C bng cch hp kim ha thm
m an gan v m t liig nh cc hp kini cluiyii tip khc nli Ti. Zr, V vo hp kini
Al-C ii. C hnh cc pha T (AI 12M 112CU) hoc cc pha cha Ti. d\iy tr c tn h hp
kim mc ng k trong v n g u liit 20-300'C'
Nhc im chung ca cc hp kim tru c s Al-Cu v A l-C u-M g l kh nng
chng n mn km v kh hn. N guyn nhn ca tnh chng n inn km lin
q uan vi s c m t ca pha 0 (CuAlii). N c th in cc khc xa th iii cc ca
nn. to vi pin n mn, trong pha 0 ng vai tr catt.
iiyra cng nh cc hp kim chu nng nu trn itc s dng rng ri trong
n h iu liih vc. c b it trong Iignli hng khng. Bng 8.7 gii th iii c tiih int
s hp kiin nhm bin d ng cc trng thi gia ciig khc Iihau.
6. H p k i m A l - M g - S i
T gin pha trn hnh 8.17 ta thy sit liiih thnh pha Mg^Si tng ng vi
t l khi lng gia Mg v Si bng 1 73. ha taii ca MgijSi trong dm ig dch
rn a tn g ln khi t iig n h it Nh vy ta c t.liP to ra dim g dch rn qii bo
ha bng cch ti. Klii ha gi rit pha phn tn tip theo s Iibn ic hiu iig
ha bn. P h n ln cc hp kim h ny u c thnh phn ha hc tu n theo t l
khi liig gia Mg v Si bng 1,73. Tuy nhin c gin tn g c tnh c th cho d
m t liig Si v t t n h in trong tr\ng hp ny phi hy sin h kh n ng chng n
mii.
Hinh 8.17. Mt cl ng nhit gin pha Al-Mg-Si 200C (a) v 550C (b)
400 C h n g s KIM LOI V HP KIM MU
a thm Mu vi lng nh 0,8%, Cr nh hn 0,3% s lm nh ht, t n g co

tnh, c b it l t n g dai ph hu. ng, vi liig nh hn 0 . 0 % c tc dng tt
lni tn g c tnh, nh ng nu vt qu gi tr ny s lm gim kh n n g chng ii
mn ca hp kim.
So vi nh ng hp kim nhm bii dng ha bn bng n h it luyn khac, cd tnh
cac hp kim h A l-M g -S i thuc loi tru ng bnh nhng tnh hn v gia cng p lc
nng th tri hn hn. T hm na chng rt n nli chng n mn trong kh quyn
v khng n h y cm vi ii mn di \'ng sut. Ngi ta s dng lip kim h ny
ch to cc chi ti t chu hu. cc cu kin tii th y vi nh it lm vic khiig vt
qua 10"C.
c, H p k i m h A l - Z n - M g v A l - Z n - M g ~ C u
N goi dng dch ru' a trong h A l-Z ii-M g cn cc pha tn in g gian M gZii 2 v
T(Al 2Mg:iZn () Klii n u n g nng, ha tan ca M gZii 2 v Al 2Mg Zn, trong a tn g
n rt m nh (hnh 8.18). Lm ngui chm tip theo (thm ch ngui trong khng
kh) s d d n g to ra dung dch rn qu bo ha.
Hiii tiig ha bn khi ha gi ti t pha (cli yu l trng th i v n g GP) t rt
lii. Gii hn bn. c b it l gii h n chy t n g ln khi tn g tng hm liig ca
Zn v Mg Oinh 8.19).
Hnh 8.18. Mt ct ng n h i t gin pha Al-Mg-Zn 400c (a) v 200c (b )
Cc lip kim A l-Z n-M g cha nh hii 8 % tiig hni liiig kii v m agi c t -'.
nng km so vi magi nm trong khong t 0,77 n 4 l cac hp kini Iihni
hn. b n mi h n so vi v n g ln cn khng chiili n hau v h\i nhit bng
bn hp kini c s, N h ng c im cbih ('.I cc hp kini Iiy l khon g nhit,
ti rt rng (350 - 0 0 'C). tc ti ti in Iih (c th Iigui t.rnns khng kh)
bn sau ha gi tiiig i cao. N h n g kini loi chuyn tip Iilu Cr, Mn. Zr. Ti ic
VT LIU HC 401
a vo vi hm lng nh nhm n n g cao cht, lng hp kim , c b it l gim xu

hing n h y cm vi ii m n di ng sut.
Klii t n g hin lng tng
cng ca km v niagi ln M
8 - 11 %. ia th m vo khong
2% Cii s to ra nhm hp kim
nhm bin dng c bn cao
uht. V ai tr ca ng trong
tritng hp ny l ha ta n v
ha bn diiiig dch rn a. Cc
Iiguyii t" kim loi ch u yn tip
nh Mu, Cr. Zr, Ti \a vo
lm uh ht, ci th in t chc
vim g bin gii, va c tc dng
nng cao c tnh, va lm
gim XII hng n h y cin vi
n nii diti ng su t, H hp
kim A l-Z n-M g v A l-Z n-M g-
C u l i ti n g a n g it c c h bn sau ti v ha gi cc
nghin cu nhiu nhm khai hp kim Al-Zn-Mg phu thuc thnh phn (o, < J < 3 )
tlic tim nng bn v tnh hn. Nliic im chnh ciia chng l XII hng nhy
c 111 vi n nin di iig s u t v th i bn nhaiih khi n ang nhit qu 120c.
Lnh vc ng dng ca h hp kini ny ang n gy cn g m rng, v d trong
hng khng, ch to v kh. dng c th thao, vv.
d. Hp kim Al-Li
Li ti l n gu yn t rt nh. khi to ra hp kim h AI-Li ngii ta m oug iniiii c
c v t liu vi bn ring lii. Trong tlntc t cc hp kim ch gm AI v Li
khng c ng dng v n b oxy ha m nh v c tiih khng cao. Trn c s AI-Li,
ngxwi ta c th ia th m ng hoc m agi to ra hp kii rt c trin vng ng
dng trong m t s ln h vtc cng nghip liiii cti. u im ni bt ca cc hp kim
n y l sa ii ti v ha gi c hiu qu ha bn kh lu, c b it iniiii n hi E
t tr s vt tri h n so vi t t c cc hp kim nhm khc (76 0 0 0 M Pa so vi cc
hp kim nhm th n g thng l 70 0 0 0 MPa).
N ii th m ng th hp kini s gni cc pha a, 0 (C 11AI2). AIL, TCAlxLiyCux).
Hiii ng ha bn khi n h it lu yn kli ln v cc pha 0 (C\iAl 2), AlLi v
T(Aly;LiyCuj,) u c kh n n g ha tan vo a khi n ung v ti t ra dng tru ng gian
phn tn khi ha gi. V d sa u khi n h it luyn ha bn, hp kim AICU5L 1 2 cha
.3% Cii-1.2% Li-0.6% M n-0,15% Cd c cc ch tiu c tnh nh sau : |, = 560 M Pa,
u.2 = IO M Pa. E = 76 0 0 0 MPa.
Trng hp th ay ng bng % Mg ta c hp kim AlMgr,L2. y l mt trong
s cc lip kim nhm nh n h t (khi lng ring bng 2.7g/cm V S au u h it luyn
lia bu. do s ti t ra d ng tru n g gian phn tn ca cc pha AlLi v T(Al;<MgyLi,,),
26 - VLH
cc cl tin c tn h c th t ; , - 60 MPa: a ,,.2 = 290 MPa ; V|/ = 11 % v

E = 76 00 0 MPa.
S ng hp kim nhm -liti cn b hn ch v cng ngh nu luyn tiiig l
phc tp do s oxy ha rt m iili. gi th n h t.
Tuy vy cng vi s tin b ca cng ngli . syt xiit hin cc phng phap ch
to vt liu mi nh v t liu bt. v t liu coinpozit. ... t cc hp kini nhm -liti c
bn ring cao . Iiiiiii n hi lii . hon ton c tli cli to cc vt. liu kt cii
gi tr v y trin viig .
8.2.5. HP K IM NH M C
Klic vi cc hp kim bin dng cn c do cao . lip kim nhm ctc cn tnh
c tt d dng to hnh cc chi tit. nh gi tiili c . Iigii ta tlntng cn
c vo cc ch tiii chnh nh: chy long, kh nng in y khuii . li s co .
XVI h\tiig nt nng v r co . Nh c n h it chy th'p , cc lip kin nhm c th
c trong khuii kini loi . Do tc ngui nhanh . cc thi c trong khiin kiiii
loi thng c t chc nh iiin v c tnh c ci thin ng k .
So vi hp kiin bin dng . hp kim nhm c cha liig n guyn t' hp kim
lii hn v trong t chc ca ching bao gi cng c m t t l ng k tlin h phii
cng .iiili. iu ny cho php h thp nhit, chy v thu hp khong nhit
kt tinh.
Phr t r n n u y n ' Si
Dii y s trnh
by nit s diig hp
km\ Iihn c iu
hnli v tliiig diuig
Iiht.
a. H p k i m A l - S i
Nhm v silic tao

thnh gin pha c
dng nhi hnh 8 . 20 .
Thnh phn cng tinh
ng vi 12,7% Si.
N hng ip kim ng
diig trong cng
nghip c liiii lng
silic dao ng trong
khong n 20 %.
Tliiig dng hn c l
cc lip kini cng tinh
hoc tnc cng tinh.
Biih thng. silic
trong cng tiiili c Hnh 8.20 Gin pha h Al-Si
iif T
VT LIU HC 403
chc Iih vy ng vi c tnh khng cao. ttc bit l (t ila ph liii nh. S dng k
thut bin tnh bao gm iia hn hdp IIU NaF-fNaCl theo t l 2/1 kt hp vi
kli\iy trn u tric khi rt khun, Iig\ti ta c th bin cc kini silic th n h cc h t
nh dng cvi (hnh 8.21). T chc sau biu tnli c c tn h cao hn hn chnh l nli
s bin i t chc nlu vy .
ita thm m agi (t 0,3 n 1%). cho php ci th iu iig k c tnh ca hp
kim A l-Si. Cc v t c t hp kim A l-Si-M g (u c n h it luyn ha bn. Pha
M g.Si tit, ra dng phii tn khi ha gi. s Iiiig cao c tnli ca chi tit.
Cho thm ng (t 3 n %) cho php nng cao cd tiih c Iiliit tluiig v
n hit tng i cao. Trong trvtng hp ny. s c m t m t liig nh m agi s
ci th in thm kh n ng ha bn biig n h it luyn. Hp kim
A lS il2 C u M g lM iiO ,6 N il va c tiili c tt, h s' gin n n h it nh. chng iDn
tng i. c dng rt ph bin c ch to pit.t.iig ng c t trong.
. Hp kim Al-Cu
Hj) kjni c dn giii ch gm uliin v ng hu nh khng c ng dng thc
t v tn h c ca n rt kin.
) b)
Hnh 8.21. T chc t vl hp kim AI-13%Si trc bin tinh (a) v sau bin tinh (b)
Tuy vy, trii c s h Al-C u. ngi ta c th t.o ra cc hp kim uhiii bn nng

c cc chi ti t lm vic vng nliit 20-30C. Trong trng hp ny.
ngi ta cho th m cc nguyn t h p kim ha Mg. Ni hoc Mii. Ti.
Hp kim A lC iiM g lN i3 M ii0 .2 rt thcli hp ch to cc chi tit nh. hnh
dang phc tp. lni vic nhit, 300-30"C.
Bn cnh bu nng titug i cao. cc lirtp kini nhm ny cn c gii hn nii
kh ln. Tiiy vy. y l cc hp kim ch\i n IIIII km. tnh c xvi v do kha
uli.
c. M t s h h p k i m n h m c k h c
Cc hp kim nhm c trn c 5 A l-M g c khi hing ring nli kh n n g

chng n mn tt trong kh quyn, trong nic bin v int s mi trng in ly
khc. Lng Mg thng dng dao ng trong khong 8-11%. to h t nh ci
th in c tnh, c b it l n n g cao dai va p ngi ta ia th m int liig nh
cc kim loi ch u yn tip Zr,Ti. Hp kiin A l-M g thiig s diig c cc chi tit
yu cu chiig n m n cao v bn tng i lii.
Nhic im cn bn ca cc hp kim n y l tn h c xu v bii nng ili.
Hp kim h A l-Z n-M g c kh n n g t ti . iu ny cng c n gha l d c
trong khun kim loi hoc trong khun ct, c tnh cc chi ti t t itc ii nliit
nhau v dung dch rn qu bo ha to th n h Iigay khi lm ngui vi tc rct
chm . Ha gi xy ra n gay n h it khng kh bnh thiig. S au m t n hai
th ng ha gi t nh in , b n hp kim t gi tr cc i. Nh c im nv. cc
chi ti t d c k t cu dy, m ng khc n hau, sau khi c m t thi gian v n t s
iig ii c tnh trn ton b th tch.
8.3. MAGI V HP KIM MAGI
M agi l m t kim loi rt nh. tr lng ca n trong v tri t xp h n g ch

sau Iihm v st. N gu yn t' ny i lc vi oxy kh m nh, v vy mc du \c
J3ht hin kh sm (nm 177). nhng vic khai thc v ng dng trn qiiy m
cng nghip cng chi mi bt u t nhng nm ba mi ca th k ny. Trin
vng pht trin ca hp kim Iiiagi rt ln do nhng c im c trng ca n .
8.3.1. C I M CA M A G I V HP k i m M A G I
Khi lng ring ca m agi n giiyu ch t bng 1.74 g/cin \ tc ch bn g khong

2/3 ca nhm . M agi nng ch y 6 l c n h in g c th d dng bc chy n h it
thng. C hnh v v y t l tn hao m agi khi nu luyn v gia cng kh lii. do
ca m agi nh do cu trc m n g ca n thuc ki\i su phing xp cht vi
c/a= 1,62. T uy vy, qu trnh bin dng to hnh bng cn, rn, p. d u i t vn tin
hnh d d ng nh c ch i tin h v sx h ot ng ca cc h trt ph n h it
trn 200'C .
M agi c ng dng lm v t liii k t cu chi yii dng hp kini. Cc
ngu yn t' hp kJi th n g dng trong hp kim m agi gm Al, Zn, Zr, Mn.
N guyn tc phn loi v k h itu triig th i gia cng hp kim m agi cng tiig
t Iih i vi cc hp kim nhm , l^-ong bng 8.8 trnh Ly th n h phi. k hiu,
tnh cht v lnh VIC ng dng ch yu ca hp kini inagi.
Th v cc n g u y n t t h im n h La, N d , Ce, v t o ra n h n g pha tru n g gian
n nh, nn gy nh hng t t n bn nng, cho php n n g cao n h it lm
vic ca hp kim m agi n t n 350C.
Do th in cc rt m , cc hp kim m agi khi tip xc vi cc kim loi khc
lun ng vai tr ant v b n m n in ha.
VT LIU HC 40
Tiiy vy . trong iii kin kh qiivpii biih tling . kh n n g chiig n mn ca

hp kim magi kh tt .Klii lm vic vng veii bin hoc khu cng nghip , hp
kini inagi cn c sn ph bo v.
Bng 8.8. c tnh ca mt s hp kim magi
K hiu Thnh phn. Trng C tnh c tnh
TCVN ASTM UNS % thi ^0.2- fTb. '1'. s dng

MPa MPa %
MgAI3Zn1ZnO,2 AZ31B M11310 3AI=1Zn-0,2Mn F 200 265 15 rn v ko si
MgAI8ZnO,2MnO,2 AZ80A M11800 8AI-0,2Zn-0.2Mn T5 250 345 6 Ko si, dp, ti
v ha gi
MgTh3Mn1,2 HM31A M13312 3Th-1,2Mn T5 179 255 4 Tn la, my bay
(425C)
MgZn62rO,5 ZK60A M I6600 6Zn-0,5Zr T5 285 350 11 Rn cc chi tit
bn cao trong my
bay
MgAI6Zn3MnO,2 AZ63A M11630 6AI-3Zn-0,2Mn T6 120 230 6 c khun ct vt
c, chng thm
khi, bn, dai
MgZn3Ce3 EZ33A M12330 3Zn-3Ce T5 110 160 3 c chi llt lm
vic 175-250c
MgAI9ZnO,7MnO,2 AZ91A M11910 9AI-0,7Zn-0,2Mn F 165 230 3 c chi tit xe
khch, my ct c,
thit b chuyn ch
hnh l
MgAg2Ce2 QE22A 2Ag-2Ce T6 200 260 4 c chi tit c tnh
cao
8.3.2. LNH V c s DNG

MAGI V HP
k im
M agi l ch t kh oxy c s d ng rng ri trong cng n ghip ha hc ni

chung v trong ngnh luyn kiin ni ring. N cng l nguyn t hp kini ph bin
trong cc hp kim mu.
Do u im ni b t l nh, c kh nng thm tt. cc hp kim m agi ang c
cli k h ai thc s d ng trong cng nghip h ng khng v v tr. C hng cng c
in g dng c h to cc phng tin vn chuyn hng ha. dng c cm tay. cc
tran g th i t b t, hoc cc chi tit Iiy chuyn (tng cliii k vi t n s" ln (trong
n gn h d t v in) v.v.
N goi ra trong ln h vc bo v chng n mn. nit s' hp kim m agi c dm g
ch to cc in cc liy sin h rt c lu qu.
8.4. TITAN V HP KIM TITAN

Titan v cc hp kiiu titan c s dng nh mt hp kim k t cu ch mi b t
u t nhng uiii nni ni\i ca th k ny. khi q\iy ni sn xii"! ciig ngliip ca
kim loi ny cho php h
thp gi th nh ca n.
Nh cc c tnh q\i bii,
titan v cc lip kiin titaii
tr th nh vt liu hon
ho trong nhi\i lnh vc.
c bit l trong ngnh
hng khng v cng
nghip ha cht.
T itan c kh'i lng
ring l 4.5 g/cni' tc
Iiiig hn nhm mt t.
nhvtiig ch biig 3/4 ca
st. Do vy bn ring
ca hp kini tita n cao hii
thp v Iiliiu lip kijii
2J 3J0 ^00 Sj
mii khc (hnli 8.22).
N ti r J ,
T iih lii v it ca hp kim
tita u th hiu r n h t Hnh 8.22 Tng quan bn ring ca mt s' hp kim
trong v n g n h it khc nhau
200"C-00"C. bn a) Ti-6%AI-4%V : b) thp 0,4%C-1%Cr-27oNi-0,3%Mo .
cc hp kim nhm qu c) hp kim AIZn5,6Mg2,5Cu1,6CrO,3 (ti v ha gi nhn
tlip. nhvng nii s dng tao), d) hp kim magi MgThSMnl ,2
thp th trng lng th it
b s ln.
Bng 8.9. c tnh ca mt s hp kim titan
K hiu Thnh phn, Trng C tnh Lnh vc

TCVN 1 OCT UNS % thi ^0.2 '1'. p dng
MPa MPa %
Ti99,1 BT1-0 R50550 99.1 Ti 517 448 25 Cc chi tit
ngnh ha cht,
bin, chi tit
my bay
TiAI5Sn2,5 BT5-1 R54521 5AI-2,5Sn 862 807 16 Bnh qut nn
ng c my bay
2TAI6V4 BT6C R56401 6AM V 13 993 924 14 Cnh qut ng
c phn ld
Ti v ha 1200 1120 10
gi
1TiAI3Cr11 B120VCA R58010 13V-11Cr- Ti v ha 1250 1200 8 Cc chi tit
V13 3AI gi bn cao
VT H u HC_______________________________________________________________ 407
("c hp kiin t.itan th m ch c Ih fii ic d l)fMi v chng oxy ha tt. n t-n

7()(')"r. a s cac hp kim titaii klinp nhv cm V(J n mn ini. Do to itc
Iiiii tlii ng ha TiOv. hp kim tiiMi u cliih ilng au mn tt hn c thp
khiig g trong nhiu ini tring. dc l)it l trong m(ic bin. Nluc (lim chnh
('n tit.an l hin turtng hp th khi (oxy. hydro) v tuduK tc rt m nh vi cc vt
liu kliac vng nhit cao. PU ny mt int liin ain cht lng cn hp kim,
mt khac gy plic tp cho qua T.rnh sii xut, ch to. lm tiig gi th n h sn
phaiii. Cu phi cli rng mt s hp kim titan. trong nhng i\i kin nht nli.
tlu' hiii n hy cm vi n inn di nf s\it. Trong han 8.9 trnh by th nh phn
hon hc. tinh clit mt. s hp kim titaii.
8.4.1. T IT A N K T H U T
T itan k th u t c s dng nh\r mt vt. liu kt cu trong ngnh hng

khng, trong cng nghip ha chat v trong k tiiut lnh. Klii h nh it (.l qiia
(tim 882"c. titan chuyn bin th liiiili t titan |3 c mng lp phng t.ni klii
saii tita n a c m n g su phng xp cht. Chuyou hin ny ca tita n c c ini
CIUI clm yn bin niacteiixit khng khuech tn, gy anh hiig kha ln cii t chc
y tih ch t ca hp kim titan. Mt (tc ieni rt aiiK ch l mc d tit.an c
kiou in ii? su plniig xp cht. mIhu (io ('a 110 rnt. cao v Iihit. ct hii gin
rat llip. i\i ny c lin q\ian vi s xiuit hiii co h trit. pli (lo Iiiiig tinh
th ca titan c t l cla ~ 1.587 rt nli<) M) V(ii l'i;ih tiuiiiig (ca ~ 1.68). D do (lai
v;'i kli; Iiiig cliii ti i cii ca tilaii kh;i t.t. tp ch t xen k nh hyclro.
carbon. Iiit. oxy gy nh hng nVl xaII (n cd tiili. rlc bit lni gim m nh (t
dni ph;i hu ra titaii. D hoci tan cn rc ;) chi Ii;iv trou titaii a ln hn troiit;
titun do vy khng th 't o CI(' (hiiiR dch nn ho lia bng cch ti uli
triig hp cacboii troiig st. S liili Minli cc pho cnchit. hyrtrit. ... ko theo nguy
l)iii gin titan. Trong thc t Iigi to khng cli nng cnc tp clit Iiv
Iiu'rc thp nht.
8.4.2. HP K IM T H AN
N uyn t lip kin) lia tu i r't ci;j (lng. c im n h hng n s

011 rliih ca cc tli hnh a v p (hnh 8.23), iiKii ta phn chng thnh 3 nlini
sau:
- Nhiii lm n nh a gin nhm v cc Iigiiyii t ha tan xeii k: cacbon.
Iiitd. oxy. Cc n gu yn t'ny niif cao Iilt chuypii hin a -> p (hnh 8.23 b):
- N hm cc Iiguyn t n dnli f. ufifc li h thp nhit clmyn bin p ^ a,
Troiig nhm ny nit s Iilu crni. st, Iiiugaji. silir hn ciili vic h thp n hit
d cluiyii bin p ^ a cu to ra phii ii 4 cng- tch (liiih 8.23d),
- Nhm cc n gu yn t trung tii. hau nh khng nh hvriig n chuyn bin,
-> gm zicni, thic (hnh 8.23 a).
T h n h phn ha
hc ca cc hp kim
tita n thng khng t
hn h a i,n g \iy ii t" hp
kim. Vic phn loi
c tin h n h da vo
t chc sau thng ha
ca chng, v c bn
ngi ta phii b it ba
nhm lip kim titaii
sau y: Iilini hp kim
alpha, nhm hp kim
a lp h a -b eta v nhm
hp kim beta.
a. H p k i m tita n
alpha
Trong th n h phn (\J, Mo.Nb.Ta} d) (Fe,C r.M n.S i)
c)
ha hc ca nhm hp
kini alpha, ngoi nhm
cn cc n gu yn t" trung Hnh 8.23 Anh hng ca cc nguyn t hp kim n chuyn
tiih v troiig m t s^ bin pha trong titan
trng hp c th cn a) nguyn t' trung tnh ; b) nguyn t n inh 06 ;
c m t liig nh c) nguyn t dn |nh 1^ khng to cng tich )
n gu yn t' ii nh p. d) nguyn t n inh tao cng tch
Hp kim a c bn
chng do kh tt (n n h it 65 C) v chng oxy ha n n h it 1 100c .
gia cng to hnh chi tit, ngi ta s dng cng ngh rn. p nng. Cac hp kim
nhm ny chu bin dng ngui km v khng ha bn bng nhit luyn c.
b. H p k i m a l p h a - b e t a
T h n h phn ha hc ca hp kim alp h a-b eta l t hp co n gu yn t^ n (tnh a

v n iih p theo m t t l n h t nh. Sau khi n h it luyn ha bn (ti v ha gi)
c tnh tng hp ca chng t iic kha coo (gii hn bu ln, trong khi (lo dai
vn gi mc cho php). Hp kiin nhm n y c tli lm vic tt n n h it
5OC. Trong s cc hp kim titan . uhni cac ip kim a - p ic s dng nh iu hn
c.
c. Hp kim heta
Hp kim b eta cha ch yn cc ngu yn t n iil) pha p. Cc hp kim ny cliii
bin dng n h it th ng kha tt. San ti v ha gi c th e t itc bn cao.
Nhc im chnh h n ch kh ng dng cc hp kim nhm n y l bii
niig nh (pha p m't n nh khi n h it im np at ti 350^C) v ch n g b bin
gin n h it th p hn hoc b n g -60"c .
VT LIU HC 409
8.4.3. N H I T LU Y N HA BN HP k i m T IT A N
Bn c im quan trng ca hp kim titaii cu phi tnh n khi n h it hiyii

ni bo ch t lug sn phm sa u gia cng giiv.
- C hiivii bin thi'i hnh;
- du n h it nh;
- H ot tnh ha hc ln;
- Xu luiig hp th kh m nh.
N uiig cc hp kim tita n lu vng Iihit cao chuyn bin hon ton th n h
mt. pha p ng n h t ri lni ngui s dn ti mt s hu qu sau :
- V m t t clic, do cc h t p ln ln rt nhanh, lin sa u khi lm ngui s
chuyn th n li a dng tm hoc kim rt th, Trn h nh 8 -24 l t chc hp kim
Ti-2% Cr-2,% M o sau khi n ung 100"C (vng p) v lm ngui ngoi khng kh.
T chc ny km do, rt gin v hu Iih\t khng cha c b ng n h it luyn
thuii ty v tnh di truyn t chc ca hp kini titaii rt ln.
- V m t tiig sii t Iihit, do tita n truyn nliit chm , n h it n un g cng cao.
cng c u giiy c p h phm lii, d cong vnh, nt Ii. N goi ra. nung Iihit cao.
chi tit s b oxy ha m nh v hp th nhiii kh. iii cng gy tc hi khng
nh n ch t lng sn phm.
Hnh 8.24. T chc t vi ca hp kim Hinh 8.25 T chc t vi hp kim

Ti-2%Cr-2.5%Mo sau nung 1050c, Ti-2%Cr-2,5%Mo, rn 850c. nung n 925c.
ngui ngoi khng khi ngui ngoi khng kh
T chc lip kim Ti-2% Cr-2,5% M o s hon ton khc (hnh 8.25) Iiii tin hnh
nung Iiiig. bin d n g trong v n g hai plia (a + f) ri lm ngui ngoi khng kh.
T chc g 111 cc h t a nh, u trc bao bc bi p hoc hn hp c hc (P v cc
sii phm ch u yn biu), s m bo do, dai va p tng i cao v cng,
bn tha ng. Ti hp kim (a - P) ic tin h n h biig cch nung ln vng hai pha
(a f p) sao cho m bo m t t l (a/p) lip l, sau lni ngui trong nc. Trong
qun trnh lm ngiii nhanh, pha p s clm yn hin tlin h niactenxit a'. M actenxit
ny khng cng (khc vi m acten xit trong thp), nhitng khi ram v n g 5 0 0 -7 0 0 C
trong vng vi gi, do h n h th n h cc vng a nh m n trn nn m acteiixit. a'.
bn. cng s t n g ln.
410 C h n KIM LOI V HP KIM MU
8.5. MT

S KM LOI

D CHY V HP

KIM CA CHNG
Km (Zn), ch (Pb). thic (Sn) l nhng kim lo c nhit d Iiii cliay tliap.
c si dng rng ri trong lnh vc cng ngh tliiig dng v c trou k thiil
liin ai.
8.5.1. K M V HP K IM KM
Km n gu yn ch t nng chy n h it thp. 420"c. M ng tinh th ca I

thuc kiii saii phng vi xp ch t nh . d a - 1,85.
n h it th iig km m m v kha do. Trong kh quvn tliu g thng tnh
n nh chng n nin cia km tt. Kli) quvu v n g ven bin, khu ciig Iighi])
hoc iii cao trong khng kh. nh hng x\i n tnh n nh chng n nin
ca km. So vi cc kiii loi thng dng Jib st. crni. Iiikeii. ng. ... in th
in cc ca kin ni liii. Lnh vc ng dng ch y\i ca km In bo v chng n
111U cc cng trnh b ng tlip: hoc di dng an't hy sinh (protect) bo v din
ha hoc d\i d n g lp pluui, ni bc ph bo v b mt. c tn h in ha cxn
km (tc ng dng ch to cc "bn kin" trong k thut, in nhng hnh iih
tinh vi vi cli't lng cao.
D lip kim ha km , Iigii
ta dng Iihm, ng v mt lng
Iih m agi. Nliii c m t troig
liaii ht cc lip kim km vi
thnh phau lu cn iin cng
tinh, hnh 8.26. G ii fty c X\1
lu(iig' s diig cac hp kiiii kni
cho lng nhm kha cao. ti
27%. Vai tr ca nhm nit. m t
l ci thin tnh chc lin tng H'jm in A I , %
chy long, mt. klic ngn cu

Hinh 8.26 Gin pha h Zn-Al
s ha tan khun kini loi v lp
kim lng.
ng c tac dng lm tn g cd tnh. T chc hp kiin kni ch cla nhm v
iig khng n ifh Iihi th\riig S thay i t clc troii qu trnii lii vic
s kin theo hiu ng th ay i kcli tlic. liiilv thnh ng su t, gy nn coiig viih.
thiii ch ph liy h thng cng trnh. Iiy mc.
M agi tuy c tc dng lin tn g s n nh t chc ca hp kini km . Iihiig li
Inni gim ninh tnh iic v dai ph hy ca clnng, v vy n ch h n clid hiu
ng nh hn 0,8%.
Cc hp kim km vc chia th n h liai Iihoii; uliin hp kiin c v Iilini hp
kiin bin dng. S khng cli thnh phn ha hc i vi cc hp kini bin dng
c q\iy nh cht ch hiiii so vi nhm hp kim c.Trong thc t cc hp
kim km c ic s dng pli bin hu. Thrili phn ha hc v tnh cht ca mt
VT LIU HC 411
s' hp kim loi ny cho trong biig 8.10. u (tiiii ni bt ca cc hp kini km c

l nng chy n h it thp, khong 330"C. v chy long cao. Nh vy t vt
liu ny c th ic chiili xc cc chi tit thnh niiig. hnh dng phc tp. nliivi
gn . V mt R tliiili, s n phm c t lip kim km c th cnh tranh vi hp
kim (tng . Iihin v thiii ch c vi cht do trong n h iu liili vc cng iighip.
C hng hn trong ngnh ch to niy chiih xc. l cc clii ti t m y nh. niy
cIh . ng h; trong ngnh ng c: b ch lia kh. bni xiig. trong cng nghip
cap thot, mc; vaii. vi. ng dn. ... cng nlu nliiii chi tt klic trong th it b
iu gia dng.
Bng 8.10. Thnh phn ha hc v c tnh mt s' hp kim km
Thnh phn ha C tinh

TCVN ASTM hc, % ^0.2 ^b. 'I'.
MPa MPa %
ZnAI4 AG40A 4AI : 0;04 Mg 260 280 8
ZnAI4Cu1 AC41A 4AI ; 1Cu; 0,04 Mg 310 320 5
ZnAI8Cu1 ZA8 8A1 ; 1Cu ; 0,02Mg 285 375 8
2nAI27Cu 2 2A27 27AI : 2,2Cu; O.OIMg 370 425 3
i
8.5.2. C H , T H I C V HP k i m c a c h n g
Ch v thic nng chy lihit kli tuVp: 232"C i vi Sn v 27"C i vi

Pb. C hiig rt inni v kt. tinh li vuig' nhit (t ni. c hai kim loi ny u c
tnh n ctiih chng n inn rt. tt tronp nhiou nii tniiK. Ch chc dnf ch to
cac bn in c quy. hoc cc tm cliii aii ton trong k th ii t Rntgeii.
Thic dng m thp. V t liu ny (htc s (lng rng ri trong cng n gh
hp bo qun thc pham.
Hp kii trn c s ch v thic bao iii cc cliing loi khc Iihau: hp kim cl
chv. lip kim hu, lip kin trt, v.v.
8.5.2.1. Cc hp kim c nhit chy thp

v ng\iyii tc. t itc nhit chy thp (fi chy), ngii ta chn thnh
phii hp kim lu cn im cng tiiih.
Trn c s h 3 c\i t P b -S n -B i, c th ch to hp kiii vi n h it nng chy
khong 9CVC. h bn cvi t. n h it nng chy ca hp kim gu cng tinh s
h thp Iiii. V d trn c s h B i-P b-Sii-C d n h it ft nng chy th'!! n h t c th
clt c khong 6 0 c , cn trii h Pb-B i-C d-H g chi tiu ny s cn h thp hn
na. vo khong 48"c.
Cc lip kim ny ic s dng trong k tluit t ng v trong y t.
s.5.2.2. Cc hp kim hn
Hp kim hn dng gn ni cc b phn chi tit hoc cc chi tit vi nha\i.
Yii c\i cc hp kim hn l phi c chy long cao. lin k t tt vi vt liu c s.
m bo bn ini hn ln. Cc hp kiii hn trn c s Sii v Pb thuc nhm

mni. C hiig tha m n y cc yu cu ca hp kim hn v c n h it chy
kh thp. Trong tlu.c t chiii c s dng hn ng, latiig. thp tni traiig
thic, hp kim km . v.v.
8.5.2.3. Hp kim lm trt

Hp kim tn t trn c s thic, ch tluic nhm babit. tc l nhm c n h it
chy thp.
c im ca Iihiii ny l t chc ca chng bao gm nhiu pha, trong cc
phn t ca pha rn pliii b' u trn nn tiiig i m ni v n lii. C ht litng
ca lip kini ph thuc khng ch vo bn ch t Iiii v pha ciig m CII vo lin
kt gia cling. B abit diiy tr m ng bi trn tt. m bo h s' m a s t nh, t mi
mn ngiig trc. Iihing chu p lc kni v gim bn nh an li khi tn g n h it .
Babit thic vi th n h phn ha hc gm Sn. Sb v Cu. c nn l dung dch rn
trn c s Sn. cc pha rn l SnSb v Cu;iSn. y l m t trong nhng hp kim
trt ch't lng cao. chc s dng trong cc tucbiii hi. iny nn kiu tucbin.
ng c iezen b truyn chn v t tu tlm , v.v. Nhic im ca nhm ny l thic
ang tr nn him v gi th n h trt tn g cao.
N gy nay babit th ic c th ay th bng babit ch hoc babt ch - thic r hn.
T hnh phn m t s babt trn c s thic v ch cho trong b ng 8 . 1 1 .
Bng 8.11. Thnh phn, tinh cht mt s' hp kim trt trn C0 s Sn v Pb
C tnh Khi H s' mi

Nhm K hiu Thnh phn, lng ma st mn,
TCVN % <^b. HB '1'. ring, t kg/cm^
MPa % g/cm^
Babit SnSbSCu 7,7Sb-3Cu 80 25 8 7.3 0,005 0.09
thic SnSb11Cu6 11Sb-6Cu 90 30 6 7.3 0.005 0.1
abit PbCuNaO,8 1Cu-0,8Na 100 32 8 0,5 0,004 0.6

ch
Babit
chi - PbSn-16Sb-Cu2 16Sn-16Sb-2Cu 78 30 1.4 0,92 0.006 0,22
thic
8.6. CC KIM LOI KH CHY V HP KIM CHU NNG
8.6.1. CC K IM L O I KH CHY
Cc kim loi nng chy nhit, cao hn 187C (n h it nng chy ca

crm) c xp vo nliiii kim loi kh chy (reactory nietals). Trong nhm n y
b'ii n gu yn t" Nb. Mo, Ta v w c trin vng ng dng nh iu nht.
V T LIU HC 413
Chnh lc lin k t Iiguyii t ln troii Iiina' tiiih th ca cac kiin loi ny ct

q u yt nh khig ch Iihit Iiiig chy rao : 246<s"( - vi Nb. 262" c -Mo.
300 0 " c -T a, 3410"C -W. ni c gi tr inchui (lii hi. cl bn. cng cng rt ln.
Tiiy vy, m ng oxyt to ra trn b nt hau Iili kiins c kh Iiiig bo v chng
Iihit cao. khc phc nhc im
ny Iigi ta c th svf dng Iihiu bin
php khc nliaii. trong k t.h\*t x
l b nit v bin php hp kiin ha
thch hp ct to m ng bo v hiii qii
ic ch Iiliiu nht.
Tim n n g cc kiin loi kh chy
an g r*t irc quan tm n gh in cu
khai thc. Nl:>, Mo. Ta. w c (lng
lm n gu yn t" hp kim trong cac tlip
c cng nng cao hoc troiig Iiliiig
hp kim chu nng. Hp kim niolipen
ic s dng lm khiin p n. cc ^'hit , c
olii ti t trong t ii v tr. Voliraiii v
Hinh 8.27. S phu thuc ca bn lu
hp kiii ca n s dng trong lnh VIC
(1000 h) vo nhit ca mt s siu hp
ch to n in, ng pliiiR tia
kim ch yu
Rntgeii. in cc hn. v.v.
T an tan h ii nh khng b n niii t.rniig lu\i lit cac nii t.ring ha hc Iihit
t.lip lidii 10'C. Do vy n l vt liu ;ui mii l t.itiig.
8.6,2. CC HP KliM CHU NNi
Cc lip kim chu nng. CII gi l siu li|) kim (s\ip(ralloys) tiig lip ic kh
Iing chig oxy ha v diiy tr c tn h cao khi lm vir lu di v n g n h it trn
7 0 0 'C. Ba nhm hp kim chii nng ch yii (tic s rHi nh in n h t l ihng siu
hp kim to th n h trn c s cc h; F e-N i. Ni v Co
Do lm vic nhit cao. cc mi triii tip xc V i hp kim chu nng c
hot tn h n m n rt m nh. c th l khu kh. kh d i y , kiii loi lng, nnii
nng chy. t n g tn h n nh niiK t'ii lii usni) i'n qu trnh oxy ha. gim
tc plin ng gia mi trng V I hp kiin. chjta s lia tan chnug. Hai nguyn
t Cr v AI c ia vo siu h{) kini. doiif! vai tro rt quan trong v cling to
n n m ng o xvt n ng ch y nliit rt cao, cnu t.nc St cht., ngn chn m t cch
hin qvi s p h t trin tip tc ca q\ia rrnli oxv li;. C ht liig' ca cc siu lip
kim cn chc nh gi n it th hai, k'i kh nng iuy tri c tnli v chng do,
h a y cn gi l bn nng ca chng. Cc' ch tiu c tn iig cho ch t liig ny l
gii hn bn lu (ng- su t gy pha hu ni.iu klii Mi Iihit n h t nh Bau mt
th i gian quy nh) v gii h n do (ng sut tc dng sa u m t thi gian quy nh
n h i t n h t n h g y nn tc bin d ng cho trc). Trn hnh 8.27 trn h by
4 1 4 __________________________________________ Chi/'ng s. KIM LOI V HP KiM MU
sit |)h thuc gii hn bii lii vo nhit, ct i vi ba loi hp kiii clixi nng c
hn.
Nhng hin phap chnh (tc s ciiig Iihiii niiK cao ( bu Iiuf ca siu hp
kMi ni:
- Ha bn Iiii bng crt ch ha bn duiig dch rn:
- To )ha th hai Iih mn. n nh (cacbit.. phn lin kim loi) phn b ctii
troii lin.
Trong hng 8.12 trnh bv thnli phn, tnh clit mt lip kim cliu nng
thng dng.
8.6.2.1. Hp kim chu nng trn c s Fe-Ni

Thnh phn cc siii hp kim ny gm niken vi hm lng khng nh hn
25% ni bo pha nn l aiisteit..
Tng hm liig Iiiken s tng kh Iing chvi n h it cao ciia hp kini.Crm
a vo vi hni hng 10-10% e to m ng chiig oxv ha.
N hng nguyn t khac c dia thm khng v\t qii 2% Mo. 4% Ti. 6 % Nb v
1% AI nit mt tn g l)n hp kim biig c cli lia bn dung dcli rii. int
klac to cac plia Ni:i(AlTi). Ni:iNb. Ni;(Ti Iih )iin. n nh, chiy tr C tnh nhit
d cao.
8.6.2.2. Hp kim ch u nng trn c s niken
Nn cac lip kiin Iiy l (hmg (lcli rn trn c s Iiikeii nuig lp phng tm
mt.. CrMi ctiig vai tr t nh troiig h Fe-N i. Tit.aii. Iihni a vo to
pha n rluh Ni;i(TiAl). Pha ny ch bt (tiu Ut n nh v tch t li r rt. n hit
(l x:Vp X lOOT. v \ vy n dii; vai t r Iiiiyt. (iih troiig vic ihiy tr d bn cao
(a lu.p kiin (M nhit, 850"c.
Vi hm lng khong 0 .2 -0 , 6 %. cacbon (Ivtc a vo ( t\tiig tc vi cr
nguyn t h p kiin khac to ra cacbit. phn b'(u c trong nn cng nh tlieo bin
ht hdp kini. Pha cacbit nh m n ng vai tr Iih nluiig ci cht ngn cn rt
hiu qu s tri(t theo biii gii h t vn g nhit, cao. clo vy Iiiig cao gii hii
do ca lip kim.
N hng Ig\iyn t Cr. Ni. w . Co v.v... Iing cao (t bn Iiiig khiif ch thii
qvui c ch to cacbit, ni CII bng cach gim liiili ng ca lch khi ha tan
trong thuig dcli rn ca nn.
8.6.1.3. Hp kim chu nng trn c s coban

Thnh phan ha hc ca h ny ngoi cobaii cn Cr (20-30% ), w (-l% ). Ni
(dvtdi 22%) v Iiit s uguyii t klic niiv Nb. pê. Mo, Ta. Cc nguvn t'ny ha
tan trong nn cobaii. s t.o nn hiu ng ha bn. n nh n nh it kha cao.
Hni hng cacbon trong siu hp kim trn c s cobaii dt ti 1,2%. Pha cacbit
to t.liiih. phn b' phn tii trong nn. xung quanh lch v theo bin gii ht.
Nling cacbit ny u tlnic loi pha xen k, rt n nh v chm tch t. Do vy
ohiig npnii cn rt m nh q\i trnli do xy ra r n h it cao.
VT LIU HC 415
So vi siu hp kini trn cd s niken. cc lip knii nliu Iing trn c s cobaii c
hii nh ldn. nhng chng n Iin tt lin t rong Iit s mi triig nh ch lng,
kli cliVta lu hiinh, v.v. X\1 ling uliy cni vi q\ia nhit nh hn v kh niig
chng clo trong khong nhit ct 80-1200"C cao hn.
Trong thc t chng loi hp kim chu nng rt (ta cing. cng dng ca chng
rat ])hong ph. Dii y c the nii ln mt s lnh vc iig dng in hnh.
- Cli to dy niing in tr. Trong lnh vc ny tn h chng oxy ha v cc cii
tiu in tr l nh ng y\i cii quan trng ;
- S n x \i t sp pp x ii c *t troii. Vt liu cn cliu ng mi tn tn g khi
n mn. chng do v chiig mi Iin tt. nhit ( tru 7O"C.
C li to l Iiiing cng nghip v cc thit, b Iiliit. hiyn. Cc hp kim chu nng
trou^^ lnh vc ny cn th hin kh n n g chng oxy ha gy n n bi cc kh hot
khac nhau cng nh chi ing iii n h it t't.
- n g (lng trong lnh vilc lia dii. 0 y cac si\i hp kim phi chu ng
Iilnng nii tring hot tn h m nli, lm vic di p su t ln v nhit c cao,
- Cli to cc th it b trong nh m y n hit in; ni sp de. ng trao i nhit,
tiicbin.
- n g dng trong cng nghip h n g kliiig. y lip kiii chu Iiiig c s
(lng ch to cc b phn ca tucbin phn lc, Kli n ng chu n h it cao ca
cac siu hp kim trong tn u g hp ny quyt nh hiii svit ng c. Ch cn n ng
Iihit kh chy t 90 lu 1200"C. (t c th tng hiii sut, thm 20%. V vy
vic nghin cu. ch to v ci th in tnh cluVt v t li\i chu Iing vn cang lao
Iihanh trn cc "ng iia".
Bng 8.12. Thnh phn, tnh cht mt s siu hp kim
Tn hp Thnh phn . % 1000 h

kim c Fe Cr Ni Co Mo w Ti Ta AI khc c MPa
C s Fe-Ni
Incolloy 801 0,05 nn 205 32 1.3 650 180
Discalloy 0,08 nn 135 26 - 3 - 1,8 - - - 650 125
N155 0,15 nn 21 20 20 3 2,5 - - - 1Nb 650 140
C s Ni
Inconel 700 0,12 9 15 nn 28,5 3,8 2,2 3 850 125
Nimonic 115 0,15 - 15 nn 15 3,5 - 4,0 - 5 - 850 190
VVaspalloy 0,07 0,8 20 nn 13,5 4,5 - 3 - 1.4 - 850 125
MAR-M200 0,15 - 9 nn 10 - 12,5 2 - 5 - 850 310
IN 100 0,20 - 10 nn 15 3 - 5 - 5.5 1V(B+ 850 260
Zr)
Ren 41 0,10 1,8 19 nn 11 10 3 1,5 850 100
C s Co
HS31 1,0 0,8 215 nn 9 0,8 850 110
MAR - M322 0,5 1,5 225 105 nn - 7.5 - 4,5 - 2.2Zr 850 140
416 Chng 9. VT LIU v c
Chong 9
VT LIU v c
9.1. KHI NIM CHUNG

V t liu v c c to th nh t cc hp ch t ha hc ca cc nguyn t kiiii

loi kt hp vi cc nguyn t khng phi kim loi, hoc ca ccnguyn t khng
kim loi kt hp vi nhau.
K liong 75% n gu yn t trong b iig tu n
hon cc nguyn t ha hc tham gia cii to
nn v t liii v c. Cc nguyn t chiih v
nhng kh nng kt hp gita chng to
nii vt liii v c c biu din b ng s
trn hnh 9.1.
Theo s . m t kim loi no c th s
kt hp vi bo to ra borit, vi cacbon to ra
cacbit, vi nit to ra Iiitrit. vi oxy to ra
oxyt. vi silic to ra silixit. C ng titng t
nh vy khi x u t p h t t silic h ay bo.
S kt hp trn lm cho v t liu v c r't
phong ph. a dng v th n h phn ha hc
v tn h cht. Cc n g hp ch t ha hc Hnh 9.1.S biu din cc nguyn
thng gp trong v t liu v c l: n oxyt k* hp
kim loi (v d. A1,0., trong gm corinng). 9'a chng tao nn cc vt liu v
n oxyt bn kim loi (v d. SO 2 trong th y
tinh thch anh), hn hp nhiii oxyt kim loi (v d, s. thiiy tiiih silicat). cac
nguyn t" khng phi kim loi (v d, bo, cacbon), cc cacbit, nitrit ca kim loi v
bn kim loi (v d, TiC. SiC, BN, ZrN), ...
Ty theo mc ch, v t liu v c c th phn loi theo nhiu cch khc nhaii;
theo th n h phn ha hc, cii trc, phitng php cng n gh, lnh vc s dng v.v.
Trong CUII sch ny v t liii v c ic phn chia theo c im kt hp v trnh
by theo ba Iilini chnh:
- Gm v v t liii chii la;
- Thy tin h v gm th y tinh;
- X im ng v btiig.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________ 417
pliii b it vi cc nhm v t liu lii khc (vt liu kim loi, v t liu hu c),
hin nay Iigi ta thiig dng k h i Iiin) v t liu gm (ceramic) ch chung cc
loi v t liu v c phi kiii loi bao gm c ba nhm v t liu v c k trn.
Vt liii v c l m t nhm v t liii ln, trong phm vi cliKdng n y ch cp
n cac v n c bn v cc i din chnh ca n.
9.2. C
IM CU TRC V TNH CHT CA VT
LIU
v c
Vt liii v c bao gm Iihiii chng loi khc Iihaii, n h in g m ang nhng c
im cluing v cu trc v tn h cht. Nhng c im ny khc b it r rt so vi
cu trc v tnh ch t ca v t liu kim loi v v t liu h\i c.
9.2.1. LIN KT NGUYN T TRONG VT LIU v c
Vt liu v c itc to th n h t cc nguyn t kini loi v cc Iig\iyn t' khng

phi kim loi, tc l t cc loi nguyn t vi bn ch't. ha hc klic nhau, v d,
khc nhau v kch thc n gu yn t. cu to v iu t, s phi tr. kh n n g phn
CIC. lifc lin kt, ...V th, so vi kim loi vt liu v c c cu trc phc tp hn.
dn v cu trc ca Iit v t liu v c thng c xc nh bi t l bn knh
gia cation v anion. Xut pht t tng quan hnh hc ny. cc nguyn ti ic
sap xp theo m t h n h ph tr xc nh vi s plii tr khng i. Trong cc h vt
Hu v c cii to bi n h iu loi nguyn t (catioii) khc Iihaii. do s khc bit v
kch tlnc ca cc catioi 'ln c th xy ra SI sp xp li ca cc anion v dn n
hnh th n h cc hnh phi tr. s phi tr khc na. Ni cch khc, trong v t liu v
cd mt catioi c th cng vi anion to ra Iiliii kiu n v cû trc khc Iiha\i v
c s phi tr khc nhaii.
Dc tn n g quan trng n h t v cu trc ca v t liu v c l kiu lin k t gia
cac nguyn ti cii to nn II. Trong vt liu v c khiig c kiu lin k t kini loi,
ni l kt hp gia lin k t ioii v lin kt iig ha tr. V d. t l lin k t ion
(phn cn li l lin k t ng ha tr) trong mt s hp ch t Iilu 5au:
K - O; 90 % AI - O: 60 %
M g- O: 80 % B - O: 45 %
Zr- O: 67 % Si - O: 40 %
Ti- O: 63 % c - O: 22 %.
Do c im lin k t phc hp ion-ciig ha tr nn n n g lng lin k t trong
vt liu v c l tng ln. nm trong khong 100 - OO k J.m or' (i vi kim
loi l 60 - 2 O k.inor').
c im lin k t plic hp ion-ng ha tr nh hng q u yt iih n m t s
tnh ch't c trin g ca v t liu v c; nh it nng chy cao, m t cao. cng,
giii, trong su t v cch in cao.
V t liu v c ctic c\i to bi cc loi nguyn t c bn ch t ha hc klic
nhau nn yu t' phn cc v bin dng trong lin k t ca v t liu l ng k. c
bit cc catioii c in tch ln v anioii c kch thc ln s lm lch s phn b
in t v lm t n g t l lin k t ng ha tr, S phn cc v bin dng ioii c anh
27 - VLH
418 C h n g 9. VT LIU v c
hng r n cc tn h ch t ca v t liu, c b it l n hi. bn c hc. (t

cm g v m u sc ca v t liu.
9.2.2. TR N G T H I T IN H T H V TRNG T H I v N H H N H
V t liu v c c th tn ti cc trng th i cii to khc Iihaii: trng th ai tinh

th (v d, gm SiC. cc gm n oxyt). trng th i v nh hiih (v d. v t li\i thy
tinh), hoc va tin h th va v nh hnh (v d. s, gni thy tinh),
Sau y s tm h iu m t s c im cu trc ca trn g th i tin h th v trn g
th i v nh h iih trong cc v t liu v c tling dng.
9.2.2.1.Trng thi tinh th trong vt liu v c
) [S iO J
b ) S i, 0,]^ - c ) [ S/ j Os ]
f) o g ) [ S i 02]
Hnh 9.2. Cc dng cu trc silicat;
a) cu trc o. b) cu trc nhm; c) cu trc vng (v du, vng ba),
d) cu trc chui n, e) cu trc chui kp, f) cu trc lp, g) cu trc khung
M ng tin h th ca phn lii cc v t liu v c c th coi m t cch gn (iiig l

m ng ca cc ion. trong cc cation v anion chim v tr cc n t m ng. N h ing clo
lun lun c m t t l n h t iih lin k t ng ha tr n n trong m ng c s iii
chiih v sp xp li. cc anion X bao quanh cation Me to ra hnh a din phi tr
VT LIU HC 419
clug MeX,,. Ch s n chnh l s )1k) tr )h t.liuc t l bn knh gia cc ioii

{ r \ \ , . / \ ) . c g i t r t 3 n 1 2 t y t h e o k P U c a h n h (ta d i i i p h i t r .
Trong cac nhm v t liu v c h oxy.. ph biu hii c l a din phi tr hnh
bn m t M eO i = 4) v hnh tam mt. MeO,: {// - (>). N goi ra CII c cc dng
k h c n h i M e O . , M e O .r,. M e O .s v M e O |^ .
Cac a din nv m ang c tnh anioii v c gi l anioii phc. v d, [B O ;]' .
[BO|J '. [ P 0 |] . [S i0 .j]' . Cc a din phi tri lin kt vi Iiiiau to ra m ng tinh
th ca v t liu. C hing c th lin kpt vi nhaii qua nh, qua cnh hoc qiia m t
ca a din phi tr. bn vng ca mnt s lu nh t khi cc a diii Iii nhau
qua nh, gim dn khi ni nhau qiia cnh v q\ia mt.
Thay i cch lin k t troiig mt cta (lin. chng ta c th to ra cc cu trc
kliac nhan. iii nv th y r q\ia v cl. a din [SiO.|]'' (hnh bn m t), n v cu
trc c b n ca v t liu silicat. Klii c ct oxy trong lip cht, s to ra cc a din
c lp. CII khi th iu oxy. cc ca diii ny s dng cluuig oxy. to ra cc cu ni.
D y l hin tng polynie ha. dn n hnh th nh cc lip ch t kiu cao phn t
silicat. T y theo kiu v quy in kt lip gia cc a din [S iO i] vi nhau s liiiih
thuli cc loi c'\i trc tin h th silicat khac nhau (hnh 9.2);
- c\i trc o: nesosilicat;
- c\i trc Iihni: sorosilicat:
- c\i trc vng: cyclosilicat;
- c\i trc chui: iiiosilicat;
- cii trc lp; phyllosilicat;
- c\i trc khung: tectosilicat.
Bng 9.1. Cc kiu cu trc thng gp nht trong vt liu v c
S Kiu cu Cng Kiu xp S phi tri ca V d cc hp cht

TT trc thc ca anion cation v c
1 Mui n AX 1p t m 6 MgO, FeO, NiO, ZrO, TiN
NaCI
2 Sphalerit AX 1p t m 4 SiC. BN. kim cng
ZnS
3 Wurzit AX sp 4 BeO, ZnO, CdS, CdSe
ZnS
4 Pluorit AXp 1p t m 8 UO 2 . Th02. Ce02, Zr 2
CaF^
5 Rutil A 2 sp 6 Sn02, Pb 2 , GeOj, MnO
TiO^
6 Perovskit ABXa 1p t m 12(A), 6(B) SrZr 0 3 , BaTiOs, SrTiOa
CaTiOa
7 Spinel AB jX4 sp 4(A), 6(B) hoc ZnAl2 0 4 , PeaO^, Mg2Ti 0 4
MgAl^ 6(A). 4 v 6(B) Y-AI2O 3 , Y-PesOa
Ti OO
8 Q o
Hnh 9.3. Mt s' cu trc tinh th in hinh trong vt liu v c

a) mui n (NaCI); b) sphalerit (ZnS). c) wurzit (ZnS) ; d) luorit (Cap2 ), e) rutll (TO2 ). f) crystobalit
(SO2); g) perowskit (CaTiOg); h) spinel (AB2O4 , vi d, MgPeO), hinh mi tn ch hng ca mmen t
trong terrospinel; 1) corinng (AI2O3); k) graphit (C)
VT LIU HC 421
Trong cii tn c ca cc hp cht v c cha oxy. Iigtiyii t oxy thitng c kch

thirc lii n h t nn chim nhiu ch nlit. so vi ration trong khng gian mng tinh
th. V vy c th xem cu tn c cn co oxyt. v cc hp ch t cha oxy l cu trc
xp st nhau cac qii cn aiiion oxy. cn cc cation in vo cc m t trng gia cc
qii cii . Coli xp cii. v tr nt trng (tlung l lu it triig hnh bn m t v
t.ii m t) s quy nh kiu cu trc ca hp cht .
N gi ta th iig ly c' t'nic ca III. s lip cht c trong t n hin lm i
din. Cc kiu cu trc thng gp Iiht trong vt liu v c c trnh by
bng 9.1.
9.2.2.2. Trng thi v nh hnh

Klic vi trn g th i tin h th. trng thi v nh h n h c to nn do s sp
xp m t cch khng c tr t t. khng theo qiiy lii t ca n v cu trc c bn.
M ng li n g u y n t ca n do khiig c cc yii t' i xng, khng c tn h tiiii
hon. Cii trc trn dn ti cc tnh ch t c tring ca v t liu v nh hnh l:
n g hing (isotropic). c n ng htng di cao v khng bn v Iihit ng. Klii c
iii kin th iin li, vt. liu thy tinh s kt tinh.
C hng ta ly c\i trc ca thy tiiili SiO;; v dn x u t ca n lm v d. S
c\i trc ca thy, tin h SO 2 (thy tin h thch anh), th y tinh Iiatrisilicat (Na-Ô-
SiO^) v ca tin h th SiOi ( so sanh) ctc trnli by trn hnh 9.4.
Hnh 9.4. S cu trc ca

a) tinh th thch anh (SO2); b) thy tinh thach
anh (SO2): c) thy tinh natrisiiicat(N20-Si02)
Thy tin h SO 2 cng ging nh tinh t.h SO 2 ic to th n h t m ng hri

khng gian ba chiu ca cc khi bn m t [S iO |]'' (s trn hnh v biii din
khng gian hai chiii), cc khi ny lin kt vi Iiha\i qiia nh. im khc bit
gia hai tr n g thi l ch. troiig khi dng tinh th cc khi bn mt. [SiO |] ic
422 _____________________________________________________ Chufr 9. VT LIU v c
sp xp mt. cch c qiiy hit. c trt t cao. to ra cc yu t i xng cao th

trng th i v nh linli chiig sp xp khng theo quy h it hnh hc no (hnh
9.4.a v 9.4.b) .
Cn cu trc ca th y tin h Iiatri silicat. khung chnh ca niiig li l do
SO 2 to thnh, cn cc n gu yn t N a c phn b vo cc v tr trii trong m ng
hti (liiih 9.4.C). S tham gia ca Na-ô vo m ng li SO 2 lm th ay di cii trc
ban ii ca mng: gy t m ng, lm gim mc lin kt. ca khuiig th y tiuh.
iu ny dn ti n h n g th a y i v tn h ch<'t ca th y tinh; n h it ung chy
gim , nht gim , bn ha giii. ...
T rng th i v iili hnh tlui c th\fiig bng cch ngiii nhanh mt hdp
ch t v c t triig th i lng nng chy. C lit s" nguyn t v hj) ch't c
khuynh hng tn t i trn g thi v ctiili hnh (v d.: s , SO 2. BÔ . PÔrv ...).
Cc ch t n y c c im chung l c cu trc m ng li ch t ch. nic lin kt
ni t i cao m b iu hin l c nht cao khi trng thi nng chy. Clinh iii
n y gy tr n gi cho vic dch chuyn, sp xp nguyn t to ra inin cho s
k t tiiih. Cho nn khi hn hp nng chy ny c lin liih (ii nhit khng
kh. qii triih kt tinh s khiig xy ra, ni trng th i nng chy s clm yii thnh
cht lng qu ngui v ng cng li th nh cht rn th y tinh.
B ng cch lm ngui n h a n h cng c th n h n c trng th i v nh hnh ca
n h iu hp ch t v c nng chy c nht khng cao lni.
Klic b it vi v t liu tiiili th , cc v t liu trng th i v nh hnh thy tinli
tliay i tn h ch t u n theo n h it , khng c im t bin khi cluiyn trng
thi (xein hnh 3.16). N hi vy, th y tinh khng c n h it nng chy xc nh Iilu
v t liii tinh th; n chuyn trn g th i t t trong m t khon g n h it .
9.2.3. V T L I U A PH A V A T IN H T H E
V t liu v c c th n h phn pha rt. a dng. Bn cnh cc v t li\i mt pha

nh thy tinh, gm n oxyt, phn ln v t li\i v c l v t liii a pha.
Trong v t liu v c a pha, pha chnh l cc pha tinh th, c lin kt. vi
nhau bi plia v nh hnh (v d, s, g'ni chu la, g'in th y tinh. ...). ugoi ra cn
lun c pha kh di diig cc bt kh xen ln. Pha kh tn ti trong vt liu C
trng lip do iu kin cng Iigh khng tr n h chc, cng c trng hp do ch
ng a vo c mc ch (v d, gm xp, thy tinh xp, btiig xp lm vt. liu
nh. cch nhit).
Do iii kin cng n gh quy nh, v t liu v c tin h th khng c cii trc n
tin h th m u l v t liu a tin h th, tc n vtc to bi v s cc h t tiiili th
kch thc nh, phn b" khng c qiiy lu t trong v t liu. Cc h t tin h th Iiy
hoc c cng th n h phn ha hc hoc c th nh phn ha hc khc Iihau. Cc ht.
tin h th trong v t liii v c thng c cu trc khng hon chnh, cha nhiii
k h u yt tt.
T chc a pha cng th hin r v t liii com pozit l v t liu ic to th n h
do kt hp hai hoc nhiu loi v t liii khc n h au p h t huy cc u im, h n
VT LIU HC 423
ch Iihc im ca tng loi v t liii thnli phn (v d. compozit si thy tinh-

ximng, si thy tiiili-polyme).
9.2.4. C T N H CA V T L I U v c
Do b ii ch t ha hc v cu trc quy nh, vt liii v c c cc tn h ch t chung

c trng l: bn ha hc cao. b n n h it cao, cch n h it tt v m t s" v t liu c cc
tiil ch t q iian g hc c bit. y l c im ch yu v tn h ch t ca v t liu v
c. l c s chnh ha chn, s dng i vi phn ln v t liu v c.
N h in g m t khc, cng do cu trc quy nh, v t liu v c n hn chm ig c
bn c hc th p hn so vi v t liii kim loi v c nhng c im ring cn ch
khi ch to v s dng v t liii.
Trong phm vi sch ny, chng ta ch xem xt mt s c iin v cd tn h
v n h it tu h ca v t liii v c.
9.2.4.1. Tnh n hi v tnh gin

V t liu v c l v t liu n hi
(tin hnh, Iilit th in g dii tc
dng ca ti trng, mi qivan h gia
ng su t h n h th n h trong v t liu
() v bin dng (e) cxia m u hoii
ton tu n theo nh lu t Hooke (xem
mc 4.1,2);
= .c .
trong E - Iiiiiu n hi.
Trn h n h 9. c th so s n h mi
quan li gia a v e ca v t liu v c
v v t liu kim loi.
rp 1 ' i.1 i 4. - . dang. 1 -vt liu V C; 2 - kim loai
Ta n h n th y rn g trn gii h n y
n hi, vt liu v c b ph h y ngay m khng c bin dng do nh kim loi.
l c tn iig ca tn h gin.
C hnh c iii lin k t n gu yn t vi cc gc lin k t xc nh v lc lin k t
ln. cu to m n g tin h th phc tp l nhng ngu yn n h n to n n tn h gin ca
v t liu v c.
9,2.4.2. bn c hc
nh gi b n ca v t liu theo bii lin k t n gu yn t, Iigi ta a ra
khi n im b n l th u y t (xem mc 4..1).
bn l th u y t ca v t liii , c xc nh theo cng thc Orovvan:
1/2
|1 = {2E.'{ / a )
424________________________________________________________ Chng 9. VT LIU v c
trong E - m un n hi;
Y - n ng lng b m t ring;
a - khon g cch n gu yn t.
V d. || ca g"m coriiing th iu kt: o .io ' M Pa, ca thy tinh silicat:
8.10 MPa.
bn thc t cia v t liu v c thiiig c gi tr thp hn Iihiu so vi gia tr
l th u yt. V d, b n thc t ca th y tinh ch bng khong 1/100 bn l
th u y t ca n.
N gu yn n h n chnh lm gim bn c hc ca vt liu v c l s c int ca
cc v t Iit t vi vi chiu di trong khong 10"* n 100 i-ini. Theo Griffit.li-
O rowan. cl tn ti cc v t n t t vi khi v t liii chii ti trng ko vi ng su t a
th ti iih ca v t nt c sn s xiit h in ng su t , chc xc nh nh sau:
= 2( l/r
trong z- ch iu di ca v t nt:
r - bn knh cong t i nh v t nt.
Nh vy, cng m t t i trng tc dng, ng sut, s cng ln khi chiu di vt
l t cng ln v bn knh cong ti nh v t nt cn g nh. Klii iig su t nv vt,
qu bu l th u y t, v t n t s lan rng v ph hiiy vt liu.
C ng do c c h ph h y trn, v t liu v c hiii c bn nn cao hn Iiliiii
ln so vi bu ko ( khon g 10 ln i vi v t liii thy tinh).
nh gi bn c hc ca v t liii gin ngi ta s d n g dai pha hy
K c, c xc nh bi biu thiic sau:
K ,r = ffo MPa.in''"
trong ^ - h s h n h d n g (ca v t liu v v t n t ):

- ng su t ph liii;
l - chin di v t nt.
Gi tr K c ca m t s" v t liu v c nh saii:
G'm coriniig ( AI2O.O: 3.0 - ,3 MPa.ni'^^
T hy tin h silica t kim: 0,7 - 0,8
Btiig: 0.2 - 1,4
N li v y yu t' nh hng q iiyt nh n c tnh ca v t liu v c khng phi
l n n g lng lin k t n gu yn t cii to nn n. m l tiih trn g k h u yt t t trong
v tru b m t v t liu. Klii s' liig v t nt t vi tng, kch thc v t Iit tn g tli
c tn h gim m nh.
0 cc v t ji u v c tin h th. kch thc ca cc ht. tin h th c\i to nn vt
liu c nh hiig r ti c tn h ca v t liu. Klii kch thc Iit cng gim th h
m t ranh gii gia cc h t t n g ln. s c tc dng ngn chn hoc lni thay cti
hing lan tn iy n v t nt, do vy cl bn c hc ca v t liii t n g ln (iih lu t
H all-P etch , xem mc 4.2.4).
Klii hni liig cc bt k h troiig v t liu t n g th bii gim khng ch (lo
din tch chu lc gim, m cn doti cc r kh thng tp trung tp cht. Vcng
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________425
iit. H nh dng bt kh cng nh hiMng ti rrt t.nli. Cac bt kh di lixi gim d

bii iniih hdn cc bt, kh trn.
C m g cn ch rng khi hm lng bt, kh rat th p 0,1 - 0,5% ) v kch
thitc bt r t nh li c th lm tng bn. Trong tr\nf lip ny cc l hng CIC
niii iig v ai tr cc tru n g tm hp th niig lng. c t.ac dng ngn chn s lan
truyn v t n t v gii ta ng su t pha hy vt liu.
Do s phn b* m ang tnh thng k ca cc v t nt t vi v cc k h u yt t t kliac
trong v t liu nn gi tr bn thc t ca vt liii v c cng m aiig tnh thng
k Trong tlivc t, n c th dao ng trong )nt I)lim vi ln.
bn ca v t liu v c cn ph thuc vo iu kin v mi triiig s dng.
V d. hi ani. Iiliit lm gim nng liig b nt ring, do lin gim bn.
ivi k in o (tc t n g t i trng, hiiih dang v kch thitc niii) c n h hng ln
n kt qu xc iih bn. N hn clm ng. tc tiig ti trng cng lii. kch thc
m u ciig nh th k t qii o bn cng cao. V vy xc nh bn ca vt liu
v c cn phi c tin hnh theo cc q\iy iih ghi trong cc tiu clm ii.
9.2.5. TNH CHT NHIT

CA VT
LIU
v c
Vt. liii v c ic s cliiR khng ch nhit tli\ng, ni trong Iihiii

tn iig hi) cn n h it cao. Do c. bn cnh cac tnh clit c hc, cnc tiili clit.
n h it Iilu gin n n h it, dn nhit, tn iy n niit biic x, bi xung n h it l
uliiig tnh cht quan triig ca vt liu v c (xcni mc .2).
9.2.5.1. Gin n nhit

N gu yn Iihn g iii n ca vt, li\i rn li lar dn ca Iihit ct l (lao itny
Iiliit phi iu ha ca cc piin t cu to nu vt. liii. Mc ca dao ctiig ny
ph tluic vo cc yu t ng\iyii t (v (l. loi v (l bii lin k t ha hc) v cc
yu ttin h th hc (v d. tn h d hug hoc (iif Intng).
p iih gi mc giu n n h it ca vt liu v crt Iigii ta thng s ng
h i' gin a n liit di a :
a = Al /(!. AT) .
trong / - di ban u ca mu;

Al - gin di cia m ii klii nhit d tn g thm A T .
Ngi ta cn qiiaii tm n h s gin n uliit th tch P;
p = AV/rAV... AD .
Gia a v p c quan h gn ng p 3a.
v l th u y t, khi nhit tiig th h s gin n n iiit tng, v n nhit ct
D ebye s tr n u khng i. v t y dao ng nhit dt tn s^ gii hn. N hng
trong thc t cc m ng tin h th ii c cha khuyt tt nn h s gin n n h it ca
v t liu v c khng phi l h n g s'trong Iii vng nhit, . V vy khi chi dn h
s a ca m t v t li\i c th cn ni r l Iihit no. Klii nhit d tip tc tng
qu m t gii h n no . v t liu s chuyn trng th i t rn san g m m . s bin

dng do. Lc n y v t liu m t dn kh n n g chu ti v c coi l b t u b pli
hy do n hit.
cc v t liu v c tinh th h s gin n n h it ph thuc rt lii vo hng
trc tin h th. B ng 9.2 nu h s gin n n h it ca m t s v t liu v c tin li th
theo cc chiu trc khc Iihaii.
Bng 9.2. H s gin n nhit di (X ca mt s' vt liu v c

tinh th theo cc chiu truc khc nhau
S Vt liu (X , 1
TT 1 truc c // trc c
1 SO 2 (thch anh) 140 90
2 3 AI2 O 3 .2 SO 2 45 57
3 AI2O 3 .TO 2 -26 115
4 ZrSi 0 4 37 62
5 CaCOs -60 250
6 c (graphit) 10 270
7 BN (su phng) 7 75
Tr s' ca h s gin n n h it di a ca mt v t liu tin h th c th m ang du

iii theo m t h ay v i trc tin h th pli thuc cii trc m ng tinli th ca n.
H s gin n n h it di a,p theo phing b t k lm th n h gc ip i vi nit
phng c b n ic xc nh theo cng thc ;
a,p = a , - (tt// - aj,)cos^(p .
troiig ai v a// - h s' gin n Iihit theo phng vung gc v song song so vi
m t ph iig c bn.
l vi cc v t liii v c v m h hnh do c cii trc lioii ton ng hng nn
h s gin n n h it khng i theo ini phng kho st. i vi v t liu th y tiiih.
h s' a ph thuc vo th n h phn ha hc, bn lin k t v c tring cu trc
ca th y tin h .
H s" gin n n h it ca v t liii a pha ph thuc vo li s' gin n n h it ca
cc pha th n h phn. M t v t liii gm cii to t n pha c h s' gin n nh it xc
nh theo cng thc:
p,
C,
p,
trong K , - m un n hi;
C - hm lng phn trm;
Pi - khi lng rin g ca pha th i trong v t liu a pha.
VT LIU HC 427
S k t hp cc pha khc nliaii (tinh th. thy tinh, l xp) vi cc h s' gin n
nhit khac nhaxi s dn ti trng thai ng s\i t ch phc tp vi tr s ng su t cao
trong vt liu.
9.2.5.2. Dn nhit
Kli n n g dii n h it ca v t liu chtc th liiii qua h H dn n h it [th
Iiguvn W/(in.K)] trong bin thc sau:
Q I t = - . F . ( c l T / d r )
troiig dQ - n h it hiig truyn qiia ti t din F ca khi v t liii trong thi gian d
vi g ra ien t n h it cl77d.r theo plniig ai: vviiig gc vi F.
D n n h it trong cc v t liu rii c thc hin III cc in t t do v s dao
ng ca m n g hi cu trc. V t liii kim loi c kh n n g dii n h it cao l Iih
cc in t t do ca. n. cn trong v t liu v c s trao i n h it xy ra ch yu l
do dao ctng phi iii ha cia cc nguyn t cu to nn m ng hi, theo quan iii
liug t. chnh l nh cc htng t ca sng m ng li. gi l cc phoiiou. Theo
th u yt phonoii. h s dn n h it X ca Vct liu chtc xac ctiili nh sau:
X - c.v.l / 3
troug c - n h it dung ca v t liu;

! - tc ca plioiioii (tc ( trviyii dao ng m ng hti);
/ - qung iig t do ca phoiioii.
H s" dii n h it l i htng
ph thvic n h it . Q uy lu t ph
thuc ny khng ging n haii vt.
liu tinh th v v t liu v nh
hnh.
Xt nh luiig ca n h it ct
e
n cc y\i t' q iiyt nh h s' $
dn n h it ca v t liu tin h th Iilu <
i\i trong biu thc ca A., ta
thy khi n h it t n g th Iihit
cluiig c tn g, n n h it D ebye c
tr nii khng i, trong khi di
qung dng t do ca phoiion / v
t'c tru yn sng m n g hi li
gim do phi iu ha ca dao
dng m n g tng. 0 n h i t thp.
cc phonon c bc sng titug
ln v t b nhiu. Klii n h it
Hnh 9.6. S ph thuc ca h s dn nhit X vo
tn g tli m t phonon tn g, gy
nhit ca mt s vt liu v c tinh th
cn tr ln nhan, lm gim l v V.
1- graphit , 2- SiC . 3- BeO , 4- AI2O3 ; 5- mulit
n m t n h i t xc iih. l s
428________________________________________________________ C h n g 9. VT LIU v c
gim ti c h n g s m ng v khng gim th m na; m t khc c khng i. nn

h s' dn nhit. tr nii khiig i. Tni li, cc v t livi tin h th c h s dn
Iihit gii dn th eo n h it Iilnng vi tc khng ii. H nh 9.6 nu quy lut,
th ay i ca h s dn n h it tlieo n h it cia m t s v t liu v c tin h th.
L th u y t phoiioii rt nhn m nh nh hng ca phi in ha ca dao iig
m ug n kh n n g dn nhit. T c tli hiii v sao cc v t liu gm cc nguyn
t' c khi lng n gu yn t ln thng c dn n h it nh. Klii lng n gu yn t
ln gy ra phi iu ha cao ca dao ng.
i vi cc v t liu v c v nh hiili nh th y tinh, do c\i trc ch c tr t t
gn ca cc khi a din phi tr c bn, khng c tr t t xa. n n di quiig
ng t do ca phoiioii rt b hn ch, ch c khong cch nguyn t. Do . so
vi v t liu v c tin h th. v t liu th iiy tinh c dn u h it th'p hii v c h s
n h it ding, tc khi n h it tn g th h s' du n h it s tn g m t t do khong
cch nguyn t t n g ln. cn ch th m rng kh u u g tn iy ii n liit ni chung
ca v t liu th y tin h cn ph thuc vo th nh phn tru yn n h it bc x ca n
(xem mc 9.2..3).
Kli n n g dn n h it ca vt liii v c a plia, a tinh th ph thiic rt ln
vo c im t chc ca n. Cc yii t chnh lm gim dn n h it ca v t liu
ny l; ranh gii ga cc ht. k h u yt t t m ng v tp cht.
v n gu yn tc, v t liu n tinh th c dn n h it cao hn v t liu a tinh
th. v t liu tinh th c du Iihit cao hn v t liu v nh hih. R ing v t liii
g'm bn dn v th iiy tin h bn dn c dn n h it c b it cao do c int cc in
t t do.
S c m t ca l x'p trong v t liu v c c n h hing rt ln n dn niiit
ca v t liu. Kling k h b giam trong cc l xp c kh n n g dn n h it km ( nhit
thp n n lm gim m nh dn n h it ca ton v t liu. H s^ gin n nhit,
ca vt. liu v cd c chia l xp c th xc nh theo bin thc:
1 + 2 V J (1 - n ) /( l + 2n)]
X = K . --------------------------------- --.
1 - V d H - n )K l + 2 ^)]
trong n = :
A-r v A-k - h s dn n h it ca pha rii v pha k h ;
- phn trm th tch ca pha kh.
H ii h t cc v t liu cch n h it s dng trong k th u t l cc v t liu xp, Do
t l l xp trong v t liu ln n n v t livi c h s" dn n h it rt nh. T uy n h in khi
n h it t n g cao th kh n ng dn n h it ca v t liu ny s tn g do th n h phn
truyn n h it bc x ca l x'p t n g (xem nic 9.2..3).
9.2.5.3. Truyn nhit bc x

N gi kh n n g truyn n h it dn n h it nh triih by trn, v t liu v c
cn c kh n n g truyn n h it bc x qua pha v nh hiih v pha kh. i vi cc
v t liu v c c t l pha v iih h n h v pha kh (trong cc l xp) cao, khi Iiliit
VT LIU HC________________________________________________________________________ 429
tn g cao. vai tr ca truyn niiit hc x s tiig 1(U v c th chini \tu th so

vi truyn n h it dn Iihit.
H s tru yn n h it bc x A.1,;^\rdc xc (iih tlieo )PU thc:
= (l(5/3).a./'./.T 7 .
trong - h n g s S tefan -B oltzin an n ;

n - ch s kluic x di vi tia hng ngoi;
l - qiin g ing ti do ca phoiioii (li vi tia hng ngoi;
a - h s hp th;
T - n h it .
Do h s' tru yn n h it bc x ph thuc vo nhit theo hin nn n tng
rt nh an h theo n h it . Kli nng clio tia hng ngoi i qua ca cc pha v nh
hnh v pha k h c nh hitng ln n s truyn n hit bc x. Kli n n g ny cng
cao th n h it bc x tru yn qua cng mnh. Triiyn n h it bc x ca cc v t liu v
C tlu iig b t u ng k t n h it trn 300 "c.
Kling ch t l pha kh m kch thic ca cac l xp cfm g c nh luiig ctii
kh n ng tn iy ii n h it bc x ca vt liii. Cc l xp kch thic ln lni tang
truyn n h it bc x.
9.2.5.4. bn xung nhit

Phn ln cc v t liu v c c dn n liit tAUR cti thp nn khi nhit, ini
trng th a y i th n h it trong vt liii chc cu b n g int cch chm chp.
Trong qu triih ny. ti cc v n g nhit d kliac nhan c s gin n n h it khc
n hau dn ti hnh th n h i'iig su't ph 11 h kliiig (u troiiR khi v t liu. N ii ng
su t ny vitt qiia fii hn bn ko hoc l)n nii ra vt liu th n s b ph hy.
Kli n n g bn v ng c hc ca vt. liu v c cli t,ac dng n h it th ay i
t ngt c gi l bn x u n g nii.t. xc cnh biii khong chnli lcli nhit, (t
A T ln n h t hoc s ln th ay i nhit, d ct ngt theo cc i\i kin quy nh v
t.c v khon g n h it th ay i. kich thic niu. ... Iii v t liu ch\a b ph
lui. bn x\ing uhit ca vt liu v c J)h thuc: plii'c tp vo Iiliiii yii t
khc nhaii Iihi dn nhit, bn c hc, t chc VI ni v v m ca v t liii,
iii kin o c, liiih dng v kch thilc niu th, v.v.
nh gi m t cch tng i l)n x\ing n h it ca v t liu v c, ngii ta
a ra cc ciig thc tn h ton da trn nii (luaii h ca n vi cc yii t nh
hng qiiaii trng nht.
bn xu n g n h it cia v t liu thy tiiih c th (lc tnh theo Bartenev;
T = (3/2).I," (1 - |.i)/(a.) .
tro n g ," - gii h n b n Iin ca vt liu;

l-i - h s Poissoii;
a - h s" gin n n h it di ;
E - inm i n hi ca v t liu.
430________________________________________________________ Chig 9. VT LIU v c
i vi v t liii g"m c th ng dng cng thc ca Haase:
AT = 0\J(a.E) .
trong ai, - gii h n bn ko.

bn xu n g n h it thc ca v t liu v c tluiig ic xac dnh bng thc
nghim theo cc tiu chun quy nh i vi t ng loi v t liu hoc tiig loi san
phm ch to t v t liii v c.
9.3. GM V VT LIU CHU LA

9.3.1. K H I N I M CHNG
Gm l loi v t liu nhn to c sni n h t trong lch s loi Iigii. Klii nim
gm (cerainic) khi u c dng ch v t liu ch to t t st. caolaiili (gni
t nung). V sau, cng vi s\t p h t trin ca khoa hc k th u t, khi Iiini ny
c ni rng v bao gm thm s. cc v t liu trn c s oxyt (v d. gm AlÔ )
v cc v t liu v c khng phi oxyt (v d. SiC). N gy n ay khi nim ceraniic i
khi cn c h in vi n gh a rng hn. bao gm ton b cc v t liu v c phi ki 111
loi ni chung.
Vi t cch l m t nhm tli iih phn trong v t liii v c. khi nim gm lii
quan n hai ni dung: ph\iig php cng ngh v c im t chc. Pluiig phap
cng ngh gm in hnh l phng php th iu kt bt; khi to liiili, nguyn liu
dng bt c lin k t tm thi, sa u \c n u ng n h it d cao k t khi. T chc
in hnli ;a gm l a pha v a tin h th. Hai loi pha clinh to nn t chc ca
gm l pha tin h th v pha v nh liih. Pha v nh hnh phn b xcn ln gia
cc vng pha tin h th v gn k t ch n g li vi nhau. T l gia hai loi pha Iiy
trong cc s n phm khc n hau l khc nhau. V d. trong gch. ngi, pha v iih
hnh chim 2 0 -4 0 %. cn trong s: 0-65 %. gm AI2O ! b hn 1 %.
N goi ra, trong phn ln cc v t liu gni cn liin c m t pha kh dii (lng
cc l xp. V d. trong gch, chng chim n 10-50 %. trong giii Iih: hn 40 %.
trong s: n %. T l, s phn b, kch thic v liiili diig ca cc l xp c <nli
hiig r rt n cc tn h ch t ca v t liii nhi bn c hc, dn nhit, kh
n n g h t nc. ...
Di y cc loi gm c trnh by theo nhm th nh phn ha hc: gii
silicat. gni oxyt v gm khng phi oxyt. R ing gm chu la c trnh by trong
m t nliii ring: v t liu chu la.
9 .3 .2 . GM S IL IC A T
Gm silicat. cn gi l gm tru yn thng, l v t liu gni ch to t cc nguyn

liu silica t th in n h in , ch yu t t st, caolanh. Cc sn phm thuc nhm ny
gm c gm xy dng (gch, ngi, ng dn, s v sinh. ...). gi s gia dng (ni
VT LIU HC 431
chii. bt cta, m n gh. ...) v nit. s loi vt li\i cng ngliip (s cch in cao
th, gm s bn ha, bn nh it. ...).
N gu yn liii chnh d sii x u t gm silicat l t s t v cao lan h (khong chnh
l caoliiiit A l 20 ,.2 SiO;i.2 H 20 ). N goi ra cn s dng cc ngviyn liii ph nh thch
anh SiOii. triig thch KAlSi.O. talk 3MgO.4SiO2.H2O i'\i chnh thnh phn
ha hc v tn h ch t ca sn phm .
Do n g u y n liu th ng cha cc tp cht uln FeO. F e 2 0 , nn sn phm gm
tln n g c m u v n g XII. n u . ... e sn xut gni trn g phi tu yn chn nguvn
lixi v kh tp ch't s t oxyt trit (hii luR st oxyt xung di 1 %).
T hng tlutng g'm silica t c sn xiit tlieo cc bc cng n gh c bn savi
y:
e to hnh s n phm , c th p dng cc pluiig phap savi y:

- Phng php do: phi liii vi ni ln-25% c tn h do cao chtc to hili
b ng tay hoc cc dng c, m y cluiyu dng;
- Phng php bn kh; phi liu c m 8- 12 % c m Iin trong kliiin;
- Plung php c rt: phVlivi nin ha trn vi mtc th nh h. c rt. vo
khun th ch cao, khun s h t IIIC, li sn phaiii mc.
Gni c loi trdiig lien v khiig trng IIIPII. Lp m en c th c n u n g chy
cn g m t lu vi s n phm hoc lum g li ln th hai.
Cc s n phm gni c n u n g cc loi l v ch (t n h it thch hp, v d.
n u n g gch 9 0 0 c, s 1400 "c. gni cao ahunin 1600 "C.
Theo c im k t cu ca x\ng gm. Iii ta phn b it hai loi: gni th v
gm tinh. Gin th c cu trc xng c to hi cac ht v t rn c kch thc ln
v khng ng u (v d, gch, ngi, gch ch\i la). Gni tin h c to bi cc ht
m n v ng u (v d, s, gm . coriiiiig Al-ô.).
T nh ch t ca m t s'sn phm gm silicat ctc trnh b y bng 9.3.
9.3.3. GM OXYT
Gm oxyt l gm c th n h phn lia hc l Iit n oxyt (Alô.i hoc TO 2 . ...)

hoc nit oxyt phc xc iih (v d. MgO.AlÔ !. BaO.TiO,i).
K lic vi gm silicat. gm oxyt c tinh khit ha hc cao hn h n (t l tp
ch t rt thp) v t l pha tinh th cng cao hn hn (t l pha v nh hnh rt
thp).
Bng 9.3. Tnh cht ca m t s sn phm gm silca t
Tinh cht Th Gch, Snh S S in S in Gm k thut

nguyn ngi ha hc cng steatit cordierit cao alumin*'*
Khi lng ring g/cm 1.8 2,2 - 2,2-2,5 2,7 2,2 3,3-3,6
Mun n hi 10^ MPa 5-20 50 -70 55 -80 30 -40 100 130 - 160
Gii han bn nn MPa 10-25 300-600 450 850 300
G ii h n b n u n MPa 5-10 30 -90 40 120 50 250 - 300
ht nc % 10-20 0 -3 0 0 0 0
xp % 20 -50
bn xung nhit \K 130-250 160 80 250 160
in tr sut 10Ûcm 1 1 1 100
in p xuyn thng kV.cm 300-360 200 100 200
Tn tht in mi 10"'tg6 250 30 150-200 10-15

( tn s' 50Hz)
Gbi ch 85-95% AI23

Gni oxyt to ra cc v t liu k th u t c bn n h it v bn c hc r t cao,
c cc tn h ch t in v t <Jc bit.
9.3.3.1. Gm oxyt trn c s cc oxyt c nhit nng chy cao

Gm oxyt c cu trc trn c s cc oxyt c n h it nng chy cao, tiu biii l:
AI2O 2. MgO, Zr 2 v M g 0 .A l 20 ;v
Klic vi cc v t liu chu la c th n h phn ha hc tng t ic c h to theo
cng n gh g'm th v c c'ii trc g'm th (xem nic 9.2.). cc g'm oxyt c tinh
khit cao hii (tru 98%), ic ch to theo cng ngh gm tinh, thiu kt nhit
cao. c t chc tinh mn v h u nh ton b t chc l mt pha .
Tnli ch t ca m t s' loi gVn trn c s oxyt c n h it nng chy cao ic
trnh by b ng 9.4.
Cc v t liii gm o xyt c n h iu ng dng qiian trng trong k thut.
G'ni corinng (a-AlÔ.-) vi bn c, bn n h it (bng 9.4) v bn ha rt cao
l mt v t liii qiiaii trng v a n ng n h t trong cc loi gin oxyt. N ic s
dng lin v t liu k t c'u cho cc th i t b lm vic n h it cng ngh ip cao nh't.
lm chn v ni n'u kim loi v th y tinh, chi tit m y cho cng nghip dt. v t
liu cho cng nghip in, in t, v t liii y t (im plants). Vi cng t vi 20 0 0 0
M Pa n c s dng lm v t liu ct gt, h t mi.
Gm pericla (MgO) c tn h n n g ni b t l n h it sv dng rt cao v in tr
n h it coc rt ln (bng 9.4.). Gm pericla l v t liu kim tnh. Mi trng k h
v ch t niig chy c tn h a x it ph hoi m nh gm pericla n h it cao. Gii
pencla ic s dng lm chn, ni n u kim loi, n cng bn vi cc iniii clorit v
Aorit nng chy.
VT LIU HC 433
Bng 9.4. Tnh cht ca mt s gm oxyt
S Tinh cht Th Gm Gm Gm Gm
TT nguyn corinng pericla 2 icna spinel
(u-AIÔ- (MgO) ( Z tO ,) (Mg,Al203)
1 Khi lng ring g/cm^ 4,0 3,6 5.6 3.3
2 Mdun n hi lO ^M Pa 400 350 200 3.3
3 Gii hn bn nn MPa 2 000-3 000 800-1 400 800-1 600 2 000
4 Gii hn bn un MPa 250-400 160 200 180
5 H s gin n nhit 100 150 20 60
6 H s dn nhit W/m.K 12 40 2 6
7 Nhit s dng c 1 900 2 400 2 300 1 950
Gm zicna l v t liu c ng thi nhiu tnh Iiiig qu: bn c hc cao.

n h it s d ng cao, gin n n h it t. dn nhit kin (bng 9.4) v bn ha cao,
ic s dng lm v t liu k t cu chu ini niii. lm vic n h it cao, bn xm
thc. Cn lu l t y theo phdng php sn xut. c bit l vic chn ph gia
n nh cu trc Zr 2 (v d, CaO. MgO, YÔ ). CeO^. ...) nhm trn h h in tng
bin i th hiih, s cho cc sii phm gm zicna c cc tn h ch t khng giiig
nhau.
Gni sp iiiel (M g 0 .Al 20 ;j) c bu c v bu uhit rt cao (bng 9.4) ic s
diig ln i v t liu k t cu lm vic Iiliit cl cao. bn vdi mi trng kim .
9 .3 .3 .2 . G m trn c s TO2
Gni n itil (TO 2). gm tita n a t (m agi. bari. ch. kni, lan taii) v gni PTZ O
Pb 0 -T i 0 2 -Zr 02 ) c cc tnh ch t in c b it (in nii. s t t. p iu) c s
(ng lm v t liu k th u t in. T nli cht ca mt s giii c triih by
b n g.9 ..
Gm rutil TO 2 c h n g s" in mi lii v tn th t in mi nh (bng 9.4)
chdc s dng lm v t liu t in. Nhc im ca gi r\itil l h s n h it ca
h n g s' in mi m an g du m v c tr s' ln, c ngha khi n h it tn g th e
gim m nh. iu chiih h s' ny. chuyn n thnh dng, ngi ta a thm
vo th n h phn gm rutil m t s loi oxyt nh MgO. Zr0 2 , CeO^. S 11O 2. L a 2 3.
Ring Zr2 hoc M g0 .Zr02 cn c th lni gim s thay i ca tn tht in mi
th eo t n s" v n h it .
Gni tita iia t m agi (2 M g 0 .Ti 02 hoc Mg 0 .Ti 02 ) c h ng s' in mi tng
th p nh ng h s n h i t ca E v tn th t in mi b. Tn th t in mi nh l
yii cu quan trng trong k th u t tn s cao.
28 - VLH
Bng 9.5. Tnh cht ca m t s vt liu gm tr n c s TO
S' Tnh cht Th Rutil Magi Bari

PTZ
TT nguyn titanat titanat
1 Khi lng ring g/cm 3,5-3,9 3,1^.0 5,2-5,8 7
2 Hng s in mi c 70 -100 12^5 35-3 000 1 500
3 H s' nhit ca K 1 0 K' -750 33 ...-470
4 Nhit Curie 120 250
5 Tn tht in mi 5 25-250 300
6 in tr b mt k 2
7 in p xuyn thng k V .c m 100-200 100-200 30-50
8 Nhit lm vic c 120 250

cao nht
Gm tita n a t bari (B a 0 .Ti 02 ) c h n g s in mi c b it ln. h s n h i t v

tn th t in mi cng ln. Cc v t liii vi h n g s' in mi lii th ng c hin
tng lo ha n h an h , do h n g s" in mi v tn th t in ini g)am th eo tlii
gian (hng s in mi 8 c th gim n 20%). Gni tita n a t bari c tn h p ji\
(piezoelectric) n n c th th a y th ch anh (quarzt) lm v t liu p in.
N goi B a 0 .Ti 0 2 , hp ch t B a 0 .4 T i 02 cng l ch t in mi. N c h n g s in
mi e l 45. h s n h it ca e v tn th t in mi thp (tg = 5.10'^ tn s
10" Hz).
Gm thuc h PbO .TiO 2-PbO.ZrO 2 v c b su n g cc oxyt khc nh MgO, NiO,
CuO, ZnO, N b 20 ,3. Sbô. (gi t t l g'm PTZ) c cc tn h ch t in nii v p in
c iu chiih v ci th in hn so vi gin TO 2 v tita n a t th un . N idc s
dng n gy cn g n h iu hn trong thc t.
9.3.3.3. Gm trn c s PeaOs v cc oxyt kim ioi nng

Gm tru c s PeaOa v cc oxyt kim loi n iig khc thuc nhm F e to ra cc
v t liu b n dn v v t liu t.
Vt. liu bn dn oxyt c c h to bng cch ia th m vo th n h phii ca
s to x y t Fe20;i hoc ferit MeO.Pe-iO.s cc oxyt khc nlut TO 2, SnO -2 hoc WO j. V
d v cc ch t b n dn oxyt l:
Zn(Ti;;' )0 ,,
T i J F e : , J e ; ' )0 , ,
(S r ,.,C a ,)(T i;;,F e :r ) 0 ,..
Trong m t s v t liu, cu trc ca n iken oxyt v cobaii oxyt c th ay i do

c L2O. Cc v t liu bn dn loi ny h ot ng theo c ch n h it ('in tr gim
VT LIU HC 43
khi n h it tng). C hiuig c s dng lm in tr ho v cho cc t in v cac

li thng ctin khc (rle n g t mch khi ng in tn g qu cao).
Cc ferit c c\i tn c sp in el o vi cng thc chiuig M e 0 .F e 20 . (trong Me c
th l Mn. Zii. Ni. Mg, Co. C\1 Cd. Ti. ...) l cac v t li\i t m m . v d. ferit
m aiig a n -k in (Miid.,; Zuii.;w Fe^'n.r,)Fe"ô,. ferit n ik eii-k m (Ni.,(Zn|.x)Fe
N goi ra ngi ta cn s dng v t liu t inni c cu trc gran at vi cng thc
3 M e .O ,. [F e ,.,M e 'j 2 0 :,.
Yu cii i vi v t liii t mm l c vng t tr hp vi t tham ban \i
ln, cm ng t d nh. lc khng t nh. tn th a t t t. T hng qua iu chnh
th iili p hu ha hc ca lip ch't ferit Iigi ta t itc cc tn h ch t cu th it, v
(Ivi. ia th m ZiiO vo th n h phn ca ferit thch hp. c th tn g t thhi ban
au ln t 10 n 40 0 ln.
Tnh ch t ca v t livi ferit \c triih by bng 9.6.
V t liii t m ni ic s dng cc th it b ch\iyn m ch v troiig b nh ca
iny tn h in t.
Gm ferit B a 0 . 6 F e 20 ;, hoc 2 B a 0 .2 M e 0 .6 F e 2 0 , vi c'u trc su phng l
nhng v t liii t cng dng lni nam chm vnh cu. Yu cu ch t liig i vi
v t liu t cng khc vi v t liu t niin l vng t tr rng vi cm ng t ch v
lc klung t T nh ch^t ca vt liu tt cng ferit bari vi m ng s u phitdiig
itc rriih by b n g 9.6.
Mt li th ca v t liii t gm oxyt so vi cc vt. liu t c bii ch t kini loi
l chng c dn in rt nh (in tr siiat 1 0 ' - lo'^ Qcni) nn hiii ng dng
F\IC sinh ra l khng ng k. V vy cc v t lixi t gni oxyt c \tu th s dng
in trng xoay chiu t n s' cao (10 - lo'" Hz).
Bng 9.6. Tnh cht ca mt s' vt liu ferit
S' Th Vt kiu t mm Vt liu t mm Vt liu t cng

11 Tnh cht ferit Ba sp
nguyn ferit Mn-2n terit Mn-Mg
1 Khi lng ring g/cm^ 3 .8 -5 3 ,8 -5 4 ,5 -5
2 H s gin n nhit 10'^/K 60 60 9 0 -1 2 0
3 in tr sut 2cm 10^-10"* 10' 10^-10
4 Nhit Curie c 100-150 > 300 450
5 cm ng t cc i V.s/m^ 0,35 0,20 -
6 cm ng t d .iVs/cm^ - - 1 8 -4 0
7 Lc khng t A/cm 0.1 - 1,0 0,5 - 1,0 1 200 - 2 500
8 t thm ban u 500 -20 000 50 - 2 000 -

436 ChU 9. VT LIU V C
9.3.4. VT LIU V C TINH THE KHNG PHAI OXYT
Thuc Iihni ny gm cc vt liu trn c s cc n nguyn t"(Ge. Si. B. C) v

cc hp clial. khng cha oxy (gia Si. B. c , N vi nhau v vi kim loi chiiyii
tip). So vi gni silicat. v giii oxyt. vt liu v cd khng phi oxyt i hi ixi
kin cng n gh ch to kh khn hn. C hng itc ch' to khng ch theo phiiig
plip gin (tlii\i kt bt) m cn theo nhiu phng phap khac nhit ha hc. vt
l.'...
i n nay khng plii tt c cac loi vt liii itc gii thiu (li y (c
iig dng rng ri trong cng nghip. N h iu loi ang trong qu trnli n gh in cu
ph t trin v t liii mi cho ting lai.
9.3.4.1. Vt liu n nguyn t

G ecniani (Ge). silic (Si) l cc cht bn dn qiien thuc trong k th u t (tin v
in t. Bo (B) dng tinh tliP c n h it nng chy cao (2 300 O . cng r cao
( cng t vi ctt. 20 00 0 M Pa. cng M ohs 9,5). Bo dng si dic s dng ]ni
ct liii cho vt. liii conipozit . Bo (lng v 10 l vt liu ch to th aiih bo him cho
l phii ng h t Iihn.
V t liu n n gu yn t quan
trng n h t l cacboii (C) d cc
(liig cu trc kini citdiig.
graphit. cacboii thy tinh. Gin
trng thi ca cacbon c
trnh by trn hnh 9.7. Kini
cilug l )nt (liig tli hnh t:a
cacbon. bn vng p sut v
nhit, cao. To iu kin
Iihit ng thch hp cho s
hnh thnh kim c\iig l nhim
v k th u t kh khn. Ngiti ta
thng (lng phng php n
t o s n g a p l c cao ct c h t o Hnh 9.7. Gin trang thi ca cacbon trong h toa
cc ht kim cing nh t sut-nhit
nguyn liii bt. graphit. Kim ciig c cng ng ctii trong th an g ciig v t
liu ( ciig t vi: 100 000 MPa; cng Mohs: 10). 800 "c trong khng kli kiin
cing b t u b chy, n g dng chnh ca kini cng trong cng nghip l ch to
dng c ct gt. v ht ini.
G raphit l dng th hnh bn Iilit ca cacbon (hnh 9.7). N c cu trc h.ic
gic lp (hnh 1.23a).N giti ta phii bit, cc loi graphit kliac nhau;
- G ra p h it tl ii nhin, th i n g ln nhiu tp cht, c th clc7 iig tin h th th
lioc mn;
- G raphit iu, c h to t cc d u m nh it 2 800-3 0 0 0 "c b n g n n g
liig dn in tric tip. c cng v bn cao hn graphit th in nhin;
VT LIU HC 4:-7
- CTraliit tin h tli Min (ni hng);

- G raphit Iihit phii (pirogTa|)hit).nliaii (lic KIIIK plndiig )h:0 nhit phn
k h hvdrocacbon Iih etan , inetaii, ... ri clio lUiny t. kt tinh trn iMt. vt li\i
. vi d. gra)hit. Loi ny c can trc tiiili tl\ ra mn v kt tiiil hon ton ('
lnng nn tn h ch t c lic v kh nng' lien oxy lia r;u) hn han graphit th\ug.
G raphit n hit phii dng si m nh (dii; knh 0.5-O cn c bn c hc
rt cao do c rtini cu trc si m ang li.
Mt. d ng c\i trc khc ca cncbon l caclxii thiiy tinh. chc ch to t q\
triih nhit phn nit hp cliat. hu c thch li). v (l. xMihilo. theo m t quy trnh
ctc bit. S n phani nliit. phn (lng si lip lc (tirr Ihn kt di ap lc cao v
nhit, k lion g 3000 *C. Cacboii t.hv tinh co ( i tn'u: st cht hn grap liit v c
bn oxy ha r t cao.
Bng 9.7. Mt s tinh cht ca v liu cacbon
S Tinh cht Th Kim Graphit Cacbon Si

TT nguyn cng thy tinh cacbon
1 Khi lng ring g/cm^ 2,26 1,4-2,0 1.5-1.6 1.8
2 Nhit nng chy c 4 100 3 750 2 500 -
3 Mun n hi E MPa 1 200 115 200 500
G raphit v cacbon thy tiiili c nhit, (t IIII cliy rat. cao. c cl hii c hc cao
n h it cao. khng th n i t. Iiliiu chi IIOIII' tlKy. (ln din v (ln Iiliit tt
Iiii i(c s dng trouR tiliii lnh vr k Ihuat tilii vt liu chu ln (xem inc
9.2.), ctiii cc l h quang, chi thau, tliil l)j ha lu)( n h it cao. b lini ntroii
trong l plin iig h t nhn, vt. liii k thut, v tr. vt. lii'. y t. ... Vt liu
conipozit si cacbon n n polynie hoc kim loi s (liiR- trong ciig nghip lin
khng, tn la. ch to m y. Si cacboii ciif- dn^ lm ct liu tiig bn cho
chnh v t liu cacbon th y tinh hoc piroraphit. to r:i v t liii CFC (carboii fibre
coiiposite, tc com pozit si cacboii). Tnh ('ha ctui cac loi v t liu cacbon CIO
triih by b ng 9.7.
9.3.4.2. Vt liu v c trn c s cc hp cht khng cha oxy

Cc hp ch t ca Si, B. c v N vi nhau (v (l. SiC, B|C. Si.N .BN ) v vi kijii
loi ch u yn tip tliuc cc nhm ph IV B v VI B ca hnuf tu n hon cc n gu yn
t (cli yu l cacbit v< silixit) c nhng t.iih rluVt. r v iiiit c bit. Chng l c
s ca nit. lot cc v t liu cng t.rong k tliul. Sau cly n\i m t s' cc hp cht
tiii biii Iilit.
a) Silic cacbit. SiC; c cng v kh Iin. (:h\i nhit rt. cao (liig 9.7). c tnh
bn dan. SiC ciig vi Alô.i l cc v t liu tiiii cng Iihn to qiiaii trn nht
Droiig cng nghip. SiC thng c ch to t thch anh v than trong l in h
quang (phng phap A cheson).
Cc ln h VC ng dng quen thuc ca SiC l v t li \i chu la (xem 9.2.). hi

m i. m i (vi cc ch t lin k t l gm silicat, th y tinh, nha fenol), v t liii hin
dn. V t liu SiC dng kh'i (vi hn 95% SiC) ch to bng phng php t.hi\i kt
di p lc hoc th iu k t phn ng (v d. th iu k t hn hp S iC -S i trong mi
tn n g kh c o hoc hn hp SiC -C trong mi tritng kh Si) l vt. liii kt c\> c
n h iu trin vng ng dng trong k tliiit. tucbiii kh. V t liu SiC t.hi\i kt vi
hm lng nh SO 2 c s ng lm th an h in tr cho cc l iii V(3i nhit (t
lm vic nh hn 170 c . SiC dng si iig knh O.-IO i-ini l loi ct li\i qii
cho v t liii com pozit.
b) Bo cacbit. B.iC: c n h it nng chy v cng r't. cao. tng i nh. (t
bn cd v ha cao (bng 9.8). N c st dng lm h t m i. vt, liu chi nini mii
v v t liu hp th trong k th u t h t nhn.
c) Silic Iiitrit, Si.Ni: c n h it nng chy v cng cao. kh n n g cch in
cao (bng 9.8) v bn oxy ha n 1400 "c, bn i vi axit, kim v kim loi UI*
chy. T uy n h in n b kim nng n mn v b oxy ha trong kh oxy Iihit fO(i.
to ra lp SO 2 trn b m t.
V t liu S3N .1 dng khi c c h to bng phng php th iu k t p lc hor
th iu k t phn ng (iiitrit ha bt silic n h it cao). V t liu Si >N( ilc s cliiK
lm chn nu. vi t, khun p nng, mt s chi ti t kt. cu tron g cli to Iiiy v:i
tucbin kh. S.N^ cng ic ch to dng si m nh Iilu t si SiC v 811 dng iin
lp ph bo v chng m i mn cho cc loi v t liu khc.
d) Bo Iiitrit, BN: c ba dng th hnh, trong ng h(vi I'it l hai dng t.h
hnh su phing (kiu graphit) v lp phng (kiii kim ciiig).
BN s ii phitng c cng thp (2 300 theo Kiioop), bn vi cc ch t nnf; chy
xm thc, kh th m t v kh b oxy ha. c kh n n g cch (tin cao. N
dng lm v t liu k th u t n hit cao. ni chn nu. cht, in nii v vt 1(mi
hp th trong k th u t h t nhn.
BN lp phdng c tng hp n h it v p su t cao. c ciig cao nhit kiii)
cng, bn ha cao. bn oxy ha cao n 2000 "c. kh n n g cch in cao (haii
9.8). N c s dng ch yii lm v t liii ct gt. B N dng si ding chf t.o
qun o bo v. n. vi lc. v t liu cch in, v t li k th ii t tn la v v l.r.
Bng 9.8. Tnh ch't ca mt s vt liu v c khng phi oxyt
Tinh cht Th SiC BC4 BN su BN lp S N,

3
nguyn phng phng
Khi lng ring g/cm^ 3.2 2.5 2.35* 3.5 3.2
Nhit nng chy c 2 300 2 480 3 000 3 000 1 900

phn hy thng hoa
Mun n hi E 10 " MPa 410^80 450 40-90 - 220-360
in tr sut icm 10- 10 ^ I 0 M 0" 10
cng t vi MPa 40 000 70 000 - 90 000 33 000

VT Liu HC 439
Bng 9.9. N hit nng chy c v cng Vicke HV ca m t s' ca cblt
Tinh cht TiC vc C n3*^2

C ZrC NbC Mo,C HfC TaC wc
3 140 2 830 1 895 3 530 3 500 2 400 3 890 3 780 2 600
HV. MPa 32 000 29 500 22800 25 600 24 000 19 500 27 000 17 900 21 800
Mt s cacbit ca cc kim loi chuyn tip nh TiC, vc. Cr:C2. ZrC. NbC.
M02C. HfC, TaC, wc, ... c n h it niig chy v cng rt cao (bng 9.9).
C hng c s d n g k t hp vi kim loi (v d. Co, Ni. F e vi t l b hn 20 %)
c h to cc hp kim ciig b ng phng php th iu kt, dng lm dng c ct gt.
cc chi ti t m i m n cao (xem m c 10. ). N goi ra cc loi cacbit trn cng itc
dng ph ln cc v t liu khc, to lp bo v chng m i mn.
Mt s hp ch t silix it n h i M 0 S2. WS2 c n h it nng chy cao. bii ha
hc cao, dn n h i t t t v bn xung Iih i t tt. M 0 S 2 v WS 2 c s dng lm
th an h n h it in tr cho cc l in n h it cao (K aiith al- supper-M oS 2) lioc ch
to lp bo v n h i t cao cho k in i loi.
9.3.5. VT LIU CHU LA

V t liu chu la l loi v t liii xy lp cc l v th i t b cng nghip lm

vic cf n h i t cao. Theo quy c chung, m t v t liii c coi l vt liu chu la
khi n c chu la lii hn 1 52 0 "c, t.c n h it ti khi v t liii hm h chp
vi kch thc qviy iih b gc. Ngoi ra, n CII phi bo m bn c v ha. n
m h kch thic lm vic n iih lu di trong tiig iu kin c th ca n hit
cao v n m n ha hc.
Cc v t liu chu la q uan trng ii l v t livi gin. Trong phm vi ca sch
uy. k h i nim v t li u c h ii la ic gii hn cc loi sn phm gni chu la sn
x u t i tr , c quy cch cng nghip phc v xy lp cc l cng nghip, v th
cc loi gm tin h chu la dng cho cc nic ch k th ii t khc Iih a ii s khng
itc kho s t y.
P hn ln v t liii chu la c sn xiit theo cng n gh gm th. c t chc
g"m th. c th n h phn ha hc thuc cc nhm gm silicat, gii oxyt v gni
khiig phi oxyt. S a u y l cc loi v t liii chu la chnh.
9.3.5.1.inat (silica)
in a t (silica) c th n h p hn ha hc ch yu l SO 2 (ln hn 93%), khong
chnh l tr i im it v cris to b a lit. ic sn xu t t nguyn li u th i n nhin c hm
htiig SiO -2 cao (ct th ch anh. quarztzit. sa thch) b n g phdng php th in kt
bt. in a t l v t liu chu la c tn h axit. c chu la cao (bng 9.10), c s
dng xy l cc, l luyn kim , vm l th y tin h , cc vng nung ca l tiiyn e n , ...
440________________________________________________________ Chng 9. VT LIU v c
9.3.5.2. Samt
Sam t l m t loi gii th ah im o-silicat. c hni htng AUO:( trong khong
20-45%; khong chnh l im ilit (3 Al;i0 ,i.2 S i 02 ) v cri.stobalit (SiO;i). N guyn liu
chnh sn x u t sa in t l t s t chu lia v caolaiih.
Ngi ta chun b phi liii t- hai loi ngu yn li\i:
- N giiyu liu gy; cao lan h c m m g trc n kt. khi, vi cc.kch thc
h t thch hp, cn gi l sn sam t;
- N gu yn liu do: t s t v cao lanh cha im ug.
Phi liu ny sa u khi c trn ii v c in ph hp tip tc qua cc khu
to hiili, s y v nung.
Theo th n h phn ha hc, ngi ta phn b it cc loi saiiit t.lutng (cha
30-40% AlÔ.i) v sam t bn axit (cha 20-30% AlÔ:,). N goi th n h phn ha hc.
phng php cng n gh c h to, v d. t l Iigiiyii liu gy/do hay pliitng php
to hiih, c nh hiiig n h iu n tn h ch t s n phm.
V t livi chu la sa in t c chu la tng i cao (bng 9.10). bn xiin g
n h it tt, cng n gh n gin, c s dng rng ri xy l gni s, th y tinh,
xim ng, l kh ha, l hi. l lu yn kim , ...
9.3.5.3. Vt liu chu la cao alumin

V t liu cliii la cao a lu in ii thuc h alu m o-silicat vi liiii hiig AlvO:j cao
(45-95% ), c cc khon g chnh l m u lit ( 3 A l 20 ;<.2 S i 0 ;i) v corinng (a-A1^0:i).
N guyn liu s n x u t v t liu chu la cao ah im iii l cac khong th in nln c
hm lng Al-iO.- cao nh silim an it, a n alu zit v k ian it (cng thc chiiug l
AI2O 3.SO 2), khon g h yd rat nhm (AlaO.vnHÔ) hoc iniilit nhn to, nhm oxyt
k th u t, corinng in nng chy. Ngi ta gi tn v t liu clii la cao aluniin
theo th n h phn khong chnh: coriiiiig-saiiit, iniilit. niulit.-coriniig.
corinng, ... hoc th eo ngu yn liu chnh, v d, siliniaiiit.
V t liu cao alu m iii c cc tn h n ng k th u t cao hn h n sa n i t (bng 9.10).
c s dng k h i c yu cu cao v chu la. bn xung nhit, bn c v bii ha
m sa m t khng p ng c.
Klii a th m Zr 2 (5-20% ) vo th n h phn ca vt. li\i cao aluinin c t.ar
dng t n g bn xm thc ln r t cao, c b it khi lm vic vi th y tinh nng
chy (vt liu AZS).
9.3.5.4. Vt liu chu la kim tnh

Cc v t liu chu la kim tn h tiu biu, gm c: pericla (niagiiezia MgO),
pericla-crom it (MgO-Cr-Ôs). crom it-pericla (Cr20 :rM g 0 ). lniit (M gO-CaO).
osterit (2 M g 0 .S i 02 ) v sp iiiel (MgO.AliiO.O.
c im ca v t liii chii la kim tnh l c chu la cao, bn vi x kim
v cc ch t nng chy kim tnh nh xim ng, thp lng, th iy tinli kim . Cc lnli
v c,s dng chnh ca v t liu chii la kim tn h l l nu thp, kini loi inii.
vng lu in g ca l quay xim ng. T nh ch t ca nit s v t liu chii la kiii tnli
c trnh by b n g 9.11.
VT LIU HC 441
Bng 9.10. Mt s tnh cht ca inat, samt v vt liu cao alumin
S' Th Samt Silimanit Mulit Corinng

TT Tinh cht nguyn inat 42-45% 56-70% 65-75% 85-95%
A IA 1 A IP 3 A IP 3 AIÔ,
1 Khi lng ring g/cm^ 1,8 1.8-2.2 2 .3 -2 ,7 2.4-2,7 2.8-3.3
2 xp % 26 20-27 1 5 -2 0 1 8 -2 0 2 0 -2 5
3 Gii hn bn nn MPa 20 -60 13 -2 5 3 0 -7 0 35-100 50-100

nhit phng
4 Nhit bin c 1 640-1 690 1 380-1 450 1 600 1 650 1 600-1 700
dng 0,6% vi ti
trng 0,2 MPa
Bng 9.11. Mt s' tinh cht ca vt liu chu la kim tnh
S Tnh cht Th Pericla Pericla- Cromit- Posterit lmit

TT nguyn cromit pericla

1 Khi lng ring g/cm^ 2.8-3,0 2,8-3.1 2,8-3.2 2.6-3.0 3,0
2 xp % 20-25 18-24 20-25 18-25 18-22
3 Gii hn bn nn MPa 30-100 20-50 15-45 25-60 -
nhit phng
4 Nhit bin
dng 0.6% vi ti c 1 450-1 700 1 550- 1 500 1 600 1 500
trng 0,2 MPa 1 650
9.3.5.5. Vt liu chu ia sn xut theo phng php nu chy
Mt sv t liii gm o xyt chii la c ch to khng theo plung php th i\i

k t th ng th iiig, m b n g phiig php Iiu chy phi liii trong l in h quang
ri c rt trong kliiiii. V t li\i tlu i c c t chc ca g"ni th, st ch t cao
v vi t l pha v nh hnh 1 - 20 %. Ngoi ra trong t chc cn thng c cc r
k h tng i ln, p hn b" khng u .
V t liu chu la c h to b iig phdiig php n"u cliy gm c:
- corinng: 92-98% AlÔ:,;
- corincng-im ilit: 80% ALO. + 20% SiOv;
- batlit-coriiiclng: 10-40% Zr0.2 + 42-54% + 10 - 20 % SO 2;
- bta nhm oxyt; P-ALO;? (N a 2 0 . 12 Alo().i);
- crni oxyt-coriiiiig: 60-80% AI2OH + 10-30% CrÔx.

- m agnezia: MgO.
V t liii SO 2 n u chy cng l m t loi v t liu chu la quan trng. N liin g do
c cu trc v nh h iih nn triih by nic 9.3. l Iit loi th y tinh thch
an h khiig trong sut.
Cc tiih ch t ni b t ca loi v t liu chu la sn x ii t tlieo pliitng php nu
chy l chu la cao. bn c hc cao (hn 100 M Pa) v c b it l bu
chng n mn, xm thc rt cao. C hng ic s dng ph bin xy b cha ca
l nu th y tin h v n u cc ch t nng chy khc.
Tnh ch t ca m t s v t liu v c c nng chy ic trnli by b n g 9.12.
Bng 9.12. Tnh cht ca mt s' vt liu v c c nng chy
S Tnh cht Th Corinng |^-A203 Batlit- Cromit-

TT nguyn corindng corinng
Khi lng ring g/cm^ 2 .8 -3 .0 2.8 - 3.0 3 .7 -4 .0 3,4 - 3.8
xp % 5 -1 5 15-18 1 - 15 4 -6
,3/2 7/2
in tr sut 1 000 c O cm 10" 10 10
Mhit bin dng 0.6% 1 700 1 950 - 2 020

vi ti trng 0.2 MPa
9.3.5.6. Vt liu chu la trn c s graphit v silic cacbit
V t liu chu la grap h it vi hn 90% cacbon c ch to t cc. th an

a iitraxit v n hia th a n th eo phng php th iu k t bt 1400 "c. K lii gi lu
1800 "c cacboii s ch u yn ha th n h grapliit tin h th km theo hin tng co th
tch. Cn ch l t 700 c trong m i tn n g khng kh cacbon c th b t vi b
oxy ho. V t liu chu la graphit c s dng trong cc l cao lu yn gang.
V t liu sa m t grap h it ic sn x u t bng cch a th m 6-60% grap h it vo
th u li phn ca saiit. Cc ni, chn nu kim loi thing c ch to t v t liu
ny.
u im ch u n g ca cc v t liu chu la trn c s grap h it l dn n h it tt. do
bii xu n g n h it cao, khng th m t n h iu ch t nng chy.
V t liu trn c s silic cacbit thiig l v t liii kt hp: sam t-silic cacbit (6 -
90% SiC), co rin n g-sam t-silic cacbit (15 - 35% SiC). c im ca loi v t liu
n y l dn n h it tt, b n xu n g n h it cao. gin n n h it thp, bn i vi x axit.
uhng khng b n vi cc ch t nng chy kim tn h v kim loi. Tt 8 0 0 c trong mi
trng khng k h SiC b t ii b oxy ha b m t. Cc v t liu trn c s SiC ic
s dng c h to cc l nvmg kiii mp, ni ch n nu, bao niiiig, ... vi nhi:
lm vic 1400 - 1700 c . T nh ch t ca m t s' v t liii chu la trn c s graphit
v silic cacbit c trm li by b n g 9.13.
VT L i u HC 443
Bng 9.13. Tnh cht ca mt s' vt liu la trn c s graphit v silic cacbit
S Tnh cht Th Graphit Graphit- Samt Samt- SiC

TT nguyn samt vi 75% corinng (90%)
SiC 35% SiC
1 Khi lng ring g/cm^ 1.5 1.8-2.3 - - 2.5
2 xp % 15-25 25-35 20-25 25 18-24
3 Gii hn bn nn MPa 30-60 - 50 - 80-100
4 H s' dn nhit 1000c W/m.K 4-15 6 - - 10-20
5 Nhit bin dng 0,6% c 2 000 1 350- 1 560 1 430 1 700

di ti trng 0,2 MPa 1 500
9.3.5.7. Vt liu chu la cch nhit

Cc v t liu c kh n n g lm vic t khong 9 0 0 c tr ln, ng thi c tnh
cch lh it cao itc c h to bng cch ch ng to ra m t khi hng ln cc bt
kh ( d ng kn) trong th tch ca nit v t liii chu la gc nh sam t, caolanh.
corinng. inat. T l pha k h khong 45 - 80%. Tnh ch t ca m t s v t liu chu
la cch n h it c trn h by bng 9.14.
Cc v t liu n y ni chung l nh v c bn c hc thp, c b it klii t l
pha k h cao. Klii n h i t t n g qu gii hn s dng, v t liu s b biu dng, co
Iiiiih.
Cc v t liu chu la cch n h it thng ic xy bao bn ngoi lp v t liu
chu la gim m t nhit cho l. Nlgxi ta cng s cing cc v t liu chu la dng
si e cch n h it.
Bng 9.14. Tnh cht ca mt s vt liu chu la cch nhit
Btng chu
S' Tnh cht Th Saml inat Caolanh Conrinng
la samt
TT nguyn nh nh nh nh
nh
1 Khi lng ring g/cm^ 0,8-1,3 1.1 0,4-0,7 0.8-1,2 1.2-1.6
2 Gii hn bn nn MPa 2-5 3 0.5-1,2 2.5-13 5-15
3- H s' dn nhit W/m.K 0.3 0.5 0.2 0,3-2,2 0.7
4 Nhit s dng 960- 1 550 1 300 1 600- 1 000-

cao nht 1 450 1 850 1 200
444 _______________________________________________________ Chng 9. VT LIU v c
9.4. THY TINH V GM THY TINH
9.4.1. THY TINH
9.4.1.1. Khi nim chung

Thy tin h v c l v t liii n hn ic bng cch lm ngui mt hp ch t v c
t trng th i nng chy hon ton Iihit cao n trng th i rii khng kt
tinh. Nh vy, th y tiiih c cii trc v iih hnh, l vt. liu nit pha ng nh't.
Cc c trng ca trn g th i v nh hnh c trnh by mc 9.1.2.
K lii nim th y tin li c th cli chung cc loi v t liu c cu tn c v nh hnh:
thy tiiih hii c. thv tiii v c, thy tiiih kim loi. 0 y ch xt n thy tinh v c.
Thy tin h cng n gh ip thing c s n xii't tlieo cc bic cng ngh sa\i y;
Cc n gu yn liu nn th y tinh, v d. i vi th y tinh silica t l c t trn g SO 2,
soa N a 2C 0 ;i, vi CaCO . trn g th ch (K. Na) AIS3O 8. lm it CaCO;,, MgCO,$,
.... c cn trn theo m t t l xc nh c phi liii nu tiu iy tiiih. Phi livi
ny c u u chy trong l n h it 1 4 0 0 - 1 00"c. T hy tin h triig th i m ln i
(1 00 0 - 1 200"C) ic to h n h th n h cc sn phm theo cc phng php khc
nhau, v d. ko tm , ko ng, ko si, cn, p dp, thi. ... bng m y hoc th
cng. Saii , cc s n phm c ia vo l kh ng su^t d. trnh nt v
(nung 500 - 600'^c ri lm ngui chm n n h it phng). Trong m t s tn tn g
hp sn phm sa u khi c tip tc gia cng trng th i rn nh m i, iih
bng, ...
V t liii th y tin h c cc tnh ch t qiiaiig hc c bit, bn ha cao. kh
n n g chu n h it tng i cao. cch in tt, ... nn \c s dng trong n h iu lnh
vc k th u t khc nhau. S au y lr'mh by khi q u t mt s loi th y tin li cliiili.
9.4.1.2. Thy tinh sillcat-klm-km th

y l loi th y tinh th n g dng n h t, c c h to t cc n gu yn liu chnh l
ct trng (cung cp SO 2), vi (cuiig c"p CaO), linit (cung cp CaO v MgO)
v soa (cung cp Na-aO).
T hnh phn ha hc c bn ca th y tinh l S i 02 -C a 0 -N a 20 (65 - 7% SO 2,
8-15% CaO, 12-18% NaÔ). V ai tr ca N a 2 l h th'p n h it Iiii ca thy
tinli. Ty theo m c ch s dng, ngi ta a th m m t liig Iih cc oxyt khc
nh K 2O, A l 20 ,. BaO, BÔ:, iu chnh tnh ch t ca th u tinh. Tp clit s t
oxyt c sn trong n gu yn liu hoc do qiia trnh gia cng n gu yn liu m ang vo to
ra m u sc khng m ong nuiii cho th y tinh, thiig c nh xan h xn. ch to
thy tinh khng m u, cn khng ch s t oxyt F e 20 . di 0 . 1 %, cn i vi thv
tin h quang hc di 0 ,0 1 %.
Cc tn h ch t c bn ca th y tin h silica t-k in i-k in i th ctc trnh by bng
9. l . Loi th y tin h ny c cc tn h n n g ca v t li\i th y tin h th ng thng;
trong sut, bn ha, kn kh v ch t lng, bn n h it v bn c t yu cu, c
sn x u t t n gu yn liu r v cng n gh ting i n gin. Do , ch n g c s
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 4 4
(lug rng ri troiig n liiii Ihih vc nh (lii Inm kinli xy dng, bao b, cliii c
('hn itng troii;- cng nghip ha cht. (!\W(; )ham. tlr phani, gia dng, v
bong n din, inii hnh tivi. ...
n t.n^ ct bn cri lic. ng tiii tan^f (l bn Xdii n h it cho th y tinh, ngi ta
ap dng'plutiiR lip ti nhit (lni nsui nhanh tii' n hit gii bin nini) hoc
Irao di ioii (tliuy ion kim b mt thy tiiili Ixiis: kPiii klic c kch thic ln
liii) to ra ng su t nn d trn be Jiit sii lluuii th y tiiih (v d knh t.
thy tinh cch in, cc tch, ...). Biig cch ny. d bH C'C1 hc cx\a thy tinh c th
t ng l 3 dii 10 ln.
T hy tiiili dng si m nh (ct\(u.q, kiih b hdu 100 niii) c bn c hc (tc
bi t cao. si cng in iili. bn cng can. Gii hn bn ko ca si th y tin h c th
dat 1 0 0 0 - 1 500 MPa. bn t.} l iiRlch vi d\Wns l<nh si (hfo gi<i thch tlo
xac su t khuyt t t gim khi gim kch tluc. Ngoi ra. hiu ng siu ti do iu
kiu cng n gh to ra. tn h siu ng hng ca thy tiiili do lm ngui t ngt, t
nhit cao, ... cfm g ng vai tr quan trng.
'riiviy tinh si (liig ri. si. vi. thii). ...) cdc s (lng lin vt liu cch nhit,
cch in v ct liu cho cc v t liu coni|)ozit. bn ha. bn nhit, bn in ca
si ph\.i tluic vo th n h plmn lia hc' ca thy tinh.
Thv tin h silica t-k im -k in i th cn (lc che to ( lng khi xp (thny tinh
xp) c lm vt. liu cch nhit. (^('h m. (hruiff c khi hiig ring
ir>0 - 4 0 0 g/cm '\ h s dn nhit ci l 0 ,0 - 0.1 W /in.K. gii hn bn nn
n .8 - 2,0 M Pa, Iihit lm vic t -180 (ln 1()()'C.
9.4.1.3. Thy tinh borosilicat v alumosilicat
B-O. v ALO: l cc oxyt c vai tr cuu l.rc (tc liirt. troii thy tini silicat. Vi
liiK quan t l thch hp. B'* v a i ' c lli t,o r;i rac nhm cu trc [B ()(]' .Na
v [A 1 0 |]''.N a vi hnh phi tr bn mt ttdng t iiJu S i" to ra LSiOil' . in ny
c t.c dng duy tr v t n g bn cho inii^^ hi lS i( ) |l ('n th y tinh. V vy thy
tinh trn c s h borosilicat. (SiOî-BvO rN a;;0), aluiiiosilicat, (Si 0 2 -Al,i0 ;-Na:;0 ) v
kt lip hai h (alum oborosilicat) c cac tnh cht ni bt l c li s fn n nhit
nh. bu Iilt v xiiiig uhit. tt, bn hi cao. lit kiiac li c tli luii Iiliit (t
khng qu cao.
Tnh cht, ca th y tinh pirex, mt loi tliv tinh horosilicnt ctiii hnh (78%
SiOv: 12.5% BÔ.O c trnh bvy bu ). 15.
Do c bn ha. bn nhit v bn (tiii rao. thy tin h boro- v aliiinosilicat
dc s dng d ch to cc cug c ha hc v (to lii. th it b ha hc vi kch
thc ln (h tliiig ng dn. bnli thiip phn ng. ...). vt li\i v thPt b k th u t
in, gia dng (m chn cl)u Iiliit. ni cliao (UII Iiii, ...). Si thy linh
aliiiiioborosilicat. (in hiii lass E) rr s dng nliiu trong k th u t in v lm
ct liii cho vt. liu conipozit nn polynic.
Bng 9.15. T in h cht ca m t s loi th y tin h s ilic a t
S Tnh cht Th Slicat-kim- Bcrosilicat Chi Thch am

nguyn kim th (pirex) silcat trong suct
Khi lng ring g/cm 2.47-2.6 2,2 2,8-6,2 2.2
Chit sut 1,5-1,52 1.47 1.56-2,0 1,45
Gii hn bn ko MPa 50-110 60 90
H s gin n nhit 70-100 32 80-90
bn xung nhit K 90-150 250 100 1 000

AT
bn nc (cp 3-4 3-4

tiu chun)
9.4.1.4. Thy tinh ch silicat

Thy tin h h S i 02 -P b 0 -N a 20 /K 20 khc b it vi cc loi th y tinh silica t khc
ch s khc x cao (bng 9.15), c s dng ch yii lm th y tin h quang hc
(cha 10 - 80% PbO) v d n dng ni ngh cao cp Iihi th y tin h phal (cha
18 - 35% PbO).
e bo m cc ch ti ii q iian g hc cho thy tin h quang hc v v p ( trong
su t khng m u) cho p h al, cn khng c h n gh im n g t tp ch t gy mii: hm
lng PcgO.-i di 0 . 1 % i vi th y tinh quang hc v di 0 ,02 % i vi phal.
K nh tm b n g thy tin h ch silica t vi h m ling PbO cao (40 - 80%) vn
hon ton trong sut, ng th i c tc dng n gn tia R ontgen, bo v sc khe cho
ngi qiiaii st.
5.4.1.5. Thy tnh thch anh

Thy tin h th ch an h l th y tin h n oxyt SO 2. Do n h it nng chy ca
SO 2 cao (hn 1700 C). li gn n h it bay hi (2100 C). nht cao. nn sn
x u t th y tin h th ch anh k h iig d diig.
T y theo n g u y n liu b an u v phng php sn xut, ngi ta c th nhn
ic hai loi s n phm khc nhau: th y tin h thch anh trong siit (t chc hon
ton ng nht) v th y tin h thch aiih khng trong su t (t chc cha n h iu bt
kh v chia ng n h t hon ton).
T hy tin h th ch an h trong su t l v t liu k tln i t c n h iu tnh Iiiig qu: h
s gin n n h it rt nh, bu xu n g n h it cao. n h it bin inin cao. bn ha
cao (bng 9.15). c s d n g ch to cc dng c v th it b chu n h it cao. bu
ha hc cao.
T hy tin h th ch an h vi tiiih k h it cao c tn h ch t c b it l cho tia t
ngoi (X, < 2 0 0 Iim) i qua. c diig c h to n p h t t ngoi.
Cp quang, m t phng tin tru yn ti thng tin hin i, c th c ch to
tru c s si th y tinh th ch anh tinh k hit, c cha thm B 2r. S cu to ca
VT LIU HC 447
si th y tin h cp quang c b i ii din hnh 9.8. S phn b* c niic ch ca

B 2 0 : trong si th iiy tin h SO 2 s to ra s chnh lch (graieiit) v m t v do
v ch it su t ca th y tinh theo chiu t li si ra vng b int. K t qii l liiii c
hiu ng phn x ton phn ca sng nh sn g truyn lan trong sdi v n n g liig
uh s n g c bo ton. sn duromer
T hy tin h th ch an h khng trong siit
(hm liiig b t k h 0 - 7 %, khi lng ring
2,05 g lc t c bn c hc thp hii so vi
th iy tin h th ch an h trong sut; cc tnh cht
n h it v ha gn tiiig t loi trn. ic s
dng lm v t liu chu la (dng khi chc).
ch n Iiii, d n g c v th i t b chii nhit v Si^ - B^3
b n ho.
Thy tin h c h m ling SO 2 cao (95-
98%. th y tin h Vycor) c n g c cc tnh ch t
gn ging nh th iiy tin h th ch anh. ic ch Mt
to bng cch x l ha hc th y tinh h

Hinh 9.8. S cu to ca si thy
S i 0 2 -B 20 j - N a 20 c tli iih phn v cii trc
tinh cp quang
c bit, tch pha m n h tch phn thy
tin h giu NaaO v B 20.1 i, k h iu ig SO 2 cn li itc s dng dng xp hoc q iu
th iu k t c s n phm s t cht, trong sut.
9.4.1.6. Thy tinh khng phi silicat
Bn cn h SO 2 l oxyt qiian trng n li t to ra h th y tinh silicat, cn c

m t s' oxyt to th y tin h khc Iihi PiiO 1. BO i. GeO^ v TeO^. B u th n cc oxyt
ny c th to ra cc th y tin h n o x l licliig iig v k t lip vi cc oxyt khc to
ra cc h th y tin h photphat, borat, geciiian at v telurit. N goi ra cn c cc thy
tin h khng phi o xyt nh th y tiiih h alogen it (v d, B eF 2, A 1F 2). th y tinh
ch aiicogen it (v d, A s 2S;. As-^SerO. Cc tlny tinh khng phi silica t ic ng dng
chii yu vo cc m c ch k th ii t c bit.
Trong lnh vitc qiian g hc, cc loi th u knh qiiaiig hc c ch s* khc x ri) v
tn sc |) n m n goi gii h n ca thy tin h silicat (ni) b hn 1,4 v ln hn 2.0;
Yi) b hn 20). cc loi k n h lc nh sng, n pht sng n sc, t ngoi, hng
ngoi, cc loi k n h bo v chiig bc x c hi cho Iigii (h'p th tia R ntgeii.
Iitron, gam in a) c ch to t cc tliy tinh khng phi silica t thch hp.
T hy tin h p h otphat, borat (v silicat) c cha cc ioii 't h im (Nd^'* . Ho'^.
Yb'^ Sm'* , ...) l cc v t liii laze. V t liu trn c s th y tinh photphat.
ch aiicogen it c cha cc n gu yn t vi nhiu mc ha tr ( V " ^ v , Mn *',
F e ^', Ti'^ s Ti'** . ...) l cc v t liu bn du. v d. h VÔrrPÔr,. BaO -
V 2 0 -,-P2 0 r,. A s 2S e.rA s 2Te:0 . Cc v t liu bn dn ny h ot ng theo c ch nhit,
dn in in t.
T hy tin h khng phi silica t ang ditc tip tc nghin c\i pht trin v ng
dng.
448________________________________________________________ Ckii 9. VT LIU v c
9.4.2. GM THY TINH
9.4.2.1. Khi nim chung
Gm th y tinh l nhm vt liu tng i mi. c tn gi cha thng Iih't;

gla ss ceraiics. sita ll. pirocerani. vitroceraiii. ... GIII th y tinh c t chVc k t h]
gia v nh hnh v tiiili th. bao gm nit hoc vi pha tinh th phn b trn nn
pha v nh linh.
V n gu yn tc g'm th y tin h c t chc ging v t liu gii tin h (xem Iiiic
9.3.2), nlutiig c ch to b ng con ng khac liu. Giai on u v t li\i c
ch to theo cng n gh th y tinh, c t chc gm nit pha thiHy tinh ng nht. To
hnh s n phm chc thc hin trng th i lng hoc niiii. Sau sn phani itc
XI l n h it theo ch xc nh thc hin qii trnh to m in v k t tinh. Do s'
lng niin tin h th c to ra rt ln ( 10 '*-1 0 '^ niin/cm*) n n khi chng pht,
trin s to ra int t chc nh nii. xen k ca cc vi tinh th vi tng th tch
60-90% v kch thc h t b hn 1 iin. Chng phn b' u tru n n pha v ciih
hnh l pha ng vai tr n h\ mt ch t k t dnh.
Cc loi gni th y tinh k th u t th ing clita trn c s thy tin h gc h SO 2-
AlÔ.rLiO^. S i 0 2 -AL 0 .rM g 0 , S i 0 2 -A l 20 .r N a 2 0 , ... th u n li cho q\i trnh to
iniii. Iigi ta phi chn th nh phn tliy tinh gc ph lip v ha thm vo cc
ch t xc tc to nin nh P t TiO^. Zr 2. S 11O 2. su lp h it. luorit. v.v.
Phn ln th y tin h gni l v t liii khng trong siit. Iilutiig c ng c loi trong
sut khi kch thitc cc h t pha tinh th rt. nh 0') hn 0.4 îm) hoc khi pha tinh
th v pha nn v nh hiih c ch 9,0 khc x gn bn^ nhaii. T nh ch t cn vt.
livi iii Uiy lin h clo pha tinh th ()ii chat., liiili dang, kch thc, s h<nR ). plia
v nh h n h v tng tc giia chng xc nh. B iig cch ci\i khin *qun trnh
hnh th n h cc vi tin h th, ngi ta c th ch ng to ra cc loi gm thy tiiili
vi cc tnli ch t m ong mui.
9.4.2.2. Cc tnh cht v cng dng ca gm thy tinh
a) Gm th y tin h kh n g g i n n nhit-. Gm thy tiiili c cha cc pha tiiih th

vi li s gin n n h it c b it nh hoc c tr s in ( v cl, eiicryptit LiAlSiO.i.
spoum en LiAl (S2O,;). th ch anh P) v pha th y tin h ph hp c h R giii n
chung ca v t liu l rt. Iih hoc b ng khng . Do khng gin n nhit, nn vt.
liu Ii c bn xiiiig n h it rt. cao. hon ton ii iili kch tlnc khi Iiliil cl
th ay i. C hng ic s dng trong k tliii t nhit, k tliii t q uan g hc nhit c
cao. ch to knh th in vn kch thitc ln. v t liu k th u t v tr. ...
b) Gm th y tin h c bn c hc cao v chu m i n: Nh t. clic a pha. a
tin h th v cc h t tin h th Iih Iiiii. g'111 th y tin h c bn c hc v kh n n g
cliii m i mn cao hn hii so vi v t liii th y tinli. bn ko ca g*ni thy tin h
nm trong khon g 1 5 0 -6 0 0 M Pa v t dao ng so vi cc v t liu v c khc.
Trong cc gii th y tinh c s chnli lch ng k v h s gin n Iihit. gia pha
VT LIU HC___________________________________ __________________________________449
v (liili hnh v plin tiiih th. s to ra hiAu ii<; kcri phn b troii ton khi
vt liii. (to pha th iiy tinh chu ii.i; suat (l n('ii. Inm cho gii hn lin \in (tc
n ng cao. c th t gia tr 1 000 M la, Do clc' (litMii Iiy, nliiii loi giii tliiiy tinh
(tvfc s dn^f lm v t liu ch to Diay. lan lin vic () nhit rao khng cii bi
trn. Lm t)ii lt. v bi cho m y nyhin bi. liii ket cuu xy dng v nh kt. hp vi
tnh cch din cao, ln\ v t li\i ccli in cno th.
c) GII th y tin h d g ia cng to h n h b ili i p h p c k h i: N u pha tiiih
th trong gm th y tin h l cc tinh th thur h inica. sp xp int. ccli thng k
trong vt li\i th v t lixi v c Iiy rn tnli cht 'c bit l c th gia cng to huili
biiig plutii php c kh/ (tin, khoaii. bn. ...) Liiis nh v t liu kim loi. Tnh
cht Iiy p cho vic ch to cc: clii tit lap 1>111L v t liu Iiy c tlm ii
li.
(i) Ghi th y tin h c tin h cht (i, (fc hit: Ciu; pha tiu h tli c tnh clil
din t c bit, c ch ciig to ra troiiir gni thy tinh s niaiig li cho vt liu
cac tn h ch't in, t c bit. V (l. RIII tluiy tinii cha tinh th BaTiO i c hiig
s diu mi lu, tn th t in nii Iili. (litc s dii.u, lm vt liii t iii; giii tliy
tinh cha tiiili tli Fe-O, NiFe;<0|. CoFe^()| l (.ac vt lii t cho k thiit in v
(in t.
e) G m t h y t i n h s i n h h c (hio a ss (-('ranics): GcVni th y tin h vi th n h p li n
ha hc v tlin h phn pha thch hp (v d. thy tinh i)hotphat,- silicnt. pha tinh
th liydroxyl a p a tit Cai,i(PO|)(i(OH)j) c th to ra mi lin kt tn c tip kivi sinh
h f,a vt. cy ghp ch t.o t. n vi t l)o xrtiii. C(t (iia c th sng. D y l vt.
liii l ting sa cha, th ay Ih r;u' l) ))hn rnu cvia c tlu' Iigii trone:
pli\i thut, cliiih hiih. to hnh lluini m. Ty (l 1)(M1 C(J lic ca tiif loi vt
liu, ngi ta s dng n vo cc v t.r thch h|) troii (() Mi Iigi.
9.5. XIMNG V BTNG

9.5.1. Khi nim chung
Nh ct nu cc phn trn. v(it iiii v c da plui c tli c ch to hiig

)lniiK plip th iu k t bt (vt lMi f'ni). hoc bnng cncli nu chy v kt tinh (vt
liu gii th y tinh). M t phii phap khc nhn (tic vt liu v c a pha l
phng php k t dnh cc th iili phan vt li\i rn vi uha\i nhit, (l thng nli
clit kt diih. y l ngviyn 15' ch lo btnnt. mt loi vt li\i xy dng quan
triig h n g cu. Cc v t li\i rn (ci. liu) tliimiiR s dng l (lm hoc si. cat.
Cht kt dnh chi v\i l xiiiiii^' poclaii.
B tiig ic c h to nliv sau; cc ct liii si. ct), xiniang poclaii v luc vi
t. l xac nh c ha trn c nit hii hp (1 th Iiho (va htng). Va ny
cc' vo klm n e to hiih rac s n v cau kin xy San khi
xining iig rn. khi vt liu tr nn liii klii v vii chc.
29 - VLH
450________________________________________________________ Ch ng 9. VT LIU v c
9.5.2. XIMNG
X im ng l cht k t dnh thy lc. n tc dng vi n\c to ra cc lp cht

c tnh ch t k t diili; cc hp ch t ny iig rn trong Iic v cc su phm ng
rn bn trong mc. C cc loi xim n g chnh san y:
- X ining poclaii (trii c s h CaO-SiO;;, cha thm AlijO;,. F e 20 0;
- Cc xim iig biii th t xiniiig poclaii. v d ;
x im n g stroiixi.troiig CaO c thay th b ag SrO;
xin in g bari khi CaO c th ay bng BaO;
xim n g fer, trong AlÔn ic thay th bng PeîOn;
xim n g poclan x. l liii hp ca xim n g poclaii vi 30-80% x l cao
n gh in inn;
xin in g poclaii-puzlan. l hn hp ca xim iig poclaii vi 20-40% cc
n gu yn liu khc nhi trepen, iatom it, t puzlan, ... n gh in mn;
xim n g trng;
xin in g m u, ...
- X ining aluinm trn c s h CaO-AlÔ.. cha tlin i SO 2. F e 20 .-;
- X iiiing tru c s x l cao, cha thm thch cao hoc vi.
Trong cc loi cht kt. dnh lm v t liu xy dng th xin iiig poclan l qxian
trng n h t, c s d ng n liiu n h t trong thc t.
X ining poclaii ctc sn x u t theo cc Inc cng ngh saii: cc nguyn liu haii
\i ( vi. c't st, qung st, ...) c cn ong, n gh in m n, trn u
c phi liii. Ph liu c ining lu yn (thiig l trong lqiiay) n hit
1 400-1 500 "c xy ra cc phn ng to cc khong cn thit, s n phm sau klii
nung (gi l cliiike) c Iighiu niii n kch thc O.-O 1^111. Klii ngh in tluliig
a thm cc ph gia iu chnh nit. vi tnh cht ca xiinng (v d,cho thm
thch cao iu chiih tc ng k t ca xining, ...).
Cc khong chnh ca cliiike xim iig l:
- Alit 3 C a 0 .S i0 2 (vit tt: C.(S);
- B elit p - 2 Ca 0 .S i 02 (vit tt: p-C^S);
- Tricanxi a liu n iu a t 3C a0.A l20.i (vit tt; C;$A);
- X elit 4 Ca 0 .Al 20 ,5.F e 20,4 (vit tt: C,AF).
B ng cch ch ng to ra cc khong n\i vi cc t l khc nhau. iiKi
ta thu ic cac loi xiiiiiig poclan c thm cc tnh cht, ring, v d. cliig
rn nhanh, bn nhit, bn s iila t....... phc v cc mc ch s dng khc nhan.
B ng 9.16 trnh by th n h phn khon g v bn c hc ca m t s loi xiinng
poclan.
VT LIU HC 4 f)l
Bng 9.16. Thnh phn khong v d bn c hc ca
S Loai ximng Thnh phn khong. % Gii hn bn nn. MPa
TT poclan C^S C:,s C:,A C.AF sau 3 ngy sau 28 ngy
1 Loai bnh thng 25 49 11 8 12,5 26,5

2 ng rn nhanh 14 58 11 8 22 -
3 Bn nhit 46 28 5 13 8,5 25,5

4 Bn sulat 38 41 4 10 10,5 26,5
hat ximng
+
0 nc hoc dung dch silicat
+ yvv
hat ct
(inh th hyrat
a) ) C)
Hinh 9.9. S m t qu trinh hyrat ho v ng c ca va ximng
Khi xi m ng c ha trn V (i nic. n s l) liy(ira1 ha theo cc phn ng sau

(tay;
2(3C aO .SiO .) 6 H .0 > :Ua 0 .2 S i();,.a i 1 /) f aCaOH).,;
2 (2 C a 0 .S i0 2 ) + 4 H ./) - > 3 (:n 0 .2 S i(),.;ili X) I CaOH)^;
3 C a O .A lA , + > .'-CaO.A) ,.(M.();
4C aO .A lA > P 'e/): + "H 2O aCaO.A) ...G lip + CaO.KeÔ vH-.O;
CaO.Ke.O .HÔ - 2 C a (0 f I)., + .vH,) ^ 3 C a 0 .F e ,0 :v 6 H 2 0 .
Qu trnh Iiy xy ra bt (taii t' b mt cn cc ht. xiinang v tip tc pht

trin vo bn troiig ht. H nh 9.9 uu s qu:i trnh hydrat ha cc giai on:
a) T rng tlii ban u: hn li]) va xininiiK gii cat xim n g v nc;
h) H yrai ha nit phn ca xim ng. bic clu ni cc h t ct vi uliaii:
() H ydrat ha hon ton v (lnli kt cc ht c;it nh pha tinh th hyrat.
N u x iin n g iiiii v c trn vi d Iviiti; nc th qu trnh hyrat ha
diii ra hon ton. Klii th iu lutc th int. phau xim ii khng c phn iig. Nu
tha luc. s to ra cac l. knh cha lu t c . lin cho va xin in g linh ctng. d thao
t.ac hn. Iilutng bn ca vt liu sau khi (tng rn s b gijii. S aii giai
{lon hyclrat ha l iai (lon kt tiiih. to J cuc' tinh th liyrat. vi kcli thc c
l(.)-inO IIIH lni cho khi vt liu In nu vii ('h;ic v c kh nng chii ti.
452________________________________________________________ Chng 9. VT LIU v c
Mt s c tn h thi cng ca xim n g c th ic iu chnh nh s dng cc

ph îa. v d. t n g hoc gim thi gian ng rn. iu chnh do. ...Cac ph
gia n y tc ctng vo tc ca cc qii trnh hvrat ha v ng t ca xining.
C h n g c a vo xiin n g khi pha trn hn hp.
c tn iig cho bn c hc ca xiniiig. Iigii ta dng ch tiu inc"
xiiiin g. ic qiiy iili l gii h n bii nn ca niii hn hp xim iig -c t (loi ct
qiiy nh) vi t l 1:3 sau 28 n gy bo ding trong iu kin quy m h. V d, k
h iu PC 30 c n gh a l xim n g poclan c m c l 30. gii hn bn n ii l 30 MPa.
X im ng alu m in c bn cao hn xim iig poclan, thi gian ng rn rt nhanh
(c th tho g c"p pha sau 1 ngy), bn trong mi tritng nic bin v intc
khoang. Nh cc tn h ch t . n c s dng trong cc cng trnh xy dng khn
cp (c bit l trong mi trng nic biu hoc nc khong), tn traiig cc to
n h . sta cha irng cao tc, sa cha nhanh cc ng b ng m y bay, ... Ngoi
ra, t loi xin in g n y c th ch to btn g chu n h it cao (n 2000 C) v Iihit
th a y i t bin. Kh n n g Iiy c ng dng trong n gn h h iyn kim v cng
n g h silica t giu (knh, s. gch, ...).
9.5.3. BTNG
B tiig c c h to t hn hp cc v t liu silicat vi kch thc h t khc Iihau

(v d, gm si hoc cln kch thc 1-4 cm, ct vn g c h t 0 .1 -2 mm. xiiniig
kh c h t 0 ,1 -1 0 i-im) v vi t l xc nh gia xiiTng v ct liii ty theo yu
cu v bn ca b tn g (mc btng).
Vic s dng cc v t liu c kch thxc h t khc nhau l nh m mc cli to ra
m t cao cho btig. V d, trong btug Ri-ct.-ximug th cv'\c ht ct FiC in
v o ch trig gia cc vin si, cn cc h t xiniiig s chen vo cc khong '.rng
gi a cc h t ct. N h vy th tch v t liu s c in y mc cao nlit.
N goi ra, b m t ca cc ht. ct v si s ng vai tr to nim d th (xem nic
3 .2 .2 ) cho qu triih k t tin h ca cc hp cht hyrat ca xim ng. Cc tiiia tli
h y ra t ny ph t triii an xen nhaii, lin k t cc h t ct v si li vi nhau.
Ct liu btn g th in g c s dng l ct. si, vi. granit. ... (t trng c
2 -3 g /c n ). c b tn g nh ngi ta dng cc ct liu Iih x l cao. 't s t luiiig
trng u (ceram zit), xp th in n h in (t trng c 1 g/cm '). ...hoc dng cc ph
g ia (v d. bt nhm ) c kh n n g to cc phn ng to bt kh trong qu trnh
ng rn xim ng.
bn c hc ca b tn g ph thuc vo n hiu y\i t" nh t l xim ng-cl liu,
t l nc-xiinng, hm lng pha kh (l trng) trong btng, n h it lc '.i v
bo dng btng, k th u t c cu kin, ... Tnh cht c hc ca btng n iaii c
im chung ca v t liu v c l c bn nn cao v bn ko thp. Gii hn bn
n n ca btng nm trong khong -60 M Pa. cn gii hn bn ko thng l t 1/8
ii 1/10 gii h n b n nn. S ph hy thng b t u t b m t th ca btng.
Cc l hng, k nh cha nc trong kh btn g cng l nhng v tr ban u xii.
h in v t Iit gy ph hu. Cc v t n t ny tip tc p h t trin n h an h khi betng
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 453
chu t i trng ko. cn vi ti trng nn chng ch pht trin khi lc nn c tr s

cao.
e t n g cng bn ko v bn Iin cho btn, ngi ta ch to bt.iig ct
thp v cao hii na l b tn g ng lc (h, tc to ii s\i t nn d dc theo ch iii
ct th p chu lc ch n h ca btiig.
Do btiig c t chc th. c to bi cc lit tli n li phn kch thc tng i
lii n n khi xc nh bn c hc phi ly mu c kch tliitc ln i din
cho kh v t liu. V d, inii o bn nn itc quy (nh l khi lp ph\Wng cn h
20 cni, o sa u 28 n gy ng rn.
Troiig c h to v s dng btng ct thp cu phi qiiaii tin n h s^ gin n
n h it ca btng. N ph thuc vo loi v thnh phn ct liu, thng nm trong
khong (8-14).10'* K"'.
404 Chng 10. VT LIU BT
Chng l
VT
Liu
BT

10.1. KHI QUT

V t liii bt l m t lnh vc rng, cty ch hn c h ch yu troiig phm vi vt
liu trn c s cc kim loi v hp kim bt. tc thuc lnh vc lu yn kini bt.
KJic vi phng php lu yn kiin thng tluiig l ch to kini loi v hp kini
bng cch nii chy ri qua k t tin h trong kh\iii to linh, cng n gh luyn kim
bt s dng bt kim loi l n i n gu yn liu ban ii ri qua p v th iii kt (l to
hnh nh m ong mun. N h vy Iiiun c mt sn phm t bt. ni clning phi qiia
cc qu trnh chnh saii:
- C h to bt vi ht. v sch thch hp (nguyn liu dug bt);
- To hnh s b bng p hn hp bt troiig kluiii di p su a t tlicli lip (gi
l bt p);
- nh hnh k t thc b ng cch sy v n iiiig (thiu kt) n h it thch lip
(thing thp hn n h it nng chy ca cac cii t chnh).
Gch, ngoi v cac sn phani t nung ( gjii) xUc. lin chnh bng ky tlm t
ny v c t rt xa xva, nhng nhng v t liu trn c s kim loi v hp kim b(
th mi ctidc phat trin trong vng nm niii nii c\ii th k ny, do bt kiin lf)i
v hp kiin khng c s ii trong th in nhin (nh t s t lm gni), lu phi
qua ch to rt cng phii, ci hi k th iit cao v int trang th i t b (sn xiil cng
nh kim tra cht, ling). vn n t\ ban \i ln. ... T uy vy, so vi phdiig I)hp
luyn kini thng thiig. phng php luyn kim bt c Iilung xiu vit, kh r rt.
cho nn d c ra i m un hn. II vn c tng lai pht, trin vng chc. N lung \\1
v i t l:
- N gu yn liu (bt) c s cliig gn nh 100%, bi v hu Iihi khng co )li
liu (kiu phoi) sa ii cc giai don gia cng;
- T hnh phn ca s n phm c th khng ch d dng ngay t khu chon vn
trn bt ban n;
- Bo m tn h ng n h t v kch thc. t chc t vi v tnh ch t ca s)i
phm (khi ch to h n g lot), do khu p v th iu kt c tnli lp l<i cao. vii d cl
cn l trn ii ngu yn liii bt ban ii:
- V'ii u t ban u kha cao, s ic b li nh tn h n gin ca cc ngviyn
cng v bi kh n n g tit ng ha cao, n n g su t cao v cn t nhn litc (kl! <i\ia
triili s n x u t n iih);
VT LIU HC 45
- M t s' sn phm ch c th ch t,<o l)iig plnng php lu yn kini bt. hoc

b n g h iyn kim bt s r hn so vi hivii kim th n g thiiig (nh vic ch to cc
kim loi c n h it n ng chy cao, cac vt. liu cug v siii cng, cc v t liu chu
n h it v cch nh it, hoc nit s sn phani cn c r xp u nh cc loi bc xp.
cc tm lc, ...)
Bng 10.1. Nhng loi vt liu c th ch to bng phng php luyn kim bt
(cn gi l sn phm t bt p v thiu kt)
Loi vt liu Cc cu t chnh
Fe, Fe-Cu, Fe-Ni-Cu, Fe-P

Vt liu kt cu (chi tit my) Fe-C, Fe-Cu-C, Fe-Ni-Cu-Mo-C
Thp khng g, brng, latng
Ti, Al-Cu .
Hp kim c bit;
- Hp kim t cng Al-Ni-Co, SmCos. ferit t cng
- Hp kim t mm Fe-Ni, Fe-Si, Fe-P, ferit t mm
- Hp kim hn vi thy tinh Fe-Ni-Co
- Hp kim siu dn Nb3Sn, Ca-Cu-0
- Hp kim tip im v in cc W-Cu. W-Ag, Ni-Ag
- Hp kim nng W-Ni-Cu, W-Ni-Fe
Kim loi v hp kim st cht:

- Kim loi chu nhit w , Mo. Ta. Nb. Re
- Kim loi dng trong k thut ht nhn B. Zr
- Siu hp kim Cc hp kim trn c s Ni. Co
- Thp hp kim Thp dng c, thp gi
Vt liu c xp cao;
- Bc xp t bi trn Brng. Fe-Cu, thp khng g, Al-Cu
- Tm lc Brng, Ni, Ni-Cr, Monel,
Thp khng g, Ti, Zr. Ag, Ta
Vt liu lin kim loi: Ni-AI, MoS2. Ti-AI, Co-Mo-Si
Vt liu com pozit;

- Hp kim cng (WJi,Ta)C+Co, TiC+Ni-Mo, CraCi+Ni
- Cermet (hp kim cng nn kim loi) Cr+Al203 , TiC+Ni-Cr, Mo+Zr02
- Vt liu ma st Brng + c + oxyt kim loi
- Vt iiu it ma st ( trt) Cu+graphit, Fe+graphit
- Vt liu c pha phn tn Ni+Th02. AI+AI2O3. AgCdO, CU+AI2O3

Brng+kim cng, W C -C o+kim cng
- Vt liu tm kim cng
Vt liu chu la sch cao TaC, M 02C. ZrB 2. AIN. S3N 4 , SiC
46 Chn/y 10. VT LIU BT
Bng 10.1 gii th iu cc loi s n phm c th ch to bng phng php luyn

kim bt. v thnh phii chnh ca chng. B ng 10.2 nu cc Iiguyii cng ch lo
mt sii )hain t bt qiia p v thi\i kt. v d. bc lt trc ( trt) t lip kim
brng thic c cha graphit.
Trc khi n gh in cu cc loi vt liu bt p v thiu kt c th, chiiig ta liy
tni hiu qiia cac cng on chnh ca vic ch to: t khu sn xut bt. qua khu
to hnh s b. cho n vic th iii kt c th n h phm.
Bng 10.2. Nhng nguyn cng chnh ca vic ch to sn ph^m

bng phng php luyn kim bt
Tn nguyn cng Vi d: ch to bc lt trc t brng
1. Chun b nguyn liu Cu: in phn (bt)

Sn: ha bt bng cch phun nc p lc cao
vo dng thic lng
2. Bt: cc ht rn c kch Graphit: to bt bng nghin c hc

thc < 1 mm Cu; < 150 m
Sn: < 40 m
Graphit < 20 pm
3. Trn bt Cn cc bt trn theo t l thich hp ri trn

u
4 . Tao hinh: chuyn t trng thi ri p ngui trong khun di p lc thich

rc ca cc ht bt thnh vt c hp (khong 100 MPa, tc 1 kbar)
hnh dng v kch thc xc nh
5. Thiu kt: nung vt phm ln nhit Nung 800c, 15 pht trong khi bo v thu
cao. nhng thp hn nhit nhit, xut hin pha lng tm thi ca Sn ha
nng chy ca c t chnh, vi tan Cu v to thnh hp kim gia chng
mc ch nng cao bn ca sn
phm
6. Gia cng tinh: sa , mi, ... Kim tra kch thc, ngm du
10.2. CC PHNG PHP SN XUT BT KIM LOI

Cc phng php sn x \i t bt kim loi hin hnh c chia th n h hai nhm
lii: cc phing php c hc v cc phng php ha l. Vic chn plnng phap Iio
l t y thuc vo yu cn v k th u t v kh nng kinh t. N h iu khi plii kt hp
cc plntiig php khc nhau mi to ic bt c ch t lng m ong mun.
VT LIU HC 47
10.2.1. CC PHNG PHP c ( HC
N ^ k i n : Mt s kini loi nlu Mn. Cr, ... v cac lip clit dng oxyt, liydroxyt.
cacbit. .sulfit, nitrit, ... c tnh giii cao. c th c nhiii th iih bt trc tip t
th rn (dng cc. dng h t, dng phoi. ...) bns' cc loi m y nghin bi. Iigliin ba
thng tlung. y l phng phap c in, n gin, c th to c bt vi niii
cao. nhng iihic im l n u g siiat tlip. sch ca bt khng cao (do c s t vo
thnh niay v cc chi tit chuyn (tiiK nh bi ngliipn. ina nghin) v n h t l khng
th nliin vc cc kiin loi v lip kiii c tnh do cao.
Ha bt t k iin lo i l n g : Vi Iiluug kiii loi v lip kini c n h it nng chy
tlip (< 1 000"C) c th d dng ha bt bng cch cho nit dng kim loi lng chy
ln b int int ca b n g kini loi (thp, cliig) quay Iihaiih. uh lc ly tm v kh
Iiiig ngui n h an h n kini loi lii b biii thnh l)t. vn g ra v c thu li
trong th n g cha. N h ng phng pliap ny cho bt th, c chc, khng thch hp
cho vic ch to s n phm p v thiu kt. Thitng s dng m t s phng php
sa\i:
-~u
b)
Hnh 10.1 S thit b ch' tao bt t kim loai lng bng phun khi di p sut cao
a) s tng qut: b) mt ct qua h thng phun khi:
1- gu rt cha kim loai lng; 1- thn trn, c l dn kim loai lng,
2- phu rt, lt ceramic chiu nhit, 2- li dn khi nn.
3- b phn phun kh (hoc nc). 3- dng kim loai lng,
4- thng cha bt kim loai 4- dng khi nn,
5- kim loai lng b ha thnh bt
- Phng php ph bin hin nay l pluni uc hoc kh diti p su t cao vo

dng kiin loi liig chy t trn xung' ( x e iii s liiih 10.1). Phng php Iiy c
the p dng cho liii lit cc kim loi v hp kim c n liit nng chy kling ln
458_________________________________________________________ Chng 10. VT LIU BT
hn 1 600"c. N ii dng luc pluui. cc git, kim loi lng b ngui v kt tin h rt
Iihaiih. to ra cc ht bt khng cu hoc c dng b ko di. Ng\c li. n\i cii:
kh nn s nhn ic cc ht. dng cii (do ngui chm nn cc git. Iili kim loi
lng c ii thi giaii v trn tnc khi k t tinli). c klii hon toii hnh cu (v (l.
triiig hp bt Cii lm t m lc).
C th to ic kch tlnc h t nh m un bng cch iu chnh ing knh
dng kim loi lng, n h it kim loi lng, p sii t v tc phun ca dng nc
hoc kh (tuy v y cng ch t c kch thitc h t nh n h t t 10-20m . Iiuin
nh hn phi k t hp vi nghin).
Vi nh ng kim loi v lip kini d b oxy ha, hoc bt i hi hng cha oxv
ti thiii, phi dng k h nn l nit hoc tt n h t l argon.
- Plutng php to bt t kim loi lng trong chn khng: Kim loi \tc nu
chy troiig chn khng b n g cm ng, sa u a hydro vo dii p s\i't cao n
ha tan n h iu vo kim loi lng, tip ni vi bung chn khng b ng m t ng
dn cm vo gn y ni. Klii m van. kini loi lng s pht m nh qua. cng vi s
th ot ra ca hydro, lm kim loi b chia nh ra nh bi bung chn khng. Bt
nhn \tc kh sch v nin.
- Pliiiig php to bt b n g in cc qiiay: N guyn tc ca phng phap l
nu chy dn dn mt in cc (t kim loi mong nuin ch to bt). CIC q\iay vi
tb ln (1 0 0 0 -2 0 0 0 vg/ph), lc ly tm s ha bt kim loi lng. Vic nu chy
c tin h n h trong k h bo v (He hoc Ar). hay troiig chn khng v c th thc
hin Iih h quang in, ngn la p lasn ia hoc bn ph bng chm (tin t trong
chn khng (0.001 Pa), ... Ni chung bt to bng cch ny kh th (t o.in ni n
vi niiliniet), n n cn c p dng c h to ra kim loi dng vy.
10.2.2. CC PHNG PH P HA L
Phng p h p hon nguyn t o xyt: Cc oxyt kim loi ni chiiiig gin v d to

thnh bt bng cch nghin. Saii bt oxyt vtc hon n gu yn c n h it tlip
hn nhiu so vi n h it nng chy cia chng v y cng l m t lu im ca
phng php h iyn kiii bt so vi phng php luyn kim tn iy ii thng), s nhn
ic bt. kim loi ni h t ca n ty tliiic ch yu vo m n ca bt oxyt trc
. Cht hon nguyn c th l bt th a n (cc, a iitra x it) hoc cc k h H 2. NH. nhit
phii. CO. hydrocacbon. kh t chy d, ... Bt n h n ic c xp cao nn kh
nng iin ln, h t cng m n Iiii Iihit hon n gu yn cng th p v liig hi
luc trong k h hon Iig\iyn cng nh.
Phng php ny c dng trong cng nghip sn x ii t Fe bt t quiig
st. bt cac kini loi c n h it Iiig chy cao v nht l n g\iyn liu ch to
hp kim n g (cacbit. nitrit, borit kim loi. ...) t oxyt ca chng.
Phng php hon nguyn t hp cht th kh: B n ch t ca plnng Dhap ny
l chuyn kim loi cn to bt t (lng khi c chc sa n g dng lip cht, th kh
nh l cc clorua (WCl,i. MoCl,j. NbCl:v ...) hoc cc rionia kim loi, bng cach cho
kim loi tc dng vi hi HCl hoc HF. Sau dng hyro hon Iiguyn troii
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________ ______________ 459
bung l vi n h it khon g 8 0 0 -] 200"C. hoc l troiig ngn la (v d. Cl-2 +

hoc > + H;;). hoc trong plasm a Ar-L.
P h i n g p h p hon nguyn bi cc him lo i: N guyn tc ca phng php ny
l (lng kini loi c ai lc ha hc vi oxy m nh hn so vi kim loi cn hon
n nvn (ang tn ti dng hp cht kiu oxyt, hoc halogeniia), theo kiu phn
ng- n h it nhm . Vi d. ch to bt Ti hoc Zr c th dng Mg hon nguyn
TiCl 1 hay ZrCl,t 700" c . H oc sn xiit bt SinCor, (cli to n an i chin vnh cii)
c th dng Cn hon nguyn hn hp bt sam ary oxyt vi bt cban oxyt
] 000"C trong chn khng.
Phng kp in phn: in phn dvuig dch nuil kim loi (vi dng cc tan
hoc khng tan), v n giiyii tdc c tl dng s n xu t bt cc kim loi; Fe. Cii.
Ph. Sn. Cr. Mn, ... Ngitc li vi plutng php ni iii ( nuin to ctc lp ni
st ch t v bm dnh tt), th y dng nit dng ln. Iing axit c, Iiiig
d ioii kini loi tlip. k h u y trn niiih, ... to c lp m xp. bm dnh kni
(vo ni cc), d (lng ly ra, thm ch ngay saii khi ra hoc sy, chiig t r ra
thnh bt inii. M t vi trng hp (Fe, Cr, Mu) s c lp ni c chc. Iihiig rt
gin nn cuig d n g h in th n h bt. Tuy vy hin nay. phng php ny cng
thng chi dng d s n x u t bt Cu vi quy m cng nghip. V d, cc thng s'
.san xvit bt C \1 Iihv saii;
- D ung dch 8g/l Cu + 150g/l H-iSO.;
- M t dng in: 20 A/dm^-
- N h it : 5" C;
- Dng cc: Cvi;
- ni cc: th p khng g.
plip in phn niul kiin loi nng cliy khng cho ra bt, v sn
phm in phn thirng c chc v dng kt tinli lit th. Cng c th tm cch
Iigliin chng th n h bt (nh tn n g lip Ti, Zr, nh n g ang cn giai on
nghin CIII tlu nghim .
P hng p h p n h i t p h n (phng php cacbonyl); N liit phn cc cacboiiy] kim
loi nhm clniyn tip (Fe. Ni. Co, w , ...) c ng d ng trong cng nghip
sn x u t bt Fe, bt Ni. Cc cacbonyl c nh it nng chy thp: 43'c i vi
Ni(CO), v 107C i vi Fe(CO)?i. ic to thnh bniig cch phim k h c o di p
su a t cao (200 bar) vo phoi hoc dy kiii loi n h it d 10-20"C. Sau cc
cacbouyl b n h it phn p sii t kh qiiyn trong khong n h it 200-300"C , s
nhn c bt kini loi rt sch, kch thic ht. c th in chnh trong phm vi
I-O ni. vi Fe c d ng cu ring r nhau, cn vi Ni c dng khng u v d
kt t,. Bt Fe s n xtuat, biig ph\tng php ny tlm c loi ch t liig cao, t tin,
cli dng d ch to v d hp kiin t tnh thiu kt. nhm F e-N i hoc hp kim hn
gn VI th y tiiih F e-N i-C o. Ngc li. bl Ni to ra t cacbonyl (phng php
M OND ca tp on hiternat.ioiial Nickel Co) li l (liig ph thng n h t trn th
tn n g . n chc dng ch to ra ^îi nh tt c cac sn phm th iu kt c cha
Ni, k c thp Ni.
Hnh 10.2. S nguyn tc ch to bt

mn bng cch ha hi v nghg tu
1-bung chn khng;
2 -ng dn n bm chn khng,
3-bnh du v ng dn;
4-du silicn;
5-a quay lm ngui;
6 -mng du ngng t bt kim loai,
a
7-dng c quay a lm ngui:
8 -ni ha hi:
9-ngur\ nhit (nung cm ng hoc nung
bng chm in t),
1 0 -thng cha du v bt min
P hng p h p ha h i-n g n g t : sn xu t bt kim loi siu m n (vi kch

thc h t khng ln hn 0 ,0 1 -l m ), v d, trong lnh vc v t liu t, c th dng
phng php n u chy v ha hi kim loi trong kh bo v hoc troiig chn khng,
ri cho ngin g t trn a qiiay c tin du thch hp, v d, dii silicn (nhi ca
phng plip VERO S v i t t t t tin g A iih V aciium E vaporation 011 R uiinin g Oil
Sub strate, n u trn h iih 10.2).
10.3. CC PHNG PHP TO HNH
N gu yn cng to hnh i vi vt liu bt l t cc h t bt ri rc to ra mt

v t rn c h iih d ng v kch thic xc nh. Sn phm c gi l bt p, i hi
phi c s dnh k t n h t ili, c th gia cng c kh s b hoc vn chuyn
v tin hnh th iu k t tip theo. N goi ra, n phi c khi lng ring t gi tr
cho trc ( sa u khi th iu kt, c h ih dng, kch thc v cd-l tn h t cc gi
tr m ong nuin).
Phng php c dng n h iu n h t l p (nn) m t chiu n h i t phng
trong klio lng bt y kluiii c n n dc theo trc ca l khun bng hai
chy chuyn ng ngc ch iu Iihaii (liiii 10.3). Phng php n y ch thch hp vi
chi ti t nh. hnh d n g dii giii.
Vi cc chi ti t ln hoc hnh dng phc tp phi dng cch nn ng tnh, chi
tit dng tr rng hoc th a n h di diig cch p chy, chi ti t dng b n g (l) ding
cch cn bt, chi ti t d ng th n h m ng dng cch ln g ng hoc phun ph, v.v.
10.3.1. PHNG PH P NN MT C H l
S n gu yn tc ca phing php ny c n\i trn hnh 10.3.

N n bt c tin h n h trong khiin b ng th p hoc b n g hp kiii cng
ic nh bng cn th n nh iny p thy lc hoc c kli. Lc p c truyn vo
bt qua nit h ay n h iu ch y bng thp ti lp k h t vo khun vi khe h Iih
VT LIU HC 461
(-2 m ). bo m cho kh t trouf ht. t.hot ra khi p. Lc p dao ng trong

phm vi 100-1 00 0 M Pa (1 -1 0 kbar) ty theo (lo ca kini loi v khi
ln ring ca s n phm p. ch t IO cc chi tit may thng dng p lc lii
4 0 0 -6 0 0 M Pa, cn ch to cc sn phm xp (nh bc x'p, cc t'm lc, ...) th ch
cn 1 0 0 -2 0 0 MPa.
^'777
>
s// /^y/ // V
/>
. ' >
/ r
. V
/
Hnh 10.3. S phng php nn mt chiu
Sv dnh kt c khi bt p c c nli s tip xc trc tip gia cc h t bt m

k h n g cn m t c h t d n h k t no. ng o i tr b t ciig, q u m ii t h p h i cho th m
ch t dnh k t (nhi sp ong, parain, polynie. ...) to t.luiii li cho vic p.
gim m a s t vi th n h klm n thng phi cho th iii ch t bi trdii. v d.
d n g ch t km ste a r a t hoc stea ra t liii c vi htng khong 0,% khi hiig bt.
L m nh v y c th ci th in kh nng p ca bt , Iilung trc h t l gim litc cn
tl t y c h i ti t ra k h i k h u n (sau k l i i p) t i-5 l u . g i m s bo m n k lu i ii,
t n g tui th cho khun.
t n g s t cht, v ng ii v khi lng ring ca sn phm bt p c
th p d ng phng php n n k t hp vi rvnig c hc. V d bt Cu liiin c bt p
vi khi lng ring 6,5g/cm phi dng p lc tnh ti 200 M Pa. N u k t hp vi
r\iiig c hc vi t n s^ 160H z v bin rung 0.12in ni trong thi gian 10 s th chi
cn p vi p Itc lOM Pa, tc nh hn 20 lu, ciiig nhn ic bt p c khi lng
rin g tug ng.
10.3.2. CC PHNG PH P NN KHC
Nn n g tn h n h i t th ng: Bt chi'a trcng kliiin dng v m ng (bng

cao su hoc ch t do), t trong khng gian kn cli ap su t th v tn h trong mt
ch t lng (nc) hoc ch t kh. Sau \a cht lng (hoc kh) dii p su t cao
200- 00 M Pa vo nn hn hp bt. cha trong khun, u im ca phng php
n y l n h n ic m t u trong ton b chi tit, d h nh dng chi ti t c phc
tp, dng th n h m ng hoc kch thc ln, ... Phitig php n y rt thch hp
c h to cc bn th n h phm qua rn.
462_________________________________________________________ Chng 10. VT LIU BT
p /i n g p h p cn bt: Phing php cn bt. du clo sn xiiat cc bu kini

loi t nguyn liii bt c do cao (Cu, latng. liriig. Ni. ...). Vi chiu dy
2-6 nini, ri q\ia tl u kt. S a\i th in k l. bns bt kim loi li qua can ri ii
li. Sn phnni cng c chc v ng ii khng tlm a km g so vi tniiK h) sn
plini c ri qua cn truyn tling, nhng nguyn liii \fc s diig trit (l luiii
llllill.
Phng p h p p chy n h i t th n g: Phng phap nv dp dng f' siu xiiVt
cac chi ti t dng th a n h , ng c chi\i dM ln t bt. kim loi c tn h (PO c;io liic co
th ha do b ng cch trn vi Iiit cht lu\i cd thch lip (nln ni, nha (lo.
saii cho vo klm ii p ch y kiu p ist iig -x ila n h hoc: ki\i \ig m m . Cht iiii C(
\c ly ra bng cch cho bay hi (nung) v chi tit ic th iu kt t.ip do to liii
k t gia cc h t bt.
P kn g p h p nn x iiig (cn i i l nn ng hay va p): Cc phng phap nvi
trn thuc loi n n tiih. trong p lc iin tn g dn. do vy di p lc
dng (nh hn 1 00 0 M Pa) kh c th to itc n plinni p c s t clit vid. (u
90-90% . t n g st ch t cho s n phm p c th p dng cc plung I)ha|) IKMI
xiing saii:
- Rn vi tc ln;
- p n. n n g lng n c truyn vo bt qua lut pistiig tron kliun hoi'
qua mt ch t lng (nc, dii) ln khun bng caosu hay cht, clo (iih trong
plutiig php n n ng tn h ct n\i);
- To linh nh m t xm ig in do s phng in ca t in vi (nng (l r;Vt
ln (10 -1 0 A) trong thi gian rt Iigii. Plung php ny cn trong giai do;,UI th
ngliiin, n h iiig c triii vng ln, v n c tli to c san phni vi st, clil t<i
98% (vi bt do). 90-90% (vi bt cng).
10.3.3. ( C PHNG PH P TO HNH KHNG CN nn
Vi cc clii ti t dng th n h m ng ni phi ch to t bt kini loi liay hp kiin

c Iihit nng chy cao (nli bnh cha, cc nung, ni Iiu. ...). cc plutdiig phai)
Iin (p) k trn t ra khiig thch hp. Klii c th p dng mt s plutii )ha|)
savi;
- P ung p h p l n g ng: N gii ta clnin b mt (liuig dch kiii Iniyen ph.
gin bt kim loi rt m n (kch thc h t 1-10 pin) "ha tan" ii trong lutc (c plia
thm ch t gim stc cng b m t ca nc. nlnf cht aiiioii algin at) c |)I4 (ho
trc bo m dung dch c nht nh nht. Sa\i rt. chmg dch vo kliuii
biig thch cao. Do thch cao xp v h t mc. bt. kim loi s bm ln thiih
khvin rt nin v ii. Tip n l sy kh v ly chi ti t ra khi kh\iii. ri {tem
thivi kt th n h s n 3hni.
K thut, ny c dm g ch to cc chi tit t ht kim loi hoc hp kim
chu nhit. (Mo. hp kini Co, ...) v cc hp kim cng Iiii kini loi (nh rachit.
Iiitrit. lorit. ...), v d Iih ng bo v cp Iiliit din, cc iniiig, ni n\i kim loi,
bnh cha vi th nh mng. v.v.
VT LIU HC_____________ _______________________________________________________ 463
- P h ng p h p p h im p h : Bt kim loi itc trn trong ch t lng thch hp to

th n h dung dch kiii sii hoc vecni. snu (t dng may (kiu siin g phun sn) phun
dung dch ln m t ci ct (li) c hnh (lii tlich lip. Savi khi sy v th iu kt
to ra lp ph ng \i, li s dc tliao ra baiig r hc: hoc bng cch ha tan
(ha hc). C ng c th phun t.rii t.hni nng nh ngn la n x O 2-H 2. hoc
b ng p lasm a A r-H 2 ln int ct (nn) thch hp. Cliiih lp ph bt w ln m t trong
ng x ca tii la itc thc hin bng cch ny.
10.4. THIU KT
S au khi to l iili b n g cc plnrng php khc nlinu nlu nii. sii phm bt
p ciiia th s dng c v c tnh cu tlip. phi tin iinh th in kt. tc nung
nhit cao (gn n h it IIIIK cliny ca c;Vu t chnh) ct to ra mi lin kt
(nguyn t) bn v ng gia cc ht. tang cd-l tnh cho sn pliii ii cc gi tr
nioiig nuiii.
10.4.1. TH IU KT KIM LOI SCH (NGUYN CHAT)
S lc cc qu trn h xy ra lh i thiu kt: Tnp Iihit trong qu trnh nung

s lm t n g dao ng n h i t ca cc ngiiyii t. nlit. l cc n guyn t trn b mt
cc ht. S t n g n n g liig b mt Iiy lni tng (ln b m t tip xc gia cc ht.
tip n l s k t tin h li ton b. lm m t (ti nling cnn t.r do bin dng (do qii
( rnh p trc gy ra) v siiili ra cac ht ini c cii trc a cnh. Iihit fl cng
cao v thi gian cn g lu th h t cng t.o ra (giny nhu trng hp kiin loi b bin
dng do ri qua k t tin h li). Hinli 10.4 gii tliini to cliVtc t vi ca bt. Cu qua
p v th iu k t 1 0 0 0 C trong thi gian klic nliau. Nh vy t chc ca II ch
khc kim loi c h to b ng phng |)lip nng cliy ch cn c r xp nir d
no .
H utig ch ra rng cc hin tng xy ra troiig qu trnh thin kt l nh
nliau ct'i vi mi kim loi v ch ph thuc vo tdii q\ian gia Iihit th iii kt
v Iiliit nng ch y ca n in thi,
N h i t v th i g ia n thiu ht: Thi gian thi\i kt cn g ngn nu Iiliit ct
cng gn n h i t n ng chy. Tluiig chn nhit (t thiii k t troiig phm VI
(2 /3 -3 /4 )7 c (tn h th e o kelvin) Vc thi KIII n s n l - 120 ph. tr n h ht
lii qu mc, N goi ra trong cng Iighii) thng nhit th iu k t vc c nh
ty theo n h it lii) vic tl u ca l. v (l, 1 125 "c <ti vi l lin tc kiu bng
ti, th iu k t bt Fe, thi gian 1-.'0 ph, ly theo ciig su t l v chin dy ca
chi tit.
M i tr n g thi u kt: Do v t liu bt. p thuc loi vt. liu x). Ii\i b oxy ha
th qii trnh xy ra rt nh an h v c th vo t 11 li, do vy ni clm iig phi tliiii
kt trong mi trng bo v nh kli hon Iiguyii (I:i. c o . NH;i n h it phii. kh
dt tx. n h in chy cha ht. ...). kh trung tnh (N;;, He. Ar, ...) hoc trong chn
khng. N h n g kini loi Iihy cni vi s oxy ha (v (l nh Al). thiug phi dng
4(54 C hng 10. VT LIU BT
kh hon Iigiiyn kh b lp vnv oxyt trn b mt cc ht bt. t iig r sch rlio

vt phnni.
b)
_/

20MT
Hinh 10.4. s thay i t chc t vi ( ln v s phn b' ca hat v r xp)

ca bt ng sau p v thiu kt 1000c, vi thi gian thiu kt
a )4 p h , b ) 8 ph; c) 30 ph. d )120 ph
10.4.2. THI KT H N HP b t ca hai hay N H I CU t
T r n g h.p lih i x u t hi p h a ln g tro n g q im ffih th i u kt: N u nlut cc

cii t hon ton khng ha ta n vo n liaii trn g th i rn, th qu trnh xy ra
tng t nh i vi kim loi n gu yn cht, n gh a l c s t khuch ti) ngiiyii t
vo n h a\i triig th i rn gia cc h t bt ng loi, xa nha bin gia
cluiig, tc xy ra R k t tin h li trong t.iig kim loi ring bit. V d. tntiig hp
V ct liu tip im h Cu-W , th iu k t SOO-BOO^C ch xy ra s k t tinli li siiin
cc h t Cu, cn cac h t w khng c g th ay i, do clna dii n h it kt tinh li
ca w. T chc nh vy va bo m tn h dn in tt. vva bo m tnh chu
n h it v cling m i mn tt khi lm vic.
N u nh gia cc cii t c th to th n h dung dch rn. v d vt. liu lm tni
lc h C ii-N i. khi th iu kt. cc nguyn t khuch tn vo Iihaii tliai rin. fi
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ ^
n h iu l chm , n lu n g nu nlut cc ht bt rat Iiiii v ihtc t.ru rlu t.nc khi p.

cnp; vi iii kin n h it v tlii iai aiii bno (lu. ('O tli to ra (lung dch rn
ng n h t khng th u a km g phdn^^ pliap nau cliy (iioi tr s c Jiit ca r
xp m ong liiin i vi v t liii ljii tain lr. m phriii phap I\\i cliy khng th
to ra irc;.
T r n g /lp c x u t hin ph a lng tro n g qu trin l thu kt: N h d bit. uhit
(t th iu k t bao gi ciig thp hn nhit, cl niig chy ca cu t clinh. nhing vn
c th e c pha lng x u t hin do cc cu t ph c nliit. nng cliy th p hoc
gia cac cu t to nn lip kim c Iiliit cl nng chy thp (theo kiu cng tinh).
Ngi ta th y rng, c th tin hnh thiu kt voi SI hnh tlin li pha lng, vi ctiii
kin pha Iiy ch chim m t t l khng ln. ti (ta l 30% v th tch, bo cti
chi tit, gi c hnh dng ban ii. D cho plia lii cli xvit hin tm thi, (nh
triiig hp hn hp bt 90% C \1 v 10% Sn). hay pha lng tn ti trong sut thi
gian th in k t (nh trirng hp thi\i k t hp kim ciig w c v Co), s c m t ca
pha lng to th ii ii li cho s khuch tan. gim ht hay loi b cc r xp (do cc
lit. rn d tin li gn Iihaii), tu g st. cht (hay mt. d Ung i) cîa hp kiin.
n h n g khi kch thiic chi tit b sai lch Iihiu, do s co ngt, c khi t.i 5-25%
(vi lip kim cng w c v Co v hp kim tVf cng A l-N i-C o. hp kim n n g W -C \i-N i
co ngt l l%). C th gim s co ngt, ny bng cach hp kim ha bi cc
Iiguyn t thch hp.
10.4.3. THIU KT DI P L c (HAY P NNG)

D c cc sn pliiii c xp nh (hoc bng Idiii) c th p (lng phug
php p n n g (hay cn gi l th iu kt chti p lc), lic l kt hp hai ug\iyii cng
p v th iu k t trong nit nguyn CII.
p n i t chiu nhit, cao: C tlip Iivi rn (y mt. vi k tliii t c th tlnic
phng php ny:
- p nng n h it ct rt cao (1 5 0 0 -2 00''C). tiu liiih trong khun graph il c
)h mt. lp oxyt. chi p sii t khong 30 MPa. c: tli (Iny l cch duy n lit t,
ct s t ch t 95-98% l vi hp kini cng (trn cd s cacbit. nitrit. borit) in khng
cn cho th m ch t diih kt. Mt vi ng dng thc tf! trong cng nghip c
c li to v t liu trn c s B|C;
- p n ng n h i t trung bnh (800-1 100''C). tin h nh trong khun bng
kim loi chu n h it, trong mi triig kh bo v hoc trong chn khng, diti ap
s u t cao 2 0 0 M Pa. K th u t ny c ng dng i vdi bt kim loi hot ha cao
Iilu Be;
- T hiii k t di p lc b ng phno- in (Spark-Sintoriiig).
K th u t ny c ph t trin M. N ht Bn. Bt cln in (kiin loi, cacbit.)
ic nn trong ni grapliit di i) lc khong 100 MPa. cho dng in chy qua.
s xy ra s phng in b mt tip xc gia cc h t bi m ng oxyt. cch in.
T ip theo s phng in l s m m g nng rnt nhanh (lo hiu tiig tip XIIC (khong
v i giy san khi pl\if iii). K tlm t Iiy c liixi qu ngay c vi kim loi b oxy
30 - VLH
466_________________________________________________________ Chng 10. VT LIU BT
ha m nh (iilu bt Al) v ciiig l pluMiig php ding c nh trc tip v t liu

tliiii k t lii b nit mt kiii) loi lio . v d. ph lp hp kini ciig ln b m t
clii tit lioc dng c b n g thp, hay ph kini loi th iu kt ln w . ln C\1 (lip kim
tip im), hay vic ch to xeoniiig gang bng phng php thiu kt. v.v,
p nng n g tn h (H IP vit. tt. t tiiig Anh Hot Isostatic Pressiiig): Phing
php ny pht, triii t n h in g nm tani nui, v nguyn tc n ging vi p ngui
ng tnh, ch klic l Iihit cao (1 000-1 00C) vi p su^^t t 10 0 -2 0 0 MPa.
t.o ra bi kh nn hoc Ar. II ini ca k th \i t ny c rt nhiu, c th Iiii
tm tt Iilu sau;
- B ng phing php ny c th ch to c cc sn phm c chc, khng c
r xp ngay c vi n lu n g loi bt. m biili thng khng th in k t ctic, hoc hiii
c r x'p. v lioc l kch tliic h t ln v dng cu, lioc l cc bt chu n h i t i
hi thiu kt Iihit rt cao fW. Ta. Mo. Nb. Re) O 2. U N . c . ...c n h it
th iu kt 1 3 0 0 -1 40"C);
- To ctc t chc ht inn v c th iu chnh c ln ca ht;
- C th ch to cc chi tit, hnh (lng phc tp. kch thc ln;
- Loi b dc cac tng tc gia cc cî t trong qii triili s dng, do s
dng n h it d th p hn Iihiu so vi Iilnt. th in kt;
- Loi b cc r xp cn li trong chi tit. v d, vic p li 1 300 "c i vi
iip kiiii cng w c +10%Co c th loi tr n nlu hon ton r xp, t s t cht
gn 100%. iu dn ti tn g ng k C(1 tnh, n h t l bn un (tng 20-00% ).
cng Iih loi b cc klmyt. t t c th xiit. hiii trong lc gia cng tinh (ini, iih
bng);
- N ng s\i t cao. do tli gian p niig t(Jiig i ngn (khong vi pht).
M( rng i\g dng k thut, ny cho vic Ra cha cac k h iiyt t t nh nt. r
xp (i vi n sa y c cc clii tit cli to bng pliiiig php nu chy), do nhit,
cao cng vi ) lc cao, cc k h u yt t t ny c hn kii li, ljn kim loi tr nn
c chc v lin tc. Phitiig php ny c ng diig cho hp kim Al. brng.
latiig, hp kim Ni. Co (siu hp kim).
10.5. VT LIU BT MI V DNG c CT
y l hai loi v t liu c tnh ch t lni vic ging Iihau: dng v t cng hn
ct v t m m hn (th n h int. hoc phoi). B ng 10.3 gii th iii c tnh ca nit s
vt. liu c cng cao, c th dng lm bt m i v l n gu yn li\i ch to dng
ct.
10.5.1. VT LIU BT MI
Di vi bt nii, cc h t cng c kch thc khiig u nhau, nhng hin c cc

gc cnh sc nhn. Khi li vic chng trit trn b m t cn gia cng (mi, r,
anh bng. ...) li bong ra t b Iit cn gia cng nhiing m t c kch thc khc
VT LIU HC 467
Iihaii ty ht, tc trt v lc .p ln b mt. c)i gia cng. Trong t.liic t

thng dxng cc vt liu sau. theo chin tng dn cn ciig lm bt mi; ct
trng (SO 2), niri (hn hp t nhin ra AloO ;, SiC. Fe20:,). Al20:t, SiC. BN lp
plung. c\ii cng l kim cng (t nhin hoc n li ii to).l loi v t liu c cng
cao n h t (khong 10 OOOHV).
Bng 10.3. Tnh ch't c trng ca mt s vt liu c cng cao
Loi vt liu cng Moun n hi. Gii han bn Nhit nng chy
(thnh phn) Knoop GPa nn, MPa hoc phn hy. c
Kim cng (C) 8 000 930 7 000 > 3 500

Bo nitrit (BN)
mng lp phng 5 000 860 7 000 1 540
Bo cacbit
(B4C) 3 500 450 2 900 225
Titan cacbit
(TiC) 3 100 350 2 800 3 100
Silic cacbit
(SiC) 3 000 400 1 000 2 400
Volram cacbit
(WC) 2 700 600 5 000 2 780
Nhm oxyt
(AlaOa) 2 100 350 3 000 2 050
Thch anh
(SiO,) 1 000 54 1 200
Thp ti 800 210 1 200
G/i ch: ( 1) S' liu cOh I hp (l sn sAiih.
V t liu m i c th s dng dii^f t do (dng ht) Iilni trong m ay phun ct.

bt gia cng th y tinh, bt m i r. bt daiili bng. ... hoc diig gn trn giy, vi
(giy gip t bt ct trng, vi tm niri, SiC. ... dng ct gia cng g. hoc kini
loi), hoc d n g khi ( m i cc loi).
10.5.2. DNG C CT BNG HP k im c n g
i vi d ng c ct (m t hay Iihiii li ct. nh tin. phav. bo. khoan doa.

chut. ...), khi lm vic ch n g ct (l:>c) t ng lp b nit chi ti t cn gia cng, to ra
phoi. T*c ct cn g cao. n h it do Iiia s t siiili ra cng n hiii. do v y Iigoi cng
cao. dng c i hi c tn h cng nng v bn nng cao. nh n\i troiig chng 7.
vi thp liig c cacbon v hp kini thp ch chu c kliiig qii 20C. vi thp
gi cng ch di 600"c, nu dng hp kim cng c th lm vic ic ti
800-1000"C , n n g cao n n g su"t ct v tui th cho dng c lii n h iii ln.
T huh phii ch yii ca hp kini cng thng dng l cc h t w c dnh k t vi

n hau bi Co (loi m t cacbit), hoc w c + TiC + Co (loi hai cacbit), hoc w c + TiC
I TaC f Co (loi ba cacbit). Lng Co dao ng trong phm vi 2-30% ty theo
dai va p cn th it (Co cn g Iihiii dai cng cao Iilung cng cng thp).
Bng 10.4 trnh b<y th nh phn ha hc v c tnh ca m t s' loi hp kim
cng dng lm dng c c t gt.
ch to hp kim cng phi qiia cc bc sau;
- H on n gu yn bt WO. trong dng kh H 2 700-900"C. Bt w th thu ic
em n gh in nh. q\ia s n g c h t n ln (0.1 0 -0 ,1 5 m n 3-in);
- Trn bt w vi m h ng (m ui than) Vc n un g ln 1 OO^C, trong lli chc
w c (nii c h to loi hai cacbit phi trn thm TO 2 sau khi n u ng ic Iigay
hn hp ca h ai cacbit);
- Trn bt cacbit vi bt Co trong Iihiii gi lm u th n h phn;
- p hn hp bt di p lc 1 0 0 -4 0 0 M Pa ri n un g s b 9 0 0 C trong Ih
to hnh s b:
- Gia cng c (phay, tin ) theo kch thic m ong iniin, ch di cn thit,
v sau th iu k t c s co n gt n h t iiii (khong 0-10%);
- T hiu k t ln cui 1 4 0 0 -1 00c trong l-3 h . n h it n y Co chy lng ra
v to iu kin cc h t cacbit s t li gn Iihaii, gim xp (v l l do lm
chi tit b co ch t t), tn g s lin k t gia chng.
Bng 10.4. Thnh phn ha hc v c tnh ca mt s loi hp kim cng
Nhm hp S hiu Thnh phn ha hc, % C tinh

kim cng wc TiC TaC Co a"b, MPa HRA
WCCo2 98. - - 2 1 000 90,0

WCCo3 97 - - 3 1 100 89,5
WCCo4 96 - - 4 1 400 89,5
Nhm mt VVCC0 6 94 - - 6 1 500 88,5
cacbit, w c VVCC08 92 - - 8 1 600 87,5
VVCC0 IO 90 - - 10 1 650 87,0
WCCo15 85 - - 15 1 800 86,0
WCCo20 80 - - 20 1 950 84,0
WCCo25 75 - - 25 2 000 82.0
Nhm hai WCTiC30Co4 66 30 - 4 950 92,0

cacbit, WCTiC15Co6 79 15 - 6 1 150 90,0
W C+TiC WCTiC14Co8 78 14 - 8 1 250 89,5
WCTiC5Co10 85 5 - 10 1 400 88,5
WCTiC5Co12 83 5 - 12 1 650 87,0
Nhm ba WCTTC7Co12 81 4 3 12 1 650 87,0

cacbit.VVC W C TTC 10C o8 82 3 7 8 1 450 89,0
+TiC+TaC W C TTC 20C o9 71 8 12 9 1 300 89,0
VT LIU HC 469
Sau khi lni ngui, chng tr Iiii r;in clic. klin^ th gia cng c kh c
na. cch duy n h t l Iii sa trn da mi c l)it (cacboinin xaiih) lioc bng tia
la in.
Do hp kim cng gin v kh nng thot uhit km (so vi thp), nn dng c
thng c cu to gm hai phn: piii li ct bng hp kim cng v phn th n
bng thp thng, lin k t vi n hau hng hn ng hoc kp kiu p hay b t vt.
N goi cht, dnh k t bng Co. cn c th dng cc kim loi khc Iilii Ni. Mo.
h ay hp kim N i-C r, ... lm nn lin kt cc ht cng li vi nhaiL gi cliim g l
cerm et (ceram ic - m etal). tc hp kim cng nn kim loi.
10.5.3. VT LIU SIU CNG

Biig lO. gii th i\i tn h cht ca vt li\i siu ciig lm dng c ct xu t pht
t kini ciiig hoc B N (bo nitrit).
Bng 10.5. Tnh cht ca mt vi vt liu siu cng lm dng c ct
Vt liu Khi lng cng, Gii hn bn Nhit gii hn

ring, g/cm^ HV nn, MPa ca bn, c
Kim cng t nhin 3,01-3,56 10 000 1 900-2 100 600-850
Kim cng nhn to
- loi n tinh th 3,48-3,54 8 600-10 000 2 000 850
- loi da tinh th 3,30-4.00 8 000-10 000 200 - 800 700
Bo nitrit
- loi dn tinh th 3,44-3,49 9 000-9 500 500 1 200
- loi a tinh th 3,30-3,40 7 000-8 000 2 000-3 000 1 400
C th ch to d ng c t v t liu siu cng bii cc cch sau;

- B t kim cng trn vi 1-2% bt. B. Be. hoc Si (cht dnh kt), c p nng
cli p s ii t cao ti 12 G Pa, n h it khong 3 000 "C. s n phm c th t
cng ti 8 0 0 0 HV;
- B t kim ciiig, hoc bt B N ri ln b int hp kim cng, ri p nng di p
sii t -8M P a, n h it khon g 1 800 "C, m t phn nh Co v th m ch c w , Ti
ca hp kim cng ti t ra th n h cht dnh kt l vi lp siu cng. Lp ph c th
t cng 0 0 0 -8 0 0 0 HV;
- Bt kim cng, hoc bt BN trii vi k h on s 20-30% bt kim loi (cht dnh
kt), p nng di p su t 3 -6 GPa, nhit 1 200-1 600 "C. s n phm c th t.
cng 4 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 0 HV, thch hp lii dng c ct .
c ii th y rng v t liu trn c s kini ciiig tuy c cng cao Iihing li hn
c h v n h it (xem b n g 10.) v c s kluicli tn cua c vo Fe. thp (khi ct vi
tc cao). Trong khi v t liu trn c s B N va c cvng cao. va c tn h bn
n h it cao hn. n n rt thch hp gia cng vi tc cao (khoan, tin,
phay, ...) th p ti, gan g cc loi. V d. gia ciig gang xni vi cng 1 80-210
HB. c th t tic ct 1 8 0 0 - 2 0 00 in/ph.
470 ________________________________________________________ C h n g 10. VT LIU BT
10.5.4. TH P GI BT
Si p h i trin c tn h ciig nghip cc bn th nli phm thp gi bng con ctiug

hiyii kim bt mi c khong trn mi n m nay. X ut p h t t nguyn liu bt
(Fe, w . Cr, Mo, Co. V. c hay hp kim trung gian) qua p nng vi p lc 100 M Pa
1 100 "c trong k h bo v Ar, to th n h cc bn th n h phm dng thi lii
(200-1 0 00 kg).
So vi phng php n\i chy c iu, phng php bt nhn vc h t niii hn
v c th to itc nh n g loi thp gi kh n u k iyn v kh rn. nhi loi cha c
rt cao, V. Co cao. v d. s hiu 230W 6M 7C r4V 6C ol0,(c th n h p hn tng ng
2.3%C-6%W-7%Mo-6%V-10%Co, cn li l Fe). C h rn v n h it lu yn cng
tng t nlivt vi th p gi n ii chy, nh n g rn v ti n h it thp hn. Do
th n h phn cacboii v n gu yn t* hdp kim cao hn li c t chc ng ii hn nn
kh n ng ct gt t"t hii, ch lni vic n n g liii, tui th cao hn. Nhic im
l dai v kh n n g dn n h it kni hdii do t n hiu vn cn r xp.
Gn y. do tin b k th u t, c tli sn x u t bt kim loi c scli cao hii.
cho php ch to trc tip ra cc diig c nh (mi khoan, li phay, nii dao
tin, ...) b n g cch p ngui ri th iu k t trong chn khng. S n phm c st
ch t cao ( xp ch cn khng qu 2%), c th n h it lu yn v s dng ngay itc.
Phng php ny kh kinh t v h ii nh khng m t n gu yn liu (do khng phi
ct gt to hiih). t\iy vy ch thc s\ c li khi sn hiig kh cao (ti thixi
5 0 0 0 -1 0 00 0 s n phm , vi trng liig khong Og nii chic).
Ciii cng, b n g con ng lu yn kini bt. c th d dng cho th m bt graphit.
bt cacbit nin (TiC, w c . ...) vo bt c h to thp gi. to ra loi v t liii ct gt
mi. trm \g gian gia thp gi v lup kiii cng.
10.6. VT
LIU
BT
KT CU
10.6.1. VT LIU TRN c s Fe, TH P BT
C th khng nh rng m t s' chi tit niy c sn x u t bng phng

php liiyn kim bt c c tn h khng th u a km so vi chi ti t b n g thp sn xu t
theo phng php n u chy tn iy n thng. H nh 10. gii th in m t s chi ti t m ay
lm t bt p v th iu kt. B n g 10.6 trnh by th n h phn v tn h ch t ca nit.
s loi st, thp s u x u t t bt p v th iu kt.
Hai yu t q u yt nh ch t litng ca chi ti t ln i t bt p v th iu kt. l:
khi lng ring v th n h phn ha hc.
K h i l ng ri n g :
Ngi ta thV rng gii hn bn ko, gii hn gin di, ciig, bn mi, miiii
n hi s t n g ln khi kh lng rin g tng. i vi st, thp bt p v thiii
kt.khi lng ring vo khong 6 ,2 -7 .0 g/cni (hoc s t ch t tng i l 80-
90%), c tn h vo khon g 0-7% so vi st, thp nu chy tiiig iig. M un kh
lng ring vt qii 7g/cni' (c th ti 7.6 g / c n \ phi ch to b u g cch p v
VT LIU HC 471
th in k t n h iii ln. gi th n h cao hdn. Iilntns tnh it, hn (gn b ng phiiig

php Ii'u chy). Lic p thing t 4 0 0 -8 0 0 MPn v n h it th iu k t t 1 100-
1 300"c. th iig l 1 12"C 'i vi l liii lc v 1 180-] 200"C i vi l chu k.
T h n h p h n ha hc v tn h cht cua scit, tl)) bt:
T nh ch t ca
s t. th p bt ph
thuc ch yu vo
st ch t (th
h in qua khi
hng rin g cao.
h ay xp nh),
uhiriig th n h phn
ha hc ca chng
cng ng vai tr
khng km phn
quan trng.
Cc Iigiiyn t
lip kim trong st.
th p bt c tc
dng tng t Iihi
l vi s t, thp
tliing, v d cho
th m m t lng
nh Ni, Cr, Mo,
M n. Cu, ... c tc 50_rnm
d n g t n g c tnh,
th m c t n g kh Hnh 10.5. Mt s loai chi tit my ch tao t thp bt
nng n h i t h iyn
(ti th n h t chc m acteiixit), thm mt. lng l(3n Cr. Ni, Mo th n h thp khng
gl -
Ch ring Cu vi lng kh lii (xem bii lO.G) l tritiig hp ring bit ca
s t. th p bt. c h iu qu ha bn cao v hay c ng cinng Iilit. L do c th gii
th ch nh sau:
- S c m t ca Cu n n g cao ng k c tnh ca hp kim trn g thi khi
lng Cu l 3-10% (tt n h t l 7%) v c th tin hnh ha gi c s ha ciig
t i t pha phn t n (do ha tan ca Cu trong Fe l 1.4% 80"C gim xung cn
0,3% 20"C). n n g cao c tn h cho hp kim:
- N h it nng chy ca Cu l 1080"c, tlinp hn n h it th iu k t ca Fe.
th p bt (1 100-1 300*C). lin n b chy liig troiig thi g ia n th iu kt. to iu
k in th u n li cho vic t n g st. cht cho clii tit. Tn dng c im ny, ngiti
ta to ra h gi hp kim . bn cht, l Fe. thp xp tm Cu. vi lng Cu rt cao
(l-2 % ). u tin ch to chi tit bt p vi khi lng ring thp
(6 -6 . g/cm'^). S aii cho vo m t liig chnh xac bt Cu hoc hp kim . cia C\1
(brug. latiig, ...) ri tliiu kt. Bt Cu chy ra v "thm t" nh an h chng cc h t

Fe, chi trong v i p h t l ton b khi Fe x'p itc in kn bi Cu lng. S aii khi
lm ngui s n h n itc vt phm c chc Giu nh khng cn r xp). khi lng
riiig ln lin 7g/cm '\ c gii h n bn ko cao {O!' > 450 M Pa) v gin di nh
(2-6%). N u th a y bt. Fe b n g bt thp (0.%C), sau khi tm Cu, c th t c
1,' > 60 0 MPa. C\ii cng n u em ti v ha gi. c th t c I,*^ > 1 000 M Pa.
Bng 10.6. Tnh cht ca mt s' st, thp bt p v thiu kt
Loi Thnh phn, Khi lng Gii hn bn gin di, cng,

hp kim % ring, g/cm^ ko, MPa % HB
Fe c < 0,25 6,4-6.8 140-180 3-7 60-65
Fe c < 0,25 7,2-7,4 220-250 5-10 80-90
Fe-Cu Cu = 1.5-3,5 6,4-6,8 200-220 > 2 65-75
c < 0,25
Fe-Cu Cu = 4,5-7,5 6,4-6 ,8 250-280 >2 80-100
c < 0,25
Fe-C c = 0.6-0.9 6,4-6.8 250-300 = 1 90-110
Fe-Cu-C Cu = 1,5-3,5 64-68 350-550 =1 110-160
c = 0,6-0.9
Fe-Cu-Ni c < 0 .2 7.2-7.4 500-600 5-10 140-170
(c sit Cu = 2,0-5.0
cht cao) Ni = 3,0-70
Fe Cu-Ni-C Cu = 2.0-5.0 6.4-6,8 550-650 1 180-210
Ni = 3.0-7.0
c = 0 .6-0 9
Fe-Ni c< 0 .2 6 ,8-7.2 400-500 8-12 130-150
Ni = 3,0-7.0
Fe tm Cu Cu = 15-25 > 7.2 500-600 >4 120-180
Thp tm Cu = 15-25 > 7.2 700-900 > 2 180-300
Cu c = 0.6-0.9
N h i t luyn thp b t :
- N h it luyn th tch; Cch ti thp t bt p v th in k t cng ting i\ nh
cch ti thp thng. V d, i vi thp c lng cacbon 0.0% v th m m t vi
nguyn t' hp kini vi liig khng ln. c th ti 8 5 0 c trong du, ri ram
1 80- 20"C trong thi gian 0 , - lh , s c tc dng n n g cao c tn h ln r rt nhng
cng lm gim m nh do dai (xem b ng 10.7), do vy t c p dng. Trong
thc t thitng chi p dng cc phiiig php n h it lu yn b m t.
- N h it liiyii b nit: Cc phng php thng dng nh: ti b m t, ti b
phn, th m cacbon, th m cacbon-nit th kh. N goi ra cn dng cc phng php
nh\t: thm Zn ( 3 7 -4 0 0 c , to ra lp phi Zii vi chiu dy 3 0 - 0 m v bm dnh
tt), c tc dng bo v chi ti t khi b n mn trong kh quyn cng nghip. Cc
VT LIU HC 473
phng php m in (Ni, Cd. Zn) cng clc s (lu vdi mc cli ting ti. N goi
ra cn d ng phng php oxy ha troiig hi nc. (hc tiu h nh 80c trong
b\inf l kn cha hi nic. s to rri lp Fe.i()| mng n-lO piii st cht, bm dnh t't
vo b int chi tit, c tac dng tnf cng v kli n n g chng m i mn. c
ii ing v d c h to pistng c ;) b pliii ginni xc thy lic. cla xch, bnh
cc. ... y cng l phng phap r tin bt kn cac r xp h trn b m t chi tit.
bt p v th iu kt.
Bng 10,7. C tnh ca mt s loi thp bt p sau thiu kt v sau nhit luyn
Thnh phn thp , % Khi lng Sau thiu kt Sau nhlt uyn
ring, g/cm^ MPa % . MPa %
0.5C 6,8 350 5 700 3
0.5C+5NI 6.8 480 7 1 100 1
0,5C+2,5Cu+5Ni 6,8 620 2 900 1
0,5C+2Cu+1Ni 7.3 670 4 1 200 2
0.5C+1.5CU+2N+ 0.5MO 6,8 480 2 950 1
7.3 730 4 1 300 2
0.5C+0.2Mn+1.9Ni+0,5Mo 7.4 600 4 1 600 1
10.6.2. VT LIU TRN c s BT Cu V HP KIM Cu
Trong s* cc kiin loi m n th C \1 v hp kim co u chim v tr q\ian trng

troiig Iigiih lu yii kim bt. trc ht cli to bc xp t bi trn v cc tin lc
(s noi k iau), khong 25% sn liiig (ln tiDli k ii^h sn x \i t SII (dit to
niu). Trong lnh vc c h to m y n ch ctng vai tr r"t khim tii (d M cng ch
vi ngn tii/nm), ch yu ch t.o mt R chi tit niy nh trong cc lnh vc
nln in thoi, m y chp nli, my quay phiiii, ng li, v kh, th i t b v dng
c in, in ti. ...B<ng 10.8 gii thiu thnh phn v tn h cht. Cu v nit fi hp
kim Cu sn x u t b n g phng php luyn kim ht.
B t Cu nguyn ch t: Cc chi ti t cli to t bt Cu n gu yn ch t dc dng
trong ln h vc k th u t in, i lii c dan iii cao hng 85-90% dn in
ca Cu n gu yn ch't ch to bng phng J ) l i p nu chy (c in tr s\i t clm n
p = 1.7241pQ .cm 20''C). M iin vy bt phi c d sch cao v lc p lii. m Do
bt p c s t ch t 90-90% .
B t br n g thi c: T lung dng loi c 10%Sn. Nu p v th iu k t bnh tli\fiig
rt. kh t c s t ch t cao (lo c liin tng rp phng. M un c khi liiig
ring cao (y = 8,2 g/cm ') v do cao ( 15%) phi dng cch p v th iu kt hai
ln.
B t br n g tk i c -n ik e n : Cho thm % Ni vo briig tliic c th tin h n h n h it
lu yn sa u th in k t (ti v ha gi) c chc s lia ciig ti l pha. nhu bng 10.7
cho th y, nh n h it h iyn c th to c c tnh clao (lng trong phm vi rng. N
chung m un chi ti t c st cht, cao (khi hng ring ln) phci p dng pluug
php p v th iu k t hai ln.
Bng 10.8. Thnh phn v tinh cht ca Cu v hp kim Cu

ch' to t bt p v thiu kt
Loai Thnh phn, % Trng y< C tnh

hp kim Sn Zn Ni thi g/cm^ MPa %
Cu nguyn - - - Thiu kt 8.0 160 10

cht
Brng Sn 10 - - Thiu kt mt ln 7.5 180 5
Thiu kt hai ln 8.2 220 18
Brng Ni 10 - 5 Thiu kt 8.2 320 20
Thiu kt v nhit 8.2 600 3

luyn'
Thiu kt v nhit 8,2 430 14

luyn
Cu-Ni - - 30 Thiu kt 8.0 330 15
- - ' 45 Thiu kt 8.0 370 15
Latng - 20 - Thiu kt 7.8 220 15
Maillechot - 30 20 Thiu kt 8.2 290 18
- 27 18 Thiu kt 8.2 350 14
G h i v h : 1 ) ' i ' i V i h a i iihAii IH O I r o i ii :h ;
2) 'li v h ( ^ gii I I h u t o ; 00"( , tr oi i K 0,r)h.
B t latng: Vic th i u k t latn g rt kh v Zn c khiiynh liiliig bay lidi m nh,

d b m t i khi th iu k t trong kh quyn hydro. P hi phng bng cch t chi
tit trong hp kn, gim lii lng kh H 2 hoc tt n h t l th in k t trong kh
quyn giu hi Zn.
10.6.3. VT
LIU
TRN c s BT
NHM V H p KIM NHM
Bt nhm v hp kim ca n c s dng lm ch t to m u trong k xigh sn

l ch yu. V ic dng chng dng bt p v th iu k t rt m un, do bt AI q\i do
v bm dnh vo th n h khun, vic tliiu k t cng kh do AI rt d b oxy ha,
...N gay Iihir M, m i ti nh n g n m by miti ngiti ta mi b t ii s n xu t cc
chi ti t th iu kt t hp kim Al. nh s c gn g ca hai nh s n x ii t Iihin l
ALCOA v ALCAN. Cc h hp kim h ay dng dng th iu k t l A l-C u -S i-M g v
A l-Z n-M g-C u, chng c th dc ha bn sau tliiii k t b n g n h it liiyii (ti v
ha gi). B ng 10.9 gii th iu th iili phn v tnh ch t ca chng.
VT LIU HC 47
N h ng kh k h n khi p (nh s bani dnh ca AI ln th n h khun) c gii

quyt b ng cch d iig p lc nn thp (1 0 0 -3 5 0 MPa) v cho thm cht, bi trn
bay hi. Chng oxy ha b iig cch im u g trong khi' bo v, v d N 2.
Cac hp kim AI c u im l nh v ch\ig n nin tt trong khng kh, n c
th th ay th cho hp kim Cu v thp thin kt khi chu ti tn m g bnh (< 300 MPa).
hoc th a y th cho m t s' chi tit bng Iiha khi phi lm vic vi chi ti t bng
thp.
N ga. bt nhm thin kt (nh C A P-1. CAP-2, ...). c sn x u t dug bu
th n h phm (tm , lig, phi hnh, ...), t ch to cc chi ti t lm vic n h it
cao 3 0 0 - 0 0 C. T h n h phn ca cliuig gm AI v khong 10% Al20; (chnh l
lp nhm oxyt h n h th n h trn b m t cc m t Iihni trong qu trih ch to bt).
S a\i khi p v th iu k t to th n li khi kim loi c nn l AI trn c n h ng vt
ln nli m n. phn b \i. Chnh nh vy ni v t liu c bn, tn h cliiig
n mii v tiili bn nng cao. Cc hp kiin Iihni thiu k t (nh CAC-1, CAC-2. ...)
c cng n gh c h to giiig nh CAP, nhng khng phi bt nhm in l hp kini
nhm (iihi uyara. silu m in . ...) So vi hp kiin nhm c, CAC c bn cao hn
n h it 250-300"C . Trong k tlm t thitng dng CAC c th n h phn 25-30% Si.
5-7% Ni. c h s' gin n nhit, biig ca thp a - (1 4 , -l . ).1 0 ''7 c v m un
n hi cao E = OO G Pa, c dng th ay thp trong cc dng c o.
Bng 10.9. Thnh phn v tnh cht ca mt s' hp kim nhm thiu kt
Thnh phn hp kim, % Y. Trng C'tnh

thi
Cu Si Mg Zn g/cm^ a,3, MPa fi, %
0,25 0.6 1,00 0,25 2,50 Thiu kt 120 10

Thiu kt v nhit luyn 190 2
2,58 Thiu k 150 10
4,50 0,8 0,50 0,25 2,54 Thiu kt 195 5
2,70 Thiu kt 260 3
1,60 0.4 2,50 5,60 2,50 Thiu kt 200 3
G hi ch: - r . h (l t h i u k l ; 10 ])h nliil fl riHO-(i:in' ( ' , Iroii^ k h Ny k h .

- ' h d n h i t l uy i K inii i ( ri(H)"( I r o n u :() ])h, Iiuui Ir()iif iirc. ( li), hH H iihAii t o
1(50"(1 ( roii K 1 h.
10.6.4. VT LIU TRN c s BT TITAN V HP KIM TITAN
M i n Iiling nin tm mi loi v t liu ny mi c n gh in cu ng dng,

tric h t M , N h t Bn, l do chnh l tit, kim n gu yn liii.
i khi x u t p h t t bt Ti n gu yn cht. Iihiiig thiiig t hp kim tita ii quen
b it, v d, loi T-6A1-4V. Q uy trnh ch to nh sau:
476_________________________________________________________ Chng 10. VT LIU BT
- To hnh: p lc p 70 0 M Pa, t st cht khng nh hn 9%;

- T hin kt 1 2 0 0 -1 3 0 0 C trong chn khng 10'^ Pa (khong 10'' torr);
- Rn vi p lc 20 0 M Pa 950" C;
- li 700"C trong 21i.
Sau khi lm n h\ v y c th t st. cht gn 100% v c tn h cao xp x b n g
hp kini Ii\i chy: I, = 1 0 0 0 -1 OO M Pa, = 10-15%. N lung ng dng \i tin
trong ch to m y bay (c vt. inh tn. ...). trong cng nghip ha cht, thic phm
th ay th thp khng g, m t s chi tit trong tu ngm . v.v.
10.7.HP KIM XP V THM

B ng phifiig php lu y n kim bt c th ch to c cc chi ti t c xp cao.
phn b u v cc r xp n y th ng vi nhau v thng vi b m t. chng ic ng
dng trong h ai lnh vc: bc xp t bi trn v m ng lc (cht lng, hoc k h th n i
qiia c).
10.7.1. BC XP T BI TRN
L o i brng thi c: Bc xp b n g brng th ic (10% Sn) vi ct xp 2%. sau khi

t clii trong chn khng TO^C, c th lm vic siit c CIIC i m y in khiig
phi cho tliin du ni. Kl trc quay, c s ma s t lm bc nng ln. du s tit ra
t cc r xp, to ra s bi trn t't, trc quay ni theo kiu cn b n g th y ng.
Klii trc ngtng qiiay, n h it h xving v du li vc h t tr li cc r xp.
Phm vi ng dng n g y cn g c ni rng, t cc th it b nh trong nh
(qut, niy h t bi, m y git, t liih , m y xay sin h t. ...) cho ti cng n gh ip s n
x u t xe gn iny. t. ... v chng r. lp t d dng, lm vic n nh, chc cliii
v khng n.
L o i tr n c s st, thp: t n g kh nng chu ti. c th dng bc xp trn
c s Fe, F e-C ii v cho tlin i bt grap h it ( gim m a st), s bi trn c th tiig
iiig loi brng th ic nh n g chii ic ti cao hn, dng trong iig c t, khi
khi ng m y khng b k t n gay c khi tri b n g gi.
N goi ra c th dm g phng php bin ietal (kiii) loi hai lp): trn cc bng
thp cacbon thp m ng (nn chu lc):
- Phii m t lp liu tc b t C ii-Pb, ri qua cn;
- Ph int lp bt Cu th (c h t 150 pm). ri qua th iu k t 8 0 0 c , lp n iiig
xp ny s to iu k in bm dnh tt cho lp nha liu c trn ch (lo<i nh a
polytetra oetylen h ay nha axetal).
L o i tr n c H hp kim. A l: Bc xp t bi trn bng hp kiin nhm c ii im
l nh, n g u y n liu r (so vi brng thic), nhng gi th nh sn x ii t li cao hn Cv
cng ngh c h to phc tp hn), kh n n g chii ti kii hn. do v y cng h n cli
s ng. C hng c th th a y t h cho cc bc trn c s n lna hii c.
L o i bc xp lm. vic n h i t cao: l cc loi bc xp b n g hp kim b t
Ni-Cr, hoc bt cc kim loi chu n h it khc (Mo, w , Co-Mo. ...). dng trong dng
c tucbin phn lc, trong m y bm N aO H lng ca cc l phn ng h t n h n . ...
VT LIU HC 477
N \i lm vic trong khng k h c th cliU nhit ti 700"c. nu trong chn khng ti

900"C.
10.7.2. CC MNG LC
Cc m n g lc c s n xu t t bt dng cu hoc ng trc, kch tliic h t dii

n h an 1,5), p lc nn nh. vi xp 30-40% . cc r xp phn b \u
cing knh tru n g bnh ca l xp khong 1/6
10.7.2.1. Nguyn liu d ch to mng lc

N gu yn liu c th l bt brng. thp khng g h 18.9, Ni. cc kim loi qu.
him (Ti. Zr, Ta, Ag, Pt) hoc cc lip kim c tnh chng oxy ha n h it cao
(thp 25% Cr-20% Ni, inconel. h astelloys) vi phng php c h to c b it (nh
phim diing dch bt ln m t li thch hp. p chy, can bt, ...) c th sn x iu t itc
cc chi ti t d n g iig, bnh th n h m ng c tnh Ihni tng t Iihi giy lc k t hp
vi tn h cliii n h i t v tn h cng vng ca cerainic v tn h bn tric s th ay i
n h it t n gt ca kim loi. Bng 10.10 gii thiu tnh ch t ca m t sv t liii
th in k t dng c h to cc loi m iig lc.
Bng 10.10. Tnh cht chnh ca mt s' vt liu mng lc thiu kt
Hp xp, ca r xp, Ngng lc. k

cI d Kh nng thm, b.
kim % pm m MPa
-Brng 10% Sn 30 10 5 0,7 100

30 50 30 20 80
-Thp khng g 32 10 5 0,25 150
18Cr-10Ni-Mo 32 50 30 5 130
-Ni thnh mng 50 25 15 5 50
(< 0,2 mm) 40 3 1,5 0,05 60
-Pht si (Ni, 4-50 2-100
thp khng g)
-Vi dt (t si 3-30 0,3-1,5 200
thp khng g) 2-25 100
Cc pht (d) kim loi c s n xiit t cc si ct n gn (ng knh

1 0-1 5 0 m). qua p nh ri thiu kt c x'p 40-90% vi ng knh r x'p
-200 m. B n g ccli tng t cng c th ch to cc loi v i dt tt cc si kini
loi th iii kt. V ic s dng pht hoc vi dt liu trn m rng phm vi ng
dng ca v t liu bt thiii kt. so vi v t liii bt, vt liu si lni m ng lc c
nhng u im sau;
- C th to c m ng lc r't m ng (ti 0.1 inni);
- K li n n g t m ln;
- C tn h cao: gii hn bn Iin cao. gii hn bn ko c th ti 200 MPa;
478_________________________________________________________ Chnf 10. VT LIU BT
- D d ng to c b m t lm vic ln.
Nhc im ch yu l t (do n gu yn liu t v vic ch to phc tp).
10.7.2.2. Cng dng ca vt liu xp

Ciig dng ch n h ca cc v t liu xp th iii k t l lni cac niiig lc. tacli cc
h t rn ln trong ch t lng. kh. V d. m t m ng lc din tch l n i c cii to dng
ug, d\ing tch 20 lt. c th gi li cc h t bi c 2 piii vi lii hng 400 m h
khng kh 2 0 0 c dii p su t 2 bar vi tn hao p su t ch c 10 nibar.
Cng c th d ng tch hn hp lng-lng. tcli cc git lng trong kh. trn
kh vo lng, vn ch u yn kh, m ng n gn la, ni t, m ng cch in. cc b int
xc tc, v.v.
Trong lnh vc in cc xp lm cc ca bnh acquy Ni, Ag. c N i xp ca piii
nh la. T in ha hc b n g ta iita ii c c h to t bt rt m n (c h t khong
2 m) b n g cch h on n gu yn hoc b n g cch n gh in cc inii kim loi r't
sch (sau khi ha gin b n g hydro), p c xp 65%, th in k t trong chn
khng 1 8 0 0 C trong 5 ph. Do xp cao. b nit ring ln. Iiii c in dim g
ring rt lii (12 0 0 0 F.V/g).
Trong lnh vc y hc, v t liu th in k t xp (thp khng g. Ti v lip kim Ti,
v t liu t si cacboii. ...) c dng cy ghp ln b n it xp ca xng, klii
xitng ph t trin chng bm dnh tt vo cc r xp ca v t liu to ra m t khi
th n g n h t, c ng v n g (tr n g r n g , ghp x n g ....).
Troiig lnh vc iig c tiicbiii. Iigi ta s dng lip kini Co. lip kim Ni
dng si th iu k t c h to doiig kn khe h gia rto v stato.
B phn gim th an h trong "iig x ca ng c phn lc tiicbiii, inug Iigii
tp m trong b phn th u ca iny in thoi \c ch to b iig v t liu xp t
thp khng g.
10.7.3. VT LIU MA ST
*
10.7.3.1. Khi qut v vt liu ma st

V t liu ma s t l loi v t liu dng vo vic c h to cac klip ni kiu ma s t
(m cn) tru yn chuyn ng hoc ch to cc m phanh*ngn cn chuyn
ng, ni cch khc n c d ng iii chnh cng su t v tc cluiyn ciig
ca xe c. Iiiy mc. T n c y. s dng vo mc ch ny. ngi ta thing s
dng cc v t liu t n h in Iihi g. da. s ng sc vt. ...tip ii l v t liu t. lip
trn c s an n g vi ch t dnh k t l caosii. nha plieiiol hoc nha crezol. ... G ii
y ngii ta n h n th y rn g bt an iiiig c hi cho sc kho con Iigiti nn tni
cch th ay b n g v t liu khc. S pht, trin ca ngnh hiyii kim bt ni ra
hiig gii q u yt tt cho loi v t liii nv.
N h n g y\i cu i vi v t liu m a s t l;
- c h s' m a s t n nh trong khi lm vic;
- c kh n n g chiig m i inn t't, ni bo tiii th cao;
- khng lm m n ting tn iy n ng;
- c tn h chu n h it tt;
- c kh n n g d n n h it m bo;
VT LIU HC 479
- c bn c hc n h t nh.
N goi ra trong t ng trirng hp c th cn phi tiia nin cc yu cii nliTi: tip
n h n hoc tru yii clu iyii ng nh nhng, m bo triiyii ng n m h t n in g ,
chng ii mn tt, n m h khi thi tit thay i (nhit . m ca mi tnrng
lm vic, ...)
tha inn nh n g i hi Iihi trn, v t liu nia s t thng l loi v t liu d
th (nhiii cu t), bao gm nh ng cu t c tnh clit h tr cho n h au (ging nh
v t li\i conipozit): ch t dnh kt v cht cho thm (cht n). C ht dnh k t thng
l bt kim loi c kh Iiiig th in kt tt nhi bt Cu, F e hoc hp kim ca chng.
C ht cho th m iii ch n h tn h cht ma st, CIC plin th n h hai h c tn h cht
ngic nhau: loi lm gim m a st, d gy trt nh graphit, cc kim loi c n h it
nng ch y thp nh Pb, Bi. Cd hoc cc svilfit, su lfat kini loi; loi lm t n g nia
s t thng l cc h t cng nh cc oxyt, cacbit. silicat hoc photphit, ... M t th nh
p h n rt q u an trng, gn nh khng th th iu vi v t liu cliii m a st. l
bt grapliit. N goi tc diing gim m a s t d gy trit, graphit cn c tc dng to
ra m t lp m phc hp gia hai b m t lm vic, lp ngoi graphit ra cn c
n it cc cii t bt kim loi, oxyt, cacbit, silicat, photphit kim loi, ... Lp m ny
c tc d ng tru yn ng chc chn, n nh, gim rung ng v t lm nin cc b
m t lm vic, c b it quan trng khi truyn ng cng R\it v tc ln.
10.7.3.2. Vt liu ma st trn c s bt ng

y l loi v t liu m a s t c s dng rt rng ri trong vic c h to m cn,
ni phaiih cho cc niy mc , xe c c cng su t trmig biili v ln. Ch"t dnh k t l
b t Cu hoc bt briig thic. T hnh phn ha hc ca m t s" hp kim thuc loi
ny c n u trong b n g 10.11.
Bng 10.11. Thnh phn ha hc ca mi s vt liu ma st ca M

trn c s bt Cu, dng cho ma st kh hoc t (%)
Cu Sn Fe Pb Graphit M0 S2 Cu t khc Loi ma st

60-75 4-10 5-10 - 3-10 3-12 2-7 SO2 Ma st kh
52,5 - - 7.5 - - SO2 , 15Bi Ma st t
72,0 4.7 3,3 3.5 8.7 1.4 I . 9 SO2. Ma st kh, t
0,2 AI2O 3
72,0 7,0 3,0 6.0 6.0 - 3 SO2 .4M0O3 Ma st kh
62.0 7.0 8.0 12,0 7.0 - 4 ct mn Ma st kh
74,0 3.5 - - 16,0 - 2Sb; 4 ,5 S 02 Ma st kh
'i tiig m a s t (truyn ng) cia loi hp ki)n n y l gan g xm . thp

cacbon. thp hp kim th p trng thi ha tt hoc khng qua Iihit luyn , c
s dug trong cc lnh vc m y ko, niy o t. m y lm ing. t u ha. cn
cu. m y nn, xe xch, ... Lu l trong trng hp nia s t t (c du), m m eii
tru yn lc cn ph thiic vo cu hnh rnh kha trn b m t lm vic ca ni cn,
nh triih by trn hiih 10.6.
480 C h n g 10. VT LIU BT
Thi giun ut m y , s
Hinh 10.6. a) cc dang rnh kha khc nhau trn b mt m cn (c du)
b) mmen truyn lc ca cc loai m cn nu trn
10.7.3.3. Vt liu ma st tr n c s b t st
y l loi v t liu ma s t ding trong truyn ng kli (khng c du) v rtc
s dng trong hii h t cc lnh vc cng nghip, do u r lin, h s ma s t cao hn
v bn chiig m i mn ni bo. B iig 10.12 trnh by nit s' hp kim t.lnic
Iilini ny.
Beng '10.12. Thnh phn ha hc ca mt s vt liu ma st ca M

trn c s bt st, dng cho ma st kh (%)
Fe Cu Graphit Pb Cc cu t khc
60 - 15 - 11 Bi; 14 mulit
60-77 - 20-30 - 3-1 OBi
67,5 - - - 3Si: 7 ,581*20 mulit
80 - 4 2 5Sn; 2 M0 S2: 3AIj03
< 70 <8 20-30 - < 5Bi
80 - 10 - 15MoSj
80 - 10 - 10SC
60 5 25 5 2-6M oS2; 0.75S
70 - 20 - gang vn < 10
cn li - <10 <10 < 10Sn; 5-50 sillimanit
VT LIU HC 481
i tiiig nia s t cvia loi hp kini

ny vi ti triig trung bnh l gang
xin peclit. tlip cacbon vi bii ko
ti thiu l 50 0 MPa. Vi ti trng ln
hn phi dug thp c hp kim thp
hoc thp ha tt. Vi t i trng cao
p hi dng th p in crm cng. Huli
a)
10.7 gii th iu int. s* in< cn. m
phanh ch to t hp kini Fe - graphit.
b n g phng php h iy n kim bt.
10.7.3.4. Vt liu ma st vi hm
lng ln cc cu t phi kim
loi b)
y l loi v t liii m a s t dng

cho cc tru yn ng vi cng su t cao
(ti Iiiig). C ht dnh kt. vn dng l
bt C\ 1. bt Fe. hoc bt Ni.* Mo. Cac
c\i t phi kim loi thitug dng l cac
oxyt. kim loi (A1^0:(. SO 2. MgO. TiO).
cc bt. khong ch^t (nnilit, sillin ian it,
silical ). iu chnh tn h ch t ma st.
c)
tlun; cho th m graphit. cc kim loi
c n h it ch y th p (Pb. Bi. Cd. ...). Hnh 10.7. Mt s' loai m cn (a, b), m
cacbit. p h o tp liit ho<c cc )ha phanh (c\ c ch tao t bt Fe v
lin kiin loi (nh pha L aves trong h bt graphit
lip kini C o-M o-Si, C o-M o-C r-Si.
ch n g c cVng cao, chng nii niii lt). T lcc ht. phikii loi ctli chim
ti trn 0% th tch ca v t liii. V (l, mt s loi hp kim thuc loi ny c
th n h phn n lii sau;
31% Cu + 22% m iilit + 32% graphit. + l% cc cluVt khc;
55% F e + 20% grap h it + 20% MgO 5% Pb;
47.6% N i + 19.8% m u lit + 21.0% graphit + % PbWO:;
0% Mo + 0% cc h t pha L aves ca h Co-M o-Si.
N goi ra cn dng loi v t li\i t hp cacbon - sdi cacbon c trn thm cc h t
cng d ng ceram ic. dng lm m phanh cho cc xe, Iiy c cng sii t ln.
c dini cliiin g ca v t liu ma s t loi ny gni cc h t phi kim loi c Iiiiit
nng ch y cao. rt bn nhit, c th Inni vic: nlii 600-1 000"C. i khi cn
cao hn m a. H s' ma s t ty vo ctiii kin lii vic ctlip c th dao ng trong
p liii vi 0 .3 -0 ,7 . C ng v t l cc pha phi kiin loi lii. nn bu c hc (khi th
ko) kh thp. n n g cao bn c hc c th dng k tliu t p v tl u kt. hai
ln. hoc l p nng (p v th i\i kt iig thi).
V t liii m a st. loi ny c s dng trong cc tn iy ii ng vi cng su t ln
(ti Iiiig). v d lin m phanh cho m ay bay khi h cnh, m cn. ma phanh cho
31 - VLH
482 C h n g 10. VT LIU BT
m y o 't. cc loi xe t i v xe qun s h n g n n g (nhxt m phanh dn hing

cho xe tng, xe xch, ...) c n g Iih cc m y mc h n g n n g khc.
. . VT
10 8 LIU
THIU KT c
ST CHT
CAO
sn x u t cc chi tit t bt p v th iii k t c xp nh ( st ch t cao)

thng phi dng bt m n v ch to bng plung php p nng.
10.8.1. HP KIM T TNH
10.8.1.1. Hp kim t cng

Mt s hp kini lm n am chm vn h cu (t cng) c th sn x u t bng phing
php lu yii kim bt c gii th iu troiig b n g 10.13.
Bng 10.13. c tnh ca mt s loi hp kim t cng sn xut bng

phng php luyn kim bt
c tnh
Loi hp kim Thnh phn He. r.
kJ/m^ kA/m T
Fe-AI-Ni-Co thiu kt. Fe-25%Co-12%Ni-7%AI 40 48 1,25
nh hng (TICONAL)
Bariterit : PeaOs.BaO
- loi thiu kt nh trn . 26 240 0,38
- loi trong nha do nh trn 12 175 0,25
Co-samary thiu kt CogSm 135 640 0,85
Phng php lu yn kim bt sn x u t cc hp kim t cng h F e-A l-N i-C o c

th t itc ch t lng tng ng vi hp kim c, v d, loi nli lutng
(TICONAL). n h ng cng ch k in h t hii vi nh ng chi ti t c kch th\c Iih, cn
nhng nam cliin ln phng php c vii c 1(\1 th hn.
vi cc hp kiin coban cha kim loi t him th phiiig php lu yn kim
bt li gi vai tr ch yu. k c vic s n xu t cc loi nam chiTi c ciig su a t
m nh n h t, m loi ni ti n g l hp kim cob aii-sam ar (C 0 ',Sm). C hng chc ch
to t bt b n g cch n u chy, khun ri n ghin c hc. saii p trong tT
triig iili hng cc h t, sa u cng l th iu kt. G n y Iigii ta n gin
ha vic s n x u t Iiain chm C o-Sm bng cch hon n gu yn cobaii oxyt v o xyt t
him cha Sni b n g hi Ca. trc tip cho ra bt m ii hp kim , cht liig tng t
nh phng php n g h in t thi c trc y (bt TEGOMAG ca h n g
G oldschm idt. M). N am ch m C o-Sm kh t cho nn ch ng dng trong lnh vc
in t, ng h, ng c in c bit, ...C th s dng lip kim trun g gian Ce r
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ ^
hn (nhng c tn h t thp hn) ch to cc- nam cliin trun g biih dng cho cc
loi m y mc c kch thc nh (my pht in, ng c, ...).
Hp kim t ciig trn c s bari ferit. stronxi ferit dc s ii xiit hon ton
bng phng php tu y n kini bt. ngoi cch p v thiu kt. cn c th khun
nh hiig tritc tip t bt ha do nh mt nha hu c tlicli hp. Klii cc c
tn tn g t tn h c th p hn (so vi cc n am chm thiu kt), nhng b li chng d
dng gia cng c v d lp t do khng gin.
10.8.1.2. Hp kim c t thm cao (t mm)

So vi phdiig php n u chy, hp kini bt tliiii k t c tn h ch t t v t
thm th p hn. T uy n h in c th Iing cao cc ch ti\i ny bng cch ch to
bt tin h k h it, nh ini v lc p ln c c st ch t cao (khi liig ring
ln), dng s ii x ii t cc b cin ng (iiani chm iu) nh li rle, li bin p,
iig c in, v.v.
Troiig dng in m t chiu, ty theo t thm cii th i t ni chn v t liu Iihi
sau:
= 2 0 0 0 Tm /kA : bt Fe k tliu t. khi liig ring Y = 6,8 g/ci
m.ix = 4 00 0 Tni/kA : bt, Fe k th u t, Y - 7,2 g/cin^
= 6 0 0 0 Tm /kA ; bt Fe + 0,6% p , y = 7,3 g/cm
Pm..x = 8 0 0 0 Tni/kA : bt Fe sch (in phn y > 7.4 g /cm '
hoc t cacbonyl)
= 12 0 0 0 T m /k A : bt F e 3 % S i hoc y > 7 ,8 g /c m '
Fe + 50%Ni
= 25 0 0 0 Tm /kA : bt Fe +50%Ni qua Y ^ 8.0 g/ciii^
nhit hiyii
Trong dng in xoay chiu OHz th cc chi til, t.hiu kt khng th cnh
tranh c vi tn Si (sn x u t bang phng phap Iia\i chy). T uy vy vi cc chi
ti t m ng (1 -2 m m ) c th dng bt Fe + 6,%Si hoc bt F e + 47% Ni + 3%Mo, vi
lc tn th t n n g lng ring chp nhn c.
Bt Fe + (0 ,6 -l)% P dng s n xvit cc clii tit cho m ch t. trong dng m t
chiii hoc xoay chiu vi t thm = 000-7 000 Tni/kA.
10.8.2. T H P KHNG G T BT P V THIU KT
Phng php s n x u t thp khng g (v d. loi F e-18C r-10N i-2M o) bng bt

p v th iu k t cng tng t nh vi tlip thng, nhng nc kim tra cht
lng n gu yn liu bt ch t ch hn. n h it thiu kt cao hn (1 150-1 2O C)
trong mi triing k h Ha sch hoc trong chn khng. Ch yu dng ch to cc
chi ti t nh lm vic trong mi trng ii mn (luc ngt, nic m n, diing dch
axit. ...) nh ph t n g t, th it b thc phm , traiig sc, dng c o lng, ng
h o l u l n g (nc, x n g , d u. ...).
N gay t n m 1980 T hy in c nh my sn x u t 'iig thp khng g
bng cch p ch y nhit, cao vi s n hng 4 OO T/nm . Cc bic tin h nh
nh saii:
484_________________________________________________________ Chng 10. VT LIU BT
- N u chy thp bng l cm ng;

- Ha bt kim loi lng bng k h trd (Ar hoc N^):
- p ngui ng tn h d\i p lc 500 M Pa, t st, ch t 90%;
- N ung thi bt p (trong v) bng l cm ng 1 200"C;
- p chy thi bt qiianh m t li, to th n h ng vi itng knh v chiu dy
mong n\i'n;
- Tho v bao ban ii.
ng ch tc70 b n g phiig phap n y c ch^t hiig cao (khng c vt. ln hoc
k h u yt t t bn trong, t chc ng Iih't) vi tliiili phn c th khng c h theo y\i
cu. vi h s' s dng v t liu rt cao so vi phiiiig php n u chy. c. can
truyn thug. N th a y th cho phng php cn ng khiig hn trc y.
10.8.3. KIM LOI CHU NHIT (DNG THANH, TM DO)
i vi nh ng kim loi c nh it nng chy cao (W. Mo. Ta. Nb. Re. ...)
phng php lu yii kim tru yn thng (nu chy) v'p phi n h n g kh khii sa\i;
- Do Iihit nng chy cao n ii r't kh nu hiyn;
- Ln n iiiii tp ch t do cc phn ng giia kini loi lng v tng l;
- Ha taii Iihiii kh trong kim loi lng;
- Ton th t n h iu kini loi khi rt. khun v khi gia cnng.
Do vy vic s ii x u t cc kini loi v hp kim c n h it Iiiig chy cao l int.
trong nhng ng dng u tin ca ph\diig php lu yn kim bt. Bt w v Mo ch
to bng cch lin nguyn t bt oxyt ca chng trong kh P2- C hng \c p
Iigui th n h cc thi tr hoc ln g tr. Sau khi sy 1 00 0 -1 100"c trong H ;.
chng c th i\i k t trong chu khng Iihit gn vi n h it Iiii ohy bi
hiu ng Jou le trc tip, saii c c rn nng 1 OO-I 700"c. ri ko si hoc cn
tm. Chnh plung php ny c ng dng trong cng nghip t u th k
sn xu t w diig si v bng iniig diig ch to dy tc n trn v n ng
cc loi.
Tip sa ii w l cc kim loi; Mo. Ta. Nb. Re c sn xut, b ng phitiig php
ny. N liiig thi kim loi bt p th iu k t c trng hng ti trn lOOkg c sn
x ii t nit ccli ph bin, sau khi cn. rn th nh cc bn th n h phm dng tni.
thanh, ...c h t m n hn v t. tn th t n gu yn li\i hn so vi phng php n'u
chy tru yn tling.
10.8.4. HP KIM T I P IM

Cc hp kiin tip im l loi chuyn dug ch to cc b ph n tip XIC dii

in Iilut cu dao, cng tc, tip im cc loi (c hc. t tnh, th y lc gin n. ...).
i hi chng plii c tn h dn in t't. chng m i nin cao. n h it n n g chy
cao. kh n n g dp la h qiiang tt (khi n g t m ch) v khng c khuyn h hng b
hn dni klii lm vic. N htng yii cu t.rii y c b it quan trng klii dng (tin
c ciriig ln.
VT LIU HC 48
Trc y th iig phi dng cc kim loi qu hiiM nh Au. Ag. Pd v Pt. Nh
phng php luyn kim bt. c tli to ra cac hp kim tlia y th nit phn hoc
h on ton cc kim loi qu . vi tnh cht ddiig v thm ch tt hn (iih
chng m i mn v kh n n g dp tia la din). BiiK 10.14 gii th iu cc loi hp
kim tip im khc n h a u c th ch to b ng pintn^r php hiyn kim bt.
N gu yn tc chung c h to hp kim tip im l kt hp bt kim loi c tnh
dn in t t (Cu, Ag) vi bt kim loi c n h it nng chy cao (W, Mo. Ta. Nb, Pd.
Pt. ...) lioc hp ch t c cng cao chiig mi IIIII tt (oxyt, cacbit. nitrit.
hydrit, ...). hay ch t c tc dng gim ina sat. ngn cn s bm dnh (Pb, graphit).
Bng 10.14. Cc loi hp kim tip im
H hp kim Kim loi nn Cht trn thm
M e-M e Ag V. Nb. Ta, Cr. Mo, w . (Mn). Fe. Co. Ni. Ir

Cu V. Cr. Mo, w
w Cu, Ag. Au, Ni, Pd, Pt
Mo Cu. Ag. Au
M e-M e-M e Ag V. Nb, Ta. Cr, Mo. w , (Mn), Fe, Co, Ni. Ir
Cu V. Cr. Mo. w
w Cu, Ag, Cr. Mo, Fe, Co, Ni, Pd. Pt
M e-oxyt Ag, Cu Oxyt kim loi kim, CuO, MgO, CaO. ZnO, CdO,
PbO, AI 2O 3, LapO., SbÔa, Sm 2 0 3 . Cr 2 0 3 . Fe 2 0 3 ,
Ce02. TeO^, MnO^. SO 2, Sn , TiO j,
2rOp, Fe;,0 4 , M 0 O 3, CoO, NiO, Ina
Me-hydrit Ag. Cu LiH, TH 2. ZrH 2, CaH 2, BaH 2
M e-cacbit Ag, Cu SiC, TiC, MoC, w c
M e-borit Ag, Cu T 1B 2 . ZrB j, VB 2

Me-nitrit Ag. Cu SiaN^. TiN, ZrN
M e-silicit Ag, Cu M 0 S2
M e-M e-M eO Ag Kim loi v oxyt nh nu trn
M e-M eO -M eO Ag Hai oxyt nh nu trn
M e-M e-cacbit Ag Ni. TiC. w c
M e-graphit Ag, Cu Graphit
Me-Me-graphit Ag Pb. Ni, graphit
Cu Pb. Sn, graphit
M e-oxyt- graphit Ag Oxyt nh trn, graphit

486_________________________________________________________ C h n g 10. VT LIU BT
Trong tlic t thng gp cc h saii: w - (20 - 40) %Cii ; w - (10 - 70) %Ag;
Ag - (10 - 40)% Ni; Cu - % graphit ; Ag - % graphit ; Ag - (3 - 15)% CclO;
Cu - % graphit - 10% Pb.
Trong w c th th ay bng Mo; cn Cu c th th ay bng hp kim Cu (briig,
latiig); Pb c th th ay b n g Sii, Zn; CdO c th th ay b ng cc oxyt khc n u troiig
bng 10.14.
10.8.5. VT LIU DNG TRONG K THUT HT NHN

Cc kim loi nh: \irau (U). thri (Th), zicii (Zr). ...v lip kiin ca chng
diig trong k th u t h t n h n thng ic sn xiit bng cch Iiii chy truyn
thng, nh ng ring berili (Be) do ch c th c h to bng phng php luyn kiin
bt. N gy nay. n gay c m t s'hp kim trn c s , Th, Zr, ... di dng bn th nh
phm hoc dii diig cc chi ti t Iih cng c chuyn sa n g c h to b n g phiiig
php bt p th iii kt.
Mt s' hp kim n n g li W -N i-C \i. W -N i-F e cha 90-96% W . c khi htdng
ring 17-18. g /c n i\ s n x \i t t bt niii. lc p ln, th iii k t n h it ct cao. v t
liii tr Iiii c chc, hu nhit khng cn r xp, c kh n n g hp th tia phng x
ln gp 1,5 ln so vi Pb.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 487
Chng 11
VT LIu Hu c (POLVMC)
11.1. NHNG VN CHUNG
11.1.1. LCH S PHT TRIN
Cc s gia thng chia thi c i theo v t liu ni con ngi dng lm

cng c sn x u t v cc dng gia ih nhi thi k . ng. Cch phn
loi Iihi v y khng th dng cho cc thi k tip tlieo. khi n n vn m inh Ai cp v
Babylion b it dng m t s kini loi. . g. gm . th y tinh, da, s ng v si.
Cho n th k th XIX, t t c v t dng ca con ngii u c lm t tm lo
v t liii trn.
Hn m t t h k nay, v t liu hu c mi (bao gm ch t do. caosu, si.
keo. ...) c ia vo s dng khng nhng cnh tran h vi cc v t liu
triiyn t.hng trong nh n g ng dng quen thiic Jii CII sn xu t cc s n phm
m rng h ot ng ca con ngi. lli n g c nhng v t liu ny. thiing l polyme
hu c. khng th c nh ng v t diig ca i sng hin i nh t, in thoi,
m y tru yn hiih ,...
Mc d caosu t n h in c ng dng t u th k. nhng cng nghip
ch t do ch p h t trin t nm 1930. Tiiy nhin tr\c con Iigi b it n cht
do. nh n g mi ch l n h iiig loi nha t nhin c ngun gc tlic v t hay ng vt
vi s' lng nh v h n ch. Cc loi sn c truyn n h i sn ta, sdn T n iiig quc
cng b it u t n gn nm tritc y. Caosii t n h in c t t h k XVT
n h in g m i n th k XIX mi ic s diig vo mc ch cng ngh ip sau khi
tHi c phing php lii ha bin caosu t n hin ban u t dng m m , dnh
lp nhp khi tri n ng sa n g m t loi v t liii n hi. cng, c bn cao v chu
dung m i tt. N lii vy, cho n nm 1990 cc polym e c trn th trng ch yu c
ngu n gc th in n h in hoc n h n to (t polym e th in n h in bin tn h nh ebonit
t caosu hoc x en lu lo it t xenlulo). N m 1907 Leo H endrik B akeland cng b' bng
s n g c h u tin v tng lip Iiha phenolfoniandehyt v c h n g B akelite
sn x u t cng n gh ip vo nm 1910. Trong thp nin 19 3 0 - 1940 bt
ii p h t trin bn loi nha n h it do quan trng nht h in nay:
p olystyren, polyvinylclorit (PVC). cc polyolein v polym etylm etacrylat v
bii loi nh a n h it do quan trng khc Iihi Iiylon, caosii tng hdp.
488 C k n 11. VT LIU Hu c (POLYME)
polyest.e thm. epoxy. polysiilfon. C th ni rng t sau Chin traiih th gii th

lun. polyine tng hp lm cuc cach m ng trong lnh vc v t liu. N luiig )o lv iiie
ny tng i r, tiih chat. c th iu chiili trong nit gii lin rii^f v;i trong
nhiu mc (tch s dng \t\i v i t hii n hin g loi vt liii c truyn.
11.1.2. NH NGHA, PHN LOI
Polyine theo cacli ni t ban \i l phn t ca Iihiii hdp phn c bn (tu'

ting Hy lp poly l nhiu v me 15 hp phn). N gy Iiay. theo IITPAC
(Iiiteriiational U nion for P\ire and Applied C hem istry - Lin hip qiic t v ha c
bii v iig dng) polym e c nh ngha l "mt lip ch't gni cc phn t c
linli thnh do s lp li Iihiii ln ca mt loi hay n hiu loi n guyn t hay mt
nhm n gu yn t (n v cvi to m oiiom e. bng 11.1) lin k t vi Iiliau vi s htiiR
kh ln to nn mt lot tn h clit ni chng th ay i khng ng k khi ly i
hoc thm vo m t vi n v cu to".
Bng 11.1. n v monome v n v cu to ca mt s loi polyme
Monome ban u n v monome n V lp li
CH2 = CH2 -CH2-CH2- -CH2-

CH2N2 -CHj- -CH2-
NH2(CH2)r,NH2+ -NH(CH2)6NH- -NH(CH2)5NH-C0(CH2)4C0-
H00C(CH2)4C00H -C0(CH2)4C0-
Polym e c th phii loi theo Iihiu cch. Sau y l nling ccli phn loi
tlnng gp nht.
11.1.2.1. Phn loi th e o ngun gc hnh thnh
- Polym e th i n nhin-. C th c agiin gc thc v t hoc ng v t Iihit xenhilo.

caosii. protein, enzym .
- Poymc tng hp: c sn xu t tt nhng loi niononie bng cc phn
trng h(p, tr n g ngng Iihi cc loi polyoleiii. polyviiiylclorit, uhio
henoloniandehyt, polyaniit. v.v.
11.1.2.2. Phn loi th e o cu tr c
Theo cu trc plin t ngi ta phn bit polym e iich th ang. J30lyiiie m ch
Iilianh, polyiiie m ng li v polynie kling gian (xem nic 11.2.)
11.1.2.3. Phn loi theo tnh chu nhit

- Poym c n h i t do: T hiig l cc polyine m ch th n g , loi v t liu ny. chi
tac dng cia htc Iiit nhit, n h t nh, cc phn t c th tnt ln nhan, co
ngha l phn t c n ng hiig th n g lc tng tc gia cc phn t. Ni
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ ^
cch khc, n h it n h t nh no d vt liu c th chy, tr th n h do v di

n h it ny n rn tr li. Polynie nhit do l loi v t liu c gi tr thng ini
quan trng n h t h in nay.
- P olym c n h i t r n : L Iihng polynie hay oligoine prepolyine c khi lng
plin t khng cao lm ), c kh nng to thnh cc polym e khng gian. sn
x ii t polym e n h it rn. nha nhit, rn nguyn livi ( dng polynie m ch thng,
hoc c Iihuh b) c un nng nit m nh hoc vi ch t ng rn di tc dng
ca n h it, nha ngu yn liu s chy iniii to dng, ng thi di tc dng ca
ch t ng rn. hoc xc tc chng s chuyn san g trn g th i polym e khng gian,
lli c vi nha n h it do. nha n h it rn nhit cao khng th chy m m v
cng khng th ha tan trong cc dung ini na.
11.1.2.4. Phn loi theo lnh vc ng dng

Theo cch ny. polym e ic chia thnli cc loi sau y: cht do; si; caosu;
sii v keo,
T nh ch t v ng dng ca tng loi s c!\tc cp chi ti t hn mc 11.4.
11.1.3. NGUYN LIU BAN c h o v t l i u POLYME
N gy nay. cng nghip polynie c lin q\iai\ cht ch vi ngnh cng nghip du
k h v ha d\i. Q uan im chung l khng c du kh v ha du th cng khng
c cng n gh ip polym e.
Trc C hin tran h th gii th hai. cc loi nha Iihit do ch yu c ngun
gc tlic v t nh x en lu lo it t xenlulo, si protein t int s loi du thc vt.
P olyetyleu \i tin cng \(c lni t sn plin Iin. sa ii ln m en th n h riii
et.ylic ri chuyn th n h etylen. M t B cng Iigli Iiy vn cn c ng dng n hilng
t n i q iiaii trng gim , tiiy nhin, t y t-iih liuh ch ng vn c th m rng khi
cn thit.
K liong n h ng nm O nguyn liu ban \i cho polynie chu u ch y\i l
th a n . C liitng ct phn hy than cho bn sn phm: nha th an . th an cc.
k h th an v am oiiiac. N h a th an l ngiiyii livi qiian trng cho hydrocacbon
thm Iihi beiizeii, tohien. phenol, n aphtalen, v.v. T cc hydrocacbon ny c th
s n x ii t a x it adipic, h exain etylen d iam in . caprolactani v anhydrit p h talic tng
hp cc polym e q u an trng Iihi nha phenol. polystyren. nylon.
T han cc phn ng vi caiixi oxyt cho canxi cacbiia. ch i ny tc dng vi nic
to th n h a x ety leu . y l nguyn liu ban u quan trng sn xu't axetylen
v cc m ononie viiiyl khc.
Si p h t trin ca n gn h ha du gp phn quan trng n h t trong s ph t trin
cng ngh ip polym e. H ai ngnh ny cng ng thi h tr nhaii. v tim n n g to
ln ca ch t do kch thch vic nghin cu tng hp cc inonom e v cc s n phm
tru n g gian t du m, k t qii l cc sn phii ny n gy cng n h iu v r hn,
ciii cng li kch thch s tn g trng ca polyme. Trong C hin tranh th gii th
hai. n gn h caosu tng hp c pht trin m nh M v Lin X c.
490 C h n g 11. VT LIU HU co (POLYME)
T C I I n h n g n n i 50 ngun nguyn liu cho polym e chuyn t th au v

nguii thc v t sa n g du m. N gy nay, cc ha cht nh axit terephtalic. styren,
benzen, oinandehyt. v in y la x eta t v acrylonitril u i t nguii du m.
C ba phng php chnh sn xii t cc hp cht trung gian t du m:
a) Tch cc hydrocacbon riiig b it trong du m sau chuyn th nh cc hp
ch t cn th it. V d ,c h u y n n -b u taii th n h b iitadien v xyclohexan th n h cc
m onom e cho Iiylon;
b) Tch cc olefin ca qu triih cracking. bng phng php n y sn xu t cc
m onom e hydrocacboii m ch thiig;
c) To cc hp ch t thm nh ben zeii v cc ng ng qua qu trnh
"platorming". y l phng php quan trng s n xu t cc hydrocacbon thm.
Cc sn phm trung gian nhn itc t ba phng php trn l i c th chuyn
th nh hng lot cc hp ch t khc bng cch oxy ho, halogen ho. alkyl v hydrat
ha. v.v.
11.1.4. CC PHNG PH P TNG H p POLYME
C hai phng php chnh chuyn cc hp cht ban u (cn gi l m oiiom e)

th nh polym e.
11.1.4.1. Phng php trng hp

Cc m onom e tr n g hp l nhng cht n gin, khi ling p hn t thp, c
cha ni i. Trong m t s iu kin cc lin k t i ny phn ng vi nhau to
tlinh polym e. a s cc polym e n h it do c tng hp theo phing php n y, v
d\i;
n CHi = C H 2 [- C H , - C H ,-] ^
etylMt p o ly e ly le n
n CH -2 = CH - CH 2 -C H -
C1 C1 \ t i
v in y lc lo rit. ))ol>'vijiylclorit.
n CH -2= CH - CH 2 -C H -
OCOCH 3 OCOCH, n
viiiy la x e ta t. J)0 ly v iiiy la x e ta t
Phn ng c th ti n h n h trong dung ch, trong khi (khng c dung mi)

hoc trong n h tng, h u y n ph, di tc dng ca cc tc n h n nh cc tia giu
n ng lng, n h it . N li iig th ng dng n h t l dng ch t khi u. ngha l
nhng ch't d dng phn h y th nh gc t do trong iu kin phn ng. v d cc
peroxyt, hydro peroxyt, nit s ch t azo. P hn ng trng hp di tc dng ca
cht khi u gi l phn ng trng hp gc, c ba giai on:
VT Ll HC 491
G ia i on k h i u
Cc ch t khi ii di tc dng ca n h it hay nh s n g s phn h y th n h cc
gc t do. Cc ch t khi vi th iig dng nh t l peroxytbenzoil v
azodiizobutironitril, ch n g phn hy theo phn ng sau;
CeHs-C-O-O-C-Cr.Hr, -> Cr.Hr^CO;, + Cr.Hs +CO 2
o o
peroxylhenxoil
CH 3 CH, CH3
CN -c - N = N- C- CN 2 CN - c + N 2
CH 3 CH;, CH,
8Z O (liz o b u t,ir o n itr il
Cc gc t do h iih th n h s phn ng vi nionoine to th n h gic t do mi,

n u k h iu cc gc l R*ta s c:
R '+ C H 2 - C H -> R - C H 2-CH
X X
G ia i on p h t tri n m ch
Cc gc t do hiih th n h t giai on m t s tip tc phn ng vi cc m ouom e

to th n h n h n g gc t do mi c m ch di hn v c h ot ng ha hc tng
t:
R - C H 2 -C H + C H , = CH -> R C H 2 - CH - CH 2 -*CH
X X X X
R- CH 2 -CH - CH 2 -C H + CH^ = CH R -C H 2- CH - CH 2 - CH - CH 2 -*CH
X X X X X X
P h n ln g lp l i h n g Iign ln trong vi giy a n gc t do rt di, s

inoiioine th a m gia vo cc gc cao phn t ph thuc vo iii kin phn ng v
vo yu cii s n phm .
G ia i on kt th c
C th x y ra th eo n h iu cch:
a) K t hp h ai gc t do ang pht trin, to th n h m t phn t polyme:
~ CH,-CH +c H - CH2 ~ ~ CH2 - CH - CH - CH,~
X X
b) P h n ly khng i xng h ai gc t do ang pht trin, to th n h hai phn t
polyiiie, m t trong hai phn t s c m t n'i i cui m ch :
492__________________________________________ Chng 11. VT L i u HU c (POLYME)
~ CH2-C H + c H - CHi ^ CH = CH + CH-2 - CH,~
X X X X
c) P hn ng gia gc t do ang pht trin vi gc t do ban u:
- C H , -C H + R* ^ ~ CH 2 - CH - R
X X
d) P hn ng ch u yn m ch vi m t ch t bin i. c th l diuig mi, ch t n

nh hoc iu ha khi lng phn t hoc nionoiiie :
~ C H , - C H + RY ^ - C H ^ - C H - Y + R
I I
X X
Trong phn iig ny. m ch cao phn t ngng pht trin nh ng khng lm
gim nng ch t t do. do tc trn g hp khng gim .
e) P h n ng vi m t phn t to n n m t gc t do bn vng, khng c kh
nng pht trin m ch nh lidroqiiinon:
~ CH^ -'CH + H O - ^ ^ O H ~ CH2 - CH, +0 - < ^ - 0 H
X X
T hng th ng phn ng k t thc, hay cn gi l phn ln g t m ch xy ra

theo c c h a v b, cn c c h d, e c tm qiian trng v' m t k th u t, v n gu yn
tc, c th gim khi liig ca polym e hn h th n li bng cch n n g n h it . Tuy
nhin, trong cng nghip, vic n n g cao n h i t b gii hn, m t khc, n h it
cao s gy ra cc phn ng ph khng m ong nm n. V vy. trong thc t dng ch t
iu ha m ch iiliTt troiig phn ng d iu chnh khi lng phn t ca polyine
m tc trng hp ni ch u n g vn khng i. Trong c c h e. cc hp ch t th am
gia phn ng vi gc t do lm t m ch hon ton phn ng v cc s n phm
phn ng rt n iili, khng c kli Iiiig kch ng m t phn iig khc. Cc ch't
ny gi l ch t hm , rt c cli, thng d ng Iilit l hydroquiiion, qiiinoii, chng c
tc dng Iigii ch n phn ng trng lip trong khi bo qiiii, vn ch uyn m ononie.
P hn ng tr n g hp c th tin h n h th eo c c h ion dii tc dng ca cc loi
niii xc tc K riedel- Crats: AlCl., TCI4 v BF;i hoc kim loi kim . P h thuc vo
loi xc tc v loi nioiionie m c ch c th l catioii hay anioii.
11.1.4.2. Phng php trng ngng

K lic vi phn ng tr n g hp xy ra II i ca nioiionie, phn ng tr n g
Iiging xy ra gia cc nhm chc khc n h au ca m onom e. V d. sn x u t
p olyeste m ch th ng, cc m onom e l cc d iaxit v diol ;
HO OCR.COOH + H OR,O H ^ H O O CR 1COOHR 2OH + H 2O
HOOCR.COOR.OH+HOOCR.COOH -> HOOCR.COOHROCORiCOOH+H.O.

VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 4 ^
Nhvt vy. m t nhm a x it phn ng vi mt nliiii hydroxyl to lin k t este vi

sn phm ph l nc, phn t to tliiih vn c hai nhm chc cui nich.chiig
li phn ng tip clio n khi t khi hiig phn t. cn thit:
-OC-R, - C O - O - R , - O -
|)olycsi( iriHch IhAii
P olyainit, thng gi l nylon c dng trong nhiii n gn h kinh t cing itc

sn xu't b n g phng php tn n g ngng giita cc diaxit v diamiu:
H ^ N - R , - H 2N +H O O C R .C O O H N H , - R , - N H - C O - R , - C O O H + H ,0
[-N H - R ,- NH - CO- R ,- C 0-]
polvMmii
Klic vi phn ng trin g hp chui xy ra theo c ch gc hoc ion v vic hih

th n h Iiit phn t polym e ch xy ra trong vi giy, phn tng trng ngng tin
h n h t n g bc v thi gian to nit phn t polyine cli lin. tlui c khi lng
phn t cao vi tc ln, phn ng trng Iigitng tlung tin h n h di tc dng
ca xc tc, nhi< xc tc kim hoc axit v v CII phn ng dng chn khng
tch nc v cc sn phm pli khi liig pliu t thp. Qu trnh c th tin
h n h trong d iiiig dch, trong khi hoc trong mi trng nc.
11.2. CU TO POLYME

11.2.1. PHN T HYDROCACBON
V o s polynie c ngun gc hu c nu mt s khi nim c bn v cxi trc

phn t cia chng s c trnh biy Irong clnig liy. R at nh iu v t liu htu c
l cc hydrocacbon, c ngha l n clitc hnh thnh t hydro v cacboii v liu kt
gia cc Iigiiyn t l lin k t ng ha tr, Mi nguyn t cacboii c bn in t c
th tham gia vo lin kt ng ha tr, cn hydro th c m t in t lin kt. Nh
vy. hydrocacbon n gin n]i't l inetaii. n c c'\ to:
H c H II MMII
H
Gia hai n g u y n t cacboii c th hm h th iili lin kt vi s th am gia ca hai
cp in ti, l lin k t i. Phn t c lin kt i ii gin n h t l etylen . vi
cng thc C 2H,<. c lin kt i gia hai nguyn t cacboi v mi nguyn t cacboii
n y c h ai liu k t n vi hai nguyn t hydro. cng thic trin khai l:
H H
c = c
H H
494 C h n g 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYME)
Troiig m t s* trng hp c liii kt ba. v dv.i axetylen C 2H 2 ;
Hc sc H
Cc phn t c lin kt i v ba c gi l cc cht khng 110, v nii ugiiyii
t cacbon cha iic lin k t ti a vi bn n gu yn t khc. i vi I)bii t, khng
110. lin kt i c th xeni nh hiili th n h tt hai lin k t n.
Cc hydrocacbon no, th n g thuc h parafiii Iih inetan CHi, etan C2I,,.
propan C.Hs. ... (bng 11.2). L in k t trong ni phn t m nh. Iihng gia cc
phn t ch c lin k t yu V aii der W aals v hydro. V vy cc hydrocacboii ny c
Iihit nng chy cng nhit n h it si thp v tn g tlieo kh htng pliii t.
Bng 11.2. Thnh phn v cu trc ca mt si paratin
Danh php Thnh phn Cu trc
H
Metan CH4
H c H
H
H H
1 1
Etan CH e H c c H
1
H H
H H H
1 1
Propan C3H8 H _ c c c H
11 1
1
H H H
Butan C4Hio
Penxan C5H 12
Hexan C eH i,
Hydrocacboii c cng mt th nh phn c tli c s sp xp cc n gu yn t khac'

nhau, hin tiig ny gi l ng phn ha (isonierisni). V d c hai izom e cho
butan, b iitan th n g hay norm al biitaii. k l u n - b utaii c c\i trc:
H H H H
I I I
H c c c c H

1 1
H H H H
VT LIU HC 495
Cn bvitan c n h n h gi l izobutan, k hiu l i - b u tan c cu trc:
H c H
H H
H c C c H
H H H
M t s' tn h ch t v t l ph thuc vo cii trc ng phn, v d n h it si
ca n - b u ta ii v i - b u tan l -0 ,5 v -12.3"c.
Bng 11.3. Mt s' loi hydrocacbon thng dng
H Nhm chc Hp cht tiu biu
H
1
Ru R-OH H c OH Ru metylic
H H
Ete . R ~ o - R H c 0 c H Dimetyl ete

1 1
H H
H
OH 1 Ô H
Axt R -C H c c Axit axetic
o 1
H
R H
Andehyt c =o c =o Pomandehyt
H H
R OH
1 1
Hydrocacbon
thm
0 Phenol
Cn n h iu loi hydrocacbon m mt s' ln c trong cu trc polym e. N ling

loi th ng gp n h t trih by bng 11.3. Trong bng cng nh trong p hu n y
496 Chng 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYME)
b it v khng th a y i trong qii trih phn ng. Cc gic hii c c th l CH'1,

C 2Hr C(jHr, (nhm m etyl, etyl v benzyl).
11.2.2. PHN T POLYME
Phn t polym e l khng l so vi cc phu t hii c trnh by trii, do

kch thc ln n ii n c gi l cao phn t. Trong phn t, cc n gu yn t c
lin kt b ng liii k t ng ha tr. a s cc phii t polym e dng mch d i v
m m do. m ch chnh gm m t chui cc n gu yn tt cacboii :
c c
Hai ha tr cn li c th lin k t vi m t nguyn t h ay nhin n gu yn t to

th n h nhnh bn ca m ch. ing nliin. troiig m ch chnh cng nh trong n h n h
bn c th cha lin k t i. Cc phn t ny c hiili th n h t cc n v cii
trc gi l n it xch h ay l m e (nier) ic lp li nhiu ln trong m ch to ra chui
phn tl. Mer x u t ph t t tin g H y Lp m eros c ngha hp phn. Me n
gin gi l m onom e. CII polyine c ngla l nhiu me. Me ni ln n v c bn
ca chui, cn lioiiom e phi hiii l m t phn t ch gm m t m e. V d
polyetylen c cu trc n h i trn liiih 11.1;
H H H H H H H H H
c c c c c
H H H H H H H H H
n it xch (me)
a)
b)
Hnh 11 .1 . Cu trc ca polyetylen :
a) cu trc n gin ho; b) cu trc trong khng gian
Cng thic a ch c tn h c l. khng hon ton chnh xc v gc lin k t n

gita hai n gu yn t cacbon khiig phi l 180" in bng 190. Cu trc ba chiii
hnh 6 chnh xc hn. chiu di cia lin k t C-C l 0,154 nm. S aii y, n gin
5 dng ch yu m h iih a. N u mt ngiiyii t hydro ic th a y th bng m t
VT LIU HC 497
ugiiyii ti clo hoc bng uhn\ nietyl ta s c cc polyine tng ng: polyvinylclorit
(PVC) v polypropylen (PP) vi cu trc:
H H . H H H H
cccc PVC
H C1 H C1 : H Cl
IDHt x c h (lic)
H H .H H ' H H
cc cccc pp
H CH: H CH ; H CH:,
iriHt x c h ( in c )
Klii t t c cc m t xch u cng loi, polynie ic gi l homopolyme. Trong

thc t. nhiii khi th ay i tnh cht ca polyme, c th tin hiih tr n g hp hai
hay Iihiii monome. s n phm c gi l copolyme- polyme ng tr n g hp (xem
IIIIC 11.2.7)
Nlung nioiiome cp trn ct\i c hai kh nng phn ng, gi l moiiome
hai chc, c kh Iing phn ng vi hai moiionie khc to th n h m t polynie mch
di. c cu tr c hai chiu. Tuy nhin c nhng niononie c ba hoc nhiu kh niig
pliii ng, gi l inonome a chc. nhi glyxerin. phenol-bniandehit, vi cc
inouoine ny s to th n h polyine cu trc ba chin, hay cn gi l polyne khng
gian, vn ny s cp phn sau.
11.2.3, KHI LNG PHN T V s PHN B
Cliiu di v hiih dng ca cc phn t nh hiig n tn h ch t ca v t liu

polyiiie. Klii lng phn t v kch tlnc tit din Iigang phn t quyt nh
chy, nht ca diing dch v bn ko ca polyiiie. Thng thng khi lng
phii t cng ln th chy ca polyiiie cng thp, bn v nht cng cao.
Cc phn t ca v t liu polynie c khi htng v chin di h t sc khng ng
Iiht. Thng thng, v t liu polyine l mt hn hp no ca cc phn t c
clu di v khi htng khc nhau. Klii . mt s phn t tng i nh, mt s^
khc ln, cn a s c kch tlntc tru n g biili. c tring cho s phn t n cc gi
tr kli hng ph n t s dng khi nim "s phn b' khi lng phn t". S
ph n b" c th rng hay hp v uh hng r r t n cc tn h cht v t l ca
polynie nhi chy, bn v Iiliit chy niiii.
32 - VLH
498_________________________________________ Chng 11. VT LIU HU c d (POLYME)
Nu trong v t liu polyme, cc hp cht phn t th p chini mt t l cao do

nhng hp ch t tr n g th i lng nn c tc dng nh ch t bi trn i vi c;ic
p hn t ln v v t liu polyme tr nn mm hn v chy tng. M t kh<ic. vt
liu polyme vi cc p hn t ln li c sc khng chy, bn v n h it nng chy
cao hii.
Klii nim phn t v s phn b" l h t sc quan trng nn cn xem xt chi
tit hn thc ch't vn . xc iih s phn b' khi, lng ph n tit ca v t li\i
polyme cu phi thc hin mt cng vic h t sc nng nhc l phii on polyme t
dung dch. Mun vy, cn lm lnh t t hay b sung cht pha long nhng
phn t di v nng n h t tch ra trc tin. Trong c hai trng hp u tch ra
c mt lot cc ph n on v bit c trng liig mi phn oii ng vi klii
lng phn t xc mh. Mun c m t s lng cc phn on phi m t r t
nhiu cng sc v thi gian.
Thng thng, s p h n b khi lng phn t ic xc m h gn ng bng
cch so sn h hai i liig c tr ng cho khi lng pliii t tru n g biili ca
polyme. Trong triig hp tm mi quan h gia khi liig phn t "trung bih
trng liig" /vv v khi liig phn t "trung bnh s" yV/,1, tc t s" M ^ / M
Cc i lng v A/ u c xc iih nh sau:

trng lng chung cc phn t
^ II , - 1 ^
s lng chiing cac phn t
^ (trng lng cc p hn t cng kch thic X trng lng mt phn t)

---------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------
trng ling chung cc phn t
liiu c khi nim v M v Mvv c th xem xt v d sau y: ly hai ng
v tng hn ring bit trong itc xem l cc phn t polyine.
A) _ B)
OO hn . mi hn nng 1 kg v 400 hn , mi hn nng Ikg v
2 hn , mi hn n ng 250 kg 100 hn . mi hn nn g 6 kg
Trng lng chung 1000 kg Trng hiig chung 1000 kg
Cch tn h c th cc i lng v M ^ v t s nu bng sau:

VT LIU HC 499
ng kiu A ng kiu B
1000 = 1,99 1000

"n = 2 ,0 0
500+2 400+100
(1v500x1) + (250x2x250) = 125,5 (1x400x1) + (6x100x6)
= 4.00
1000 1000
125,5 = 63 4.00
= 2
1,99 2 .0 0
c trng
Rng Hp
phn b
T bng tn h cho thy, hai ng c khi liig phn t tru u g bnh s

gii ging nhau, trong lc khi lng phn t tru n g biili trng kiig trong
tritng hp A ln hn nliiii so vi trng hp B. T M JM y, s p hn n h c
tn n g phii b^ ca v t liii polyme cho:
- Nu M J M - 1, c ngha cc inch phn t cchin di v trng lng bng
nhau. l triug hp l tiig r t him c;
- Nu M J M < 5. s phn b khi lng phn t l hp, tc chiu di v trng
lng cac m ch phn t phn b' trong mt di hp:

- S\f phn b' c xem l tru n g biih nu M J M c gi tr t n 20;
- Nii > 20. s ph n b l rng, tc cc m ch phn t c chnh lch rt
ln v chiu di v trng lng.

S c mt, ca cc phn t rt ln trong vt liii polyme. ngay c vi s liig
khii; ng k (A) cng lm gim ang k cht, htiig v kh nng gia cng. Vt
liu polyme vi s phn bkhi lng phn t hp d dng gia cng hn v c cc
thng s c l cao hn.
1 1 .2 .4 . H N H D N G P O L Y M E
Mch polyme lioii ton th n g lioc ziczac (hnh 11.1) ch l n gin ha v

khng c trong thc t. Cc lin kt c th qiiay v uii trong khng gian.
T rong hnh 1 1 .2a. nguyn t th ba c th quav v Iiii mt gc 109 so vi lin
k t ca hai nguyn t khc. Cc ngvn t trong m ch hnh 11.2b c th quay
theo m ch chnh nh chiu mi tn. M t khc, mch c th Iiii, quay, khi cc
nguyn t qiiay Iih tr n hih 1 1 .2c. Klii m ch r t di c th c hiih dng nh
trong hnh 11.2d vi r t nhivi ch UII. ln, vng. V vy. khong cch gia hai
ctii m ch nh hn r t nhiu so vi tng chiu di ca mch. Cu trc nh vy
quyt nh cc tn h ch t quan triig ca polyme. troiig c tn h n hi cao ca
caosu.
T nh ch t c n h it ca polyme ph thuc r't nhiii vo kh nng qiiay ca cc
cton m ch khi c ng lc hay khi n h it thay i. n hi ph thiic nhiu
vo cii trc v b n cht ha lioc ciia cc nie. V d. trong cc vng c cc c i.ii
OO Chng 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYME)
kt i s quay s kh k h n hn. Ngoi ra. nu cc nhm th ln, cng knh cng

hii ch s quay. V dii, ph n t polystyren vi nhm th l vng benzen s quay
kh khn hn nhiii so vi polyetyleii.
0)
Hnh 11.2. a,b,c - nh hng ca v tri nguyn t cacbon n hnh dng ca

mch polyme; d- mt mach phn t polyme vi nhng ch ln, cun do s
quay ca cc lin kt
11.2.5. CU TRC PHN T
Tnh ch t c l ca polyme ph thuc khng ch vo khi lng phn t v hiih

dng ca n m cn ph thuc vo cii trc mch phn t. K th u t tng lip
polyme ngy nay cho php iii chiih cu trc sn phm theo mt s' hiig. Trong
phn ny s cp n m t s" loi c\i trc phii t Iihi mch thng, m ch nhnh
v m ng khng gian cng Iih cc hiih th i cu to.
11.2.5.1. Polyme mch thng
Polyme m ch th n g l nhng polyme trong cc me lin kt vi n h au thnh

mt mch duy n h t. N hng m ch ny r t mii do, c th hiih dung Iihi nhiig
si m di (h iih ll.3 a ), trong cc n t trn l cc me. i vi polyme m ch thng,
lin kt V an der W aals gia cc mch ng vai tr quan trng. Cc polyme thng
dng c cu trc m ch th n g l polyetylen, polyvinylclorit, polystyren.
polym etylm etacrylat.
11.2.5.2. Polyme mch nhnh
Cc polyme ny c m ch n h n h ni vo mch chnh nh trong hiih 1 1 .3b.

Cc mch n h n h ic xem nhi mt p h n ca phn t. hiih th n h t phn ng
VT LIU HC 501
ph trong qua trn h tng hp polynie, Klii c mch Iihanli. s sp xp t cht ch

hn v do d t trug ca polynie gim.
c)
Hinh 11.3. Cu trc khi qut cOa polyme mach thng (a), nhnh (b), mang li (c) v
khng gian (d), cc nt trn l cc me
11.2.5.3. Polyme mng li

Cac m ch cnh n h au trong polyine ny ctirc Ii'i vi n h au bng lin kt iig
ha tr mt s v tr Iih\ trn hnh v 11.3c. Cu trc m ng li c th hnh thnh
troii q\i trin h tng hD hoc do phn iig khng t Imii iiglich chc tiu h n h saii
Iihit cao hoc c xc tc. Thng thng qu trn h to m ng li c thc
hin biig cch cho thm cc nguyn t hoc phn t c th to lin k t ng ha
tr vi m ch chnh. a s' cc loi v t liii cnosu c cii trc m ng li do qu triih
lu ha (xem mc 11.4.3.2).
11.2.5.4. P olym e kh n g gian
Cc mononie c ba Iihni hot ng to nn polvine khng gian ba chiii (hnh

n .3 d ). Cc polynie ny c tnh clit c l nhit, c bit. Nlua epoxy v nha
|jheuol-foriiiandehyt thuc nhm ny.
Cu Iihii m n h rn g thng nit polvne khiig cli c mt loi cii trc. V d.
int loi polyme cu trc th n g c th c mc (t hii ch cu trc mch Iihnli v
cu tr c m ng l i.
11 .2 .6 . HNH THI CU TO
i vi cc polyiie c nliin th lin kt trc tip vi mch chnh, s sp xp

ca nhm ny xiing quanh mch chnh c uh hng ln n tnh cht. Gi s i
vi nie dng;
02 Chng 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYNE)
H H
H rR
tro n g R c th l m t n g u y n t k h n g p h i 15 h y d ro hoc n h m n g \iy ii t (v
d Cl. C H . . ...). cch sp xp c th l:
H H H H
H R H (R
Hili thi ny c gi l "u Iii ui", khc vi hnh thi "u Iii u" khi
hai nhm R hai cacbon cn h nliaii:
H H H H
H R R H
Trong a s polyme, liiih th i sp xp "\i ni ui" chim Itu th v c s y
ca cc cc nn kh to lin hnh th i sp xp "\i ni u", y ciiig c s ng
phn ca cc polynie c cng th n h phn. Sa\i y s xt hai loi ng phn; ii;
phii khng gian v ng phn hnh hc.
11.2.6.1. ng phn khng gian (stereoisomerism)

Nhng ng phn ny c cng cu trc "u ni iii" nlnng s sp xp cna
uhni th khc nhau.
Klii t t c cc nhm R I i in v cng mt bn ca mch, poiynie i c gi l
izotactic:
H H H H H H H H
c c c - c -
H R H R H R H R
Trong polynie syiidiotactic, nhm R nm cch u v hai bn ca mch
H H H R H H H R
c - cc c c c
H R H H H R H H
VT LIU HC 503
Clii nhm R nm h on ton ngii nhiu, polym e c gi l atactic:
H H H H H R H H
H R H R H H H R
S chuyn i t ng ph n khng gian ny sang ng phn khng gian khc
khng th t l i c hin c biig cch qiiay cc nhm R. Trong thc t, ph thuc
vo phitiig php tng hp, cc polyitie khng ch c mt m c th n h iu loi hiih
tlii cu to. trong c m t dng u tin.
11.2.6.2. ng phn hnh hc (geometrical isomerism)

Khi c lin k t i trong cc me, polyme c th c ng phn hnh hc. Vi cc
nguyn t lin k t i l cc lin kt n ca cc nguyn t hoc cc gc. cc
nhm ny c th n m cng hoc khc bn so vi mch.
V d trong me izopren ca caosii c th c c'\i trc;
CH, / H
c=c
CH , ^ C H ,
Trong , nhm CH 3 v nguyn t H nni cing bn ca mch; y l cu trc
cis nh trong caosii t nhin. Trong c\i trc trans, CH.T v H n m hai pha ca
mch;
CH, CH,
c= c
CH -2 \ H
C u trc Iiy cng c trong polyine t nhin l giitta percha. Tuy c cng
th n h p h n nh caosii t nhin Iihing do hnh th i cii to khc nn tn h cht
khc r rt. V liii k t i r t cng nn s chuyn t hnh th i ny sang hnh th i
khc b ng cch qviay n gin l khng th thc hin c.
Tin li, p h n ti polyme c c trim g bi hnh dng, kch thc v cu trc
nh c trn h by tr n s hiih 11.4.
1 1 .2 .7 . P O L Y M E N G T R N G H P (C O M P O L Y M E )
Cc n h ha hc polyine lun tm kim nhng v t liu mi, kinh t hn. vi

tn h ch t tt hn, hoc k t hp c cc tiih cht ca cc polym e ng th
(honiopolyme). M t trong cc loi v t liii ny l polyme ng tr n g hp.
Gi s c h ai loi inonome c tr ih by di dng o v (hiih 11.5). Ty
thuc vo qu triih tr n g hp v t l gia cc loi nonom e. cc m onom e n y c
th sp xp khc n h a u trong m ch polyme. Trn hih 1 1 .5a cc monome sp xp
hon ton ng u nhin nn sn phm c tn l polyme ng tr n g hp ng u Iihiii.
Trong polyme ng tr n g hp xen k, cc inononie khc n h au ni tip nliau.

(hnh 1 1 .b). Cn trong polyme tr n g hp khi, t ng loi moiioiiae phii ng vi
n hau th n h mt khi lin kt vi cc khi ca inononie th hai (hnh 1 1 .c).
Polyine ng tr n g hp ghp c m ch chnh thuc m t loi nioiionie cn cc nhanh
thuc mt loi monome khc (hnh 1 1 .d).
c im
phn t
Bn cht ha hc Kch hc Hinh dng C trc

(thnh phn (khi lng
Thng Nhnh Mng li Khng

gian
ng'phn
ng phn ng phn
khng gian hnh hc
I 1
lzotactic Syndiotactic Atactic Cis Trans
Hinh 11.4. S phn loai c im ca polyme
Hnh 11.5. S n gin ca polyme ngu nhin (a), copolyme xen k (b),
copolyme khi (c) v copolyme ghp (d)
VT LIU HC O
Caosii tiig hp (xem mc 11.2.2.) tlnu l ('ac aj)olynie. v d caosu st.yreii-

butadien (SBR) l copolyjiie ngu Iihiii. dng lm sam lp t. Caosii nitril (NBR)
l co)olynie ngu nhin ca acryloiiitril vn iiutadieii. l loi caosu chu dii. dn lii
tt.
11.2.8. S KT TINH CA POLYME
Vt liu polynie c th tn ti triig th i tinh tliP. Tuy nhin y n t mng

l cc phn t. ch khng phi nguyn t hoc ion nh trong tniig hp kim loi
hay g 111, do tr t t sp
xp trong polyme phc tp
hii. S kt tin h ca polynie
c tli xem nlu s sp xp
cc mch phn t nh th
Iio ct e cc nguyn t
troug nit tr t t n h t nh.
Cu trc tin h th c th ic
xc nh bng cc c s.
Hnh 11.6 Cu trc mach gp ca tm
Hnh 1.27d trn h by khi
polyme tinh th
hnh hp l c s ca
j)olyetyleii v quan h ca n
vi cii tr ik mch.
Cc phn U th p (v d IIIC hoc luetaii) thiig thing dng hon ton tiuh
th (trng thi rn) hoc lioii ton v nh linh (liig). Do kch tluc ln v pli('
tp Iiii phii t polyiiie thng ch kl liiili inl )li;ui, |)hau ki tm li Iiy phau lan
trong phn khng kt tiiili cn li. Mc kt tinh c th t khiig u gn lioii
ton (n 95%). Trong khi ct vi kim loi v Kiii t.h tr n g th i t.hiiig gp l
kt tin h hon ton hoc l v nh hiili hon ton.
Klii lng ring ca polyine tinh th lii hn so vi polyiiie v nh hnh CIIK
loi v cng khi lng phn ti v Iich sp xp st cht hdn. MVc kt tinh c
l.li xc nh bng cch o chnh xc klii lii ring v tnh theo cng thc saii:
% kt tinh =
P.s(Pr -
trong p.s - khi lng ring ca polyme cn xc nh niitc kt tin h ;
p., - khi liig ring ca polynie hoii ton v nh hnh;
p,. - khi lng ring ca polynie hon ton kt tinh.
Mc kt tiiih ca polynie ph tliiic vo tc lni Iigui khi ii rn v
vo hnh th i cu to ca mch. p c sp xp tr t t. |)olynie phi cl 111 ngui
t t cc mch c thi gian chuyii ng v sp xp li. Bn ch't ha hc cng
nh hng n kh nng kt tinh ca polynie. Cac polyiiie c nie phc tp kt tiiili
kh kh n (v d, polyizopren). i vi polyiiie c c'u to ii gin Iihi polyetyleii
hay polytetra-A oetylen c th kt tin h ngay c khi lm ngui nhanh. Mch nhaiih
gy kh k hn cho qu trn h k t tin h do cc polyme m ch n h n h khng bao gi
c mc kt tinh cao. Nii m ch nliiih nhiii. polyme lion ton khng kt tinh.
Polyme khng gian l v nh hiih hon ton, trong khi polyine m ng li c
th c mt mc kt tin h no . Trong cc polyme ng phn khng gian,
polyme atatic kh k t tin h n h t, cn polynie isotactic v siiidiotactic k t tinh d
dng hn nhiu do s iu ha v hnh hc ca cc nhm th th iin tin cho q\i
trn h sp xp tr t t cc m ch ciih nhau. M t khc, nhm th hoc nguyn t tli
cng ln. mc k t tin h cng nh.
vi polyme ng tr n g hp. s sp xp ngu nhin lm gim khuynh hng
kt tinh. Copolyme xen k v kh'i c kh nng kt tiiih cao hn, cn polyme ng
tr n g hp ghp l hon ton v ih hiih.
mc no , tn h ch t c l ca polyme b nh hng bi mc kt tinh.
Polyme tin h th thng bn hdn vi dung mi v nng chy n h it cao hn. Cc
tnh cht khc s cp n trong cc p hn tip theo.
1 1 .2 .9 . P O L Y M E T IN H T H E
Trong chng ny s gii thiu mt 5' m hiih m t s i5p xp ca mch

phn t polyme tin h th. M t trong Iihng m hih u tin l m hnh "vn
mixen" (inged- micelle model) (hnh 1.27c). Theo m hiih . cc vng tinh tli
(crystallite hay micelle) c s sp xp u n, ph n b trong nn v nh hih vi
cc phn t sp xp
ngu nhin. Nli vy,
int m ch phn t c
th xuyn qua m t s
vng tin h th v m t s"
vng v nh hiih.
G n y. cc cng
triili nghin cu tp
tru n g vo cc n tinh
th n h n ic t dung
dch long. Cc tin h th
ny c hiih dng u
n, l nhng tm
Hlnh 11.7. nh hin vi in t cu trc tiu cu (spherulit) ca
mng vi chiu dy t
polyetylen
1 0 n 2 0 nm v chiu
di 10 Thng
thing, cc t'm ny s hnh th n h m t cu trc nhiu lp. C th u y t cho rng cc
m ch phn t trong cc tm ic gp i. gp li nhiu ln vi cc np gp nin
trn b in t nh trong hiih 1 1 . 6 .
VT LIU HC 07
C\i trc ny c gi l ni hinli mch gp. Dii t.uni gii t n h iu phn t vi

cliiu di m ch ln liii r't nhiu chiii dy ca tni.
Mt ,s polynie kt tinh t trng thi niic chy to th n h cc tiu cu
(splienilite). N lu tn gi ca n. cac tiu cu ny c hnh cii nhi trong caosii t
uhiii. hnh 11.7. Cc tiu cu l cac tp lip ca cc tivi tin h th (crystallite) gp
mch vi chiu dy khong lOiini Inng t tm ra Iisoi. Trong nh, cc tm tinh
th xut hin nh nhng vch trng. Cc ti\i cu d\fc xem Iih\ nh iig tinh th
kini loi hoc giii. Tuy nhin, nh Iriih by trn, cac tiu cii bao gm t cac
t.ani tinli th v cac khu vc v nh hiih. Polyetylen, polypropylen, polyvinylclorit,
v Iivlon hnh th n h cu tn c tiii cvi khi cluing kt. tinli t dng Iing chy.
11.3. TNH CHT C - L - NHIT CA POLYME
1 1 .3 .1 . B I N D N G D I TC D N G CA Lc
Tnh cht, c hc ca polynie chc c triig bi mt s' thng svn dng cho
kim loi Iihi; niun n hi. gii hn bn ko. riai va p v (t bu nii. i
vi nhi\i vt liii
polyme, ch cn o bin
(lng diti tc dng ca
lc cng xc (tiih c
mt. s tliiig s trn. a
s tiih cht c l ca
polynie rt, nliy vi tc
(l bin n hit .
bn ch t iia hc ca ini
tntiig (s c n it ca
nc, oxy, d\ing mi h\i
c, V . V . ) . K th u t th 0 1 z 3 * 5
Iihini dng cho kim B in n
loi cn phi th ay i khi
Hnh 11.8. ng cong bin dang ca vt liu polyme
dng cho polyme. n h t l
gin (ng A). do (ng B), v n hi cao (ng C)
i vi vt liu n hi
nh caosii.
Vt. livi polyme c ba dng c triiif khi bin (lng rhi tac dng ca lc Iili
trong hnh 1 1 .8 . ng A l ing cong bin ciig ca polynie gin, u b t Iigay
khi c bin dng n hi. vi polyme do. iig B, bin dng tiig t nhi ca
a s kim loi; u tin l bin diif n hi. tip tlieo l chy v sau l bin
du^' (lo ri ph hy. ng c l bih diig hon toii n hi (bin dng hi
phc d ng sut, thp) ca polyine c d (tn lii cuo Iihii ca caos\i v c tii chung
l elastonie.
Mun n hi. gii hn bn ko. tnh do v d gin di ca polym e i(c xc
nli tng t nh kini loi. Bng 11.4 triili by cc tn h cht c hc ca mt s
polyme thng dng. Cc ch tin c tnli ny ca polyine v nliiu phng din khc
vi kini loi. V d niuii n hi ca cc polyme n hi cao c th r t nh, bng
7 MPa v cng c th ln ti 4.10'^ M Pa cc polyme r t cng. M\in n hi ca
kim loi ln hn r t nhiii v dao ng t 48.10'^ n 410.10'^ MPa.
Gii h n bn ko ca
polyme vo khong 1 0 0
MPa. cn ca cc lip kim
c th n 4 1 0 0 MPa.
Kim loi t khi gin di
hn 1 0 0 % trong khi
cc polyme n hi cao c
th giii di ti 1 0 0 0 %.
Ngoi ra, tn h ch t c
hc ca polyme nhy hn
r t nhiii vi th ay i
n hit ngay n h it
phng. H nh 11.9 triih 0.1 0 .2 0 .3
by s bin dng B i h d n i
ca polym etylnietacrylat
Hnh 11.9. nh hng ca nhit n c im bin
(plexiglass - th y tin h hii
c) nit s" n h it trong dang ca polymetylmetacrylat
khong t 4 n 60"c. Q ua hnh v th y rng tn g n h it lin gim miui n

hi. gii h n bn ko. t n g do v 4"c v t liu hon ton gin, cn O- 60"c
v t liu c th bin dng n hi.
Bng 11.4. Cc c trng c hc nhit phng ca mt s' polyme thng dng
Vt liu Khi lng Mun ko, Gii hn gin di bn va

ring,g/cm^ MPa 10^ ko, MPa khi t, % p, ft.lb/in
Polyetylen t trng thp 0,917-0,932 1 ,7-2.8 8,3-31,7 100-650 khng v
Polyetylen t trng cao 0,952-0,965 10,6-10,9 22-31 1 0-1 2 0 0 4.0-4,0
Polyvinylclorit 1,30-1,58 24^1 41-52 40-80 0,4-22
Polytetratloetylen 2,14-2,20 4.0-5.5 14-34 200-400 3
Polypropylen 0,90*0,91 11-16 31-41 100-600 * 0,4-1 ,2
Polystyren 1.04-1,05 23-33 36-52 1.2-2.5 0,35-0,45
Polym etylm etacrylat 1,17-1,20 22-32 48-76 2 -1 0 0 ,3-0,6
Phenol-tom andehyt 1.24-1.32 28-48 34-62 1 .5-2.0 0.24-4,0
Nylon 6 ,6 1,13-1,15 16-38 76-94 15-300 0,55-2.1
Polyeste (PET) 1,29-1,40 28-41 48-72 30-300 0,25-0.70
Polycacbonat 1 .2 0 24,0 66 110 16
1) Tr tTDR t hi sii (io.

VT LIU HC 09
nh hng ci\a tc bin dng n tnh cht c lic cng r t qiiaii trng. Nhn
chung gim tc bin dng cng c iili luiig tng t nhir tn g n h it . c
ngha l v t liu tr nii mm do hn.
S hiu bit v c ch bin dng ca polyiiie l r t quan trng v n gip iu
chnh tn h ch't c hc ca v t liu. C hai in liil bin dng quan trng, l
bin dng ca polyine b n tinh th v cc polynie n hi cao (cc eslastoine).
1 1 .3 .2 . B I N D N G C A P O L Y M E B N T IN H T H E
Nhir trn h by trn, trong cc polynie bn tinh t.h c Iihng tiu cu. mi
tiu cu gm cc tm tinh th VQ cc ving v nh hnli.
C ch bin dng do ca polynie bn tinh th c in t mc 4.6.2, theo
qu trn h xy ra trong mt s' giai on. Trong giai on u cia bin dng, cc
tni tin h th tr t ln n h au v cc viig v nh hnh gin ra cho n khi mch
troiig vng tin h th tr nn song song vi chiu tc dng ca lc cng vi SI phn
nh cc vng tin h th (hnh 4.41). Tip theo, tng on tinh th tch ra khi tm
v cul cng th cc on
tinh th v c cc vng v
nh hnh ii nh lung
cng chiu vi lc tc
dng. Nh\f vy. bin dng
)olyme bn tinli th s c
cu trc nh hng cao.
l nhit\ trong qu trn h
ny cc tiu cu cng th ay
i hih dng.
2t'''0
Cc tn h c h t c hc l^hi ln phn i
ca polyme bn tinh th
c th th ay i ic, v d Hnh 11.10. nh hng ca mc kt tinh v khi lng
tn g m t lin k t m ng phn t n tinh cht vl l ca polyetylen
li s lin gim linh

ng ca m ch lm cho poiyme bn liii Iiling cng gin hn. Mc d lin k t Van
cler W aals yu hn nhiu so vi lin kt ng ha tr. nhing n cng lm gim
linh ng ca mch. Thc t, tnh ch't c lic ca polyine ph thuc nhiu vo gi
tr ca lin k t yu ny.
Mc k t tin h c n h luiig i tnii cli6't c hc ca polynie v n lin thay
i mc lin k t bc hai gia cc phn t. i vi ihng vng tin h th. cc
mch sp xp st ch t hn v u ii hn. do lin kt bc hai gia cc m ch s
ln hii. Lin kt ny s yu hii troiiR vng v nh hnh do cc m ch sp xp km
st ch t hn. T ng inc k t tinh tlung lni tn g tnh ch t c hc. Cc c tnh
khc ciia polyme, trong c kli lng phn t cng nh hng n tnh ch t c
hc. i vi polyine c khi htng phn t tiig tlip, gii h n bn ko tng
510 Ch ng 11. VT LIU HU c o (POLYME)
theo kli lng phn t. iih hng ca nc kt tin h ln tr n g th ai vt. 1>' ca

polynie itc th hin hnh 1 1 . 1 0 .
v m t kinh t. mt trong nhng k tlu i t quan trng Iihat ci thin bn
l lm bin dng s b polyiiie n tr Iiji nh hng. Bin dng s b bng cacli
ko tliiiig c dng t n g bn ciia si.
ng cong bin dng ca v t liu bu tinh th , hnh dng ca m u tli
Iighini ca cc giai on bin dng khc nlia\i ic trn h by hnh 4.41.
11 .3 .3 . N N G C H Y V H I N T N G T H Y T IN H H A
V tnh cht c hc ca polynie nhy vi s th ay i nhit, trong phn Iiy s

tho lun c tn h n h it v c n h it ca v t liu trong c hiu tng nng chay
v thy tin h ha.
N hit nng chy v
thy tinh ha ca polyme itc
xc nh tiing t nh ca v t
liu giii. da theo itng bin
thin ca kli liig ring
theo Iihit (hnh 1 1 . 1 1 ).
\ng cong A v c l ca
polyiiie v nh hnh v tinh
th. chiig gn ging vi ca
vt liu gm. i vi v t liu
tinh th c s th ay i t
ngt ca khi liig ring Hnh 11.11. S thay i ca th tich ring theo
uhit nng chy T ,. i vi 'm ngui polyme nng chy A- polyme v
vt liu hon ton v inli polyrie t)n tinh th, C- polyme
hnh khng c s th ay i t.
Iigt ca khi lng ring nh ng khi lim ngui tip, gc nghing cia chiig bin
riin gim m t t sau n hit thy tinh ha T.. Di T v t liu cc xeinnh vt
rn v ctiili hnh, tr u T, l v t li\i r n dng caosii v trn na l lng Iilit.
Polyine bn tin h th c ng biii din gia hai rhng trn (ing B). Nlin
chung T. c gi tr bng 2/3 7,,,.
Cc yu t n h h n g n n h i t n n g ch y v n h i t th y tin h ha ca
p o lym e
Klii polyme nng chy, cu trc tr t t ca pha rn chuyn sang cu tn c
khng tr t ti ca pha lng nht, n h it thp, cc nguyn t dao ng vi bin
nh v tng i c lp nhaii. kt qu l c lc kin kt bc hai hay lin kt
khiig ha tr gia cc m ch cch nhau. Tiiy nhin khi n hit tng, bin dao
ctiig tiig dn cho n mc cc mch c t.h clmyn ng ngang, n h it nii
chy, chuyn ng ny m nh n mc ph v mt s' lin k t bc hai v cu trc
tr nn m t tr t t. N hit nng chy ca polyme tinh th v bn tinh th ph
thuc vo nhiiig yu t' cii trc c n h hng n kh Iing to lin k t bc hai
VT LIU HC 511
(lin kt V an der W aals liay lin kt hydro). V r, mch n h n h lm gim liixi qu

Rp xp ca mch, gim lin kt a chng, kt qun l Iihit nng chy gim
khi m t mch n h n h tng. Trong khi (l. klifVi lii phn t tn g lm tng
nhit nng chy. P hn ciii c\ia mcli ditc t clo khi dao ng. Klii chiu di ca
mch tng, s cui mch gim, kt qu l Iiiig liiR tng. Nh vy, to dao
diis cn thit cho qu trn h Iiiig chy (clniyn sang trn g th i khng trt, t), cn
nun.l len Iihit cao hii. Nhit, rt nng chy ca mt s^ polyme itc trn h by d
1 l. .
Bng 11.5. Nhit thy tinh ha v nng chy ca mt s polyme thng dng
Vt liu Nhit thy tinh ha, c Nhit nng chy, c
Polyetylen (t trng thp) -110 115
Polyetylen (t trng cao) -90 135
Polyvinylclorit 105 212
Polytetraloetylen -90 327
Polypropylen -20 175
Nylon 6 ,6 57 265
Polyeste (PET) 73 265
Polycacbonat 150
Di vi )olyjiie v nh hiih, khi nung nng, nhit (t thy tinh ha tng ng

vi thi im khi v t liu ch\iyn t trng thi rii sang cu trc giig caosii.
Nhit th y tinh ha cng
|)h thiic vo cc yu t^ cu ---------------------------------- 7-------------7----------
/ ' /
Chi ln Cht / Caosu
trc nh Intiig n kli nng
/inh dng / lng /
clao ng v quay ca mch / nht / _
'm
khi nhit th ay i. mni / do n tSi
/
/
clo ra mch c nh lniif
ln nht. Mch cng cng.
chuyn ng quay khi n h it Cht rn Chat do kt
tinh th finh mt phn
tng cng nh, c gi tr
-X -
cng ln. liiii do c th O^ 10^ fO* /o
iii khi ia nguyn t hoc Kh/ ng phn ---- *-
nhm nguyn t ciig kiih
Hinh 11.12. S phu thuc ca c im polyme
vo mch v n hn ch s
cng nh ca nhit nng chy v nhit thy tinh
quay phn t. Ngoi ra lin
ha vo khi lng phn t
512 Chng 11. M kl LIU HU c (POLYME)
kt gia cc m ch cng lm gim chuyn ng ca phn t v do lm tn g Tg.

Trong bng 11.5 l n h it thy tin h ha ca mt s' polynie thng gp. H nh
1 1 . 1 2 trn h by s pli thuc ca v r,,, vo khi lng phn t ca polyme.
Iiliit tng i cao, cc polyine c khi lng p hn t th p s tn ti di
dng lng, cn nu c khi lng tru n g bnh v cao s dng lng nht v giiig
caosii. l vi polyme rn, tin h th c hnh th n h n hit th p v khi ling
phn t nh; khi khi ling p h n t tng, c im v nh h n h cng s tng.
1 1 .3 .4 . T R N G T H I M M C A O (V IS C O E L A S T IC IT Y )
Ta bit rn g mt polyine v nh hnh ^

s th hin Iiliit mt thiy tin h n h it
thp, nh caosu n h it tru n g bnh (trii
n hit th y tin h ha) v nh ch t lng
Iiht n h it cao hn. Klii bin dng
tng i nh, v n it c hc c th coi Iihi
n hi. ngha l tiin theo nh lu t
Hooke (biu thc (4.1), mc 4.1.3.1). ^
nhit cao, c im lng n h t l ch yii.
n hit tn m g bnh v t liu th hin tn h -J-------
cht kt hp ca hai c im tr n v gi l , . t
Itini cao hay l n hi tr (xem mc
4.1.2.3).
Bin dng n hi xy ra tc tlii, in
ny c Iigha bin dng xii't. hin ngay kln
c lc tc dng (ti |, hih 11.13a v b) v
khi gii phng lc (ti t-) bin dng cng
int i v hon li kch tliKc baii xi.
vi trn g th i mm cao (liih 11.13c). bn
cnh bin dng tc thi, trong khong thi
gian tc ng ca lc t tj n 2 v t liu
tip tc bin dng cho n 82 ; sau khi kh
lc, th n h p hn E m t i, ph n cn li tch
tliot dn v ch bin m't saii khong thi
gian xc nh. vi tr n g th i nht (liili
11.13d) th bin dng t n g tuyn tn h
trong khong thi gian t t i trng v vn
gi c iih sau khi kh ti. Hnh 11.13. S ng sut tc dng (a)
T m t trn th y rn g c tnh mm v bin dng i vi trng thi hon ton
cao ca v t liu polyine khng nhng ph n hi (b), mm cao n hi tr (c), v
thuc vo n h it ni cn vo thi gian. nht (d)
nh gi c tn h ny Iigi ta
thng quan t m ti hai i ling sau:
- Mun hi phc mm cao E^(t) (viscoelastic rexalatioii inodulus);
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________
- Mun do mm CO E f . { t ) (viscoelastic creep Iioclulus).

H ai i lng ny Iii ln mc tng ng su t theo bin dng (E - /e) tng
ng vi hai iu kiu th nghim sau:
- o th ay i ng s u t theo thi gian o(t) sao cho gi ic bin dng c
iih Er(t) = ()/e,>. l th tch thot;
- o bin dng theo thi gian ( 0 di tc dng ca ng su t khng i (,:
E^..) = je(t) . l th do.
Xac nh Er(t) v Er(t) cc vng nhit khc Iihaii clio php n h gi hnh
vi chi ti cia v t liu inm cao. c bit i vi cc elastom e l loi v t liu c tnh
n hi tiiig t caosu. Klii clua c lc tc dng, cc elastom e dng v nh hiih
vi cc m ch phn t CIIII, nhiu im Iin. Klii c lc tc dng, n bin dng n
hi do cc m ch dui nh v gin di theo chiu ca lc bn ngoi (liili 4..
chng 4). Sau khi kh lc, cc mch tr li hnh thi cu to ban u, bin dng
bin m t.
tr th n h elastoiiie, polyme phi tha m n cac y\i cu sau;
- Kliiig c kh nng k t tin h lun c cii to v nh hiih;
- S qiiay ca cc lin k t trong mch phi tiiig 'i t do cc m ch un c
th dui ra khi c lc tc dng;
- cc elastom e c bin dng u hi lii. bin dng do phi xy ra chm.
Klii bin dng, cc lin kt ngang hot ng nh ci neo gia cc mch, ngn cn
s trit tng gia ching (liih 4.5). To lin kt ngang (c'u trc m ng li)
vc thc hin nh qu trn h Iiii ha (xein 11.4.3.2);
- N hit thy tin h ha T, phi tlip hn nhit s dng v t liu th hin
ic tn h ch^t ging Iihi caosii. i vi a s elasto n e nm trong khong t -80
u -90"c. Di n h it ny. cc elastome tr nn gin.
1 1 .3 .5 . P H H Y V T L I U P O L Y M E
bn pli hy ca v t liu polyiiie tng cti thp so vi kim loi v gm.
Nhn chung s ph hy cia polynie nhit rn l gin. Trong qu tr ih ph hy
linh th n h cc vt n t nhng ni tp trung ng sut.
Polyme n h it do c th b ph hy do hoc gin v s" ln polyme loi ny c
kh nng chuyn t dng do sang gin. Cc yu t lm th u n li cho ph hy gin
l; n h it th p , tc bin dng ln. cc vt n t c sn. chiii dy ca m u lii.
Cc loi nh a n h i t do giug thy tinh, gin n h it tviig thp, khi
n h it tng, n tr nn do nhit gn vi nliit th y tin h ha v c bin
dng do tnrc khi ph hu. 4*c cht do polynietylnietacrylat PMMA hon toii
gin, cn Iihit 60c tr nn r t do.
Mt hin tng th a m gia vo qu trnh ph hviy ca cc polyme n h it do l s
rn n t giiig nh trong th y tinh. Cc vt nt t vi hiih th n h nhng vng chu
ng s u t cao, ni c cc h t tp ch t v cc vt xc. H in tng ny xy ra theo
chiu viing gc vi lc tc dng. ng thi vi hin tng r n nt, c nhng vng
chy cc b a n vic hnh th n h cc mch nh hng v nhng l r nh.
Chiu dy ca cc vt n t t vi ny khong |im hoc nh hn.
33 - VLH
14 Chng 11. MhJ LIU HU c (POLYME)
Khc vi cc vt n t v m, vt n t t vi cng vn c th chu lc. ilng nhin

lc tc dng phi Iih hn gi tr khi v t liu chia r n nt. N u lc tc dng
ln. cc vt n t ln s hih th n h t cc vt n t t vi do cii tr c b ph hy v cc
l r p h t trin. Di tc dng tip ca lc, v t liu s b ph hy dc theo cc vt.
n t ny.
1 1 .3 .6 . C C C T N H K H C
11.3.6.1. dai va p
Kli nng chu tc dng va p ca v t liu polyme c lin quan n m t s

ng dng. Ging nh kim loi, polyme c th b ph hiy do hoc gin trong iii
kin tc dng ca lc va p, ph thuc vo n h it , kch thic m u, tc bin
dng, cch tc dng lc. Polyme tin h th v v nh hh gin n h it th p v c
hai c dai va p tng i thp. C hng c SI chuyn tip t do sang gin (xem
mc 4..1 ) khong n h it tng hp. T t nhin, dai va p gim dn
nhit cao hn v polyiie b t u mm. Thng thiig. dai va p cao n h it
phng v n h it chuyn tip do- gin th p hn n h it phng.
11.3.6.2. bn m
Polyme c th b ph hy do mi khi lc tc dng theo chii k. Cng nh\ kini

loi, mi xy ra ng s u t tng i th p so vi gii hii bn ko. T h Iighiiii nii
v t liu polyine khng ph cp nh v t liu kim loi. Tuy nhin, hin tiiig nii
ca c hai loi gn ging n h a u v ng biu din c cng dng (linli 11.14). Mt,
s polyiiie c gii liii mi. l tr s ng siit ni ng s u t ph hy tr lin
c lp vi s^ chu k tc dng lc. mt s' khc li khng c gii hn ny. T t
nhin, bn v gii hn Iii
ca v t liii polyme nh hn ca
kim loi nhiu.
11.3.6.3. bn x v cng
Cc tn h cht ny i khi c
nh hng n vic la chn
polynie trong mt s' ng dng
c bit. bn x rch l m t
tnh cht quan trng ca m t s"
loi cht do, nh't l loi dng
Hnh 11.14. ng cong mi (bin ng sut v
dng m ng mng nh bao b.
s chu k ph Ku) cho polymetylmetacrylat (PMMA) c
bn x l n ng lng cn
gii hn mi, cn nylon 6 khng c
th i t x rch mt m \i c
kch thic chun. bn ko v
x rch c lin qiiaii vi nhau.
VT LIU HC l
Cng n hu kim loi, cng ca vt liii ni lii kli n ng chng c xitc. xuyn
qiia. Da s phdiig php o ciig u (la trn nguyn l tng tit nh diig cho
kim loi,
1 L 3 .7 . C C L T N H
Dm tin phi ni ngay rng cc chiig loi polynie ra t phong ph. hn na cc

cht plii gia v tng cng th am gia vo vt liu polynie cng lm cho tnh cht
thay i trong nit gii h n rng. V vy trong chng ny ch nii Iilung tnh cht
cliiing v trong mt s tnrng bdp c so snh vi cr vt liii khc c th th y r
Iihiig vi vit cng nh nhng hn ch ca vt liu polynie.
11.3.7.1. Khi lng ring

Kli lng ring ca polyine khng cao lm. y l m t li th khi cc k s
tliit k cn nhng chi ti t nh. hoc khi khng cn ft bu c hc cao. R rng tnh
nh ca polyine l m t trong Iiliiig yii t' lm cho loi vt. liu ny ic iig dng
rng ri. T l gii h n bn ko/ khi hii ring (cn gi l gii hn bn ring) ca
mt s' polyine cao hn ca kim loi (bng 1 1 .6 ). Kli liig ring nh ca polyme
l do cc nguyn t trong mch chnh (ch yu l cacbon v hydro) c khi hug
nguyn t nh. Cc polynie hydrocacboii thng, n giii (polyetylen. polypropylen.
polystyreii) c klil liig ring t 0.9 n 1 , 1 g/ciii . Khi c cc nguyn t uiig hn
roiig m ch (clo. lo hay oxy) khi liig ring s tng (PVC : t 1.2 ii 1.5 g/cin \
PTPE : t 2.1 n 2,2 g/cniS.
Bang 11.6. Khi lng ring, gii hn bn ko v gii hn bn ring ca mt s

Kim loi v polyme
Vt liu Khi lng ring d. G ii hn bn Ob/

g/ cm^ ko Ob. MPa
Thp vi 0,1 % c (cn ngui) 7.8 450 58
ng vi 30% Zn 8.3 400 48
Nhm vi 4% Cu 2 .8 350 125
Polyetylen t trng cao (PEHD) 0.96 30 30
Nylon 6 ,6 1,12 80 71
Caosu ABS 1,1 45 41
Nii polyine kt tinh, khi lng ring s ln hii do cî trc st ch t hdn.
16 Chng 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYMg)
11.3.7.2. Tnh cht nhit

Ta bit rng h s' gin n ph thuc vo loi lin kt. gia cc nhm nguyn t
hoc phn t v h s ny cng ln khi cng lin kt cng yu. vi polyine.
lin kt gia cc mch khng tlnic loi c cing cao. do h s gin n cng
cao hn kim loi hoc v t liu c lin kt. ioii (bng 11.7). S khc n h au ln v h s
gin II ca polyme v kim loi l mt thng s qiian trng cn xt. n trong
nhng th it k c dng n c h ai loi v t li\i ny (v d. cc chi ti t ch t do lp
ghp trii trc kim loi). Trong tring hp ny s nng cao n h it c the lni
gim lin kt gia polyme - kim loi v c th dn n nhng vt u t trn b mt
vt liu polyme.
dn Iihit ca polyme tng i th p (bng 11.7). c im ny cho php
iig diig polyme nh ch t cch nhit, n h t l di dng bt, m t. Cc bt.
polyuretan. polystyreu, PVC, phenol-foinandehyt c dn Iihit r t thp, khong
0,035 w /m "c.
Bng 11.7. Tinh cht nhit ca mt s poiyme
Vt liu H s gin n. dn nhit, Nhit dung ring

w /m c 20c, KJ/kg c
PELT 110-130 0,33 2,26
PVC 50-180 0,12-0,30 0.84-1,25
PS 60-80 0,10-0,14 1,34
PMMA 50-90 0,17-0.25 1.46
PA 66 100-150 0,25 1,46
Polyeste thy tinh 25-30 0,41-0,69 1,05
Thy tinh 1,25 0.71-0.84
Thp 11-12 55 0,437
11.3.7.3. Tnh cht in

Thng thng trong polyme khng c nhng phn ti tch in. Do vy. in tr
ca polyme r t cao (t 1 0 - l o ' Qcm) v v vy l nhng ch t cch in tu y t vi.
Nh tnh ch t ny m ch 4 n m sau khi tng lip c polyetyleii (193 Anh),
mt nh m y cng s u t 2 0 0 tn /n m c xy ding vi ng dng chnh l l 111
v t liu cch in. Do c in th xuyn th n g cao (150 - 300 kV/cm) v d gia cng
Iin polyme c dng nhiu bc v dy in, cp v cc dng c in (cng tc.
hp in , ... ). Dc im ca polyme trong trng ca diig xoay chiu, n h t l
t n s cao, ph thuc vo c cc ca phn tit. V m t ny, polyetylen.
polypropyleii do c cii trc ivi ha ch gni t iigTiyn t cacboii v livclro l
nhng v t liu ng ch n h t. C tli dng polyetylen th t tin h k h it bc dy
VT LIU HC 17
cp in vin thng dii IIIC cho n tn s 30 MHz. M t khc, giy troiig cc t

in cng c th a y th bng mng polypropylen nh hing vi chiu dy
khong vi micromet.
H ng s' tn hao in mi l mt thng s qiian trng quyt nh mt
polyme c th h n itc hoc khng bng phng php in cm ng t n s" cao.
Tn hao in mi ca mt s polyme rt b (10*^ - 10). nn khng th h n bng
cm ng ic. y l trng hp ca polyolefiii, polyiie c flo, polyeste 110. Nling
int s nhila n h i t do khc c th hn cm ng c nhi PVC, cc loi polyacrylic.
polyainit v c h n g s' hao tn in mi khong 1 0 '^. D n hiu l khng th ni n
hn cc nh a n h i t rn.
Nliiig nm gn y hon thin phidiig plip sn x u t polyme dn in lm
in chm (electret). Nliiig cht dn iu ny l nhng ch t cch in c
tch in (charge) vnh cu, thng lm t nyloii hay polypropyleii bng cch nng
ti n h it cao hn nliit thy tinh ha ri a vo in trng m nh m t chiii
hoc phng in trong mi tring ioii ho. Nh vy, s n h n itc s dch chuyn
ca cc p h n tch in hoc s nh hing ca cc lng cc (dipol). n h it trn
nhit th y tin h ho, do s linh ng cao ca cc mch ph n t, tch in ny c
th di chuyn. Saii khi hiih th n h cc phn tch iu, polyme c lm lnh,
cho m ch bt linh ng v cc phn tch iii b "by" troug polyme. V t liu c
dng n hiu n h t cho mc ch ny l copolyine gia tetraloetylen v
hexalopropylen. Cc in chm ny ch yii dng sn x u t microphon, thc t
l cc m icrophon t in. V c tch in vnh cu nn khng cn dng ngun
ngoi.
11.3.7.4. Tnh ch t quang
Mt s polyme c tn h ch t quang r t th v. e c th tru y n n h sng,

polynie phi Iriig thi v iih ili v cc vlg tilh th ng vai tr l trung
tm t n x (li s' tru y n nh sng gim mnh khi x u t hin vng tinh th).
Bng 1 1 . 8 trn h by m t s' thng s' quaiig ca cc polyme thng dng do mt s'
tuh ch t q uang c bit ca chiing.
Bng 11.8. Tnh cht quang ca mt s polyme
Polym e H s chit sut Truyn nh sng. %
Polyacrylic
-P M M A 1,49-1,56 92
- A /M M A 1.51 90
s tyre n - butadien SB 1,57 90
Polycacbonat PC 1,59 88
Polysulfon PPSU 1,65 75
Polyeste PET 1,57-1,64 90

518__________________________________________ Chng 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYME)
Polynietylm etacrylat (PMMA) l polyme uhit do trong siit in hnh dng

lni knh khng v, h s' truyii nli sng trng th y ln ti 0 % cho chiii (ly
3m. Cc polycacbonat mc d c h s' tru y n nh sng nh hn i vi nh sang
trng th y nhng khng nhy vi cc v t xc nh cc loi polyacrylic. Do , cc
polycacbouat c dng lm cc th'u knh cho cc iny q\iang hc ('ug Iihm,
m y nh, ...) m bo h lao ng, knh bo him, n t . v.v.
11.4. NG DNG V GIA CNG POLYME

Polyme tng lip c theo cc phng php trn h by trn t khi dng
ring m phi hp vi m t s c h t gi l ph gia. Hn hp ny phi q\ia qu trnh
gia cng c hnh dng v tn h ch t thch hp.
1 1 .4 .1 . C C C H T P H G IA
Cc tn h ch t tr ih by cc phn tr n l nhng c iii c b n ca polyme.

Mt s tn h ch t ny lin q u an v c th iu chnh bng cu trc phn t. Trong
tlic t. thng phi th ay i cc tnh ch t c, l, ha trong m t phm vi rng hdn
khi thay i chi bng iu chnh cu trc phn t. Cc ph gia cho vo c mc ch
khdc nhaii, hon thin cc tn h ch t ca polyiie, lm chng tr nn hii ch liii.
Sau y l cc ph gia in hm h.
C ht n
C ht n c th ci thiii int s' tnh ch t c l ca polyme, nhing cng diig

ch yii l lm gim gi th n h phn, v clung r t r. Cc ch t n ch yu l: bt
g (m n cita), bt talc, t st, bt nh , ... kch thic c th t 1 0 nni n ln lidn
r t Iihiu.
C ht ha do
mm do ca polyme c ci th in bng cch cho vo cc ch t ha do.

C hng ng thi lm gim cng ca v t liii. Cc cht ha do thng dng
lng, c p s u t ha hi th p v c khi ling phn t khng cao lm. Cc phn t
ha do s chim v tr gia cc mch polyme. lni tn g khong cch gia cc mch
v do gim Ivlc lin k t gia chng. C h t ha do thiiig dng cho cc polynie
gin n h it thing n h PVC, nh a epoxy, V . V . . Cc loi ha do thng dng
n h t l cc este: p h talat, adipat, sebacat, polyeste aliphatic v cc photphat.
C ht n n h
Mt s polyme b li hng n h a n h chng troiig iu kin thng, ch yii do s

suy gim cc tn h ch t c l. Trong a s" cc triiig hp, s h hng ny l do tc
dng ca nh sng, c b it ca tia t ngoi v ca oxy. Tia t ngoi l nguyn
n h n gy t lin k t ng ha tr, ng thi cng to nn mt s m ng li. Oxy
cng vi n h it gy nn oxy ha Iiliit. Cc cht n nh lni gim , clini tlini
ch c ch qii triih p h n hy ca polme.
VT LIU HC__________________________________________________________________ ^
Cc cht chng oxy ha thng l cc amin, plienol. inecaptan v cc photphit.

Cn cc ch t n iih nh sng thng dng l cc Iinii th a n v mt s" cht hu c
khc.
C h t t o m u :
C h t to niii to cho v t liu mvi sc ring bit. N c th l thuc nhum
hoc bt mii. Cc phn t thuic nhum thing tau v tr th n h mt th n h phn
trong cu trc ca polyme. Bt mvi l cht n v do khng ha tan, to th n h
mt pha ring bit, thng thng chng c kch thitc nh, trong sut v c h s
chit s u t gn vi polyme. Mt s cht khc c th lni polyme tr nn c. Cc bt
mu sau y ic st dng nhiu nht: m u trn g TO2. ZnO; m u vng CdS v ch
croiiiat; s t oxyt , cobaii aliiiTinat xanh, phtaloxiamin en mui than,
C h t ch n g chy:
a i polyme u d b t chy, tr cc loi c cha clo, flo nh polyviiiylclorit,
polytetraAoetyleii. y l int vn ln, n h t l khi dng lm v t liu si v
chi tr em. Cc ch t chng chy c th khiig ch qii trn h b t chy v chy lan
ig thi lm v t liii kh chy hn. C ch tc cing ca ch t ny r"t phc tp v
chng c th tc dng bng cch lc ch phn ng oxy ha ca cc gc t do hoc
bng cch "lm lnh" do p hn ng thvi nhit mnh (v d, alum in. thic oxyt) hoc
bng cch gim s trao i kh gia polynie v ini trng (cc piotphat to th n h
mt lp b m t axit sulfuric). Mt s cc cht chng cliy l nhng lp cht a
clic. Trong thc t tn g kh nng chng chy tlung lia chn mt hn hp ca
hai hoc ba loi khc nhau.
11.4.2. C C C H T T N G C N G
y l Iihng hp ch t khi phi hp vi polynie c kh nng ci thin mt hoc

Iihiii tn h ch t c l ca v t liii. Cc cht ny ic dng di Iihiu dng; ht.
bt. si ngn hoc di. vi dt hoc ri. Ph thuc vo phng php gia cng v vo
hiu qu ca s tn g ciig s nhn ic v t liii compozit hoc ch t do tiig
cing. S au y nu m t s ch t tng cng thng dng.
T h y tin h :
Dii dng si, th y tin h lni tng bn c hc. kh nng chu mi trng n
mn. tn h cch in v chu Iihit tt.Thiiy tinh ilc s dng cc dng saii:
- D ng bi, nn g cao bn nn;
- Si ngn t 3 - 300 mm;
- M t t si ngn;
- Vi. bin dng t hn m t v cho php tiig citng lc theo chiu tc dng.
C acbon:
Di dng g rap h it dng lin cc ch't t bi trii ch to bc, m. Dii
dng si dng lm ch t tn g cing lc. ic diig ch yu trong ngnh k th u t
cao (trc thng, m y bay, t u thuyn, t).
520______________________________________ Chng 11 . VT LIU HU c o (POLYME)
M i ca
L loi cht tn g cig c bit, do c\i trc lp nn vt. liu f? itc tiig
citng theo hai hng. Mica c tnh cch in v bn ha hc tiiyt vi. bi)
nhit, tng i. c kh nng chng tia t ngoi, gi r. T t c iii ny lm n tr
th n h mt cht tn g cug khng tli b qiia. Thng \c dng dii dng vy CJO
- 40 |im) vi polyme nhit r n lni tn g tnh chu n h it v n nh kicli
tluc, cng c th dng cho polyme nhit, do Iihi polypropyleii v polyaiiiit troiig
phng php phun.
A m a n
Lm tiig gii h n chy v bn n h it ca polyine. ch yu dng lni pliuah
v khp Iii ly hp.
P o lyrn e
Ciil cng, ngay polyme ciiig c th dng lm cht tn g cns.ct() l troiig hp
polyainit thm, di dng si vi tii thidng mi K evlar (ling D upont de
Nemours). Si ny c khi lng ring nh. bn t r t cao. bn mi tt. Iiii
dng trong trng hp chu t i trng ng (cc b phn truyn ng, phanh, khp
n, sn. ca my bay, thuyii). Cc h t bi c b ca polyetylen (PE) clo ho. iig
tr n g hp acrylonitril butadieii - styreii (ABS) lm tn g bn va p ca cht
do.
Tm li. trong thc t cc v t liu polyme thng l hn hp ca nhiu cliat v
tnh cht ca v t liu khc uhiii vi polyme baii ii.
11 .4 .3 . C C L O I P O L Y M E C H N H
C r t Iihiii loi polynie tiiig i qiien thuc vi cliiig ta v c ng (lng r t

rng ri, gm cht do, elastoine (hoc caosu). si. sn. keo, cht, do bt v cc loi
niiig. Ty thuc vo bn cht, nit. polyiiie c th ng dng trong hai hay nhiu
lnh vc k trn. V d, ch^t do n\i to m ng hi v n hit cao hn nhit,
thy tinh lio, c th tr th n h mt loi elastom e. Hoc nit v t liu si cng c th
s dng nh cht do nu khng ko th n h si. Trong p hn Iiy s trn h by ngn
gn c im ca t ng loi v t liii trn v mt sphng php gia cng.
11.4.3.1. Cht do
T n h c h t v n g d n g
y l loi c s lng cng nh sn lng cao Iilit trong cc loi v t li\i
polyme. Theo iih ngha, ch t do l loi v t liu c th bin dng ni khng b
ph hy v c th iih hiih vi p lc th p nht.
Polynie thuc loi ny c th c m t s' tinli th no v c t t c cac loi
cu trc v hnh th i cu to (thng, nhiili. isotactic. ...). C hng c th cliig
n hit do hoc n h it rn. Tii thng m i. c im v ng dng ca nit. s loi
cht do c trn h by bng 11.9.
Mt s^ cht do c tnh ch t c bit. i vi nhng ng dng cn troiig
siit quang hc. polystyreii v polym etym etacrylat c bit thch lip. t\iy Iiliiii
polyme b t buc phi c v iih hnh cao. Cc ch t do locacbon c hng s Iiia
VT LIU HC 21
st. th p v cc k bn vi tc dng ca ha cht, ngay ca n h it cao c dng

sn ph dng c nh bp v cho cc linh kin in t lm vic n h it cao.
K th u t g ia cng
C k h nhiu phng php c dng trong gia cng ch't do. Si la chii
phiiig php cho mt polyine da vo cc yu t' sau; 1 ) v t liu thuc loi nhit
clo hay n h i t rn; 2) nu l n hit do. nhit ct chy nim l bao nhiu; 3) n
cnh kh quyn cia sn phm ; 4) kch thc v hnh dang ca sn phm . Phng
php gia cng kim loi, gm v ch t do c int s im giig nhau.
Bng 11.9. Tn thng mi, tnh cht v ng dng in hnh ca mt

s vt liu cht do
Loi vt liu Tn thng Tinh cht ng dng in hinh

mi ,
P olym e n h i t do
Acrylonitril- M arbon bn cao. bn nhit, tinh cht m lt t lnh, dng c

butadien- cycolac in tt. Chy v tan trong mt lm vn, chi, ...
styren (ABS) Lustran s' dung mi
Abson
Acrylic Lucite Truyn nh sng tuyt vi, bn Kinh, ca my bay, dng
(potym etylm et Plexiglass vi thi tit, tnh cht c trung c o c, thit k
acrilat, binh
PMMA)
Plocacbon Teflon TFE Tr trong hu ht cc mi Cht bt bc chng n
(PTFE hay Halon TFE trng. H s' ma st nh. C mn. van, ng ng,
TFE) th dng n nhit 260c, c m chu ha cht, mng
tinh chy km chng dinh, chi tit in t
lm vic nhit cao
Polyam it Nylon bn c hc tt. Bn ma st. trt, bnh rng, bn
(PA) Zyte H s ma st nh. Ht nc v chi, tay cm, v bc giy
Plaskon mt s cht lng khc. cp, dy in
Polycacbonat M erlon Kch thc n nh. Ht nc t, Mt n an ton, kinh,
(PC) Lexan trong sut, bn va p rt chp n. lm nn cho
tt, Chu ha cht trung bnh phim nh
Polyetylen Alathon Bn ha cht v cch in. Chai l mm do, chi,
(PE) Petrothene Mm do v c h s ma st v binh acquy, khay ng
Hi- fax thp, bn c hc khng cao , mng bao gi
v chiu thi tit yu
Polypropylen Pro- fax Bn vi s thay i nhit . Chai l c th thanh trng
(PP) Tenite Tinh cht in v bn mi tuyt c. Mng bao gi. v ti
Moplen vi. Bn ha cht. Tng i r. vi. va ly, ti du lch
Chu tia t ngoai km
Tip bng 11.9
Polystyren styron Tnh cht din v quang tuyt Lm tng, hp c quy,

(PS) Luxtrex vi. On nh kch thc v chu chi, bng in trong
Rexolite nhit tt. Tng i r nh, dng c gia inh
Vinyl PVC, Vt liu c ng dng rng ri. Thm tri sn, ng
(PVC) Pliovic Cng nn thng dng vi cht ng, bc dy din, bng
Saran, ha do ghi m
Tygon
Polyeste Mylar Mt trong nhng loi phim mm Bng t tnh, vi si,
(PTE) Celanar do nht. C bn x rch v mnh cho lp xe cc loi
Dacron mi tuyt vi. Bn vi m,
axit, cht bo v dung mi
Polyme nhit rn
Epoxy Epon C s phi hp tuyt vi gia Vt liu c. Keo dn.
Epl- rez bn c v tnh chng n mn. Sn bo v. Vt liu
Araldite Kich thc n nh. Bm dnh compozit
tt, khng t lm. Tnh cht
in tt
Phenolic Bakelite n nh kch thc rt tt Bc cc mt, v
Durez n trn 150c. Trn hp tt vi telephon, dng c in.
Resinox nhiu loi nha v cht n. R.
Polyeste Selectron Tnh cht in rt tt. R. sn Mt n, thuyn compozit,
Laminac phm c th dng nhit Mt s' chi tit cho t,
Paraplex phng hoc cao hn. i khi gh, qut
dng vi si tng cng
Silicon Nha DC Tnh cht in tuyt vi. Tr vi Cht do lp. Cch in
ha cht, nhng c th b hi nhit cao
nc nng tc dng. Chu nhit
rt tt. Tng i t
C ht do thiiig c gia cng n h i t cao v nhiu khi dii p siit thp.

Cc nha n hit do itc gia cng n h i t cao hn n hit th y tin h ha v p
lc phi duy tr ii khi lm ln h s n phm vn bo ton hnh dng khi vn
ang cn mm, do. S dng n h it do r t kinh t v n d dng t i sinh to sn
phm khc.
Sn x u t polyme n h it r n thng tin h n h trong hai giai on. u tin,
tng hp polyine m ch thng, lng, c khi lng phn t tlip (cn gi l polyme
trng hp sd b- prepolyme). V t liu ny s chuyn th n h dng cng rn giai
on hai, thng thng c tin h iih trong khun vi hiih dng v kch thc
theo yii cu sn phm . Giai on hai l giai on ng r n c th xy ra dii tc
dng ca Iihit hoc ca xc tc v thng l dii p lc. Troiig thi gian ng rn
VT LIU HC 523
c s th ay i v ha hc v c\i tnic ca phn t. to nu cc cii trc m ng liti

hoc khng gian. Sau khi ng rn. sn phm nhit rii c th tho khi khun khi
ang cn niig v lc ny kch thc (l n ciih. Nlia n hit rn khng th ti sinh,
khng Iiiig chy, c n h it s dng cao liii so vi Iiha n hit do v bn ha
cht bn.
Trong cc plutng php gia cng chat do. ic l plung php ph bin nht.
c c th tin h n h vi cc phing an khc nhau, bao gm; c p. c trao i.
|) thi, p phun v p n. Trong t't c cc plung phap ny. bt hoc h t cht
do di n h it v p su t s nng chy. ic nii vo kluin v c hnh dng, kch
thc khuii.
c p v c tr a o i (co rn p resso n a n d tr a n s e r rn o d in g )
Troiig phitdng php

H hin^
dc p, lilg v t liu
chnli xc ca polynie v N ung VJ
^ p ion c
plui gia ic t vo gia ^ Tnnh nn v/
lm nOi ~
hai na khun nh hih ~ hon np c
Khon c
1 1 . l. C hai na khun Nun v
lm nûi
n ic nung nng, tuy Tm jhn
nhin ch mt Iia khun Ttn knon' __ yion thu ic
cli ng. ug khun,
nung Iing v p. v t liu
s nng chy v in kii
lng kluiii. Trc khi c, Hinh 11.15. S ca my c p
nguyn v t liii c th
trn ri p Iigiii th n h mt chic a. gi l p s b. N ung nng trc cc a p s
b Iiy s gim thi gian, p s u t c v sii phm s iig u hn. Phng php
ny dng cho c nh a n h it do v nha nhit rn. Tiiy nhin i vi nha nhit,
do thi gian gia cng di v gi th n h t. hn.
c trao i l m t phing u ca c p. cc cu t dng bt trc tin ic
lm niig chy trong bviiig trao i Iihit. V t liu nng chy c phiiii vo mt
hp khun nn p s u t c phn b^ ctu hn trn toi) b mt. Phng php ny
ic dng cho nha n h it rn v cho sii phm c hnh lan g phc tp.
Phng php c phun
y l phng php gi cng c diig rng ri Iilit cho polyme n h it do. S

n gin cia m y gia cng c m t hiih 11.16. Ling nguyn liu chnh
xac ic ciiiig cp t phu nhp liu vo my do s di clm yn ciia pittiig. V t liii
c dy vo bung n u n g n trn g thi lng Iiht. Sau ch t do nng chy c
pittng y qua khe vo khun, p lc c duy tr cho n khi sn phm rn li.
Ciii cng, m khun, ly sn phm ra. ng kliiin li v to n b chu k li bt
u. c im ni b t ca phiiig php l sn phm itc gia cng vi tc cao.
i vi nh a n h it do. sn phm ha rn hu nh tc thi, v vy chu k gia cng
Ii^n (t.hiiig t 10- 30 s). Nliia nhit rn cng c th gia cng theo plnng plip
ny. qu trn h ng r n xy ra khi v t liu di p su't th p v nhit, . chu k

gia cng s di hn so vi nha n h it do.
B phn fn u
Vi ptiun
Phu np liu
Kr,oanj c
p c
Khun Bn nur
Hinh 11.16. S ca my c phun
c n
y l pliilng php c phim ca v t liii nhit do qua mt khun III. tiiig
U nhif n kim loi. Mt trc v t y v t liu bt lm cho n nn li, sau nng
chy lin tc to nn ch t lng nht. C ht lng ny \tc n qua cc l ca kh\in.
Qu trn h ha r n ca sn phm n itdc tliic hin bng cch lni ln h vi lung
khng kh hoc nc trc khi va vo bng chuyn. Phdiig php ny itc dng
chi yu sn x u t cc sn phm c cliiii di lin tc v kch tliitc nit ct
khng i Iihit: th an h , hnh, ng, si. ...
c th i
Phng php thi cc dng c cha ng t ch t do cng titng t nh
plung php thi chai l th y tinh. u tiu mt iig polyme c n ra, ngay
khi ang dng na Iing chy, on ng ny \c a vo mt khun gni hai
phn. Hi Iic hoc khng kli di p lc c thi vo on ng, lm cho th n h
ca n c hiih dng ca khun. ng nhin, n hit , nht ca on ng phi
c iu cliiih chnh xc.
khun
Cng nhi kini loi v gin, v t liii polyine cng c th rt khiin. C h t do
nng chy ic rt vo khun sau ng cng, c nh a n h it do v nha
n hit rn u c th kluin. i vi nlita n hit do ha r n c thc hin bng
cch lm lnh, cn nlia Iihit rn . ha r n thc cht l qiia trn h tr n g lip hoc
tr n g Iigiiig ca cc polyine klii hng p h n t\ thp, qii trn h ny c th tiu
h n h n h it tliing hoc n h it cao.
11.4.3.2. Elastome
c im v c ch bin dng ca elastoine chc cp cc phn tnc.

Trong phn ny ch ni v gia cng v gii thiu cc loi elastoine.
VT LIU HC 2
L u ha
c im cn th i t c tn h cht ca elastoine In phi c cu trc m ng hi
tha. Q u trn h to m ng li trong ciig ngh elastonu' gi l hfii ha. y l mt.
phn ng khng th u n nghch xy ra ch yii nhit fo cao. Trong a s cc phn
ng liii ha. hdp ch t lu hiinh cho vo trong polyiiie s ni cc incli cnh nhau
v to nii m ng li. Cc cii ui lu luinh hnli th aiih trong poIyizopreii theo
phn ng sau:
H CH:, H H H CH, H H
c c = c c- c c
H H H H
+ 2S s s
H H H H
I I I
- c c=c c c c c
H CH, H H H CH:, H H
Caosii cha hii ha th nim v diih. c bii c x dt yu. Miin n hi.

bu c v chii oxy \i t n g sau khi lu ha. Gi tr ca niun n hi tn g t l
th u n vi m t m ng li. to int loi caosu c piii di ln m khng t.
cc lin kt. ng ha tr. m ng
lii plii th a v cach xa
nliaii. Cac caosii thng dng
tliing cha t 1 n 5 phn
khi lng lii hunh cho 1 0 0
phii caosii. T ng lidiig lu
hunh s lm t n g cng
ca caosii ng thi lm gim
gin di. Mt khi c cu
trc m ng li, v t liii
elastoine s c c im ca
2 J 4
loi nha n h it rn.
Bih dn
C c lo i elastorne
Trong bng 1 1 . 1 0 gii Hinh 11.17. Hnh VI bin dang di tc dng ca
thiii tnh ch t v ng dng lc n gin di 600% ca caosu lu ha v cha
ca mt s elastoine thing lu ha
dng, nh ng tn h ch t ny l
in hnh v ng nhin l ph thuc vo mc liu ha v vo vic c s dng
hay khng cc li p cht tn g cng. Caosii t, nhin vn cn c i'iig dng rng
ri v n c c s phi lip c bit gia cc tiili cht lii vit. S bin dng ca
caosii lu ha v cha lu lia di tc dng ca lc c trn h by hnh 11.17.
526_________________________________________ Chng 11. VT LIU HU c d (POLYME)
Elastom e tng hp qu an trng n h t l caosu styreii- biit.adieii (SBR). dr

diig ch yu lm lp t vi ch t tn g cng l niiii than. Mt, loi khc l caosu
nitril- biitadien (NBR) cng chc dng nhiu do bn cao v chu dung mi
tt.
Trong a s" cc iig dng (v d lp t). ngay c caosii hu lia cng c
bn ko, bn ma s t v x rch khng t yii cii. N hng tnh cht. Iiy chc
ci thin khi cho tlini mui th au . Ngoi ra, cc phdiig pliap gia cng sn pliani
caosu cng titiig t n h ca ch t do trn h by tru Iih\f c p. n p. ..
Caosu Silicon l loi caosii c bit v mch chnh cacbon c thay th bang
mt mch gm nguyn t silic v oxy xen k nhan:
R
Si o
R
t.rong ct R. R l cc Iigviyn tt lin ciih Iih liydro hoc l Iihni nguyn t uhit
CH;;. V d Iihi polydiinetylsiloxaii c c\i trc n it xch nlii saii:
CH;,
Si o
I
CFl,
ng nhin, l mt. elastom e cc v t liu ny c cu trc m ng chu ('

inni do cao n h it t.hp (-90 C) v bn Iihit cao (20 "C). vi thrii tit
v du nhn. iu th v l int s^ caosu Silicon c th lii ha Iiliit th\iig.
11.4.3.3. Si
c i m v n g d n g
Mt trong nhng tnh Iing ch yu ca polyine dng lm si l kh nng ko
tlinli si di t n h t n t l 100:1 giia chi\i di v ctiiig knh. Tuy nhiu, c
th dng lm v t liu si. polyiiie phi p ng nhiig yu cu v tn h cht l ha
kli k h t khe. Bi v trong khi s dng. si phi ch\i cc lc c hc Iih ko cug.
IIII. mi mn, x. Do vy, n phi c gii h n bn ko ln troiiR khong nhit,
rng, niiin n hi cao cng n h chu m i nn tt. Cc tn h ch t uy itc quyt
nh bi bn ch t ha hc ca m ch polyme v q\i trn h ko si.
Klii hng ph n t ca si phi ting i ln. V gii hn bu ko tn g theo
inc k t tinh, cu trc v hnh th i cii to ca polyine phi 111 bo sn
phm c mc k t tin h cao do cii trc th n g khng c m ch n hnh, cii i v
iii ha.
S th u n tin khi g it v l ph thiic ch yii vo tnli cht nhit ca
polyme. c ngha l vo n h i t uug chy v th y tin h ha. Hn na. polyiiie si
VT LIU HC 27
phi n iih ha hc vi nhiu mi tnng khc nhau gni axit, kim, ch t ty

trng, dung mi v n h sng. Cui cng phi khug c qii d b t chy.
Bng 11.10. Cc tnh cht quan trng v ng dng in hnh ca nm

loi elastome thng mi
Loi Tn gin Nhit ng Tinh cht nq dng

caosu thng mi di. % dng. c ch yu in hinh
Polyizopren Caosu t 500-700 (-55)-120 Tinh cht c l Sm, lp.

t nhin nhin (NR) tuyt vi. Bn ng, m
ct. khot, ma
st. Chu nhit,
ozon, du m
km. Tnh cht
in tt
Copolym e GRB, Buna 400-500 60-120 Tnh cht c l Tng t
styren- s tt, chu ma st nh caosu
butadien (SBR) tuyt vi, t nhin
Khng chu
du. ozon v
thi tit. Tnh
cht in tng
i tt
Copolym e Bu na A 400-600 (-50)-150 Rt bn vi du ng mm
acrylonitril- Nitril thc Vt, ng cho du
butadien (NBR) vt v du m. ha, ha
Tnh chy km. cht, du
Tinh cht in m. ' gt
khng cao lm dy
Clopren Neopren 100-800 (-50)-105 Chu nhit, Bc dy cp
(CR) 0 2 0 n, thi tit in, thit b
tuyt vi. Trong ha cht.
cc ng dng Bng
v in khng chuyn,
tt bng caosu ng, m
t nhin
Polysiloxan Silicon 600 (-90)-250 Chu tuyt vi Cch in
nhit cao nhit cao
cng nh thp. v thp.
bn c hc Cht trm,
thp. Tnh cht ng ng
in rt tt cho thc
phm. Dng
trong y t
528_________________________________________ Chng 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYME)
P h n g p h p k o si
Qua trn h chiivii khi polyme th n h si gi l ko si. Phiiig php ko si
nng chy, to t si nng chy l ph bin nht. u tin, polyme itc m uig Iioiig
clio n trn g th i lng nht. San c bm qua klniii c r t uliiu l b. Vt
liu khi i qua cc l ny s to thnh cc n si v s ha rii ngay sau khi ti)
xc vi khng kh.
Mc kt tin h ca si ph thuc vo tc lm ngiii trong qii trn h ko si.
bn ca si c ci th in bng ccli ko cng sa\i khi si hnh thnh. Qu trn h
ny ch n gin l ko i si theo hitiig dc ca n. Do bn ko. inun n
hi. tnh do dai s ic ci tliiii. Mc cl tn h cht c hc t n g theo hing ko
cng, tc l theo chin di nhng b gim theo chiu viiiig gc. c n lii l khi s
dng si thng b tc dng theo chiu dc. do s siiy gim ny khng quan
trng lm. M t ct ca si sau khi ko cng gn Iihi trn v ng u trn ton
thit din. Polyam it. polyeste PTE. polyacrylonitril v polyuretan ic dmg Iiliiii
trong cng nghip si.
11.4.3.4. Cc ng dng khc

Ngoi Iihtng ng dng nu trn, mt htiig ln polyme c diig lm
sn. keo. miig. v.v. Cc polyme ng dng ch to keo. sn, ch yu dng Iiliit
do v n h it rn. elastom e c dmg t hn. c n lu rng s lng polynie (lii
trong cng nghip sn. keo nhiu hn l trong cng nghip si v caosii (bng
11. 11).
Sn
Sii ic ph ln b m t v t liu vi cc mc ch saii: 1) bo v khi b nii
tnlug xin thc; 2) lni t n g v p ca vt liii; 3) tn g tn h cht, cch in.
cc nirc cng ngliip tin tin, mc tiu th sn c th ln n trn 2 0 kg/
ngi/ nm.
Sn, vecni (khng c bt niii) l hn hp ca nhiii cht, thng thiig nluVt c
cc cht, sau: ch t to m ng ( polyme ). bt m u v c hoc hu cd, dung mi.
Sn c th phn loi theo nhiu cch nh theo bn ch t ca ch t to Iiiu
(sn du. sn alkyt, SII epoxy, ...), theo loi bt mu (trong, c. mii sc, ...). tlieo
phng php Sn (sn, nhng, qut. v tr lp sn (lt, nn. ph. ...). tlieo
phng phap kh (trong khng kh, kh nhanh, chm, kh n h i t cao. ...) v
trong lnh vc ng dng (cch in, chiig g. tra n g tr. ...) v cul cng l ni ng
dng (ngoi tri, sn ln kim loi, g. da, ...).
Gn y cch ph n loi tlieo li sii ic a ch\ing hn Iihi SII trong dung
mi hii cd. sn c liin lng pha rn cao. sn kluich tn trong nc. sn khuch
tn trong mi trng khng phi l nc v ciil cuig l sdii bt.
K eo
Keo l ch t dn b m t hai loi v t liu r n vi nhaii vi bn x cao. Keo
thng l cc loi oligome (prepolyme) hay polyme tr n g th i lng c th rlii
dung dch hay Iiiig chy. Keo dn c nhiu u im so vi cc phng php c in
nh: inh, vt. khu, v.v. V lc p hn b^ u trn mt din tch rng hn. n cn l
VT LIU HC 29
mt lp cch m v cch in, c th dn nling v t rt b, thi gian dii n h an h v

a s triiig hp r hn. Nhc im chnh l nhit ct lni vic b hn ch. Cc loi
keo polyme c th dn Iihiii v t liii khc nhau: kim loi- kim loi, kim loi-
caosii, kim loi- gm. v.v. bn mi dn ch chiy tr n h it th p v gim
nhanh chng khi n h it tng.
Keo dn c th thuc loi nhit rn hoc nhit do. hoc l elastonie , i khi
l cc polynie t nhin (keo iig v t nh keo casein. hoc thc v t nh h tin h bt.
keo caosu, cc loi gm). Lic dn gia hai vt liu ic xem l lc tn h in, tng
t Iihit lc lin k t bc gia cc mch phn t t.rong polyme n h it do, thng
thng lc k t dnh gia cc v t liu nh hn Iihiii so vi lc ni t i cia v t liu,
tuy nhin bn ni n c th cao Iiu lp keo ic (ln ii v mng.
Bng 11.11. Lng polyme dng ch to sn, keo, nm 1975 ti M
Loi polyme Sn Keo Tng cng Mc tng
1000 tn hng nm, %
styren - butadien 320 190 510 6
Nha am in 40 360 400 6
Nha phenol 20 360 380 4
Acrylat 260 60 320 10
Nha alkyt 300 0 300 0
Polyetylen ng 260 30 290 3

trng hp
Polyvinylclorit 220 30 250 6
Polyvinylaxetat 150 80 230 7
Cc loi khc 1 030 990 2 020 5
Tng cng 2 600 2 100 4 700 5
M ng
Theo ngn ng thng thng, iniig l v t liii phiig, mng c chiu dy t
0.02 - 0,125 mm. M ng c dng ch yii lni ti. bao b thc plini v cc
hng ha khc. Polyme dng lm mng phi c cc c im sau: khi lng ring
nh, m m do. bn ko. x rci cao. bn vi inc v cc ha ch t khc,
tliin mt s" loi kh v n h t l hi nc thp. Polyetylen, polypropyleii. xeiilophan
v xeiiluloaxetat p ng c cc yii cu trn. T nh cht c l ca m ng c ci
thin r r t saii khi ko cng, n h t l ko cng theo hai hng, bng 1 1 . 1 2 .
34 - VLH
M ng c th hiih th n h bng nhiii phiiig php. a s iTing c sn xu t

bng cch n qiia mt khe nh ca khun, sa\i qua trc gim chiu dy v
tn g bn. Ngoi ra, c th gia cng bng cch n ng polynie liii tc qiia
khun c khe r n h trn iu chnh p s u t kh trong ng cu th n chi\i dy
gim n n kch thic th i t k. sau CIIII v ct. Mt s' loi m ng mi c th
ch to bng cch n ng thi, c ngha l nliiii lp ca nhiu loi polynie cng
n trong m t thi gian.
Bng 11.12. Tnh cht ca mng khng nh hng v nh hng hai chiu
Gii hn bn ko.
gin di. % Mun, MPa
MPa
Polyme nh nh nh
Thng hng hai Thng hng hai Thng hng hai
chiu chiu chiu
Polystyren (PS) 27 72 1 340 1 790
Polypropylen (PP) 28 49 50 50 780 1 390
Polyvinylclorit (PVC) 49 52 210 120 1 340 1 680
11.4.3.5. Ti sin h polym e
P h liii polyme. n h t l ca ch t do thiig sn sinh trong qu trn h sn

xut, gia cng v sit dng. H ng nm c khong 25- 30% hng ch t do th i ra. V
vy lun c nhiig cng trn h nghin CII s dng li nhng p h th i ny. l vi
nha n h it do v elastoplast cng loi qu trn h ti siiili tng i n gin: lm
sch, to tin v sau gia cng li cng vi ch t ph gia hoc c th trn thm vi
polynie nii cng loi. P h lixi ca nha n h it rn v ca elastonie khng th ti
siiih bng phng php c hc c, chng c th dng nh ch t n.
Vn s dng li hn hp p h li\i cht do kh k hn hn. Thc t cc hn
hp ny c th ra sch, p ri gia cng li. Nlniig tnh ch t c l ca sn plini
r t km v cc polyme khng trn ln t t vi nhau. Cc ch t do ny c th phn
loi bng tay, nhng khng kinh t. M t khc c th dng cc p h th i ny nhi
int ngun Iiiig liig r tin bng cch t trong nhng l c bit.
Ph liu ch t do cn c th l ngun sn x u t nguyn liu u. C th dng
cc phng php saii y. M t s" ch t do c th thy phn n lioiiome n h it
dui 200"c, saii monome ic cliing ct v s dng li. Cc hn hp cha
polyvinylclorit c th kh clo n hit 350"c. P hn cn s n h it phn
600- 800"c. Loi sn phm ph thuc vo th n h phn Iigiiyii liu u. Nhn
chung khong 40% sn phm th u c thiic loi hp cht thm v cn l cacbon
v sp.
VT LIU HC_________ __ ____________ ____________________________________________ 31
Chng 12
VT L lfu KT HP (COMPOZIT)
S p h t trin m nh m ca cng ngh hin ci dn ti Iilui cu to ln v Iihiig

vt liii ng thi c nhiu tnh cht, cn thit m cac v t liu tr\iyn thng khi
iig ring r khng th c ic. Vt liu kt hp hoc vt liu compozit ra i va
l sit p ng nhu c\i cp bch va l sn phm ca nhng cng trn h nghin
cu trong na saii ca th k XX Iihni khai thc, p h at trin q u y lut kt. hp - mt
quy Kit ph biu trong t Iiliiii. ng thi vi kt qu . ugnh khoa lic hin
i v conipozit cng x u t hin.
Da tr u cc th n h tu ca ngnh khoa hc ny. cc nh ciig ngh v t liu c
.th to ra Iihng co]npozit mi tha mn mi nhu cu a dng v phong ph ca
Iiu rng nghip p h t trin hin nay cng Iilii trong tng lai. Chnh v vy gn
y ngii ta tliing ni; nn vn m inh cia th k XXI l nn vn niinh ca thi k
v<t lii conipozit.
12.1. CC KHI NIM V VT Llu KT HP

Sit kt hp cc tn h ch t trong vt liu nhiu )ha l liin tng ph bin.

V d. gii hn bn cao v do tha iig cn tlip cng tch peclit. l kt qii
ca s kt hp do, dai ln ca cc tm erit. vi iih cng vng ca cc tm
xenieiitit, khi cliing sp xp xen k nhan.
G. tre ciig vng v bn dai chnh l nh kt, hp c tn h bn dai ca si
xenhilo ph n b theo hng xc nh vi cng vng ca ch't g (ligiiiii) bao bc
xung quanh.
Q u y lut, kt hp th hin trong nhng v d c th trn l c R khoa hc ca
cng ngh v t liii compozit.
Biig con ng k t hp nhn t o cc pha c bn clit khc n hau tlieo mt
kin trc nh tnc, m bo to nn mt t hp Iihat iili cc tnh cli't. Iigi ta
sn x u t ra kh Iiliiii chng loi vt liu kt, hp a]) ng nhu cu a dng ca
cng ngh hin i.
Nh vy compozit c cp trong chng uy l v t li\i Iihiii pha klic.
Iihau v m t ha hc. hu nliir khng taii vo nhau, phn cch nha\i bng ran h
gii pha. kt hp li nh s can thip k th u t ca con Iigi theo nhng s thit
32 Chng 12. VT LIU KT HP (COMPOZIT)
k trc. nhm t n dng v p h t trin nhng tn h cht, t t ca t ng pha troiig vt

liu kt hp cn ch to.
12.1.1. C I M V P H N L O I
Nling c im chnh ca v t liu compozit gm;

- Th n h t; l v t liu nhiu pha. Cc pha to nn compozit thiiig ra t kliac
nhaii v bn cht, khng ha ta n lii Iihaii v phn cch n h an bng ran h gii pha.
Trong thc t ph bin kh nhiu coinpozit hai pha. Pha lin tc trong ton klii
v t liu compozit c gi l nn. P ha p h n b gin on. ic nn bao bc. quy
iili gi l c i ;
- Th hai: trong conipozit t l. hnh dng, kch thc cng nhi s phn b'
ca uii v ct tu n theo cc quy iih th it k trc;
- Th ba: tn h ch t ca cc pha th n h ph n c kt hp to nn tn h cht
chung ca coinpozit. Tuy vy tn h ch t ca compozit khng bao hm t t c tnh
cht ca cc pha th iih phn khi chng ng ring r )ii ch la chn trong
nhng tnh cht t t v pht, hiiy thm .
phn loi v t liu compozit ngiti ta da vo cc im c tn n g ca chng.
Di y nu v d hai cch phn loi. l nhng cch phn loi thng dng
ng thi cng l c s cho vic trn h by ni dung phn cn li ca chxng ny.
a) Theo b n ch't ca nn. v t liu compozit c phn thnh:
- Compozit nn cht do ;
- Compozit Iiii kim lo i:
- Conipozit nn gm (cerainic) ;
- Compozit nn l hn hp nhiu pha.
b) Theo hnh hc ca ct hoc c im cii trc, ta c th phn loi coiiipozit
th n h ba nhm: compozit ct h t. coinpozit ct si v conipozit cii trc nh cliuiig
c ch ra tr u s liiih 1 2 . 1 .
Com pozif
Ct ht C t s i Compozif cu trc
I
Ht tb Hf mn Lin ^c Gin on Lp Tm b p T
C hng Nou nhin
Hinh 12.1 S phn loai compozit

VT LIU HC 33
(^.oinpozit ct h t v ct s khc I)h a u kcli thc hnh hc ca ct; c't si c

t l chiu cli trn ng kiili kli ln. cn ct. it l cc phn t ng trc.
Kliai n im v coiiipozit cu trc l ch cac bii tlin h phin trong thng
dviiig Iiht l d n g lp v dng tm ba lp (panel sanrlvvich), c c'\i th iih t vt
liu ng n h t, phi hp vi cc coinpozit khc
12.1.2. CT
N h trn h by trn, v t liu kt hp ni chimg c to nn t hai thiih

t chc c b n l ct v nn.
T rong ton khi compozit. xt v mt. sp xp th ct phn b khng lin tc.
V nit bn cht, ct c th r t a dng ty thiic vo tn h ch t ca coinpozit cn
ch to. Ring vi loi compozit kt c\i-i tng chnh ca cliing ny- ct
thng l v t liu bn c n hit tliing v nhit cao, c miin n hi ln
v kli liig ring nh.
Trong tlivc t . ct c t h bng kim loi (thp khng g. volram . nilipen. V . V . ) .
biig ch t v c (bo, cacboii, thy tinh. g'in. v.v.) v bng ch t hu c (polyainit
tlim, v.v,).
Hiili dng, kch thic, h m hiig v s phii b' c't l nhng yii t" c nh
h\iig m nh n tn h ch t ca compozit.
T rn hnh 1 2 . 2 trn h by s phn loi ct. theo hnh dng (a) v ba dng thc
plin b troiig khng gian ca n (b. c. d).
b)
. 1 V.
Hnh 12.2. S phn loi ct theo hinh dang (a) v cc dang thc phn b trong khng giar
b) ct ha mt chiu (tuyn tinh); c) ct ha hai chiu (mt). d) ct ha ba chiu (khi
534_______________________________________ Chng 12. VT LIU KT HP (COMPOZIT)
12.1.3. N N
Trong compozit, nn ng nhng vai tr ch yii sau y:

- Lin kt toii b cc p hn t ct th n li mt khi conipozit thng nht;
- To kh nng tiu h n h cc phing php gia cng v t liii conipozit thnh
cc chi ti t theo th i t k;
- Che ph, bo v ct tr n h cc hit hng c hc v ha hc do tc dng ca mi
trng ngoi.
Nn c th l cac v t liu r t khc nhau, v c bn ngi ta c th phu loi
Iin th n h bn Iilim: polyme, kim loi, gm v hn hdp.
Ph thiic vo tiih ch t compozit cn ch to, Iigi ta chii loi n n ph hp.
i vi loi conipozit kt cu, nii cn phi nh v c do cao.
Tnli clit ca nn n h hitiig m nh khng chi n ch cng ngh ch to ni
cn n cc c tn h s cliig ca compozit Iihit; n hit lm vic, bn mi. khi
liig ring, bn ring v kh nng cliiig li tc dng ca mi trng ngoi, v.v.
i vi cc conipozit ct si, nn do cn c tc dng truyn v phn b ti
triig sa n g ct. Nh c tn h ny. n h y cm vi qu ti CAIC b do tp trung ng
su t mt vng no ca compozit s gim xiiig, khi x u t hin s c (mt vi
si ct b t chng liii). Nli vy h s^ an ton khi s dng v t liii coiiipozit, ui
chung cao hn v t liu tru y n thng kh Iihu.
12.2. TNG TC GIA NN V CT

Nn v ct vc kt hp th n h khi coinpozit thng n h t tliiig qua lin k t ti
vng ranh pii pha. v nguyn tc gia nn v ct trong compozit i\i kin l 111
vic bnh thng khng xy ra hin tiig khuch t n lia tan ln nhan. Tuy vy.
ph tliuc vo qiiy trn h cng ngh ch to, h thng c th tr i qiia cc tr n g thi
nhit , p siit cao th u n li v n i t n hit ng hc cho cc tng tc khc nhan
gia nn v ct xy ra.
12.2.1. CC DNG T N G TC GIA N N v ct
Theo c im Iigi ta phn loi ting tc nii - ct th n h ba dng c bn

sau;
1) Nn v ct. khng ha ta n lu n h au v khng to tlin h hp ch t ha hc, v
d. cc compozit Al-B. Al-SiC. V.V.;
2) Nn v ct tiig tc to dung dch r n vi ha ta n r t nh v khiig to
hp cht ha hc. P h n ln cc compozit nn kim loi c ct l nhng kim loi kliac
u thuc loi ny. V d cc compozit Nb-W. Ni-W. V.V.;
3) Nii v ct ph n ng vi n h au to hp cht ha hc. V d. compozit Al-SiO^.
Ti-AlÔrt, Ti-SiC. v.v.
Ty thuc vo dng tng tc, giia nn v ct s hiih th n h mi lin kt n h t
iih. bn ca compozit ch\i n h hng r t m nh vo bu lin k t ct-nn.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 3
12.2.2. CC K l U L I N K T GIA CT v NN
Troig vt liii coiiipozit. tn t i sau kiu liii kt c bii sau:

1) L i n k t c h c
lîn kt ny thc hin uh klip ni tlnin tu cc hc gia Iiii v ct thng

q\ia inp in b m t hoc do lc ina s t (hnh 12.3a ). Compozit si c lin kt
dng ny thtdng km bn khi chu lc nn dc hoc ko ngang f?i ct.
2) L i n k t n h th m t
Lin kt Iiy (hnh 12.3b) thc liiii nh Iiug htng sc cng b m t. i vi

cc conipozit to ra kiu lin kt cd hc. khi tin hnh quy trn h ch to, nu pha
nn c nuiig chy v dnh t vi ct th bao gi ciig xy ra qu trn h khuch
tan ha ta n ln Iiliaii gia chng cl l rt. nh. Sc cng b m t tr n ran h gii
Iiii-ct saii khi pha nn iig c chnh l yvi tn quyt nh bn ca kiu lin
kt Iiy .
3) L i n k t p h n n g
Lin kt phn ng (hnh 12.3c) x\it hin khi trn ran h gii nn-ct xy ra
pliii ng to hp ch t ha hc diig nf\ . Dc tnh ca hp cht nii to th n h ny
iili hiig quyt nh n bn lin kt gia ct v nn .
4) L i n k t p h n n g p h n o a n
Dc im ca liu kt ny (hnh I2.3cl) l phn ng ha lic tng th xy ra

t.heu nhiu giai on, trong c mt giai (loii khng ch tc tcO ra lfn kt.
niinl) iia r hn tn c th xt v d com])zit. si 1)0 . nii l hp kim Ti-Al .
Gia Iiii v ct troiig qii trn h ch to xy ra phn ng ha hc trn bin gii
theo liai giai on :
- Giai on ii to iborit kp :
Ti(Al) + B (TiAl)B,
- Giai on hai to tita n diborit v dung dch rn Ti(AD:
(Ti ADB, + B -> T iB , + Ti(Al).
5) L i n k t o x y t
y l m t dng c bit ca lin kt phii ng. c tn n g cho compozit nn

kim loi, ct l cc oxyt (hnh 12.3e). Lin kt, trong coiiipozit dng ny thc hin
(lo to ra cx:; sn phm phn ng dng mng oxyt ( MO,; ).
6) L i n k t h n h p
Liii k t ny l hn lip ca cac ki\i liu kt. xut hin trong coinpozit in
ting tc gia nn v ct. ph thiic m nh vo qii trnh cng ngh hoc iii kin
s di.ing .
;^6 Chng 12. VT LIU KT HP (COMPOZIT)
V d. Sia IIPU AI v ct si B s xy ra titiig' tac phii .ng khi ch to bng

pluiig pliafj tam nn lng vn ct . Th Iihii, biig phng phap hu kluicl
tn (nhit th p hdii). tdiit tc gia chng l t.\tng tc loi 1 . N hi vy thav i
t-ac thng s cng ngh c th s dn ti sx chuyn mt pliii Utug tc loi 1 sang
loi 3 v khi troiig h s tn t.i ng thi nlu kiu lin k t .
m I
; c; d)
Hnh 12.3. S cc dang lin kt c bn

a) lin kt c hoc. b) lin kt thm t; c) lin kt phn ng.
d) lin kt phn ng phn oan, e) lin kt oxyt
Tidiig tc trong cc conipozit nn cli't do vi ct l vt, liu gm hoc v c

nh si thy tinh. si cacboii, si bo. ... bnh thng tluic loi 1 v lin kt ct-nn
l liu kt. th u n ty c hc. Tiiy vy. ci thin bn lin kt. trong trng hp
ny Iigi ta tlniig x l b nit si c't bng ph mt lp " tm". Cac' hn hfi)
"tam" thng c tbiili phn gn hni loi c h t;
- liui lli Iilit. co lc tliig lng cdii kl dnh cac: chi til trong bii th n ct;
- Loi th hai l cht. " bc cu o kh nng phn ug vi nn v vi si ct.
NIh vy liii kt, giia ct. v nn lc ny ctic thc hin thng qiui lp "lam"
t.riu ig gia ii.
TrAn hiili 12.4 uvi s tng tac gia nn polvHpoxy vi ct si thy t.iiili
thug qua lp "tain" tru iig gian l hn hp ca prepolynie v aniinosilan.
12.3. COMPOZIT HT
Conipuzit. ht. c cn to gm cc phn t ct dng h t ng trc phn b u
trong nn. Cc phn t ct trong triiig hp ny thiiig l cc pha cng v bn
hn nn, v d, cc oxvt, Iiitrit, borit. cacbit, v.v. Cng c th ht. ct l cc pha
mm. c bn ct nh Iilu graphit. Iiiica. v.v. l cc compozit chng ina st.
Ni dmig trin h by saxi y liii qiiaii ch y\i n C0 np'0 zit h t ni ct l r:K'
phn t cng v bn .
Da vo c im ca c ch ha bn trong compozit. ht. ngi ta phn bit,
hai loi; coiiipozit h t th v coiipozit h t mn (compozit ha bn phn tn).
VT LIU HC 537
M/ s i L i n K'f H v M n a m in s ib n Lp iin k t g i a h n po!>/epoxy

Ih u tin h h o t r v p re p o ly m e e p a ty nn v Chat tm
---------------------------------------------- H
Hinh 12.4. Vng tng tc gia polyepoxy v si thy tinh
12.3.1. C O M P O Z lT H T T H
Compozit h t th r t a dng v ic s dng ph bin trong cc lnh vvc cng

nghip .
12.3.1.1. c im ca compozit ht th
Kli Iiim " th" itc diig ch tng tc gia ct v nn khng xy ra
inc nguyn t hoc ph n t. C ch ha bn trong compozit ny l s cn tr
bin dng ca Iiii vng ln cn h t ct do SI clii p theo qiian iii ca c hc
mi trng lin tc.
Nu cc phn t ct phn b' theo phng n trn hnh 12.2b.l th t quy tc
hn hp (tnh ch t ca compozit bng tr u n g b n h theo p h n tr m th tch tnh cht
ca ct v nii), ta c:
( 12 . 1)
/(V . ) ( 12 . 2 )
trong - m un n hi ca conipozit theo trc ox ;

- m un n hi ca conipozit theo trc o y hoc oz;
- niiin n hi
ca nn:
E\. - mduu n lii -| I r
ca ct ht; 350
v - phn tr m th
tch nn chim
trong compozit:
Gii hn trn
V|, - phn trm th
tch ct ht
chim trong
conipozit. 150 Q
Thc t trong phn
\ ___1___ __ I ___L_
-1________ _______I I
lu compozit h t, s 20 uo 60 SO 100
phn b' cc plin t ct Hm l w, 7c Kfi li
iig ii theo cc
phitng Iihi hnh Hnh 12.5 S ph thuc mun n hi vo hm lng ct
12.2c. 1 . Do vy E,. ng trong compozit nn Cu ct hat w
vi trng hp ny Iini
vng gia gii hn trn E,!^ v gii hn dii E / '. ni ch ra trong v d linh
12.5.
12.3.1.2. Mt s compozit ht th thng dng

Compozit ht th nn polymc :
Ngi ta ita cc h t c't vi vai tr l ch t n vo polynie ct ci thiii ct bii
ko. un, chng mi mn, dai. kh nng n nh kch th\tc v chu nhit, v.v.
Cc h t n thiig l thch anh, thy tinh, nhm oxyt, t st , steatit, vi. ...
ugliin Iih vi kch thc khc n h au tiy theo yii cn . Vai tr cc h t ct. troiis
tn n g hp ly mt nit l tc nh n tng bn to cho conipozit cc tn h cht, mi .
m t khc l ch t n th u n t\i Iiliin tit kim polyiiie.
Compozit ht th nn kim loi :
Cc hp kim cng to ra bng pliing php hiyii kini bt c th n h plin gii)
nhng phn t cng nlu w c . TiC . TaC lin k t bng kini loi Iihi Co. l mt
dng compozit h t th nn kim loi \c s dng ph bin lm dng c ct gt vi
nng su t cao trong gia cng c kh. Ngoi ra, cc gi lip kim cli to bng
pUudiig php luyn kiin bt nh W-Cu, W-Ag, Mo-Cu, Mo-Ag. ... cng l cc
coinpozit h t th ic s dng trong k th u t in lm tip im, va c tvii th
ln va c in tr tip xc Iili .
Compozit ht th nn gm :
St.ng l compozit h t th nn gii c s dng rng ri nlit.
Trong compozit-btiig, ct chnh l tp hp cac h t r n (a hoc Ri) chc liii
kt !i bi nn l ximiig.
Loi btiig atfan (nn l xim ng atfan) c s dng ri ng. c\i. cng.
V.V.. cn btiig vi nn l xim iig poclan \tc dng rng ri xy dng CIIR
VT LIU HC 539
trn h , n h ca. v.v. Troiig th n h phn ca btiig xy dng, ngoi xiiniig poclaii,
cn c luc, tp hp cc h t c't kch thc nh ( ct vng) v h t ln ( , si).
Vic phi trn ct. vng v . Ri tlieo mt t l nlit nh l m bo s phn
b. sp xp cluing hp l trong khng gian, trdnh cc l hng trong khi btng.
Troiig btng xy dng, th tch ct th\iig chini t l khong 60-80%. Liig
nc va c tc dng ni bo lin kt tt, gia xiiniig vi ct vng v si.
Thiu luc lin kt s xy ra khng hon ton, tha nc s p h t sinh r x'p . c
hai trng hp ii dn ti lm gim bn ca btng .
VI im ch yu ca btng xy chng l d c hiih. ng rn ngay n hit
thng, th m ch c di nc. Nlutc iin cliiili ca n l bn ko nh. kh
gin, li s' gin n n h it ln. 0 x liih, btng cn thm mt nhirc im na l
r t d n t . N guyn Iihii l do luc thm trong cc r xp. theo s bin i ca
n h it kh quyn , c th b ng bng hoc ta n ra. Hiu ng th ay i th tch
ca nic khi chiiyii pha cng vi s co gin ca btiig khi gim hoc tn g nhit
s sinh ng su t, lm n t btng.
12.3.2. C O M P O Z IT HA B N ph n tn (C 0 M P 0 Z IT ht MN)
Compozit h t m n thiig ] cc v t liu bn nng v n nh nng. Do vy n

c cliiig thay th cc v t livi tniyii thng Iiliiii nng cao hi\i su t hoc ko
di t\ii th th i t b, cng trn h troug cc in kin s dng tvng ng.
12.3.2.1. c im ca c o m p o zit ha bn phn tn
Nn cc compozit ny t.lniig l kim loi hoc hi) kim. Cc phn t ct c kch

thc nh (iih hn 0 . 1 Iîn). thng l cc vt liu hen. cng v c tn h n nh
n h it cao. V d oxyt, ccbit, nitrit, borit hoc cc pha liu kini loi, v.v.
Tng tc Iin-ct trong loi compozit Iiy xy ra inc vi m ng vi kch
thc nguyn t hoc phn t . C ch ha bu tidiig t c ch ti t pha phn tn
bin cng khi ph n ha dung dch rn qu bo ho. Dii tc dng ca lc. trong
iTii conipozit. nn s hng chu hu Iih ton b ti, cc phn t c't nh mii,
pliii t n ng vai tr hm lch. lm tng bn v cng ca v t liu. Hiu ng ha
bn phn t n t c trong compozit h t Iiiii khng ln lm nlnng r t n nh
n h i t cao.
S d Iiliit vy v cc phn t ct irc chn t nhiig v t liu c kh nng n
iih t chc, tn h ch t v khng ha ta n vo nn khi nhit tn g cao .
12.3.2.2. Mt s compozit ha bn phn tn

Coinpozit h t mn aiig l i tng c ch nghin cvu v c nhiu trin
vng ng dng trong cc lnh vc cng ngh cao .
N hng k t qii t c hin cho php trin khai ng dng quy m cng
nghip mt S compozit loi ny. v d SAP ( Sintered A luininium Powder ) v
TD - Nickel (Thoria-D ispersed Nickel ) .
T hnli phn, tnh ch t ca mt s' loi SAP triili by trong bng 12.1.
540 Chng 12. \/K LIU KT HP (COMPOZIT)
Bng 12.1. Thnh phn, tnh cht m t s SAP
Thnh phn. ^ 0,2

K hiu % MPa MPa
AI A l,0
2'-3 Fe 20c 500c 20c 500c 20c 500c
SAP-930 cn li 6-9 0,25 290 100 200 8 2
S A P -895 9-13 0,20 320 100 230 4 1
SAP-865 13-17 0,25 400 130 340
SAP ic ch to v x u t xitng dng bn th n h phm tm , 'iig, dy...

Ngii ta s dng SAP ch to cc chi ti t cn bn ring ln. lm vic vng
Iihit 300-500' c v chi tc dng ca mi tnng n mn.
Compozit TD - Nickel c nn l Iiickel v c't l cc phn t oxyt ThO-^. H ni
liig ct Th 2 chim khong 2%. c tc dng ha bn v to cho compozit kh
nng lm vic lu di n h it 1 000 - 1 loo" c. Compozit TD - Nickel do c
n iili nng cao khng nhy cm vi n mn bin gii nn ctc s dng rng ri
trong cng ngh hn g khng, v tr , ch to tiicbin. ng dii v cc bnh p lc
lm vic n hit cao, diti tc ding ca nii trng n nin .
12.4. C0MP02IT CT SI
Compozit ct si l loi v t li\i kt cvi quan trng nht.

Mc tiii ch yu n h t khi th i t k ch to conipozit ct si l bii ring v
m iin n hi ring cao. Do vy, c nn v s vi cn c khi hug ring nh;
nn phi tng do, cn si ct plii c cng vng v bn cao. T nh c h t ca
compozit ct sdi ph thuc vo nhiii yu t"; bn cht v t liu ct v nn, bn
lin kt Iin-ct trn ran h gii, s phn b' v nh hitng si. kch thic, hnh
dng ca n, v.v.
l vi mt compozit c't si xc ih m ta kho st, nu coi lin kt ct-nii l
hon ho. th c tn h ca v t liii chu nh hng trc tip ca cc yu t' nhil:
s phn b, kch thic, hnh dng v hin lng ca ct si.
12.4.1. NH HNG CA Y T H N H HC S l N t n h CH T ca
C O M PO Z IT
Ct si c th c phn b" v nh hiig theo cc phng n khc n h au ty

thuc yu cu ' ra vi compozit. kho st. Iigi ta phn bit hai kiu phn
b" saii y:
VT LIU HC 41
- P hn b mt phdng, trong (t t t c cc si (u nh hng song song thng

n h t theo mt plnug (hnh 1 2 .6 a);
- Phn b" Iiliiii phng. Tlieo
cach ny, si c th ic phn b di
dng " m t " tc l phn b' r l hon
ton ngII nhin trn m t int. tng
t Iihi t m ci pht (hnh 1 2 .6 b).
Cng c th si itc dt. qun theo
hai chi\i (hnh 1 2 .6 c) v ba chin
tng ng vuiig gc (hnh 1 2 .6 d), ...
bn ca coinpozit ct si mt
plniig theo cc chiu viing gc vi
trc c't r t nh. T nng hp phn b' a)
theo kiu nhiu phng, v d. dng
"int" hoc dt hai chiu th bn
ko s nh Iih't theo chiu vung gc
vi Iit phn b si (hnh 12.6 b v
hnh 1 2 .6 c ).
N\i ic qun theo ba chiu
vuiig gc nlu hiih 1 2 .6 d tli
conipozit s c bn ng thi ln
Iilit theo c ba chiu tng ng .
Yii t linli hc ca si bao gm
hiih dng. kch thitc chiu di v
cixng knh (hoc l t l gia hai ch Hnh 12.6. S phn b ct SI ;
tixi Iiy). c n h hig r t ln ii 3) mt chiu song song .
tn h ch't cia conipozit. b) ngu nhin, r trong mt mt:
Nh phn trn nu, da vo
c) dt hai chiu vung gc trong mt mt;
kch thc ct. ngi ta phn bit liai
d) an, qun ba chiu vung gc
loi; conipozit ct si lin tc v
conipozit ct si gin on ( compozit ct si ngn ).
Di y s p hn tch tiih cht cc coiiip07,it c"t si mt phing khi th ay i
yu t hnh hc ca si.
12.4.1.1. di ct si v tn (ct si lin tc) -

I tin h n h phn tch, gi thit compozit c kho s t tha Iiiii m t s iu
kin sau:
1 - Si ct di v tn , phn b ii v nh Intiig theo int chixi song song vi
Iihair,
2 - T hiih phn v t chc ca v t li\i lni nn c m bo hon ton ng
n h t. i vi v t liii l<ni ct iu kin ny cuig ctc tha mn;
3- Lin k t Iiii-ct c thc hiii mt ccli hoii ho, m bo s bin dng
ca ct v nn xy ra ng thi, ting hp cho cn klii ph hy, tc l:
= = g,
.
y cc ch c, n, s c ngha tiig iig l ; coiiipozit. lin, ct. si.

42 Ckn 12. VT LIU KT HP (COMPOZIT)
KJii t ti theo chi\i song song vi trc si. t iii kin lin kl hon hao
gia Iiii v ct ta c (hnh 12.7 ).
(1L.3)
hor
Bin i tip ta Iihn itc ;
(I,).. = ( i,), + (1 - V ,) ( ) , (V2)
y F,. . . F - din tch tit din ngang tng

cng Ung ng ca coiiipozit. ct
sdi, nn ;
- ng su t tc diig trong nii ti thi im
ct si b t.
Bng cach suy hiii tng t v ch rng
= e ta c th vit : Hnh 12.7. Lc tc dng ln
E , . - V , E ^ + (1 - V j d a / d , ( 12 . 6 ) com pozit ct SI (chiu t
lc song song vi trc SI)
d|, / de l nghing ca itiig cong bin dng ko
nn. xc nh ti gi tr a. Klii giu tr a nm trong vng n hi ca chtii cong
ko. (l / cIe c g i tr b iig in iin cn hi c a nn E .
Nlu vy trong vng n hi th u n ty biu thc (12.6) c dng:
E, = K E . + VE . (12,7)
Biu thc ny cng chnh l bin thc; ( 1 2 . 1 ). l hn trn ca Iiiclun

n hi ca cc conipozit h t th.
Kt. lip biu thc (12.8) vi (12.7) ta suy ra :
P J P =VÊJV,,. ( 1 2 .8 )
i vi cc conipozit c Iin do hdn ct ( tr\ng hp ph bin trong thc t),
bao gi cng tii ti int gi tr V/'"". ng vi cc gi tr < v^""" s ph hy cnc
si ct khng dn ti s ph hiiy tc khc v t liii conipozit. Trong trng hdp Iiy.
hin liig qii nh ca c't. kliiig gy ra hiii ng hn bii. Nii t ti
vo m u compozit th ton b ti s tc. dng ln nn v lni Iiiu bii dng'. Qua
trn h bin dng ng thi ca ct. si v nn xy ra cho tn n khi gin di ca
niu bii gin di ph hy ca si s^. Liic Iiy. nii lc vn tip tc tc dng th
ton b s si ct t i s b pha hy (t). Tiiy vy. Iiiii vii tip tc bin dng v
s ph hy CII cng ch xy ra khi bin dng ni\i t ti gic tr hin dnfr
l)h hy ca nii
Nh vy. r rn g l bn ko ca v t liu conipozit v'iig vi bng
bn ko ca nn n h n vi phn trm th tch II chim, lc l;
VT LIU HC 43
(,,)..= (1 - K) (a,,) , (12.9)

Kt. lup bin thc uy vi biii t.hc (12.) la xc diih rr gi tr vj""' nh
K " " " = [( 1,) - J / l(a ,,), + ( ,,) - r r ,J . ( T i. 10)
Nu hiu s [(|,) - ] qu nh so vi (i.h ( trng hp coinpozit. nii polyiiie)

ta s nhii c
N'h vy, ng vi cc gi tr K trong khong gia khiiK v v j""' gii liii

ko n vt liu coinpozit ct si tlip hn gii liii bn ko ca nn. iii nv ('
Iigha l cac si ct cng v giii vi hni lng' qua nh (< V,""" ) c nh lutng
xu riu cd tn h ca Iin.
Dp cac si ct p h t huy vai tr ha bn ca chng, hni lng ct. t uhi. cn
phi tlt gi tr ti h n . B t \i t lim liig ct ti bn ny gii hn bii ko
ca coiiipozit. s bng v vt gii hn bn ko ca Iiii. c l;
(I.), > (|, ) . ( 1 2 . 1 2)
Kt hp cc biii thc (1 2 .) v
(U M 2) ta xac nh (c hm lng
th tch ti hn ca si K vi gi
tr ny iu kin (12.12) ic tha
lin :
v / " ((,) - a,J / [(1,X, - j . (12.13)
'r r nh n h 12.8 trnh by S ph
tli\ic: bn ko ca com pozit c't.
si iDt plung c n n do hn ct
ph tliuc hm liig th tch ca
si.
Hnh 12.9 l ng coiig bin
dng ko ca v t liii compozit ct
si mt phng vi n n (lo hn c't.
Trng hp nii gin v n hi
tiiyt i s tng ng vi itiis
Hnh 12.8. S phu thuc vo hm lng ct ca
('Oiig bin dng trn hnh 12.10.
bn compozit ct SI mt phng nn do
C th n h n th y l trong c hai
trng hp. nn do cng nh nn giii, in di ph hy ca coiiipozit hoii
ton ph thuc vo gin di ph hv ca si.
12.4.1,2. di c t si c hn
Troiig thc t cc si ct thng c chiu di gii hn. do vy cn phi tiiih n

"hiu ng u m t l hiu ng ph thuc vo yii t* hnh hc si ct. gy nli
iiii rt m nh n bn ca coj)ipozit.
44 Chn.g 12. VT LIU KT HP (COMPOZIT)
Bin Jn Bin dng >
Hnh 12.9. ng cong bin dang ko ca Hnh 12.10. ng cong bin dang ko ca
compozit ct si nn do vi > \^* compozit ct si nn gjn vi ^
T hiih 12.11 ta thy, di tc dng ca ng siit t vo. s bin dng c a

nn dng li im t si. iii ny cng c ngha l ti ving (tu nit si, iiii t.ing
tniyn ti t- Iin sang ct khng xy ra.
Nii si ngn qu, tc chiu di nh hn di ti h n ( L(1) ), th dii cng
ca lc tc dng ln m\i compozit c tng ln bao nhin i na. ng su t truyn
sang c't cng khng th vt qu gii hn bn ciia si ph t n. Lc ny (h
c th xy ra kii nng l khi cng lc tc diig ln. vt qii mt gi tr
cho phep. n s ko nguyn vn si ct tut ra khi nn. Nhit vy bn cc si ct
khng \c t n dng v k t qii l compozit r t kni bn.
Cli trong tri iig hdp cliivi di si vt qu di ti iin th n mi b jha
hy trong m ii compozit khi lc tc dng vt qii gi tr cho php v lc ny vai
tr ha bn ca si ct nii ic p h t Imy.
Trn hnh 12.12 ch r s chuyn dcl bin dng v ng s u t t nii saiig ct
trong m u compozit c m t si vi di L - 21. Klii t vo mii ng su t ... lp
tc mt phn gi tr ng sii t ny ( j. c chuyn sang ct do s truyii t i xy
ra vng raiih gii Iiii-c"t, tlic hin nh ng siit tip T.
n g siit tc dng trong nii tn g theo s tn g ca ,.. n khi t gii hn
chy, bin dng do nii b t ii xy ra tnc h t ti cc vng u nrt si hnli
12.12a). Ti gi tr T t CIC i (hnh 12.12b). Theo mc tn g thm ... bin
dng do trong nn cng t n g ln v phn ti chuyn sang ct ciig lii, Qu trnh
tip tc cho ii khi ng s u t trong c"t t (i,)i, th si t.
Tru hnh 1 2 . 1 2 c ch r ng s u t tn iy n t nn sang tn g dn t hai ii int.
si ct (cc on AB v C D ). t gi tr cc i v khng i ( oii BC ).
Mt m u ct chiii di x . ic ct troug viig AB s nm cn bng di tc
dng ca ng su t nh cli ra trn hhih 12.13.
VT LIU HC 4
Nn.
\ <v------ \
\,N.\.N___Vik---- -----VX.
r.
Hinh 12.11 S bin dng nn khi t ti vo Hinh 12.12 Si ct di 2 /trong nn do:

compozit ct si ngn a) hiu ng u mt khi compot chu ti;
b) phn b' ng sut tip T trn ranh gii ct-nn;
c) phn b ng sut ko trong si
T iu kin cn bng ta c : rrr^d; = - 27trTcb:. (12.14)

n gin v r t gn ta c: d(, /cbc - -2x1 r . (12.15)
Ly tch ph n phing trn h ny (bit j; = 0 khi r = /) ta c :
= 2{ilr) (1 - . (12.16)
Ti vng tru n g tm BC tha mn iu kin ; - / ( 1 - q) X < l{ \ - q)
(hnh 12.12c). ng s u t ko trong si t gi tr cc i;
"" = 27S t . (12.17)
vi 7 = L(|,/L, i lng c tr ng cho
hiu ing u m t trong compozit ct
si c chiu di gii hn;
s = U d - l r l yu t hiili hc ca
si.
Trong thc t, inii coinpozit
khng ch cha m t si ct nh m
hnh va nu, m gin m t t p hp r t
ln cc si sp xp song song nhau.
N u ta c t b n g m t m t p h n g p n o ^2.13 Cn bng ng sut trong oan
vung gc vi trc m u compozit th
n cng s ct vung gc cc sdi ct theo nhng v tr khc n h au (so vi u m t
cc si ct), hoc gn u m t ( trn cc on AB. CD), hoc vng tru n g tm
(trn on BC). Do vy ng su t tc dng ln ct ca mu t i ti t din ng vi m t
phng p c k hiu bng l i lug trung biih ca cc gi tr ng su t
tr n tit din ca t ng si ct vi chnh m t phng . Gi tr ng su t ny c
xc iih theo phng php tru n g biih. tc l ly din tch hih th a n h ABCD chia
cho chiii di si 2Z. (linh 11.14a). nh vy ta c;
_ _
= ,.... (1 - q/2 ), (12.18)
p dng quy tc hn hp, ta c th v i t:
Co = v .o ,'*' + (1 - VJ a.:' . (12.19)
35 - VLH
tro n g - ng sut
tr u n g b n h t c d n g l n
zi
nn.
Phi hp (12.18) vi
(12.19) ta c:
2Z
c = (1 - 7 /2 ) +
+ (I-K )
0}
( 12.20)
Klii gi th i t l nn
cn a n g tr o n g v n g b i n
d n g u h i. t c nh
h d n g i i h n t l ca v t
ii u n n t h t i v n g tr u n g
t m ca si, b i n d n g ca
nn v c t lu n bng
nhau, tc l:
21.
e
( 12.21)
Phi hp (12.17).
( 1 2 .2 0 ) v ( 1 2 . 2 1 ) ta c:
,= [ V ^ , + (l - K ) ]e -
/ 4xS. (12.22) Hnh 12.14. Ba trng hp c trng phn b ng sut
trong si gin on khi compo2 it b ko ;
Klii <7 = 1 Oinh
a) s > s* - sl b l khi J = (b)s;
12.14b), ng su t t i
b) s = s - si b t khi J = ( b ) s ;
tr im g i m ca si t cc
i y c) s < ^
s -- sot
si Knong
khng D
b aut
t
i y chnh
chnh l
l
tr n g hp t i h n , si b t u p h t h u y v a i tr t n g bn tro n g c o m p o zit.
Gi th i t b'"*' = (Ob ). t (12.17) ta r t ra tr s ti h n ca yu t' liiih hc ca

si :
S '= ( b )J2 T , (12.23)
hoc di ti h n ca s i; Z/tb ~ S ' d ^ - [ (,)s / 2x]d^ . (12.24)
Khi s > 10 s , ta c: = 0,95 (b)g tc l tn h cht ca compozit trong triig
hp ny t gu nh compozit ct si lin tc. Do vy nu compozit tha m n in
k i n s > lO S t h n c coi l c o m p o z it c t si li n t c , ngc l i, coi n h
c o m p o zit si n g n .
Di y ta xt hai trng hp c tr n g :
- Trng hp th n h t : < 1 v 5 > s*.
Nu 5 c gi tr r t ln, tc si r t di v ng knh ca n nh, t (12.22)
ta c: p = [ VJE^ + ( 1 - ]8 . ( 1 2 . 2 )
VT LIU HC 47
T (12.25) ta r t ra: Er = z + (l - V j (12.26)

Nhi vy inun u hi Ec ca compozit c't si c di ln. ng knh nh
pli lip hon ton quy tc hn hp.
Klii 5 tin ti gi tr v cng ln. si s t ti gi tr = (b)s v gin di
ph hy ca m u coinpozit ( cng
l ca nn) e, bng gi tr gin
di ph hy ca si Lc ny
t (12.22) ta c:
(h).. = V,(aa+(l-V,)i5:E,. (12.27)
V E = E,^ e . nn cng
thc {12.27) tr n g vi cng thc
(12.5) v trng hp ang xt ny
hoan ton ng vi triig hp ct
si lin tc.
Trng hp s khng ln lm.
gii h n bn ca compozit tu n
theo biu thc ( 1 2 .2 2 ), ngha l
quan h ph thuc gia ng su t
v bin dng ca v t liu Hinh 12.15 dng cong bin dng l thuyt vi s
conipozit khng cn tuyn tnh v khc nhau ca compozit nn epoxy ct si thy
iig cong = f(e) s cng h tin h E (\/5 = 0, 67; T = 6M Pa)
th p khi s cng nh (liiih 12.15).
- Tring hp th hai : q > v s < s :
Nu s = lld < s th di ca si ct qii ngn, un gi tr cc i ca ng
su t chuyn sang c't khng th t v vt gii hn bn ca si ( b ) s .
Vi gi tr = 1. k t hp cc biu thc (12.17), (12.18), (12.20) v (12.21) ta c:
. = K S r + ( l - y j e (12.28)
hoc a,, = T + (1 - Vj.) . (12.29)
y chnh l biu thc biu din quan h ph thuc gia gii h n bn ca

compozit vi h m lng v c tnh ca ct, nn khi: L < L(|, .
12.4.2. N H HNG CA N H HNG CT Sl

Do c im phn b' ca si trong nn. tnh d hitng ca compozit ct si th
hin r't r rt. V vy, c tn h ca coiipozit loi ny ph thuc r t m nh vo s
nh hng ca si so vi chiu ng su t t vo.
D i y ch kho s t mt s tritng hp c trng.
12.4.2.1. Compozit ct si lin tc

Klio s t trng hp m ii compozit c hm ling c"t bng V,' chu tc dng
ca ng siit theo chiu vung gc vi ct nh ch ra trn hnh 12.16a.
48 Chng 12. VT LIU KT HP <COMPOZIT)
S dng phng php

m hih tng t, ta kho
s t compozit ny thng qua
m u hiih khi chiu rng l()
(hiih 12.16b). Khi ny
gm hai lp: lp nn c
chiu dy (1 - Vb)Z() v lp
si c chiu dy VsZ().
n g s u t v tc dng
ln compozit cng l ng
su t tc dng ln nn v
ln si. Di tc dng ca Hinh 12.16;
ng su t ny. m u a) ng sut tc dng vung gc vi trc si

compozit b bin dng mt b) m hnh tng ng
ou bng A/. Ta c:
M- + e(l - VjZo (12.30)
hoc 8y= A lo = (1 - v^). (12.31)
M t khc; e^= yE^
Ey y / (-Bc)> (12.32)
Kt hp (12.31) v (12.32) ta c
(12.33)
lioc (e).v ^ E J J i . (12.34)

Biu thc (12.34) tng t biu thc (12.2). chnh l gii h n dii ca
inim n hi cia compozit h t th.
12.4.2.2.Compozit ct si ngn
Trong mc 12.4.1.2, ta kho s t bn
cng nh m un n hi ca compozit khi cc
si ngn xp song song u n theo m t chiu
thiig n h t tr n g vi chiu ca ng sut. Sau
y ta s cp trng hp si ngn p h n b
hon ton ngu nhin v t r t t nh hnh
12.17.
Lc ny , biu thc ca quy tc hn hp
vi mun n hi c biu th nh sau:
E, = kE,V, + , (12.35)
y k - th am s' hivi qu ha bn, gi tr ca
n ph thuc vo Vs v t l EJEj dao ng 12.17. Compozif ct si ngn
trong khong 0 , 1 - 0 .6 . phn b ngu nhin
VT LIU HC 549
T rong bng 12.2 triih by tham s hiu qu ha bn ca mt s' compozit si

ngn ng vi cc triig hp nh hng khc nhan gha si v ng s u t .
Bng 12.2. Gi tr tham s' K ng vi dnh hng khc nhau gia si v ng sut
nh hng si Chiu ng sut K
Tt c cc si song song Song song vi si 1
Vung gc vi si 0
Phn b si ngu nhin, ng nht trong mt Theo phng bt k trong mt 3/8

cha si
Phn b si ngu nhin v dng nht theo Theo phng bt k 1/5

ba chiu khng gian
Nli n h ng u im ln nhi c th to hiii d ng cc chi ti t hiih dng

phc tp. gi th n h sn phm thp, quy triih cng ngh ch to va phi d cp
n h t, ngy n ay compozit ct si ngn (c nh hiug hoc ng u nhin) tr th n h
m t trong nhng v t liii mi c c bit ch nghin cu ch to v ng dng.
12.4,3.CC DNG CT S l V VT LI U CH TO CHNG
Nli p h n trn triih by, c tnh ca cc si ct ng vai tr q u an trng v

c iih hng r t quyt nh i vi bii cua compozit.
12.4.3,1. Kch thc hnh hc

bn ca sdi ct khng ch ph thuc vo bii ch't ca v t liu si, m cn
ph thuc r t m nh vo kch thc hnh hc ca n na.
vi cng m t v t liu, do xc su t c m t cc khuyt t t (v d cc vt n t nh)
tr n b' m t si nh s th'p hn so vi si to, v vy bn ca cc si nh s cao
hn ca cc si to. l m t trong nhng c im qiian trng m cc n h cng
ngh q uan t m trc h t khi la chn loi si ct.
Da vo ln ng knh v cc tnh ch't. ngi ta phn ct si th n h ba
loi: r u n tin h th, si ct v dy.
Ru n tinh th:
R u n tin h th l sn phm nhn c bng k th u t nui n tinh th.
l loi n tin h th c ing knh r t nh ( c vi inicromet) v t l chiu di trn
ing knh r t ln (khong trn nghm lu). Nli khng ch ch t ch cc thng s'
k th u t v k t tin h m h hng theo mt chiu, trong mi r u n tin h th ch
cha m t lch xon duy n h t, song song vi trc ca n. Do c im cu to tinh
th nh vy r u n tinh th c cc ch tiu c tnh ca m t tin h th hon thin.
C hnh v vy n l dng ct si c hiu qii ha bn nhiu h a hn n h t.
V t liu ch to r u n tin h tli c th l grapliit. SiC. SmN i hoc Ali0;.v.v.

S i ct :
Si ct c sn x u t bng k th u t ko. cliut. c th l cta tiiih th hoc
v m h hnh vi ng knh tng i nh (khong vi chc Iiicroinet) v t, l
chiii di tr n iig knh r t khc nhaii. V t liii ch to si ct c th l ch t hu
c Iili polyamit, l ceram ic nhi thy tinh, nhm oxyt. SiC, hoc mt s cht, khac
Iih B v c.
Dy :
L loi ct si c ing knh kh ln (triuig biih t O n 300 thiiiig
c ch to t thp cacboii cao, volram . mlipeii. berili v ti tan. Loi ct ny
c dng gia bn lp t, khung tn la. cc ng du cao p. v.v.
12.4.3.2. Vt liu
V t liu lm ct r t a diig v ngy cng p h t trin c v' chng loi ciig Iilu.
v cht lng. Di y s im 'qua cc c tnh ca nhng vt. li\j ct si ang
lu nht.
T h y tin h :
Thu tin h ch to si ct c th n h plin ha hc gm SO 2, AI-Ô , BO;,. CaO.
MgO. Thay i t l cc oxyt ny, tn h ch t thy tinh s th ay i. C hng hn. khi
tn g hm liig SO 2 s lm t n g gii h n bn, do v n h it lm vic ti a.
Da vo th n h p hn lia hc, th y tin h ic phn th iih cc loi nh; thy tiiih
E(54% SO 2). th y tin h R(60% Sio) v thy tin h S(6 % SO 2).
Si thy tin h ic s dng thch lip n h t trong khong nhit c t 00"c n
700*c.
C acbon :
Cacbon tn t i dng th liiih g rap h it th hin tn h d hng m nh. Trong si
cacboii, mc d hng ph thiic vo iii kin ch to. Cliih nhd s nh hiig
cli yu ca cc tin h th g rapliit song song vi trc ct lin vt liii cl si cacbo)
(c dng rii n tin h th cng nh si ct) c itc cc ch tivi c tnh r t cao v li
s' gin n n h it r t nh. Troiig qiiy trn h ch to si cacboii, s g rap h it ha c th
xy ra khiig hon ton, nn bn cnh cc tin h th g rap h it Iilii khi vn cn cac
vng cacbon v nh hnh. Ch trong cc rii n tin h th graphit qu triih graphit
ha mi xy ra tri t .
Klii lng ring ca si cacbon so vi si thiy tin h ch bng khong qu ma
nhng n h it s dng ca n r t cao. n t u 2 0 0 0 - 2 500*c.
P o lym e :
P hn lii cc polyme tng hp c miin i hi nh. Do vy ch to si.
hin nay mi ch dng c<c lo polyam it thm c cng thitc tng q\it nluf sa\i;
o o
^ I' 'I
H H
VT LIU HC_______________________________________________________ ___________
dng thng phm v t liu ny c hai loi ; kevla 29 {E - 30 GPa.

I , = 2 700 MPa) v kevla 49 iE - 130 GPa, , = 3 600 MPa). So vi thy tinh,
polyainit thm nh hii (khi lng ring ch bng mt Iia) song n h it lm vic
ca n th p hn (< 200"C) . Cao hn Iihit ny s m t n nh v ph hy
kevla s xy ra.
B o v c e ra m ic :
Bo v hp ch t nh Al2 0 ,(, SiC. Si.N.t. BeO vn c cng cao v mim n
hi r t ln. C hng c th l cc vt. liu ch to ct si rat l ting.
Ct si B c th lm vic n nh vng nhit t OO n 700"c. i vi cac
ct. si ALO.. SiC n hit lm vic c th t cao hn. khong 800"c hoc 900"c
tiing ng vi mi loi.
Xt v bn ring th th y rng, trong ba loi vt li\i ny (B. AI2O.. SiC). si
bo c gi tr cao n h t. Cc ciig triih nghin cxi v chng hin vn khng ngng
tiig nhanh.
Mt v n chung c lin quaii vi gi th n h cao, qiiy trn h cng ngh ch to
phc tp. th i t b k th u t s dng t tin, ang lm hii ch quy m ng dng
cc loi si ct ny. Cng chnh Iihng yu t ny cng vi tim nng ngun
Iigiiyn liu n h hng r t ln. hu nh qiiyt ih n th t ph bin ca cac
loi si ct itc ng dng trong thc t.
Si th y tin h hin xp hng \i. tip theo l si cacbon. Si bo v ceraniic
Jii s dng mc hn ch, cn cc r\i n tinh th ang dng trng thi ch
th trong phng th nghim .
Tng hp tn h ch't mt s' loi ct- si t cc vt liii khc Iihaii cho troiig bng
12.3.
12.4.4. M T S C O M PO Z IT C T S l TH NG DNG
Nhit trn h by trn, conipozit c't si c th itc ch to vi cc v t liii

Iiii khc nhau: polyme, v c, ceraiiiic v kim loi. Do cng ngh ch to khng
qu phlc tp, hin nay trong cng nghip, conipozit nn polyme c s dng vi
quy m ln liii c.
Polyine dng lm nn thng gii hai loi : uhit do v n h it rn. Cc \t\\
im chnh ca nn polyme l Iih v quy trn h ch to conipozit t chng kh n
gian.
12.4.4.1. Compozit nn polyme ct si

L o i ct si th y tin h :
Si th y tinh, nh kho s t phn trn, c r t nhiu ii im. N c
dng lin ct trong cc Iiii polynie khc nhau, thng dng n h t l cc polyeste.
G n y hn. ngi ta s dng cht liu Iiylon lm nn v th u c cc compozit
vi bn ko cng nh dai ph liy kh cao .
Nlic im chnh ca h ny l inun n hi nh v vng n h i t ng dng
chng ch h n ch di 2 0 0 "c.
552 Chng 12. VT LIU KT HP (COMPOZlT)
m rng gii h n ny, ngi ta c th dng cc loi si th ch an h sch

cao v nn polyme dng n h a epoxy. Cho d ic ci thin, song kh n ng cliii
nhit ca chng cng khng th vt qu 300*^c .
Cc compozit ny c s dng trong nhiu lnh vc nh: cng nghip dng
tu, thuyn, contain, ng dn, t m lp v l t sn. Lnh vc uhiii trin vng
n h t v ang c u t m nh n h t ng dng compozit nn polynie ct si
thy tin h l n gnh cng nghip ch to t.
Bng 12.3. Tnh cht mt s loi ct si t cc vt liu khc nhau
Vt liu Khi lng ring, Mun n hi, Khong nhit

kg/cm^ MPa.10^ MPa.10^ lm vic, c
Ru n tinh th
Graphit 2 200 20 690 2 500
SiC 3 200 20 840 1 600
S3N4 3 200 14 380 -
AUO, 3 900 28 550

Si ct
Kevla 49 1 400 3.5 124 200
Kevla 29 1 400 2,7 60 200
Thy tinh 2 540 2,4 75 550
E
Thy tinh 2 500 4.4 80 650
R
Thy tinh 2 480 4.8 84 650
s
Cacbon 1 800 1.5-5.5 150-500 2 000-2 500
AI7O:, 3 200 2.1 170 800
SiC 3 000 3.9 420 900
B 2 650 3.7 300-420 500-700
Dy kim loi
Thp c 7 800 4.1 210
cao
Mo 10 200 1.4 360
w 19 300 4.3 400
Cc loai ci si khc :
Nh triih by trn. compozit nn polyme ct si th y tin h c k h nng chu
n hit thp, khng cng vng khi p dng trong m t s' lnh vc quaii trong
nh ch to m y bay, cn cu v cu vt cc loi. S dng ct si cacbon c
mun n hi r t ln, nh nhng chu nhit, chng n mn cao th ay si thy
tinh, cho php to ra cc compozit th a m n y nhiig yu cu ra khi ng
dng trong cc tring hp n u trn, c bit trong lnh vc hng khng.
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ ^
Si polyam it bn cao ang c s dng to ra th h compozit nn

polyine nh vi bn ring ln. dng troiig cc kt cu ca t u v tr . txi bin,
thit b v dng c th thao.
Compozit nii polyme c"t si ceram ic nh SiC v SiN( hin cng ang l nic
tiu hng u ca cc cng trnh nghin cu.
12.4.4.2. Compo 2t nn kim loi ct si

Nii kim loi so vi nn polyme c Iiling u im saii:
- Kim loi Iii chuiig do v kh bn nii n ci thin cc ch tiu c tn h ca
coinpozit n h nim i n hi, gii h n t l. V.V.;
- C hu ng m t s' mi tnng hot tnh t t hn. vng nhit s dng rng
hn;
- C dn Iihit. dn in cao. do vy trong mt s' ng dng l u im
c b i t ;
- Kliiig b nh hing m nh ca mi tritiig n i ;
- Kling b bc chy;
- C tnh h n tt. nn trong Iiii s' triig hp vic gia cng lp rp d ng.
Nhc im chnh ca nn kim loi l khi hng ring ln, n h it cao c
th ph n iig vi ct to pha gin lm gim yii lii) kt ct-iin. ng cong bin
dng compozit nn kim loi khng lin tc. v khi bt u vt qu gii hn n
hi ca Iiii, II b t u chuyn sang bin dng do. Nlu vy conipozit nn kim loi
kling th hin tn h n hi hon ho.
C n phi Iiii m t Iihc im rn t quan tru na l cng ngh ch to
coinpozit nn kim loi phc tp hn rt nhiu so vi nn polyme v do vy gi
th n h s cao hn. C hnh iu ny hn ch vic la chn v trin khai ng dn^
chng trong cng nghip.
T rong s' cc kim loi th Al. Mg, Ti, Ni. Cu ic nghin cu ng dng lm Iin
compozit nhiu hn c.
Compozit nn nhm ct si B c cc ch tiii c tnh nhi bii, miin n hi
ring ln. ic s dng vng nhit cao hn cc conipozit nn polyiie c cng
loi ct. N chnh l v t liu cnh tra n h kh nnh trong n gnh hng khng, du
huli v tr v ch to ng c.
N hng nghin cu n ng cao hiu su t ng c tucbin ang khch l s ra i
cc coinpozit nn l siu hp kim trn c s Co hoc Ni vi c"t si bng kiin loi kh
chy w . V t liu Iiy va c kh nng ch\i nhit, chng oxy ha tt. va c bn.
dai ph hy lii. r't ph hp ci thin ch't hiig v tui th cvia ng c
tiicbin.
12.4.4.3. C o m p o zit c t si pha
y l vt. liu compozit mi. trong c't gm t hai loi si khc n h au tr ln.
So vi coiiipozit ct si thng thng, loi ct si pha kt hp c cc tn h cht
mt cch to n din hn. c nhiu compozit loi ny xiit'hin, song ph bin
n h t phi k ii compozit nii polyme c't pha si thy tinh vi si cacboii. Si
cacbon bn. nh v c mun n hi cao nhng t. Si thy tin h r hn nhin

nhng c tn h thp. Pha si th y tin h vi si cacbon s ic compozit va bn. va
n hi. cng viig v c dai ph hiy ln. u im Iii b t ca co)iipozit. ct. si
pha ny l n c th c sn x u t vi gi th n h th p hn so vi conipozit cng
nn ch chi'a m t loi si; hoc cacboii. hoc thy tinh.
H s aii ton dng i vi coiiipozit ct si pha kh ln. Klii qiia ti. s pha
SI
hy khng xy ra t ngt m ln lt, b t u l cc si cacbon. sau n si
thy tinh, v ciil cng, s ph hy hon ton inu coinpozit tr n g vi s plid hy
nn. Qu triili ph hy khng xy ra t ngt Iilii cac v t liii gin m ko di
troiig mt chng thi gian kh di.
Lnh vc p dng cc compozit c"t si pha r t rng ri. l cc ngnh v n ti
iig b, ng th y v hiig khiig. Cliiing cn c ding ch to dng c th
thao v cc chi ti t trong ph u th u t chinh hnh.
12.5. COMPOZIT CU TRC

Nhit trong mc 12.1.1 nu, khi Iiini conipozit cn trc l ch cc bn
th nh phm dng lp. d ng t'm ba lp itc to th nh bng cch k t hp cc vt.
liii ng n h t vi v t liu compozit theo nhng phng n cu trc khc nhau. V
vy, tnh ch t ca n ph thuc khng ch vo tnh cht. ccv t liii th u li phn
m cn vo s sp xp v kin
trc hnh hc ca chim g trong k t
cu ina. Cc compozit cii trc
diig lp v dng tm ba lp c
s dng trong Iiliiii lnh vvtc: vii
ti. hng khng, cc cng tr ih
xy dng kin trc. v.v. Nliiu
loi compozit cii trc khc thuc
loi v t liu chc nn g ( siu dn,
v t liu t) ch ic ng dng
trong Iihing lnh vc n h t nh.
12.5.1. CO M PO ZIT CU TRC

DNG LP
Conipozit loi Iiv c to

th n h t cc lp c s. Cc lp c
s ny thng gm h ai loi : loi
th n h t l cc lp ng vai tr
lin kt. thng l v t liii ng
.n h t v loi th h ai l cc lp Hinh 12.18. S sp xp cc lp c s khi tao ra
chii lc, thng l cc bng compozit cu trc dang lp
VT LIU HC
coiiipozit ct. si. s p xp ln lit cc Idp ny v cli hiig cc biig conipozit sao
cho tha m n yu c\i th i t k ra ri p dnh li. Kt qu n h n c dng bn
th n h phm tin, th an h , ng. ... o chnh l conipozit c'u trc dng lp .
T rn hnh 12.18 trn h by s phii b" cc lp c s v s\t liiih th iih mt
tani conpozit cu trc dng lp. G dn. ct p, v.v. clinli l cc compozit cii trc
dng lp r t thng dng.
Conipozit cii trc dng lp cng c th to th n h t cc lp c s c nh
hng nhiu phng. C hng hn, cc tm vi bng, vi sdi thy tinh hoc cacboii
(hc p li nh ch t k t dnh l polynie, s cho ta cc conipozit c\i trc dng lp c
bn cao theo phng b t k song song vi int tm .
Nhic im chiuig ca loi coinpozit ny l bn theo phitng viing gc vi
lp c s thp-
Ngii ta s dng compozit ny tm ug hiig khng, xy dng cc cng triih.
ch to dng c iny mc v cc loi dng c vn ha th thao.
12.5.2. C O M P O ZIT C TRC DNG TM ba LP
Loi ny cn c tn gi l panel sandvvich . Klic loi trn , paiiel saiidvvich ch

gm ba lp . Hai lp m t c ch to t v t liu c bn v ciig vng cao Iih
hp kim Iihm, hp ki)n tita n , thp v cc tm conipozit cu trc dng lp. ... Clic
nng chvi yu ca chng l chu toii b ti trng ( ko. nn v viii ) tc dung theo
rc cliiii song song vi m t tm .
l'p m
Lp
dinh
Tnnn f,b jrn

fjm iip
"lffp m
Hinh 12.19. S cu tao compozit cu trc dang tm ba lp
Lp li n m gia h ai lp m t l v t liu Iili. bn v cng vng tng i

nh. Lp ny c tc dng;
- Duy tr khong ccli gia h ai lp m t v gim bin dng theo chi\i vung gc
vi m t t m :
- To ciig vng n h t nh, tr n h cc hin tug coiig vnh tin .
Trong k th u t, Iigii ta thng gp hai loi l i :

- Loi th n h t c t chc xp bt nh cao SII n h n to. polyme bt. ch t dnh
kt v c hoc g nh,
- Loi th hai cu to theo dng t ong. trong cc vch n gn lin k t iih
hng vung gc vi m t t n i ( h n h 12.19 ).
Vch ngn thiig r't mng v ic ch to t cng v t liu nh hai lp mt.
Compozit cu trc dng tn i ba lp c ng dng r t rng ri. V d lni trn ,
sn. tng trong xy dng n h ca. lm v. th n , cnh v ui cc loi my
bay, v.v.
VT LIU HC
_____________ _____________ m___________ .. ___ - -
_______________________ ]_
_ ________ ^
Chng 13
XU TH PHT TRIN,
Ln
CHN
yh s DNG
VT
Liu

13.1. XU TH PHT TRIN VT LIU

Sn x u t cc v t liu c bn trn th gii hin nay nhn chung p ng nhu
cu v s" ling v do . vii cht hng v gia th n h ni li'' hng vi, lm
t n g th m S c n h tra n h gia cc loi v t li\i trong mi ln h vc s diig chng.
Theo t"c t n g sn lng v gim gi thnh c th chia cc v t liu th n h hai
nhii chnh. Nlim th n h t gm cc vt liu c sn liig tn g chm v gi th n h
gim chm , i din l thp v ximng. Nlim th hai gm cc v t liu c sn
lng t n g n h a n h v gi th n h giin nhanh, tin biu l nhm v clit do.
V t liu kim loi, trc h t l thp, vn gi vai tr th en cht trong p h t trin
cng nghip (hm h 13.1). Tng sn liig thp (hoc mc s dng thp/u Iigi)
thng c xem l mt trong s cc ch tiu qiian trng nh gi trn h pht
trin ca mt quc gia. Nlim. mc (.. ni<î rn ctri tnnig ihiig Iini ba itiKcii ca
th k ny. nhng p h t trin vi tc d r t nhanh. Vai tr ca nhm ngy cng
tng, dn du chim u th trong xy dng nh a . dng c in t v o hng,
... Mc d vy, thp vn gi c quyn trong nhiu lnh vic: xy dng cc nhp cii
di. cng triih tr n bin, k h im g Iih xng, nhiii loi m y mc v th i t b. v.v.
V t liu c h t do ra i sau Iihin. Iihing n nay. khi lng sn xiit hng
n m vt nhm , ch ng sau ximng v thp. Lnh vc v qiiy m s dng
ch t do ngy cng rng, n h t l trong ch to cc dng c sinh hot. Do CII mt
s nhic im, s dng ch t do trong cc my mc chu hc cn h n ch. Tuy vy.
nhng nhc im ny ang dn dn c khc phc v trong tng lai.ch't do
s c vai tr xng ng hn, cng vi thp v nhm l ba v t liu k t cu c bn
trong p h t trin cng nghip.
V t liu v c - ceram ic tr i qiia lch s pht trin h n g nghn nm vn l
uhi v t liu c sn x u t vi khi lng ln nht, c bit l xim ng v thy
tinh. GIII k t cu. gm vi cc cng dng c bit, thy tin h chuyn dng, ... l
nh ng v t liu ca thi i v tng lai.
Theo ciig ngh ch to, c th nii hai XII th plit tri n v t liu nh sau:
- P h t tri n v t liu theo cc cng ngh truyn thng;
- P h t trin v t liu theo cc cng ngh mi.
558______________ Chng 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
Cc khi nim "cng ngh tru y n thiig" v "cng ngh mi" m ang tiih qiiy
irc, v cc cng ngh tru y n thng lun lun c hon thin v i mi v Iihiii
cng ugh mi c p h t trin trn c s cc cng ngh c.
Hnh 13,1. Xu th pht trin mt s vt liu ch yu M trong th k XX

1- thp , 2- cht do; 3- nhm, 4- ng v km
1 3 .1 .1 . P H T T R I N V T L I U THEO CNG NGH TRYN

THNG
Gng ngh tru y n thng gm n u luyn, to hnh (c, cn, ru,dp. ...) v gia
cng c hin nay vn l cng ngh c s dng ph bin ch to sn phm . D
bo m cc yu cu mi v ch t liig v gi th n h , mi cng loi cng ngh c
th lun lun c hon thin. S au y Iiii xu th p h t trin ca mt s v t liu
ph dng.
13.1.1.1. Thp xy dng

Hng nm th gii tiu th m t khi liig thp r t ln cho cc n h u cu xy
dng. Yii cii khng ngiig Iiiig cao c h t lng ca thp khng nhng x u t pht,
t cc i hi mi v k th u t, tc cn cc loi thp c bn cao v cc tn h nng
khc t t m cn x u t p h t t kha cnh kinh t, ti t kim nguyn v t liu v nng
lng. Vi khi lng s dng hin nay. nu bn ca thp tn g tru n g bnh thm
1 0 % th do hiii qii gim trng lng, hn g nm th gii c th ti t kim c
hng chc triu t n thp.
Bn cnh cc thp xy dng c in (thp cacbon n gin) vi gii hn bn
300-600 M Pa, hin nay p h t trin nhiu loi thp c bn t n 600-800
MPa. ng ch n h t l thp hp kim th p bn cao. cn gi l th p h t nh.
y l nhm thp c p h t trin tr n c s thp cacbon th'p v tn u ig bnh b n s
rch hp kim ha mt lng nh (di vi phn nglin) rc nguyn t' to cacliit
VTLlU HC_______________________________________________________________ 009^
nh V, Nb, Ti, ... (thp hp kim ha vi lng) hoc vi phn trm cc n gu yn t ci

thin t chc Iiii nh Ni. Cr, Mn. ... (thp hp kim thp). B n g cc cng ngh nu
hiyn v gia cng h on th in (lm sch v bin tnh, c -n h i t luyn, ...) nh cc c
ch ha bn h t nh v ha bn tit pha. c th nhn ic bn cao hn t hai
n ba l n so vi thp cacboii thng thng vi c.ng lng cha cacbon.
Theo t chc t vi. thp hp kim thp bn cao c th phn th n h ba loi:
thp ferit- peclit, th p b a iiiit v thp ferit-inacteiixit.
Thp fe rif-p e c l l thp hp kim ha vi hriig vi cc n gu yn t Nb. V. Ti. ... vi
tng lng cha trong khong 0,01-0.0% . S c mt ca nh ng n gu yn t' uy c
tc dng lm chm s ln ln ca h t tinh th khi n iu ig cng nh khi k t tin h li,
th m vo . to th n h cc phn t cacbit hoc nitrit Iih mn. H ai yu .t' h t nh
v phn t phn t n lni cho bn tng thn khoang 1 5 0 -2 0 0 M Pa, trong khi
tn h do v tn h h ii v n g i n g u y n , th m ch con ic c i th i n m t t.
Thp b a in t l th p c hp kim ha thm vi p hn trm cc n gu yn t* Ni.
Cr. ...va khi ngui to ra t chc bainit bii hn so vi peclit v vi phn
n gh n cc n gu yn t* Mo. V. ... to cac phn t bin cng phn tn. N u kt hp
vi c -n liit lu yii. thp c th t gii hn chy n 800 M Pa, tc cao lidn ang k
so vi thp ferit-p eclit, Nhc im ch yu l tnh do th p hn v tn h hn km
hii so vi th p cacbon cng th n h phn. Nhc ieni n y phn no h ii ch kh
Iiiig s dng rng ri th p baiiiit.
Thp fe rit-m a ctcn x.it l thp c cha mt liig cc n g u y n t hp kini sao cho
k h i c -n h i t lu y n (t i n g a y s a \i k h i c ji k t th c) n h ii ic t chc h n hp gm
ferit v m a cten x it vi t l khong 4:1. M actenxit c cng cao k t lip vi ferit c
do tt lm cho th p v a c bii cao (Ichong 3 ln cao hn thp c in cng
litng cha cacbon) m tiih do vn bo m nc cao. T chc ca thp ferit-
m a c te n x it ti iig t n h t chc ca v t li u co m p ozit, t c gm cc p li ii t cing
ha ( in a c te iix it) p h ii b" tr n n n e r it do.
13.1.1.2. Thp ch to my
i vi cc chi ti t m y chu lc tli yii cii v cd tn h , trc h t l bn ngy

cn g cao. N u nh vo nh ng nm nm miti - bv mi cc thp thng diig
trong c h to m y c b n 6 0 0 -1 200 MPa th trong n h n g n m gn y bt
u s dng rng ri cc loi thp vi bn 1 200-1 OO M Pa. N h iiig thp c
bn rt cao (2 0 0 0 -3 0 0 0 M Pa) c nghin cu v c h th quy m phng th
n gh im hoc h iig lo t nh.
Cc phng h in g chnh nng cao bn ca th p s dng trong ch to
m y l:
- Hp kim ha cng lc n h iu nguyn t to ra nh n g ci th in c tn h khac
Iihaii nh ha bn ti t pha, to cc phn t phn tn , kh tp cht. ... Thc
n gh im cho th y rng b n g cch hp kini ha a ngiiyii vi lng cha cc nguyn
t" hp kim tng i th p c th nhn c c tnh tng hp cao;
560______________ C hng 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA CHN V S DNG VT LIU
- n g dng cc phng p hp n hit lu y n khc nhau, kt hp vi bin dng clo

(c-nhit hiyii) to ra cc trn g th i t chc t vi m ong niiin. v d t chc
beiiit, m acteiixit hoc cc pha p h n tn khi ram;
- iig dng cc phng php Iiii liiyn c bit, nh in x. luyn trong chn
khng hoc k h bo v n h m h n c h ti a cc tp ch t v kh, n n g cao ang k
tiih do. bn mi, kh n n g chng n mn v Iihiu tnh ch t kliac.
Sau y n u m t s thp bn cao dng trong ch to niay.
Thp kt cu c cng th h a i: y l loi thp k t cu vi ling cha cacboii
truiig biih (0.3-0,4% ) v cc n gu yn t' lip kim nh Mn. Si. Mo. V. ... vi tng
lng cha khong 0-8%. Nli hiu ng cng th hai (tng t nh trong thp
gi. khi cac p h n t ti t pha c to ra n h it ram 0-600"C lni t n g
cng), thp c gii h n bn hn 2 0 0 0 M Pa sau khi ti v ram cao m vn bo ni
tn h do t't vi lii hn 10 %.
Thp n it : Cacbon v nit l hai n gu yn t' phi kim nm liii n h au trong bng
tu n hon M enleep. S to th n h s t cacbit dng x m en tit Pe.C l n gu yn nhn
ha bn q uan trng u tin ca t t c cc loi thp. Gia s t v Iiit cug to
th iih s t n itrit F e 4N hoc Pe-^N c cng cao hn xm en tit. Do . ia Iiit vo
thp t lu l m t Ang ch to thp c cng v bn cao. Trong Iihiii
th p k , t n g Ii y ch m i c tli c h i n b n g cng n g h t li m n it tr n m t lp
rt m ng ngoi b nit chi tit. Vic c h to thp nit vi hng cha nit. aiip k
gp tr n gi l rt kh a nitd vo thp n gay c trng th i lng. Nh nhng tin
b v cng n gh trong thi g ia n gn y. ngoi phing php th m b m t. thp
giu nit c c h to th eo h a i cng n gh chnh sau:
- Nu lu yn th p trong l p sii t cao (hng chc atm tphe) c th \ta mt
hiig nitci tng l ln vo th p pha lng;
- T hiu k t bt s t trn vi cc hp ch t cha nit trn g th i rn.
B ng cc cng n gh n y c th a lng chva ni t trong thp cao lii 1-1.0%.
Cng vi s c m t ca cc n g u y n t" khc, c b it l Cr. c th ch to th p nit
vi bn rt cao, hn 2 0 0 0 M Pa, v kh n n g chu n h it cao nh s hnh thnh
pha CrN lin m ng vi in a cteiix it kh tch t n h it cao. II th ca thp Iiitr
clc ph t h u y t t n h t i vi cc chi ti t lm vic trong iii kin ini mn cao v
n h it cao, v d, khun dp nng, bi tc cao . v.v.
Thp ha g i m a ctcn xit: y l thp trn c s F e -N i khng hoc cha rt. t.
cacbon cng cc n gu yn t"hp kim Iilut Ti, Be, Al, Nb, Mo, V,...vi liiig cha sao
cho khi ti Iigoi khng k h n h n c t chc m actenxit. Do khng hoc cha t
cacboii. m acteiix it c tn h do cao v tr n g th i ny thp c th bin d ng ngui
vi mc ln m khng cn tru n g gian. Khi ha gi 400-600"C cc pha lin
kim loi v cc v n g khng ng n h t th n h phn ic to ra. ch iig c tc dng
ha bu rt m ii. to cho th p c bn cao. y l loi th p rt h'p dn i vi
cc nh th i i k v cng n g h v:
- c bn v do r t cao;
- tnh h n rt tt i vi m i tit din;
- kh n n g gia cng c v gia cng bin dng do tt:
VT LIU HC 561
- c th ti ngoi khng k h vi thm ti lir.

- SI h a b n t c sau q u y tr n h n h i t lu y n dii K i ii l ha g i ;
- s th a v i kch thc sau ha gi khng ang k. c th tin hnh sau gia
cng tiiih.
Nhic im ch yu l gi th nh CII t. Thp ny hin c s dng rng ri
cho cc chi ti t chu lc cn tin cy cao trong my bay. tn la. tu v tr v
cng c b t u s dng cho m t s' chi tit qiian trng trong t. tii thy, tliit b
ha cht lioc c h to m t s' khun dp nng v ngui .
Thp bn cao do cao (thp TRIP - Transforniatioii Induced Plasticity);
bn v do th ng v n l hai ch tii i nghch n h au khi c h to v t liu:
b n cao thng ko theo do thp v ngc li. S\ ra i ca thp TR IP l
th n h qu ni b t ca vic ng dng cc thnh t\i t. itc trong lnh vc v t liu
hc ch to th p va c bn cao. va c do cao. Thp ny cha m t liiig
cc Iigxiyn t" hp kim Mn. Ni. Mo. B. ... sao cho khi ti thp c t chc a iix teiiit v
khi bin d n g 00-600 'c t aiixten it tit ra cacbit. trn cac lch. A iixten it b
n g h o ca cb o ii v do c k h n n g c h u y n th n h n ia c te n x it k h i c n g s u t t c
dng t bn ngoi. Trong qu trnh lm vic, do phn b ca iig su t trt, trii
cac ht. k h n g n g n h t li n k h n u g b i n d ng ca c h n g c n g k h c n h a u ; ni
no b b i n d n g m n h , n i x u t h i n n ia c te iix it v c ha bn. b i n d n g l i
c h u y n s a n g v m g kh c. N li c ch ha bn n y Iii q iu i t r n h t o v t n t k h x y
ra , l m cho th p c do r t cao.
13.1.1.3. Hp kim nhm

Hp kim nhm c bn ring cao. c tnh lin tt. chng n mn tt v truyn
n h i t t't, do l lo i v t li u r t th c h hp tro n g ch t o cc p h it iig ti n giao
th n g vn t i nh m y bay, t u thy, toa xe. t. can...... cho php tn g h s' ti
tr n g c ch. t n g t'c . g i m ti u hao Iih i n li u , gim c h i p h s ia cha v n h i u
ch tiu kinh t khc. C ng do bn ring cao, cling n m n kh quyn tt, cng
v i k h Ii iig b i n d n g do t t (d ch t o cc th a n h lin h v i p r o il ph c t p ). lip
k im n h m n g y c n g c s d n g r n g r i tr o iig x y d n g v tr a n g t r n h ca.
Hp kim nhm c n g c s dng riig ri trong nhixi lnh vc khc nhi cng
n gh ip ha ch t, thc phm , in v in t . v.v.
N g h in cii c h to cc hp kim Iihiii vi bn ugy cng cao vn l Iiliim
v h n g u cia cc nh n g h in cu v sn xut. Saii y nu nit s' hp kini c
b n cao c n g h i n c u v s dng.
Hp kim. nh m h A l-C u -M g \ y l h hp kim nhm s dng ph bin Iilit
tron g n h n g thp k q\ia. tiu biu l (hiyara. Th<nh phn ca iiyara ngy nay
c b siiiig th m n h iu ngu yn t' khc nhau, trong c cc kiin loi chuyn
tip Iihi Mu, Fe, Ni, Cr. to cc hiu qu ha bn b suiig. n n g bn ca uyara
ln n 4 0 0 -5 0 0 M Pa. t tr s bn ring ( bn tnh cho m t n v th tch)
c u g c hoc cao hn m t t so vi thp kt c\i cacbon trng th i ha tt.
N h k t hp tt n h iu tn h cht khc nhau; bn ring cao. tnh do tt. t
Iihy cm vi t i trng rung v chu k. t. nhy cm vi n mn ng su t v tnh
36 - VLH
562______________ Chng 13. x u TH PHT TRIN. LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
hn tt. cc hp kim nhm cd s A l-C ii-M g c s dng ph bin trong che to

m y bay. t n la. Iih i u th i t b v m y mc q u a n tr n g khc.
Hp k im nhm h A l-Z n -M g \ Nh kh n ng hnh th n h n h iii pha tn iiig gian
vi cc hnh th i p h n b' khc n hau k h i ha gi, cc hp kim h A l-Z ii-M g cho
p h p n h n ic b n cao h n u y a ra . tro n g tr n g hp ch a th m cc n g u y n t
Cu, Mn, Cr, Zr. ... bn c th t ti 6 0 0 -7 0 0 M Pa.
Nlic im chi yu ca h hp kim ny l n h y cm vi qu triih n mn ng
sut, v l n gu yn n h n ch yu h n c h kh n n g s dng rng ri ca n. t
ic nhiu tin b trong vic tm kim cc bin php ci th in tn h chng n mn
iig sut, ni ra n h iii kh n n g ng dng mi.
Hp k im nhm h A l- L i: Hp kim n hm cha lti l m t trong n h ng loi ip
kim nhm bn cao n h iu tim u n g h in nay. Vi s c m t ca cc Iiguvii t
hp kim khc Iili Cu. Mg, c th nhn c bn 00-600 M Pa hoc cao hn.
u im ni b t ca h hp kim n y l c trng lng ring th p (nh Li l
nguyn t^ nh), thng 3-15% nh hn, n h ng c mctiiii n hi 3-10% cao lin so
vi cc h lip kim nhm khc, kh n n g chng n mn khng km uyara. Nhic
im cli y\i hin n ay l gi th n h c h to cn cao.
Hp k im nhm th i u kt. Trong n h iu nm gn y, bt nhm th iu kt SAP
(Siiitered A liim iniim Powder) l loi vt liii ic s dng rng ri trong nhng
trng hp cn bn nng cao v tn h cliiig n mn cao. n h it tlung. SAP
c bn va phi, kh on g 30 0 M Pa. n h n g n h it 2 0 0 -3 0 0 "c bn ca II
vit xa t t c cc hp kim nhm h in c.
Ngy nay. ngoi SA P cn x u t h in SAAP (Sintered A lum inum Alloy Povvder).
l hp kim Iihni bt th iu kt. T h n h phn ca SAAP ging Iih cc h)) kim
nhm bn cao khc, trong lng cha cc kim loi chu yn tip n ln Mn. Cr.
Fe. ... c th tn g ng k v Iili t'c ngui nh an h khi to bt b n g phitiig php
phun t th lng, nhn ic tr iig thi siu bo ha. bn ca SAAP nhit,
phng c th t ti 7 0 0 -1 0 0 0 M Pa. tc tng ng vi thp lip kim. Nh cc
p h n t ti t p h a c a k im lo i c h u y n ti p , hp k im c b n n n g cao, c th ln i
vic n 250-400"C . V t liu siu bn SAAP m ra Iihiig trin vn g ng ch.uig
k h c n lia ii tro n g Iil u lu li vc k t h u t h i n i.
13.1.1.4. Vt liu polyme

V t liu polym e c n h iu u im nh bn ring cao, t trng thp, tnh do
cao. tnh n iih ha hc cao trong n h iu mi tring. cch n hit, cch in v cach
m tng i tt, cng vi kli n n g d to hih v gia cng, gi th n h r l 111 cho
phm VI s d n g ch n g n g y c n g rn g ri. T ron g n h i\i ln li vc, p o ly n ie c th
th ay th c hiu qu cc v t liu tru yn tling Iilii kini loi, ceraiiic. Trong xy
dng, tran g tr ui ch to dng c gia nh, bao b. ... polyme l loi vt liu
ph t Imy t^t cc \i im ca m nh. T rong m t s^ lnli vc. polynie c u th tuyt
so vi n h iu loi v t liu khc.
VT LIU HC____________________________________________________________ 5f3
Vi chc Iing l v t liu kt. cu. polynie cn nl)c im l ct bn chia cao.

kh n n g chu n l t th^p. tui th thp. Klic plinc cac nhc im ny l nhim
VI ic t ra thing xuyn i vi cac nh nghin c ii v ch to.
C th n u b a XII th p h t tri n vt. li\i polynie nh
- D iu chnh hoc tm kim cc cu trc mi Iihm to ra cc tn h ch t nioiig
nmii;
- S dng cac ch t ph gia thay ci hoc lioii tliin cc tnh ch t c;
- C h t o v t liii co m p o zit n n poiym c vi ct kim loi hoc cera m ic n h m SI
dng h ai u im chnh ca polyine l do v nh. kt lip vi bn cao ca kim
loi hoc ceram ic.
T heo xu th th nh't. cc c s ca lia hc polynie Iigy cng c hon tliiii
v tr n n g u y n tc . ngi ta c th "tliit k" v t liu polyiie vi th n h p h n , cu
tr c p h ii t , ch i u d i m ch , s p xp khng gian. ...cho iri c t ic cc tn h
clt Jii0iig i. T heo phng hing , cng vi cc cht, do n h it rii itc ch
to v s dng rng ri Iiliit epoxy, polyeste khiig no. ijh eiiolfonian ehyt...... trong
n h iig n m g n y trn t h gii Iigi ta sii x\it v i kh i hng n g k v
gi th n h tng i r cc ch t do vi ct bn ring v kh n n g chii n h it cao
hu. V d, cc ch t do c s polyam it thm c bu c hc tt. c th c h to cc
m . banh xe rng, ... lni vic vi ti trng vta phi. Cc cht, do c s Aocacbon
c bn tt. n h it s dng tiig i cao (n 260"C), chng n niii tt. c th
ch to cc van . ni chu ha cht, ng ig hoc cc chi ti t in t lm vic
n h it cao. i vi nhng k t cu c bit lni vic vi ti trng ln v n h it
cao. c th s dng cc ch't do polysulon. polypliPiiylenoxyt. ... Mt. R polym
d n g si c b n r t cao ic c h to. v d* si kt'vla (c s aram it.) bn
hn 3 00 0 M Pa. tdnp: iiig thp bn cao. l Iiîiyn liu lm ct tiif> cns
cho v t liu conipozit cao cp. c n ni rng, gi (hnh hin nay ca phn ln cc
ch t do bn cao cn kh cao.
S d ng cc ch t ph gia ci thin tnh cht cua polyine l phng hng
f'iig n sh c n h iu tim nng. B ng cch ny Iigi tn c tli c h to cc cht do
^lu ciig (reiiiforced polym er) hoc vi cc c, l v ha tnh c bit. Cc
polyolein v caosu gia cng, cc bleiid. cc polyme chc n n g l nhng v d,
Polyolen v caoRU gia cng l cc polyine c b .ming tliii) c<c ch t pli gia
Iigiiii gc hu c hoc v c, c tc diig ci thin ng k cc ch tiu c tnh Iihi
t n g cng, bn, kh n n g chu mi inn. ... Troiif polyolefiu gia cing ngi
ta thitng cho th m m t t cc axit hii c hoc imii axit. hu c kim loi to cc
nini kch thcli k t tiiili khi lm ngui, (ln n tn^ bn v hn c h qii trnh
p h t trin v t Iit. Hoc cho thm mt htiig nh bt nhm oxyt Alô.i vo PE
t n g bn v to dnh bni tt, vo kiii loi i vi cc chi tit ghp nl hoc
n h iu lp. P h a th m vo caosii m t s' cht pli gia nh th an en. caolan h hoc
Iiha phenolic. nha tt du v h t iu. ... lin tiig ng k ct cng, chng mi
mii ca cc l caosu, ... e to nn tnh dn in tt, ngii ta c th trn thm vo
PE, p p cc ch t ph gia dn in nlu Kraphit. bt, kiii loi. ...
564_______________Chng 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
B cnd l vt. liu polynie hn hp. bao gm hai hoc Iihiii polynie klic Iihaii.
Mi loi polynie bn cnh cac u im u c mt s nhic im . Tritr y. Jifi
ta qii clii tr n g n vic n g h i n cii tiig hp ra cac loi polynie m i c
Iihitiig tn h c h t m ong Iiiin v th c h i n nuic cli . th it u g p h i Iiit rai
nhiu thi gian v tr m t gia qu t. Ch to blencl lc con ng dn gin hn
Iihiu: phi hp cc loi p o ly m e k h c n h a u c th n h n c cc v t li\i mi va
Iiliaiili. va r vi cc tn h ch t d iu khin theo nioiig mun. Cc blend in
h n h l cc polyoleiii-caosvi c tn h c h t v a ciig, v a do c a polynie. k t hp vi
tnh n hi tt ca caosii. K t hp PE p siut thp v PE p sii t cao Iihii \tc
blend c ct cng v bii cao v lm vic ic n h it cao hn. Bleud gni PE
trn vi khong 10% PA d n g bt nin c kh Iiiig chu ini mn h n g chc lu cao
hn PE bnh thng.
Vt. liu com pozit Iin polyiiie l nhm vt liu p h t trin Iiiiih h in n ay . s
cp trong mc 13.1.2.2
13.1.1.5. Vt liu gm v thy tinh

G 'm l n h m v t liu c n h i u tn h cli't u vit: c ng c b i t cao. ch\
c n h it rt cao, chii mi mn. tr v ha hc. cch n h it v cch in rt tt,
bn nn cao v t trng thp. Nhc im ch yu liin nay l kh n n g pha
hy gin ln v kh gia cng. H ai nhic im n y c v ang ic t ig hxic khc
phc, lm cho v t liu g'm tr th n h m t loi v t liu k t cii qiiaii trng vi phm
vi ng dng n gy cn g rng.
Kh n n g p h t trin n h an h chng ca v t liu gin k t cii l k't q\i ca
Iihng tin b cng n gh t c trong nhng uni gn y. Trc ht. l cc
phnng php to bt. Iii n h \ k th u t bc hi. k tlu it ln g ng t (hing dch, k
tlm t sol-gel, n u chy v tin h luyn. ... B iig cc cng ngh nii Iiy. ngi tu c
th ch to cc bt oxyt Alô.i, MgO. SiOi. Zr 2.......cacbit SiC. ZrC. w c .........nitrit.
BN, Si^N.i, ... vi tin h k h it rt cao, cli\i c nhit, n 2 0 0 0 -3 000"c. Tip
n l cc cng n gh to h n h hin i nh p ng tnh, p thi\i kt. p xung. ..
cho php to c cc s n phm st cht, clta t hoc hu nh khng cha khuyt
t t di dng l hng, t m , tp cht, ... hn ch tnh gin (tn g tm h do)
ngoi bin php s dng cc c ht siii m n. ngi ta tm kim cc th n h phn
hoc c h t p h gia th c h hp t o tr n g th i t clu'tc sao cho t II h n cli k h
n n g ph t trin v t nt. V d. ct gim tn h gin ca gm trn g c h to t Alô
siu sch, ngi ta cho th m m t hng nh zicoiiia Zr 2 m n g tin h th bn
phiiig trong qu trnh lm vic, khi xii t hin v t nt, Zr 2 chviyn sa n g m ng
lit n gh in g km theo h iu ng th tch cTng, ljn cho v t nt kiiiig pht trin,
do t n g h n g chc ln. Hiu ng tidiig t itc s dng rng ri trong nhiu
loi gm k t cu h in nay.
Gm k t cii h cacbit vi cht ph gia Zr 2 c bi Iin cao \c s
ch th ng c t N li t B n t nh ng um by mi v M t. nhng nni
tm mi. Nh kh n n g chu n h it v chu m i inn cao, ng c khng cn lm
lnh, khng cn bi trn, trng lng ng c gim , ti\i hao nh in lin e;ini. T
VT LIU HC_________________________________________________________________ 565
nin 1985 c h th cc ng c bng gm chy vi Iihin liu H -2 khng gy

Iihiin mi trng. S dng gm kt cii cho cc ng c. c b it l ng c phn
lc cho php v\t qua n h it lm vic 1 000 "c, thm ch n 1500 "C. khi
hiu qii s dng n h in liu t n g ln ng k. tliii ch c th s dng n h in liu
vi ch t liig th p hn. Mc d t iic nhiu tin b trong vic ci th in tnh
do ca gm k t cu. s dng rng ri trong ch to m y cn cn phi gii qiiyt
h n g lot cc vn khc nhau, c bit l cc bin php gim gi th n h ch
to.
G m c th m n h n v ai tr ca v t liii chc nng trong n h iu ngnh k
th u t nh in, in t. ... Chc nng bu dn ca gm ic s dng trong
te c t kli, p in m t tr i, ... T n h p in ca gni ctc n g d n g tro n g th i t b
n h la, m y dao ng in. N liiu loi gm c kh nng xc tc rt m nh trong
cc p hn ng ha hc. Do n gh in cu v ch to cc gm chc n n g l hiig
p h t trin n h iii tim n n g, p ng cc yu cii a dng ca k th u t hin i.
T h y tin li, n goi cc lnh vc s dng truyn tliiig trong xy dng v bao b.
tr th n h loi v t liu quan trng trong nhiu ngnh k th u t h in i. Trong
n h n g n m gn y. cc loi th y tinh chuyn dng pht trin vi tc nhanh.
H n g trm loi th y tin h q u an g hc vi th nh phn ha hc v h n g s' quang hc
khc n h a u itc n g h in cu v sn xu t quy in ln. c bit, th y tin h tluic
cc h phi silica t nhv borat, photphat. gecm aiiat. ...vi m t liig cha nh cc
n g u y n t h im cho cc th ng s quang hc vt xa gii h n ca cc th y tinh
silic a t tru yn thng. Cc th y tinh cni qviang. nhy quang, th y tin h laze c
ch t o vi ch^t liiig n g y c u g cao s d n g tro n g cc h th iig th i t b h i n
i.
S i q u a n g d n l bc p h t trin nii ca v t liu thy tinh. M c d mi ra i,
n n h a iih clin g chim ln h th trng, tr nn loi vt liu khng tli th ay th
tru y n tn h iu trong n gn h viii thng cng nh cc dng c soi tin h vi trong
n g n h y t. Si q u an g dn c yu cu rt cao v cht lng thy tin h (siii sch.
si \i ng Iiht. ...). v chnh xc kch thic, ... Nli nhng tin b n h an h chng
trong ln h vc cng n gh , n h iu luc ch to c nhng cp quang vi n n g lc
v h iii s u t tn iy n tin rt cao.
T h y tin h g m l m t hug pht trin quan trng khc ca v t liu th y tinh.
B n g cch chn tli n h phn thch hp ca th y tinh (c th gm SiO-2. AlaO-. MgO,
CaO, L2O, ...) v cc ch t ph gia kch thch qu trnh k t tinh, c th to cho
th y tin h cu trc vi tin h th nh mn. cng vi n l cc tn h ch t c. l, ha c
b it. T heo n g u y n livi, cu trc cng nh\ ciig ngh ch to. th y tin h gm chim
v tr tr\u ig gian gia th y tin l v gni. Ngvi ta nghin cii v a vo sn
x u t cc th y tin h gm c bn c hc cao. mt s loi c bn un n gan g vi
th p , c kh n n g gia cng ct gt. cc th y tinh gii vi cc tn h n n g c bit
n h k h n g g i n n n h i t, d n in . ... hoc th y tin h gi s in h hc, d n g l m v t
liu th ay th trong gii Dhu, chmli hiih, riig hm m t , v.v.
566 C hng 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA c h n v s d n g v t LU
13.1.2. PHT TR IN VT LIU THEO CNG NGH MI
13.1.2.1. Cng ngh luyn kim bt

Cng n gh lu yn kim bt bao gm to bt. to h nh sn phm v th iu kt in y
ic s d n g tt l u . Iilu tn g tr c y ic n g d u g chi y u cho cac ioi sii
p h m m v th n h p h n v tn h c h t k h n g th c h t o b n g pln iig p h a p lu y n
k iin b n h th n g , v d. cc d n g CI ct. b n g hp k im ciig, cc li ferit, ... T ro n g
n h n g th p k g n y . n h ti n b k h o a hc k th u t, "p h n g p h p bt" cir
ng d n g r n g r i c h t o n h i u loi s n p h m k h c n h a n cho h u h t cac loi
hp kim. Cng n g h lu yn kim bt c nhng lu im c bn sa u y:
- C kh n n g ch to cc hp kim vi th n h phn phc tp v cc v t liu in
thnh phn v cu trc khng th n h n \tc bng phng php luyn kim bnh
thing;
- C h s^ s dng kim loi hii ch rt cao (lin 0.9). th m vo dy cluiyii
cng n g h t n g i n g i n , s d n g t n n g l ng v lao ng, t o n n h iu qvi
k in h t ln;
- C th c h t o Iih iig s n p h m vi h n h d n g ph c t p v vi ch n h xac
kch th c cao.
Bn cnh cc phng php to bt thng dng nh\ hon ngu yn, in phn.
th y lu y n ...... phng php phun bt t pha lng l nit cng ngh h iu i. Iiii
su t cao, cho php to bt vi kch thc h t m ong m un, c s dng riig ri
hin nay.
Qua triih to h n h cc s n phm bt c thc hin bng n h iii cng ngh
khc n h au nh p tnh, p xim g, p th y tnh, p ng, p n, p chy. cn. ...
trng th i nng cng Iihii ngui. Do c nh iu lii im , plutng php p th y tnh
c ng dng rng ri troiig n ln iig nm gii y. cho php to cc s ii pliani vi
int ng u, ch t liig cao. c b it i vi nhiig chi tit c h n h dng plic
tp.
Lin k t gia cc phn t bt c h n h th n h trong qii trnh to hnh hoc
th iii k t hoc c hai. Cc cng n gh th iu k t di p siit, th i\i k t hai pha lng-
r n l n h n g cng n g li m i, itc s d n g r n g r i, cho p h p t clit. h t n g cao v
r t n g n th i g ia n th i ii k t x u n g h n g chc l u so vi n h n g cng n g h trc
y.
N h it lu yn v ha n h it luyn sn phm hiyn kim bt cho php nng cao
ng k ch t lng, m an g l i h iu qu kinh t ln. N un g n h an h b n g dng in
tn s' cao trong n h iu trng hp cho php khng cn s dng nii trng bo v.
lm cho cng n gh n h it h iy n v ha n h it luyn cc chi ti t bt tr nn n gin
hn.
H in n ay phng php h iyn kim bt ic ng dng n gy cn g rng ri ch
to cc chi ti t m y. Ngi ta c th c h to nhiu chi ti t phic tp khc n h an nh
bnh rng, b nh sao, cam , tm lt. tay n, bc lt, ...v n gu yn tc. c th ch to
cc chi ti t vi h iih d n g b t k v yu cu phc tp v tn h cht, c bit l
nhng chi tit ghp t n h iu loi v t liu (kim lo i-th y tinh, kim loi-cht. do. ...)
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 567
in vi cng n gh th ng thng khng th to ini lin k t b n vng gia chiuig.

Phng php bt rt thch hp ch to cc chi ti t chng m i mn, chng nia sat
hoc in a s t.Y u c n c h u n g i vi c h n g l bo m h a i th n h p h n t chc vi S
khc b it v cng theo yu cu. iii ny kh thc hiu th eo cng ngh thng
thng, Iihirng li n gin theo cng ngh bt.
Cc v t liii bt tru yn thig nh hp kim cng, a m i. th an h nung, ferit t
m m , ... tip tc p h t trin vi cng Iigh ngy cng hon th in , ch t lng ngy
cn g cao. T l cc sn phm bt trong k thut, in, in t n gy cn g tng.
N h iu chi ti t i hi cng v n h it lni vic siii cao trong cac k th u t c
b it (n ng lng h t nhn, du hnh v tr. ...). si\i dn n h it cao v n hiu loi
v t li u c b i t k h c c n g c c h t o th eo cng n g h lu y n k im bt.
13.1.2.2. Vt liu compo 2it

X t v b n cht, com pozit l kiu vt liu lai to (a liybrid creation) giia hai
hoc n h iu loi v t liu , sao cho tnh clit ca chng b siin g ln Iihan. Thiig
th in g tn h ch t ca com pozit nn\ triing gian giia tn h ch t ca cc th n h phn,
Iihug troug a s' cc tn iig hp, ngi ta quan tm n Iit tp hp t lu gia
cc tn h ch t hn l t n g c tn h ring l. i vi conipozit k t cu th l bn
riiig cao k t hp vi tn h do tt v chu ic n h it cao. vi conipozit dng
c th c n S k t hp t t g i a cng, bn, k h n n g c h u m i m n v n h i t .
v.v.
Cng n gh c h to v t liii coiiipozit trn c bn ging vi cng n gh lu yn kiii
bt. bao gm cc qu trub trn hoc ghp, to hnh v to lin k t gia cc thnh
phn. H iu v k im so t c cc qu trnh xy ra khi ch to c tm quan trng
c b it p h t trin loi v t liu ny. gii quvt nhng vn phc tp v
cng n g h n h m t o r a li n k t b n c h t gi a cc p h n t . i hi s ph hp gi a
cc nh ch u yn mn thuc cc lnh vc kim loi hc. ha hc cc ch t hii c v v
c, c hc v t liu, ...N gili ta t ctic nhng th nh t\i n g k to ra vug
b m t tidiig thch ha hc. to lin kt bn cht v khng cha k h u yt tt. Gia
cng ha hc s b cc phn t ct, to lp ph b m t hoc cho th m cc ch't ph
gia vo th n h p hn nn l nh ng bin php cng ngh h\i h iu ch to
com pozit ch t lng cao.
C om pozit n n polym e l v t liu com pozit pht trin m nh n h t trong nhng
n m g n y. T iu biu l com pozit polym e si th y tinh, v a bn. va nh (gii
h n b n t n 1 5 0 0 -2 00 0 M Pa, nh hn nhm gn l. ln), chng n mn tt.
chiig va p tt. cch in tt, cng ngh ch to n giii, c ch to qiiy m
ln v s dng ph bin c h to v xiiiig v ca n tc cao. cc tm p tiig
trong m y bay, toa xe. cc phng tm . phng v sinh, nh bi. Com pozit polym e-si
bo v si cacbon ( bn 4 -5 ln cao hn si th y tinh) l v t liu nh c bn cao.
inun n hi cao. chng rung v chu mi tt. ph hp cho nh n g chi ti t c c
c tn h t n g hp cao v n h n h c n h q u t in y b a y ln th n g , c n h th n g b n g ,
cn h q u t m y n n kh, ... Cng ngh c h to coinpozit nn polym e ct si cho n
568______________ C h ng 13. x u TH' PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
nay tng i hon chiili, bo m n n g su t cao. gi th iih r. p iig yii

cu ca n h iii lnh vc khc nhau.
Com pozit nn kim loi v gni c trin vng ng diig rt ln Cac coinpozit
nn nhm, ng, s t. thp vi cc phn t ha bn dng si hoc bt (cc hdp ch at
h gm, hp kim bn cao. graphit. ...) c tng hp c tnh rt cao n h it cao.
Cac com pozit vi nii 15 bt ng, s t hoc thp trn vi bt. cacbit. borit, n itrit (v
d. SiC. TiBa. TiN . ...) l uhng v t liu Iihiu tim n n g ch to d ng c c t t'c
cao, cc kluiii m ii, cc chu Iiliit cao. c bit, c th c h t o cc chi
tit v dng c vi lng chia cc phn t ha bn t iig du v pha b m t. l cu
trc l tvtng to cho s n phm c tnh nng s dng cao. Conipozit n n cerainic c
k h n n g c h u n h i t r t cao, l lo i v t liii a n g c p h t tri n pliic v m t s
yu cu t b it trong n gn h h n g khng v v tr.
Com pozit tm ghp l v t liu gm nhiii lp vi nhng tu h cht k h c n liaii.
tip tc c hon th in v cng ngh c h to. Loi c s diig rng ri h in Iiay
l com pozit H oneycom be. l cc tm ba lp. trong lp gia vi ch iu dy
ln t loi v t liu t tr n g th p n h nh m , th y tin h , c h t do, giy , b n g , ... v
hai lp ph m ng bn ngoi t loi v t liii c bn cao hoc cliiig u m n tt,
chu n h it tt. ... V d, cc tm xp vi cc lp ph v hai bn l compozit. p olym e-
si thy tin h l nh ng tm che cliii rt l tiiig trong xy dng nh ca; bn.
nh. cch n h i t tt, chng ii mn. N guyn l com pozit t.iii ghp ngy n a y c s
dng rng ri to ra n h iu loi v t liii c tn h n ng s dng cao trn c s cc
nguyn liii th ng dng v r tin nh giy, xeiiliilo. cht do . v.v.
13.1.2.3. Cng ngh ngui nhanh

Theo cc cng n gh ch to v t liu triiyii thng, t chc ca v t liii c
hnh th nh trong qii trnh lin Iigiii t trn g th i liig hoc rn vi t'c thp.
V d, khi c cc chi ti t b ng kim loi tc ngui thng th p hn v i /giy.
Klii ti cc ch i ti t b n g th p th tc ngiii c n g ch t n v i cliic /g iy . Tc
iigMi chm dn n nhng h n c h v t chc, t hn ch tn h cht.
N gui n h a n h t pha lng vi tc h n g trm ii h iig t /giy l m cho t
chc v t liii rt nh m ii (vi tin h th), to trn g th i si\i bo ha, cc p ha k h n g
ci bng, m t k h u y t t t m ng cao (nt trng, lch. ...) v klii tc n g ii i ln
hn gi tr xc nh, to trn g th i t chlc v nh hnh.
Cc cng n gh ngui n h an h c s dug ph bin hin nay quy ni ciig
nghip l:
- c v t m ng hoc ko si m nh trong khun kim loi (ch ill-casting);
- To h t hoc bt b n g cch phun kim loi lng vo cc mi trng n gu i th ch
hp (atom izatioii);
- To bng hoc l m ng b ng cch phun tia pha lng lii b m t triig iig
quay; c th s dng n h iu phng php khc nhau, v d ,m elt-sp iiin iiig;
- N ung v ngui n h a n h cc b m t lp m ng b m t b n g clini tia n n g htiig
cao, v d. tia laze, plazm a, in t. ...
VT LIU HC______________________________________________________________________569
T rong int s tring hp. s n phm ngui n h an li c th s dng n gay to

s u p h m ciii c n g , v d cc chi ti t th n h m ng hoc si m n h , b n g rng.
Trong Iihiu trng lip ch n g phi qua cc n gu yn cng to h iih theo phng
php lu y n kim bt.
Do n h iiig c im v t chc n h i nu, v t liii ngui nhan h c c, l v ha
tnh khc vi v t liii c h to theo cng ngh tru yn thng: chng c c tnh tng
hp cao, c in tnh, t tn h tt, chig ii m n t"t, ...V t liu ngui nh an h c
ng d ng n g y cn g rng ri v l loi v t liu c trin vng ln trong tng lai.
Cc hitng ng dng ch yu ca cng ngh ngui n h an h l c h to cc v t liii
c tn h n n g st d n g cao cho cc k t cu m y, dng c, cc sn phm c l ha tiih
c b it (t tn h , chng n mn, ...).
C h to v t liu k t cu bn cao vi t chc vi tinh th hoc v nh hnh l
hing p h t trin n h iii tim uiig. V d, cc hp kim nhm ngvii n h an h vi tinh
th cha m t hng ln kim loi chuyn tip v t him c th cho bn n
8 5 0 -1 0 0 0 M Pa, c k h n n g th a y th hp kim tita n t tiu trong ciig nghip
h n g khng.
D n g chm n n g lng cao (laze, plazm a, ...) gia cng b m t cc chi tit
m y c th to ic m t lp m ng vi t chc vi tin h th hoc v iih liiih. c
cng v k h n n g chng m i mn rt cao. y l m t phidiig php gia cng b' m t
c ng dng rng ri. c xu th ph t trin nh anh , n h t l i vi cc chi tit
d iig trc qiiay, b n h cam v cc chi ti t cn kh n n g chng m i m n b m t cao.
V t livi dng c Iigui n h an h c s dng tng ph bin hin n ay l thp
d n g c hp k iin cao, v d th p gi vi lng ch a n g u y n t t o ca c b it k h cao.
ch to th eo phng phap phun bt t th lng. Tc ngui cao khc phc c
th in tch v m. li lburit. t n g ha tan. tn g liiii ng cng th hai.
lm cho d iig c c tn h n n g ct gt v tui th n h iu ln cao hn so vi phng
pliap c h to tru yn tliiig.
Cng n g h n gu i n h a n h c ng diig kh rng ri c h to v t liu t, t
m m (li b in th , li cun cm . ...) cng nh t cng (nam chm viih cu). Vt
liu t in m n g u i n h a n h ti u b i u h i n n a y l cc b n g vi tin h th (v d lip kim
sen d iist) hoc cc b n g v iih h ih (kim loi th y tinh, m etgiass) v cc bng
n an o tin h th (iiiem et). Cc ch tiu t tn li ca chng ii rt cao. c b it l tii
hao cng s u t thp. N gi ta tn h rng, nu th ay li cc bin th phn phi M
(loi l kVA) b n g kim loi th y tin h th do tn hao cng su t trn bin th giin
m n h, h n g nm c th ti t k im h n g t U SD . C h to v t liii t cng theo cng
n g h ngui n h a n h b t u c ch trong uh n g nm gn y. Hp kini bt
Iigiii n h a n h vi tiiih th h N d -F e -B cho n n g lng t k lc: (BH )m ax t 40 ...
50 M GOe, tc hn h ai ln cao hdn hp kim Sm Co .5 v 4 -5 l n cao hn hp kim
alnico tru y n thiig.
570______________ C hng 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
13.1.3. PHT TR IN VT LIU VI TNH NNG C BIT
13.1.3.1. Vt liu siu do

Siu do l kh n n g bin dng do rt ln (c th n 2 000%) ca m t s hp
kim c th iili phn v t chc t vi xac iih, trong khong n h it v tc bin
dng xc iih. V t liu siu do ic p h t h in t lii, nhng nii n n h n g nni
su mi ngi ta mi b t u n h n thc c y n gha to lii ca n trong
k th ut, v d trong cc cng Iigli b in dng to phi. Cc qii triih t o phi
trong cng nghip nh rn, dp, p. caii c th tin h nh rt d dng trn nh ng
th i t b n gin, n n g sii t cao. ch t liiig cao. chi ph thp. Mt s clii tit, dng
th nh m ng v s u c th ch to theo phng php "thi" b ng k h nn. n g dng
rng ri v t liu siu do s l m t cuc cch m ng thc s trong cng n g h to
hm h bng gia cng p lc.
S" l ng cc lip k im c tn h si u do ic n g h i n cii v ita vo n g d n g
ngy cng nhiu. N gii ta phn v t liii siu do th n h ba nhm saxi: si u do
n h it phng; siu do n h it tru n g bnh (2 0 0 -5 0 0 C); siu do n h i t cao
(hn 500 "C). P h n lii cc hp kim siii do s dng rng ri hin nay tlu ic nhm
tht liai. T iu biu l cc hp kim trn c s ciia ng. nhm , km hoc m agi. ng
dng rng ri ch to mt s chi tit trong t, my tnh, my bay. ...
N hm s dng rng ri hn na v t liii siu do. cn tip tc gii q iiy t nit.
lot cc vn cng ngh. Trc ht. cn n gh in cu ch to cc loi khun dp
mi c th lm vic lu di n h it cao vi lc dp ln. Tip cn th i t k ch
to cc loi th it b bin dng p ng cc phm vi t'c bin dng khac n hau
theo yu cu ca mi loi v t liu siii do c th. Cui cng cn tip tc ngh in
ctu c s l th u y t v bin php cng n gh bo m qu triih cliy do xy ra
ng ii. t c n h iu tin b ng k trong nh n g vn trn n h t l trong
liih vc cc v t liu lm khun chu n h it cao.
13.1.3.2. Vt liu siu dn

Siu dn l h in tiig gim t n gt iii tr xiiiig tr s gn bng k hng
nhit, thp. N h in tr khng ng k. v t liu siu dn c th chu c dng
in vi m t rt ln, ii 1 0' ...10*' A/crn^. Mi vt li\i siu dn c c tn n g
bi n hit ti h n T,..
N ling v t liu siu dn s dng trc y c T,. b hii 23K , tc m un s dng
phi to n h it rt thp, th p hn -2 5 0 c . iu ny h n c h kh n n g s d ng
rng ri v phi d n g n h eli lng c n h i t -2 6 9 "c. M t th n h t u rc r ca
v t liu hc trong 10 nm gn y l vic khm ph ra cc ch t siii dn vi T,. cao
hn 23K. C hng c gi chung l siu dn n h it cao (SD N C ). N u u lu( tr\c
y phi dng n h eli lng vi gi th n h rt cao, i vi S D N C ch cn d ng Iiit
lng (-1 9 6 C) vi gi 100 ln r hn. V vy SD N C thu h it s ch khng
nhng ca nh ng n h khoa hc m c nh n g n h hoch nh chin lc p h t trin
kinh t x hi. N h iu nc ginh n h ng khon kinh ph rt ln n gh in cu
loi vt liu y tim n n g ny. Cli trong m t thi gian rt n gn ra i cc
VT LIU HC_____________________________________________________________________ 571
SD N C vi n h it ti hn 90, 100 ri 120K v k lc mi n h t t. c trong

nm 1993 l hp ch t H g l2 2 3 vi T, - 133K. Ngo<i ra. nu Iihiiig d kin v
kh n n g n n g cao n h iu hn na n h it T,..
S D N C l loi v t liu c kh nng to ra n luiig bin i h t sc quan trng
trong k ih ii t h iu cti. Cc tu yn ti in siu cao ap v siu cng su t, cac t\i
siii tc. cac b tch tr in n ng cng sut, siu cao. cc vi m nh trong cc m ay
tn h cc n h a n h th h mi, cc m y gia tc siu cng svit. ... l m t s" v ng
d ng thc tiii khc Iiliau ca v t liii SDNC.
13.1.3.3. Vt liu nh hnh

H iu ng nh h n h (sliape m em ory effect) l kh Iiiig ca v t liii phc hi li
h nh d ng to ra tric . l kt qu ca m t diig ch u yn pha c bit, gi l
chuyn pha n ia cten x it th u n nghch. V d. mt chic inh tan c to hiili dng
ch 1 n h it Iic lnh, sa u viit thiig mt ii lp vo l hp hai chi
tit, so iig n u n g ln n h it 8 0 -9 0 c . inh tn s t phc hi li dng ch I ban
ii, to n n ni lin k t ch t cn c gia hai chi tit.
Nli h n h l k t qu ca bin dng do thnn nghch do ch uyn plia inacteiixit
dii tc dng c\a ng su t hoc n h it . Ng\i ta phn b it hai loi h iu ng nh
h n h saii:
- H iu ng nit chiu: chuyn bin thun (a iix teiiit-in a cten x it) ch xy ra di
tac dng ca ng su t km theo biu dng do diig (+). tc gin ra: CII cliuvn
b in nghch (m a cten x it-a iix teiiit) ch xy ra dii tc d ng ca n h it km theo
b in d ng do m (-). tc co li.
- H iii ng h ai chiu; chuyn bin tluiii xy ra khi tn g Gioc gim ) cn
chuyn bin ngh ch xy ra khi gim (hoc tng) mt trang h ai yu t' ng su t hoc
n h i t . C h u yn b in ngh ch kh b bin dng cii to ra do cliiiyn bin th un
trc .
M t c tr n g qiiaii trng ca v t liu uli hnh l v tr v rng ca viig
tr bin dng (giiig nh vng t tr ca vt liu t). C th s dng hiii ng nh
iiiili to lc trong cc ml lp ghp hoc to cc dch ch u yn c hc trong cc h
iu khin, ng c hoc n gin l to ra cc hnh d n g cn c trong m t khng
gian in bn ta y con ngi khng th trc tip thc hin. M t s' hng s dng c
trin vng Iiliit:
- Cc chi ti t ghp ni dng inh tn, iig Ii'i, ... troug ghp Ii'i xng, cc c
qiian ni t n g n h n to khi p hu thut, cc ghp ni tron g mi tn n g c hi,
- Cc b iu k h in h n h trnh hoc chc Iing dii tc dng ciia ng su t
h o c n h i t tro n g cc h th ig iu k h in t iig. ngii in y . ng m ca chp
Iili cao t n g , n g m n c h i u tr n t theo n h i t m i tr iig ,
- Cc ng c "vnh cu" di tc ng ca hai nii tritiig nng ln h khac
nhau;
ni rng phm v i ng dng ca vt liu nh h n h cn tip tc nghin cii
tm k i m cc hp k im c vng tr b iu d ng ln v c p h m vi h o t n g ( ng s u t
v n h it ) ph lip vi cc ng dng mong mun, tin kim cc hp kim c ( bu
572_______________C hng 13. x u TH' PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
cao lii\i n g n h h n h t o ra ic cc lc t c ng iig k v c n t n g cviig

tn h n nh ca h iu ug theo thi gian hoc theo s liig clui trnh hot u?.
Cc hp kim c nghin cii v ng dng hin nay l N i-T i. Cai-Z i . C u -Z ii -A 1.
F e-M ii-S i. F e-N i-C o-T i, trong cc hp kim c s st. c \Ui v i t l bn cao v
gia th nh ch to tng r. Hp kini N i-T i c hiu ng Iihc: hnh mt ch iii tt
nht, nhc im l gi th n h c h to cao. Vic n gh in cu v ng dinig hp kini
Iih hiih ch mi trong giai on b t u nhiig y l m t trong n ln iig v t liu c
trin vng pht trin m nh trong tng lai.
13.2. LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU

V t liu l y u t' q\iaii trng u tin xy ding nit ciig trnh h a v c h to
mt si) phm c th e no . Do . vic la chn v si dng v t liu trc liPt
p h i x u t p h t t m c ti ii c a phi iig n s n x u t.
Phng an s n x u t ic h n h th n h trn c s nhu cii th trng. N]ui cu
bao gm cc yu cu mi v R thch nii trong mi lnh vc pht, trin kinh t,
khoa hc k th u t, vn ha v x hi. Cc y\i t' cn phi tnli n l xu th phat
trin ca cc lnh vc ni s n ph m c lin quan, c bit l lnh vc n n g Iiig. c
vai tr quan trng trong qu trn h c h to v t liu, c n n gh in citii c kh nng
cnh tranh trn th trng, tric m t c ng Iilii lu di, trong phm v i quc gia
h ay quc t.
N hng tin Ii\i s gp ngi th i t k xc nh cac c tnh cn c ciia
sn phani: cc tnh n ng k th u t hoc tnh n n g s dng, ch t lng, gi c. h iih
thc v quy m s n xut. T y u cu chiing cho sn phm m xc nh y\i cii c
th i v 6 i t ng b phn, cm chi ti t hoc chi ti t ring l v t tin linl\ ha
cliii vt lill.
13.2.1. BN YU CU KHI L A CHN VT LIU
l cc yu cu v tnh u ng, tnh cng ngh, tn h kinh t v tn h x hi.
13.2.1.1. Yu cu v tnh nng ca vt liu

T nh n n g v t liu l m t k h i Iiiiii rng, bao gin cac tn h ch t c. l. lia xac
nh trong phng th Iigliini v cc tn h ch t tng hp lin quan n qu trnh s
diig nh tui tli v tin cy.
Yu c\i c bn v tn h ch t ph thuc vo i tvtiig s dng: l vi o.c chi
tit chu lc th yii cu tnrc tin l bn c hc ( gii hn chy, gii hn bn.
gii hn mi. cng, dai va p. ...); vi cc chi ti t dn in hoc dn Iihit
th l dn in hoc nhit; i vi cc chi tit cn c t tn h c b it th t
cm . lc kh t, h s t th in l cc tn h ch t quan triig h iig ctii , v.v.
Tiu chun u tin la chn v t liu l tnh ch^t c bn phi cao hn gi tr
yu cii. trong n h iu triiig hp p h i tn h n h s d tr.
VT LIU HC________________________________________________________ 57.3
N u cing m t lc phi quan tm fn nliiu tnh ch t khc Iihaii th ch tiii

ha chn v t liu s l tp hp ca cac tnh cht . V {l. i vi cc chi tit. chi
va p trong ini tn n g ii inn th tiu chun la chn CR (criterioii) l gi tr cao
Iilit ciia tch cia gii hn chy a,., h s ph hy Ki- v chng ii inu:
CR = o, , K\,-. chiig n mn - inax.
Trong ch to m ay bay. gii liii cliy ,.. gii hii mi C., v trng lng ring
p ca v t liu ii qiiaii trng, do ;
CR = , I /p = max.
l vi ng bao th a n h Iiliiii liu trong lo phn ng ht. n h n th cc yu cu

t ra l kh Iing hp ph ntrn ,a b nht, dn n h it cao Iiht, gii hn
do cao n h t v kh n n g cling n inii i vi u h in liii b n trong v nc
lni ngui bn ngoi l cao Iih;
CR = . chiig ii n\n)i.- ~ inax .
T u i th ca sn phm (chi tit) Iii ln thi giaii si dng ti th i\i in. sn

phm cn tha m n ic cdc tiili n iis ch yii (t ra. T ui th l m t (tc tnh
t n g hp. n h itn g p h t,h\ic tn c h t vo cht liiR v t N l h n i R ca tr
c cc yii t lin q\ian n qiia trnh c h to v s dng s n phm . Tui tho l ch
t.iii rt q uan trng, i khi l ch yu. Iihiiig li kh xac nh chnh xc. Ngii tu
ch c th iih gi tru C s cc kt qu th nghim kt hp vi kinh nghini tch
ly n lii\ nm ia ru gi t.r tui th trung biih.
tin cy l kh n ng s dng vt li\i (Sn )hni) khng c s c troiig siit
thi gian ci kin. C n h iu l (lo Kaii phaiii iiRnp hot ctng, T ntiig lip n
gin nh<i l tai trng thc vii qvia cl bn clio )lif]) ciia v t liu. N u khi thit k.
clin h s' d tr m t cch h]) l th kh nniii c s c 6 rhc h n ch. Mc d vv.
nhiu tn u g lip hi hiig ca my mc hoc cng triih khng th (l on trtc.
N gu yn n h n c Mi l<:
- Cc k h iiy t t t hoc nhp ili l) nit do qu trnli gia cng li. chng gy
lin tp triiiig ng sut, b smig Vco ng s\it. d\t c sn trong vt
- Cc k h u y t t t bn trong vt. lixi Iii t.roiig qu trnli kim tra khng pht
h in itc:
- Cc k h u y t t t mi x u t hin troiig qu trnh s diig do n inn, bo inn
hoc m i nin;
- N li u g dao ng ti trng phc tp v bin v t n s nm ngoi d kiii.
N h n g th a y i mi trng xiiiig quanh ngoi d kin;
- N h iig th a y i v tnh cht vt. liu do qiia trnh ha gi, tc ng ca bc
x.
Trong m t s lnh vc cng nghip nh\ ha lic. ht n h n , v tr .......khi ni s
c^ c th du n nh n g tn th t nghim triig. tin cy l tiii chiinn ch yu ct
la chn vt. liii. Tt nh in , n gay c i vi nhng sn plini th n g dng, ngii
tin d ng lun i hi cli't ldiig n nh. Cng nh tui th, tin cy rt kh
iili gi, tin cy khng nhng ph tlnic vo bn ch a t v t li\i ni cn vo q\i
o 74 C h n g 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA c h n v s d n g v t l i u
trnh ch to, t n g iiv n liu ban u cho n giai on gia cng v lp rap cui
cing. Trong mi giai on, k h u y t t t c th xu t hin v cn phi c kim tra.
S phn tch cc s c v h hng khi s dng ng vai tr khng th thay t h d
nh gi tin cy. t. k h n g nh li tn h ng n ca v t liu chn v quy
trnh ch to.
13,2.1.2. Yu cu v tnh cng ngh

Qii triih ch to sn phm t n gu yn v t liii n th u h phii ciii ciig phi
tr i q u a n h i u g ia i o n cng n g h . Do . tn h cht. CII c n g cia s n p h m J)h
tlm c vo cc cng n gh c th to sn phm. Kli n n g thc hin m t plivtoiig
php cng n gh vi loi v t liu clio dt cc tnh ch t m ong niiin irc
gi l tn h cng ngh. C th lit k cc tn h cng n gh th ng dng sa u y;
- T nh c;
- Kli n n g bin dng ngui, nng v dp su;
- Tnh ct gt;
- Tnh hn;
- Kli n n g x l Iih it/n h it luyn.
c l phng php to h n h su phm bng cach rt v t liii lng vo khiiii
sau khi ngui n h n itc phi c hoc chi tit vi hiih daiig jnoiig nmii. ay
l plufiig phap cng ngh ph biu i vi vt liu kim loi v clit do. Klii (IIC.
yn cii ii tin l v t liu lng phi in kn mi khng giaii liig khun. KJii
ng cng, phn ln cc v t liu b co th tch, to lm co v r co v khi ngiii tip
tc. s co giii khc n h au ca cc phn th tch c th to v t Iit. T in k c ca
v t li\i l kh n n g in kn khiiii c v khng to ra cc sai hng troiig vt
c. Tnh c ph tluic vo Iihit nng chy, 00 th tcl\, h s t.nien nhit
v kh n n g kh k h ca pha liig.
B in d n g do b n g cch cn . ko, rn . dp. p tr n g th a i IIRU hoc n n g l
cng ngh to hnh tliiig dng. K h nng bin d n g do ph tlm c vo ct do ca
vt liu; tiili ch t Iiy khng nhng ph thiic vo bi) ch t ca vt liu nia cn
vo n h it . Vt. liu polynie c do thp n h it thng v tn g theo nhit
. Mt s hp kim , do c im cu trc bn trong, khi t n g n h it . do gini.
do cn ph thuc vo phng php bin dng c th. do ngii ta phn bit
kh nng bin d ng do khi rn nng (tnh rn), khi cn. ko. khi dp hoc kh
n n g dp s u e to cc s n phm dng tr th n h m ng.
T n h ct gt ni ln k h n n g gia cng ct gt (tin, khoan, phay. m i. ...) (t
to ra sn phm vi hiih d ng theo yu cii. Thng thng, ngi gi ta anh gi
tnh ct gt th n g qiia cng v do. V t liu c cng qu cao (thp ti.
gan g trng. ...) hoc do cao (cht do. kim loi sch, ...) \i kh gia cng ct
gt.
Cng Iigh h n c dng ph bin trong xy dng cng triih v c h to thit
b. m y nic. V t liu c tn h h n tt l v t liu cho php to vtc ini h n c
bn gn vi bn ca v t liu c s ni khng to ra v t n t v cc k lm y t tt
khc trong v n g mi h n c n g nh viiig ln cn. Tnh hn ph thuc vo l)ii
VT LIU HC_________________________________________________________________________ 575
cht, t chc t vi v kh n iig chig oxy ha nhit cao ca v t thp cacboii

th p d h n hdii thp cacbon cao. nhm kh hii lidn iis v.v.
K h n n f x l n h i t (iihi hiyu) c vai tr quyt iih to cho vt liu c
cu tn c c n th i t v t t chtc tn h ch t m ong nm n. T ron g Iihi\i trng hp.
sn phani khng th s diig n\i khng qua x l nhit. Ph thuc vo bn chat
ca v t liu, Iigi ta s dng cc pluiig ph}) x l n hit khc n h an (ti. ha gi
t nh in , ha gi n h n to. ...) v kh n n g x l nhit, th hin qua cc tiili cng
Iigh c th nhit kh n n g ti cng, kh Iiiig ha gi phn t u , v.v.
Cng n g h v t liii rt a dng v khng ugng )hat triii. Plii chn pluiig
ph]) ciig Iigli ch to v gia cng vt liu cn thit phi hiu r c im ca
phiiig phap v kh n n g s dng n to cac sn phm bo ni cht. lii,
n n g sut, v gi th n h nioiig mun.
13.2.1.3. Yu cu v tnh kinh t'

Klii c n h iu v t liu cng tha inn cc yii cu v tn h n n g s dng v tnl
cng n gh th gi th n h s l yii t' ch yii cho SI Iviti chn v t li\i. i vi mt
s n phm xc nh, d n phc v cho k th u t v tr hoc dn dng th vii hiii
lun tn ti gi th n li gii hn. Klii v\tt q\i gii liii (t. ngi ta phi tiili n
vic th a y i clic n n g v yu cii cng ngh gim gia th n h .
H ai th n h phn cd bn ca gi thnh l gia Iigiiyii liu \i vo v gia thnh
cii to.
Gi npiiyn liu u vo th\tng irc tnh theo dn v trng hiig. t n mt s
tn iig lip c bit nh g, gch, btng, ... Troiig tniiR lip khi kh so sanh IU
c theo trng htiig th cn kho st tlini gi theo tli tch. V d. cng mt triig
liiK Iilu nhaii. nhvng v t liu conipozit. polvcacbonat ha bn bnnp; si tliy tiiih
t. hn th p gap mi ln. nu tnh theo ii v th tch t.lii ch t hn khoiif> hai
ln. N u th a y th thp bng vt. liu ny (vi trng liig ring khong sau ln Iili
hn thp) th s giin trng lng cho php gim gi thiih sn pliiii.
Mt. php so s n h y hu phi tnh n cac yi cu v tnh cht m Ân
phm cn c Iih bn. kh n ng chng bin clng, trng hiig riiig, ...Klxi .
tiu cluin la chn s l tp hp n h i\i yu cu khc nhnii. V d. ch tin CRE
cliih gi tnh kiiih t cho chi ti t ni yii cu chi yu l bu cd hc cao s l:
(CRE)o = .
tron g a,, - gii h n n hi;
p - trng lng ring:
p - gi tn h cho m t n v trng hng.
Cn i vi chi ti t cn kh n n g chng bin dng lu s l;
(CRE) k = :'" /( p .P) .

troiig E - m iin n hi.
V d so s n h hp k im nhiii v< coinpozit p o lycachoiiat - si tlu iy t.iiih Iiu d
b n g 13.1.
576 C h n g 13. XU TH PHT TRIN, LA c h n v s d n g v t l i u
Nh v y i vi chi ti t chii lc m y u c u c n h n c h k b n n g b in (hiiig

th chn hp k im n h m l hp l h n conipozit v n h m c ch s niuii u lii
(CRE)|.; tn h cho m t n v gi c v trng htng l cao hu.
Bng 13.1. V d so snh tnh knh t ca hp kim nhm

v compozit kh ch to chi tit chu lc
Vt liu CTe . E. p. p, (CRE), (CRE)e

MPa GPa g/cm^ USD/kg
Hp kim nhm 250 70 2,9 2.5 5.47 0.7
Compozit polycacbonat 140 11 1.4 3.5 5,50 0,4

si thy tinh
Trong hai th n h pliii gi th n h , thng thing gi n gu yn liu u vo chi

chim m t t l nh (v d, trong cng ngh ip t ch khong 15%). phn ch yu l
gi th n h c h to. N li v y c th th ay th m t v t liu t, hn n ii gi th n h gia
cng thp hn.
i vi v t liu cho. gi th n h ch to ph tluic vo t l khu hao tliit, b
(chnh, ph, dng c. g lp), gi n ng lng, gi th u lao ng v vo n n g sut.
V d. khi th ay th lip kim km b n g ch t do ch to cc chi ti t b n g ciig
n gh c h n g lot ln. mc d gi th i t b c v gi n guyn lixi trong liai trii
hp gn nh nhau,
nhng do nliit, c
p ch t do thp hn.
s dng Iiiig htng t
hn. tui th khun cao
hn. n n g su t ic cao
hclii, s th ay th m ang
li hiu q\i k in h t
cao.
Gi th n h c h to
ph thiic vo q\iy in
sn xiit. tc s lng
chi ti t ch ta o ' sHinh 13.2. V du so snh tinh kinh t gia hai cng ngh A v B
lng cng ln. gi th n h cn g thp. B n g tn h ton v thc ngh im ngi ta xy
dng quan h gi th n h - s lug. t xc nh "vng c li", tc qiiy m .'i
thixi bo m cho sn x u t c li. Klii so s n li hai loi cng ngh vi n h a ii cng
phi cn c vo mi quan h Iiy. Trn hnh 13.2 so sn h h ai cng n gh A v B:
nn quy m c h to t hn 10'*chi ti t th cng ngh B c tn h kinh t cao hn.
VT LIU HC 77
NI n tn h kinh t khng th b qua yu t cnh tranh trn th tring. Cli

niig cnli tran h ciia s n phm (vt liu) khng ch ph thuc vo cht lng, gi
thnh, Iii cn vo n h iu cc yu t"khc nh:
- H i\i qu kinh t cho ngiti s dng;
- Cc yn t v tm l v th hivi;
- Xu th p h t trin v t liu;
- Xii M ici tin k th u t, . . .
M trng hng ca mt. t ch khch s n x u t trong nhng nm chn mi

in k h on g 2 % so vi Iiling nm by nui d thay th v t liu nh hn nh
tlip bn cao. hp kiin nhm , ch t do. Trng liig cc chi ti t b u g nhm trong
ni xe t 6 kg. tc t iig 50% so vi nhng nm by nnti. Trong mi t du
lcli s d iig tru n g bnh hn 80 kg cc chi tit b ng ch t do. trong gn l kg
l vt li\i com pozit nn polym e. Thp bn cao t hn thp th iiig 0%, CII
hp kim nlini - 150% v gi th n h m t s cht do k t cu cn cao nhng vii
c (iii y l t n g tin cy v g i m tr n g hng. k t q u l ti t k im c h iig
iiRhii lt x n g cho mi i xe. N h vy ngi s dng c ic chic xe nh miin,
con nli s n x u t t n g ic li nhun.
Hnh 13.3. Cc kh nng la chn vt liu ch tao bao bi nc gii kht

37 - VLH nha, thy tinh, st/nhm
578_______________ C hng 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
Y\i t 'l m l v th h iu cii ctic dc bit quaii tni i vi cac sii phniii (lau
diig. V t liu cho bao b Iic gii k h t l nit. v d: uc gii k h t c tlie (long
troiig cc chai th y tinh, nha hoc hp kim loi (th]). nhm , hhih 1H.3). Ngoi
nhu cu. cn kho st thi quen, s thch. ... cho tng v n g v t ng loi 'i ta^
ct ra qviv ni sn x \i t thch hp.
13.2.1.4. Yu cu v x hi v bo v mi trng
Klii la chn v s dng v t liii cn tnh n cc khn cnh x lii (tni l. do
c. lu t php. ...) v bo v mi tn iig . Mi ni v mi lc. khi sc klio v .' an
toii ca cng ch n g b e do <7 do mt h thng th it b, m y mc c s c lioc liit
hng, gv Iihini, c h i hoc cht ngi th nii qiiy ctnh v tiu cliuaii co lin
qiian phi c chp h n h n gh im Iigt; cc vi phm phi c x l bng phap
liit. V d. n h iu nc c cc qiiy nh ch t ch v s n xu t cc Iiha e cha
thc n. lni chi tr em , cc quy nh v th loi v cht hng cc lp ph clio
cc hp b n g k im loi ch a th c 'p h m v nc g i i k li t, ...V ic ch to cr X'
t COII nh hn v b hn vi mc tiii th xng thp, vi b phn lc kh t.hii c
tc d ng bo v mi trvug cc th n h ph" iig dii.
Mt s n phm hoc m t quy trnli cng ngh c li phi tha Iin cc y\i cnn
v x hi v lo v mi trng. l nit nguyn tc khi la chn v t li\i.
La chn v t liii tha m n t t c cc yu c\i l cng vic rt phc tp. Tron
mi trng hp. cn c quyt nh ti u v khcli quan. La chn x u t pht, t R
t.ha hip gia nhiu yu cii, th m ch c nhng yii cu tri iigic nlia\i. Trong
cc giai doii kho s t n gh in c\i. cc thng tin mi phi c cu ng cp t.luii
xuyn v khi c nhng vii mi x u t hin, cu nh gi li nhng gii plu) d
chn,
Chn vt. liu l cng vic ca c m t tp th nhiu Iignli n gh v thuc nhitni
b phn k h ac nhau: kho s t n gh in cvi, th it k. cng n gh, kim tra cht lriii^.
k hoch, tip tli, ...
13.2.2. CH TRNH CH TO V s DNG VT LIU
Ch to v s dng v t liu l qu trih n h iu giai on, hoc k tip lioc xcn

k, nh hng ln nhau. Klii ni n c h to v t liu, Iigi ta khiig cli lii\i ]
qu trnh to phi hoc bn th iih phm ni c cc qu triih gia cng tip tlieo.
Kliai Iiini s diig v t li\i bao gm c qii trnh s dng gia cng, cng nlnt s
dng s n phm .
Cc giai on c a chu trnh ch to v s dng v t liii c Iiiiiih lio tru s
h n h 13.4.
13.2.2.1. Ch to - Th nghim - ci tin
T rn c s phn tch tn g hp cc yu cu chiing i vi s n phm v yu caii

c th vi t ng chi ti t m ti n h n h la chn v t liu. N gi th it k cii rlia
ra m t ting v n gh in cu kh Iing tlic th i tiig . C th xv ra bo kh
Iiiig;
VT LIU HC 5 /9
Hnh 13.4. S chu trinh ch tao v s dung vt liu

580______________ Chng 13. x u TH' PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
- La chn v t li\i trong s cc vt liu ct c sn trn th tn t iig d iig plii

hoc ban th n h phm;
- La chn v t liu cha c sn Iihng tnh nng, thnh phn v quy Irinli
cng ngh ch to c th nghim , c iu kin th it b v n gu yn v t liii do
ch to;
- Cn pht trin mt loi v t liu mi vi tiih n ng ph hp.
Trong qu trnh th i t k niu. ban u thng a ra nhiu plniig au la
chn, saii r3 da vo s so snh tnh nii k tlnit. kh n n g thitc liiii ciig
ngh, yu cu v tn h kinh t v cc yu cu khc tlui hp dn cc kh n n g ]n
chn, i n phng n ti ii nht.
Trong giai on c h th. cn nh gi phirdiig n cng ugh chn, (c bil
theo hai phng din k tlu i t v kinh t.
Th v t liu v th ngliini sn phm c vai tr quan trng trong s ii xut.
Th vt liu tin h n h trn cc m ii th trc hoc sau tng cng on cng ngh.
Bn cnh th tn h ch t ( cng, bn, ...). kim tra c'\i trc vi ni v v ni l
mt b phn khng th th iu ca th v t liu. Th v t liu cho php ii nh quy
tr n h cng n g h c h t o s n p h m c c h t hiig cao V tn h n n h cao.
Th n gh im sn phm l s kim tra tng hdp cc cliic n n g lni vic troni
iu kin phng th nghim cng Iih\f ngoi hin trng. Cc iu kin kim tra
trong phng th n gh iin cn g gn vi tlic t bao nhi\i, k t qu cng c gi tr by
nhin. Tiiy nhin, trong n h iu trng hp chng c n gin ho, do th
nghim trn h iii tritiig vi cc iu kin lm vic thc t s cho nhiig kt. q\ia h
sun g nh gi y hn ch t hng sii phm,
Sau khi th Iigliini li phi siiy ngh m t ln m'ta v v t li\i v cng ngh ct
chn. C th xy ra tr\fng h(p b\ic phi th ay i s la chn ban u v khi (t
phi kho s t li t t c cc giai on t u.
Sil kh iig nh pli\ng n la chn vii clna tli k t ln ii sau khi sn phaiii
\a ra th tn iig . Theo di qii trnh s dng lii di. phn tch cc n g\iyn Iilin
sa i hng v s c s cung cp n h ng thng tin b su n g hon th iu sn phm.
Ci tin sn phm l yu c\i tln ng xiiyu trong c ch th triiig. Ci tiu
sn phm tric h t l ci tin cc c tn h k th iit hoc tili n n g s diig. Iing
cao hiu qii kiuh t v cc ch tiu c lin qviaii. vi tng loi s n phm , tng
thi gian, cn xc iih ch tiii no phi ci tin lii tin. V d, i vi t th iiiVc:
tiu hao xn g l ch tiu cn ci tin v Iigii ta phi lun luii n gh in cu gim
trng lng xe b n g vic th ay th cc v t li\i c bn ring cao lin Iih\f hp kim
nhm, ch t do, thp si\i bn. T iig tin cy v tui th i vi nh iu sn pbain
l mc tiu ci tin h n g u. lii vic , cn c h th ng theo di tb ih hnh s
dng sn phm , p hn tch m t cch h thiig cc trng hp hi hng, cc nhic
im cng n hi u im do Iigii s dng phn nh.
13.2.2.2. Ph liu v ti ch
Cc cng trnh, m y mc, dng c. bao b. ... c tui 'th v thi giaii s dng
xc nh: cc cng trnh kin trc c th tii ti h ng nghn nm . cc cng trnh xv
VT LIU HC 81
ding - h n g trm Iiin. th it b iny mc - hng chc nm . CII bao b - ch tnli

b ng Iigv th n g, savi thi g ian trn, chng b loi b v tr th n h p h Uii, ph
lin. H ng Iini trn th 'gii c n hng trm trivi tn v t liu p h thi (liti
flii c:uj thit, b, niy mc hir hng hoc rc thi gia nh, chim khong 1/3 khi
lng vt. liu c h to mi. Do . vic ti ch hoc s dng li v t liu m ang li
liivi qii kiiih t rt to ln v gp phn bo v nii trug.
Toi ch kiin lo.i c tru yn th ng t l\i. Thp. gang, nhm p h liu v Iihiii
kiiu loi q u k h c ic th u n h t li, a vo cc x n g h i p lu y n kim ch to li
ih iili vt liu nii. B ng 13.2 nii khi liig v t liu kim loi ti ch liiig Iini
tru th gii (s liu uin 1983) i vi nil s kim loi thng dng. Qua tliy
rng h ng n m c n h n g trni triu tn thp ti ch, chim gn 1/3 tng klii
liii thp c c h to. a li liiig trm t U SD thu nhp cho nn kinh t th
gii; dng, ch l hai kini loi c t l khi liig ti ch rt cao. hn 40%.
Tni cli kini loi khng nh ng tit kim ngun ti nguyn (qung), m cn tit
kim Iiiig lig. n h t l l vi cc kini loi niii nlut Iihni, ctiig, liagR, titaii.
Niif liig' dng cho ti ch 10 - 20% t hn n n g lng dng ch to t \i.
Do hiu qu kinh t cao, Iigi ta cng ngh in cii th n h cng cc qiiy trnh t.lni
hi kim loi t cc d iig p h livi kh x l Iih th u hi Iiikeii t hp kijii ph liu
N i-T i. I hu hi kn v thic t cc lp ph bo v trn thp.
Bng 13.2. T l kim loi ti ch' hoc ti s dng trn th'gii nm 1983
Tng khi lng Trong khi lng ti ch hoc

Kim loi s dng ti s dng
Triu tn Triu tn %
Thep 650.80 190,0 29.2

Nhm 16,35 4,37 26,7
ng 9.23 3.71 40.2
Km 5.42 1.36 25.1
Chi 3,99 1.75 43,9
Thic 0,18 0,03 16,7
So vi kim loi, vii t i s diig p h liu polym e c int s'dc im ring:

- Do c cha cacbou, ch iiig c th s dng li nlii m t Iig\iyii liu tai c h
hoc n ln m t ugiiii to Iiiig htng (iiliiii liu t);
- N h iu d n g phn t n ln PE, p p . PTFE. PVC. PS. PC. ... trong iHi trng t,
Iiliiii hu nh khng b phn hu. mt s" khc Iilnt xelulo. caosii t Iihiii. nha
(azein . ... ch phn hy dii tc dng ca mt s^ vi khiinn;
582_____________ C h n g 13. x u TH PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
- S c m t ca cc th nh phn kTiiig m ong mun lm xu (tang k tiiii ciit

ca polynie ti ch. Do , p hn loi p h liu c vai tr c bit, quan trng troii
ti cli polyine.
T hnh phn triiiig buh ca cc polyine tliii hi t rc th i Iiii trong biig
13.3. Cn ch rng khi ti c h polynie. s c m t ca Cl. F, N. s gy ra cc plii)
ng vi sx to th n h cc s ii phm c h i Iih HCl. HF. CI2.
Bng 13.3. Thnh phn tiu biu ca rc thi thnh ph
Thnh phn ca rc thi Thnh phn ca polyme rc thi
Th loi % trng lng Th loi % trng lng
Giy 40 LDPE 19,0

Ngun gc thc vt 12 HDPE 14.5
Thc n tha 12 PS 14.5
Thy tinh 8 pp 14.5
Polyme 7 PET 4.5
Thp 7 Cc loai khc 23.5
Cc kim loai khc 8
Nâi ta c nhiu c g n g tni kim cc phng phap sinh hc x l rar

th i theo cc hng saii:
- S dng cc vi sin h v t c s n trong rc tl\i phn hy polyitie;
- S dng m t s' nni c b it a t bn ngoi vo phn hy. Cu tn ic ca
polym e tiig lip ciig gn vi polym e sin h v t bao Iihiu th kh n n g tm kim c.ac
loi nm ph hp phn h y cn g th u n li by nhiu.
K th u t t i c h v t i s d n g l n i t b p h n g n lin ca kh oa hc v CIIR
ngh v t liii. c Iihiu la hn p h t trin trong Ung lai.
13.2.2.3. Vt liu - Nng lng - Thng tin

Vt liu, n n g hdng, th ng tiii l ba c s quan trng plit trin x hi hin
i, chng c quan h m t th i t nhau, P h t trin v t liu thc y p h t trin nng
lng vi s ra i cc h th n g n h it din, thy iii. in tucbiii v in ht
nhn cng sii t cao v cc n g u n n n g lng mi nhi acquy, pin m t tri, ... S ra
i v ph t trin khng n g n g ca v t liu bn dn, quang du. siu dn cl v s
to ra cc bc ngoc trong p h t trin khoa hc k th u t ni clm iig. pliat trin
n n g lng v th ng tin ni riiig. Ngc li, s pht trin ca n n g hrng v
thng tin to ra cc tin nii pht trin c s khoa hc v cac cng iih mi
v vt liu. S h n h th n h cc n g n h iig d liu v h th ng thng tin n lian li cho
php ci th i n qu trn h tn h to n , th i t k, nghin CV cii ngh ch to vt
liu c tnh ch t tt hn. a d ng hn. ini lidn v .-n dng vt li\i hp l hn.
VT LIU HC 83
Trong m t tlii gian di, trnh phrit t.rPi) kiuli. t<'v x l.i cua m t qiic gia
idc n h g i th n g qu a kh i lng vt. liu (lo (lUc yia f S'JK x ii t ra. C ch n h
gia Ii;\y d dn dn th ay i v ch t lng vt liu ngy ciif n o . gi tr ca chng,
khng ch th hin n th u n qua s liig kilsani (hc s n xut. V d, klii
hiig cac tin h th silic dng trong cc vi mch tch phn giam nhiu, nhng vi
cht, lng hon ton khc, rt cao v vi cc tnh nnng .siu v it. T nh hnh ting
t 'i vi v t liu k t cii. Thp xy dng vi hp kiin ha Vfi quy trnh n u luyn
v can c in khin chnh xc, nh c ( bn cao nn klii hiiig s dng t hn
cho m t cng trnh. Cc biii trn hnh 13.. nu xu th g i in m nh khi litng
v t li\i s dng trong iny th u tin v may bay. Triig liig cac linh kin iu t
troii; n\t m a y th u tin g i m h n g chc ln khi chuyn t b>ong in t s a n g bn
(ln v t b u du sa n g vi m ch t h). Trong ch to h n g khng, trng lng
kim loi hu dng tnh cho m t kilomet. hnh khch (kni h.ki lin tc gim .
a)
Hinh 13.5. Xu th gim khi lng vt liu trong my thu tir (a) v my bay (b)
T n g h iu qu s dng v t liu (gim khi lng) ko th eo nhiu li ch khc.

T n ic ht. l ti t kim n n g lng. Nng liig s dng cho c h to v gia cng
v t liii l rt ln, n h iu khi khng th tili ton dy (t v n bao gm nhiu nhu
cu n n g lng khc n h au (in Iing, nhit nng. ...) cho k h ai thc, cho cc phn
ng h on n gu yn qung, lm giu, nu luyn, to hnh, g ia cng, ...G im khi
hiig v t liu s dng cng c ngha L gim khi lng V:11 ch u yn , gim cc chi
p h cho bo qun, t i c h , v.v.
S n x u t v t liu polyine v sn xut nng htiig cu (lu n g ngun n gu yn vt
liu nh l th a n . du m v kh thin nhin. Mc d; n h ii cii cc nguyn
liu Iiy cho s n x u t v t liu polyine ngy cng tng, p lin ln sn lng khai
thc (khong 95%) vn l phc v cho sn xut nng lng. hn c h s dng
chiig. bn cnh ph t trin th y nng. Iigi ta tng cu cn g s dng cc ngun
Iiiig lng khc nh h t nhn, mt tri, ... v chng li coi hi cc loi v t liii
nii tUr.g ng. N goi ra, bn th n vic s dng cc vt liu mi cho php ti t kim
084___________ C h n g 13. xu TH PHT TRIN, LA CHN V s DNG VT LIU
n iig liig. v d. s d iig v t liii nh hn trong dng c m y 110 gim tiii luio
Iihiii liu , n g li k im lo i v n h hiili cho cc b in th cng, su'1 g i m t n hao
i n n n g , ...
S p h t trin cc th i t b th ng tiii v tin hc giii lin vi vt liu ni(i. p hu
tr th n g tin vi m t cao v tin cy cao cn cc v t liu vi tnh nuK cao cho
cc b nh. K t c ii b ixli c th gin n hiii loi vt liu khc nhau: c th cli
to t t n i lip k iin A l-M g hoc iilia bn cao PET; cc phn t ferit t c th l
int pha lip k iin cob aii hoc ferit p hn b d\i trn lp chiraiiie. M t phvng plu)
th n g tin h in i d n g ph bin h in nay l a conipact. S (lng n gu yn t litii
gi kivi p h n t (gin g n h phn t polyiiie trong cu to gen) cho php n h n mt
hm tr ti a.
P h n ///
PH LC

586 PH LC
Ph lc 1
CC H THNG K HIU VT LIU KIM LOI
Mi nc u c tiu chun qui nh cc mc (khiu) cng nh cc yu

cu k thut cho cc sn phm kim loi ca mnh v c cch vit tn cc k
hiu (mc) khc nhau. Ngoi tiu chun Vit Nam nh trnh by. chng ta thng
gp tiu chun quc t, ca cc nc ln trn th gii : M, Nht Bn, Nga, Trung
Quc, Php, c, Anh v.v. v ca EU,
T chc tiu chun Quc t ISO (InternationalStandard O rgani 2 ation) tuy c

a ra cc tiu chun, song qu mun i vi cc nc cng nghip pht trin
v h c h thng k hiu t trc v quen dng, khng d g sa i ; v'i
th' chi' c tc dng vi cc nc ang pht trin, ang xy dng cc tiu chun.
Tiu chun ca N g a rO CT (rocygapcTbeHHbiM Omecol03HwPi CaHgapT), T ru n g

Quc GB (Guji Biozhian - Tiu chun Quc gia) c phn quen thuc nc
ta. Do cc quan h lch s, ni chung TCVN v GB u c xy dng theo cc
nguyn tc ca rOCT.
Di VI thp cn thng dng ;
Cc loi thp chi qui nh (bo m) co tnh ; rOCT c cc mc t C to

n C t6, GB : A1 n A7 (con s chi th t cp bn tng dn. phn
bit thp SI, na lng v lng sau cc mc ca rO C T c ui Kn, nc,
Cn ; ca GB c F, b (thp lng khng c ui);
Cc loi thp qui nh (bo m) thnh phn : rOCT c cc mctBC to

n BCT6. GB : B1 n B7;
Cc loi thp qui nh (bo m) c c tnh ln thnh phn . rOCT c cc

mc t BCti n BCt 5, GB c t C2 n C5.
i vi thp cacbon ch to my rOCT v BG c cc k hiu ging ht

nhau : theo s phn vn cacbon, v d mc 45 l thp c trung bnh 0,45%c.
i vi thp dng c cacbon rO C T c ccmctY7 n Y13, GB c t T7

n T13 (s chi phn nghn cacbon trung bnh).
Di vi thp hp kim c c ch (chi' nguyn t hp kim) ln s (chi lng

cacbon v nguyn t hp kim) theo nguyn tc :
2 s u chi phn vn cacbon (nu khng nh hn 1% c th khng cn);
Tip theo l k hiu ca tng nguyn t v s ch phn trm ca n (nu

gn 1% hay khng nh hn 1% th khng cn).
VT LIU HC 587
rOCT dng cc chO ci Nga k hiu nguyn t hp kim nh sau : X

chi' crm, H : niken, B ; volram, M : mlipen, T : titan, K ; cban, c ; silic, r :
rnangan, p : bo. (t : vanai, K) : nhm. / : ng, B : nibi, : ziccn, A ;
nit, H : t him (ring ch A sau cng chi thp c cht ing cao t p, S).
GB dng chnh k hiu ha hc biu th tng nguyn t, v d Cr cho

crm, Ni cho niken ... Nh 12XH3A, 12CrNi3A l thp c khong 0,12% c, 1% Cr,
khong 3% Ni vi cht iLng cao. XBr, CrVVMn l thp c khong 1%c, khong 1% Cr,
khong 1% Mn, 1% w.
Di vi hp kim mu rO CT k hiu nh s a u :
. Jl chi' uara, tip saul s' th t, AMi' chi hp kim AI, Mg tip sau l s th
t, A.n chi hp kim nhm c tip sau l s th t;
J1 chi' latng, tip sau l s ch phn trm ng. B p chi brng tip sau l
dy cc nguyn t hp kim v dy s chi' phn trm ca cc nguyn t tng
ng.
GB k hiu hp kim mu nh sau :
LF hp kim nhm chng g, LY ; uara (c hai loi, tip sau l s th t).

ZL ; hp kim nhm c vi ba s tip sau (trong s u tin chi loi, v d
1 chi' AI - Si, 2 chi AI - Cu);
H chi' latng, tip sau l s chi' phn trm ng ; Q chi brng, tip sau l
nguyn t hp kim chnh, s chi phn trm ca nguyn t chnh v tng cc
nouyn t khc.
i vi gang rOCT k hiu nh sau :
Cm ch gang xm v s tip theo chi (KQ/rn!P.^), Bm chi gang cu v s

tip theo chi' /, (kG/mm^). Kh chi' gang do vi cc s' chi' b (kG/mm^) v {%).
GB k hiu gang nh sau ;
HT cho gang xm v s tip theo chi , (MPa), QT cho gang cu v cc s

chi /, (MPa) v {%), KTH cho gang do ferit, KTZ cho gang do peclit vcc
s tip theo ch /, (MPa) v (%).
M l nc c rt nhiu h thng tiu chun nn phc tp, song c nh

hng !n i vi th gii (ph bin trong cc sch gio khoa v ti liu k thut,
c bit cc nc ngoi h thng x hi ch ngha c), y chi trnh by
cc mc theo cc h tiu chun thng c dng nht i vi tng loi vt liu
kim loi.
i vi thp cn thng dng thng dng ASTM (American Society for Testing
aid Materials) k hiu theo cc s trn (42, 50, 60, 65) chi Q2 min (ksi)*.
i vi thp HSLA thng dng SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) k hiu

bt u bng s 9 v hai s tip theo chi Q2 iTiiri (ksi).
. 1 ksi = 1000 psi = 6,8948 MPa = 0,703 kG/mm^.

588 PH LC
i vi thp cacbon v hp kim kt cu cho ch to my thng dng h

thng AISI/SAE vi bn s trong hai s u ch loi thp, hai s cui cng chi'
S phn vn cacbon :
lOxx thp cacbon 4xxx thp Mo
11XX thp d ct c s 5xxx thp Cr
12xx thp d ct c s v p 6xxx thp Cr-V
13xx thp Mn (1,00 - 1,765%) 7XXX thp W-Cr
15XX thp Mn (1,75%) 8xxx thp Ni-Cr-Mo
2xxx thp Ni 9xxx thp Si-Mn
3xxx thp Ni-Cr xxBxx thp B
xxLxx thp cha Pb
Mun bit thnh phn c th phi tra bng, v d thp 1038 c 0,35 - 0,42%C;
0,60 - 0,90% Mn; %p < 0,040; %s $ 0,050 cho cc bn thnh phm rn, thanh,
dy. cn nng, cn tinh v ng khng hn; thp 5VO c 0,38 - 0,43%C; 0,70 - 0,90%
Mn; %p 0,035; %s 0,040; 0,15 - 0,30% Si; 0,70 - 0,90% Cr.
Nu thp c bo m thm ti th ng sau k hiu c thm chO H, v

d 5140 H, 1037 H.
i vi thp dng c thng dng h thng ca AISI (American Iron and Steel
Institute) c k hiu bng mt ch ci chi' c im ca thp v s chi th t
quy c ;
M thp gi mlipen
T thp gi volram (tungsten)
H thp lm khun dp nng (hot work)
A thp lm khun dp ngui hp kim trung bnh t ti, ti trong
khng kh (air - hardening)
D thp lm khun dp ngui, crm v cacbon cao
0 thp lm khun dp ngui ti du (oil - hardening)
s thp lm dng c chu va p (shock - resisting)
L thp dng c c cng dng ring hp kim thp (low-alloy)
p thp lm khun p (nha) c cacbon thp
w thp dng c cacbon ti nc (water - hardening)
i vi thp khng gi', tiu chun ca AISI khng nhng thnh hnh M m
cn c nhiu nc a vo tiu chun ca mnh, n c k hiu bng ba ch
s trong bt u bng 2 hoc 3 l thp auxtenit, bng 4 l thp erit hay
mactenxit.
i vi hp kim nhm, tiu chun AA (Aluminum Association) c uy tn nht

M v trn th' gii cng c nhiu nc chp nhn, n k hiu bng bn ch
s i vi loi bin dng:
1xxx ln hn 99% AI 5xxx Al-Mg
VT LIU HC 589
2xxx Al-Cu 6xxx Al-Si-Mg

3xxx Al-Mn 7xxx Al-Zn
4xxx Al-Si 8xxx Al-nguyn t khc
Hp kim nhm c cng c bn ch s song trc s cui (thng l s 0)
c du chm (.) :
1XX.0 nhm sch thng phm
2XX.0 Al-Cu
3XX.0 Al-Si-Cu (Mg)
4XX.0 Al-Si
5XX.0 Al-Mg
7XX.0 Al-Zn
8XX.0 Al-Sn
i vi hp kim ng ngi ta dng h thng CDA (Copper Development
Association) :
Ixx khng nh hn 99% Cu (ring 19x ln hn 97% Cu)
2xx Cu-Zn (latng)
3xx Cu-Zn-Pb
4xx Cu-Zn-Sn
5xx Cu-Sn
60X-64X Cu-AI v C u -A I-n g u y n t khc
65X-69X Cu-Si v Cu-Zn-nguyn t khc
7xx Cu-Ni v C u -N i-n g u y n t khc
Ngoi cc t chc tiu chun trn, M cn hng chc cc t chc khc
cng c k hiu ring v vt liu kim loi, do vy vic phn bit chng rt kh
khn. Xut pht t mun c mt k hiu thng nht cho mi thnh phn c
th, SAE v ASTM t 1967 a ra h thng s thng nht UNS (Unitied
Numbering System) trn co s ca nhng s trong cc k hiu truyn thng. UNS
gm nm con s v ch ng u chi lei vt liu, y chi gii thiu mt s:
A - nhm, c - ng, F - gang, G - thp cacbon v thp hp kim, H - thp bo
m thm ti, s - thp khng gi' v chu nhit, T - thp dng c.
Trong s nm con s s c nhm ba - bn con s (u haycui) ly

t cc k hiu truyn thng k trn (tr gang, thp dng c).
V d. UNS G 10400 xut pht t AISI/SAE 1040 (thp 0,40%C), UNS A 91040
xut pht t AA 1040 (hp kim nhm bin dng c 99,40% AI).
Nht Bn chi' dng mt tiu chun JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards), vi c

im l dng hon ton h o ing quc t, c th l ng sut theo MPa.
Tt c cc thp u c bt u t chd s.
Thp cn thng dng c k hiu bng s chi gii hn bn ko hay gii

hn chy thp nht (ty tng loi), s s - thp cn thng c tc dng chung, SM
38 - VLH
590 PH LC
- thp cn lm kt cu hn, nu thm ch A l SMA - thp chng n mn trong

kh quyn, SB - thp tm lm ni hdi.
Thp cacbon ch to my : SxxC hay SxxCK trong XX chi phn vn

cacbon trung bnh (ch K cui l loi c cht lng cao : lng p, s khng
ln hn 0,025%).
Thp hp kim ch to my gm h thng ch v s :
Bt u bng SCr - thp crm, SMn - thp mangan, SNC - thp niken -
crm, SNCM - thp niken - crm - mlipen, SCM - thp crm - mlipen,
SACM - thp nhm - crm - mlipen, SMnC - thp mangan - crm
Tip theo l ba ch s trong hai ch s cui cng chi' phn vn cacbon

trung bnh .
Thp d ct c k hiu bng SUM, thp n hi SUP, thp ln - SUJ v

s th t.
Thp dng c bt u bng SK v s th t :

SKx - thp dng c cacbon
SKHx - thp gi
SKSx - thp lm dao ct v khun dp ngui
SKD v SKT - thp lm khun dp nng, c p lc.
Thp khng g c k hiu bng s u s v s tip theo trng vi s ca AISI,
thp chu nhit c k hiu bng SUH.
Gang xm c k hiu bng FCxxx, gang cu PCDxxx, gang do li en -

PCMBxxx, li trng - FCMWxxx, peclit-PCMPxxx, cc s XXX u ch gii hn bn.
Cc hp kim nhm v ng c nhm s ly theo AA v CDA vi pha trc

c A {chnhm), c (chi ng).
Php v Dc c tiu chun AFNOR (Association Prancaise de NORmalisation)

v DIN (Deutsche Institut fr Normalisierung), chng c nhiu nt ging nhau.
Php, c cng nh cc nc trong lin minh chu u EU ang trn qu trnh

nht th ha kinh t cng nh tiu chun. Hin nay cc nc trong EU dng
chung tiu chun EN 10025 - 90 v thp cn thng dng lm kt cu xy dng
vi cc mc Fe 310, Fe 360, Fe 430, Fe 510, Fe 590 (s chi' gii hn bn ko theo
MPa).
Thp cacbon ch to my c k hiu theo sphn vn cacbon trung

bnh. V d, vi thp c khong 0,35%c AFNOR k hiul C35 hay XC35 (mc
sauc dao ng thnh phn hp hn), DIN k hiu C35 hay CK35.
Thp hp kim thp (loi khng c nguyn t no vt qu 5%) c k hiu

theo trt t sau :
hai ch s u biu th lng cacbon trung bnh theo phn vn;

VT LIU HC 591
lit k cc nguyn t hp kim : DIN dng chnh k hiu ha hc, cn AFNOR

dng cc ch ci : c cho crm, N cho niken, M cho mangan, s cho silic,
D cho molipen, w cho volram, V cho vanai;
lit k ing cc nguyn t hp kim theo trt t. sau khi nhn s phn
trm vi 4 (i vi Mn. Si, Cr, Ni, Co) v 10 (i vi ccnguyn t cn
li). V d, 34 CD4 ca AFNOR v 34 CrMo 4 ca DIN ckhong 0,34%c,
khong 1% Cr v khong 0,10% Mo.
Bng PL 1.1. i chiu mt s mc thp, gang ca cc nc
TCVN lO C T GB UNS AISl/SAE JIS AFNOR DIN BS
C45 45 45 G10450 1045 S45C XC45 C45 060A45

40Cr 40X 40Cr G51400 5140 SCr440 42C4 4lCr4 530A40
OL100Cr2 U4X15 GCr15 G52986 42100 SUJ2 100C6 lOOCre 535A99
20Cr13 20X13 2X13 S42000 420 SUS420J1 Z20C13 X20Cr13 420S29
08Cr18Nil0 08X18H90 0Cr18Ni9 S30200 304 SUS304 Z7CN18.09 X15Cr-Ni18- 304S31
CDIOO Y10 TX) T72301 W109 SK4 Y1-90 10 -
210Cr12 X12 Cr12 T30403 D3 SKD1 Z200C12 C105W1 BD3
80W l8Cr4V P18 W18Cr4V T12001 T, SKH2 Z80WCV X210Cr12 BT1
18-04-01 s 18-0-1
ASTM
CT34 Ct2 A2 . 36 SS330 F3360 Fe360 Fe360

GX28-48 Cm30 HT300 P12803 No40 FC300 FGL300 GG30 260
GC50-2 BM50 QT500-7 F33800 8055-06 FCD500 FGS500-7 GGG50 B500/7
Thp hp kim cao (loi c t nht mt nguyn t vt qu 5%) th trc k

hiu c ch z (AFNOR), X (DIN) v ing nguyn t hp kim u biu th ng
theo phn trm, v d, Z20C13 (AFNOR), X20 Cr13 (DIN) l mc thp khng gi c
khong 0,20% c v khong 13% Cr.
AFNOR k hiu gang xm bng PGLxxx, gang cu bng FGSxxx-xx v gang

do MBxxx-xx, trong nhm ba con s u chi' gii hn bn ko theo MPa, nhm
hai con s sau chi gin di (%).
DIN k hiu gang xm bng GGxx, gang cu bng GGGxx v gang do li

en GTSxx-xx, gang do li trng GTWxx-xx vi cc s biu th gii hn bn theo
kG/mm^ v gin di (%).
Anh vi tiu chun BS (British Standard) k hiu thp v gang nh sau.

Thp c k hiu bng h thng ch v s ;
ba con s u chi' loi thp;
mt ch : A, M. H {trong H chi' thp bo m thm ti);
hai con s sau cng chi' phn vn cacbon.

592 PH LC
Gang xm k hiu bng XXX, gang cu bng xxx/xx, gang do li en bng

Bxx-xx, gang do li trng bng Wxx-xx, gang do peclit bng Pxx-xx, trong
nhm s th nht chi' gii hn bn ko theo MPa hay kG/mm^ ty theo c ba
hay hai con s, nhm s' th hai chi' dn di theo %.
Thp khng gi c k hiu bng xxxSxx, trong XXX ly theo AISI.
Ph lc 2
XC NH CC CH TIU c TNH THUNG GP
C nhiu phng php th nghim nh gi kh nng chu ti ca vt liu

song y chi' trnh by cc phng php thng dng hon c l : th ko, th
va p v o cng. Dc im chung ca cc phng php ny l mu th
khng i hi cao, thi gian th ngn v thit b khng qu phc tp.
PL 2.1. TH KO
Th ko l phng php tc ng t t ln mu c ch to theo tiu chun

(c ct ra t bn thnh phm hay thnh phm) mt ti trng ko cho n khi
mu t ri. xc nh cc ng sut tng ng vi cc t bin v cc thay
i cui cng v kch thc mu. Qua xc nh c hai c trng c tnh l :
bn ; gm gii hn n hi. gii hn chy v gii hn bn-.
do : gm gin di tong i v tht tong i.
Trong cc trng hp khc nh nn, un, xon, ct phi ghi r php th, v
d gii hn bn nn.
PL 2.1.1. MU TH
Mun th ko u tin phi c mu th c chn theo nhng qui nh ring

(dc hay ngang th, ch no trn sn phm v.v.) v c hnh dng,kch thc
theo tiu chun. Ni chung mi nc u qui n h mu th ko c dng mt ct
ngang l trn, vung, ch nht nh trn hnh PL 2.1, hay lc lng, tm cnh, thm
ch c ng ...
Ngoi hai u c tit din ln hn kp, cn ch n kch thc ca

phn gia tit din khng i hay cn gi l phn lm vic;
L - chiu di phn lm vic ca mu (phn c tlt din khng i);

Lq - chiu di tnh ton ban u ca mu,
L- - chiu di tnh ton saukhi mu t (trn hnh v khng c);
Q - ng knh ban u ti phn lm vic ca mu,
- ng knh nh nht ca mu sau kN t (khng c trn hnh v).
ao, chiu dy, chiu rng ca tit din ban u ti phn lm vic ca mu.
VyT LIU HC 593
0)

-oo
t>)
Hnh PL 2.1. Mu th ko dng trc trn (a) v dng tm (b)
Tiu chun th ko ca Vit Nam c qui nh TCVN 197-65 vi kch thc

mu th nh sau ;
chiu di tnh ton ban du L q ca mu trn c ly theo hai mc

Lq = 5,65}[f^ hay Lq = 5O - loi mu ngn
Lq = hay /-0 = 10Q - loi mu di
(Fo - din tch mt ct ngang ban u phn lm vic ca mu).

cc mu c ct t cc tm kim loi c chiu dy t 0,5 n 3 mm, kch
thc mu c chn nh sau (theo mm):
Chiu dy mu 3o chiu rng mu q chiu di tnh ton Lo

0.5 - 2 12,5 50
2 - 3 20.0 80
> 3 = 8
chiu di lm vic ca mu nm trong gii hn ;

mu trn L = Lq + (0,5 -- 2) o
mu tm L = Lq + (0-5 ^ 2) bo (vi loi c ao < 5 mm).
phi c gc ln u ti ch chuyn tip gia phn lm vic v phn kp
vo ngm cp.
mu th c gia cng trn my ct kim loi vi nhm phn lm vic

< 0,63 m (mu trn) v Ra ^ 2,5 //m (mu tm) theo TCVN 2551- 78.
594 PH LC
Nh vy theo TCVN 197-85 mu th ko khng c kch thc chun c th,

hay ni khc i c th c nhiu kch thc o min l tun theo cc qui nh k
trn.
Tiu chun ASTM E8M-90a qui cmh cc mu th ko nh sau.
Di vi loi mu trn ASTM qui nh mt mu tiu chun v bn mu nh

hon t l vi mu tiu chun. Tt c u tun theo qui lut; chiu di tnh ton
ban u ca mu gp nm ln ng knh mu (Lq = 50 tong ng vi h mu
ngn ca TCVN). Mu th c k hiu theo gi tr ca o theo mm (hay in).
Mu chun 12,5 hay 0,500 c Q = 12,5 mm hay 0,500 in.
Cc mu nh t l l : 9 hay 0,350; 6 hay 0,250; 4 hay 0,160; 2,5 hay 0,113.
i vi loi mu tm ASTM qui nh hai mu chun v mt mu nh vi kch

thiic nh sau :
Mu chun Mu chun Mu b
40 mm hay ^V2 in 12,5 mm hay 1/2 in 6 mm hay 1/4 in
Lo 200,00,2 8,000,01 50,00,1 2,0000,005 25,00,1 1,000,003
" 40,02,0 lya+l/B -lM ) 12,50,2 0,5000,010 6,00,1 0,2500,005
3o chiu dy ca vt liu
ASTM cng c nhng qui nh ring i vi hp kim nhm, magi, cng nh
cho cc l (foil) kim loi.
Tiu chun JIS qui cnnh 14 nhm mu th ko ln, trong c qui nh cht
ch v hnh dng, kch thc v sn phm c p dng, cc chi tiu c tnh o
c cn ghi ch r l c th theo mu no. Tt c mu th ca J1S u thuc
h mu ngn.
Kch thc mu th ko c nh hng nht nh n kt qu xc nh cc

ch tiu v bn cng nh do, hy ch n iu ny khi so snh cc ti
liu k thut t cc ngun khc nhau.
PL 2.1.2. BIU KO V XC NH CC CH TIU
Biu ko
Sau khi a mu vo my th ko vn nng hay chuyn dng s xy dng
c biu ko v t c th xc nh cc gi tr ca bn v do.
Biu ko biu th quan h gia ti trng t vo v di thm ca mu. Cc
dng in hnh ca chng c trnh by hnh PL 2.2.
bn
bn l chi tiu co bn nht, n biu th cc kh nng (sc chu ng)
chng li bin dng do hay ph hu ca vt liu. Theo gi tr tng dn s ln
lt c gii hn n hi, gii hn chy, gii hn bn. Khi xc nh cc gii hn
ny ngi ta dng khi nim ng sut qui c (ti trng chia cho din tch mt
cd ngang ban u) khng tnh n s gim din tch mt ct ngang trong khi
ko.
VT LIU HC 595
b) c)
0)
Hnh PL 2.2. Dng biu ko ca cc thp cacbon thp (a),

cacbon trung bnh (b), cacbon cao (c)
Gii hn dn hi (hay cn gi l gii hn t l) hay ' ng ^ t qui

c ln nht m ti biu ko vn cn quan h ng thng, hay l khi b
ti trng mu,,tr li cc kch thc ban u (tc khng c bin dng d):
hay Re = - r '
''
trong Pg - ti trng ng vi im a - im cao nht trn on thng ca biu
ko (hnh 2a);
- din tch mt ct ngang ban du ua Ii)u.
Trong thc t vi nhiu vt liu kim loi rt kh xc nh ti trng Pg mt
cch chnh xc v s bin i t thng sang cong khng xy ra t ngt. Ngi
ta qui c xc nh Pg nh sau :
ti trng ti im c tang ca gc to bi tip tuyn vi biu ko v

trc ti trng t vo tng ln 50% so vi tang cng ca gc ti phn
n hi. hay
ti trng tng ng khi b n bin dng d l khng ng k v b

hn gi tr cho trc (thng thng ng vi gin di tng i l 0,001 :
0 .0 0 3 h o c 0 ,0 0 5 % ), i khi c h i s ny c ghi km th e o , v d QOOS-
Tr mt s vt liu cn tnh n hi (nh thp hoc hp kim lm nhp,l

xo), ngi ta t xc nh ch tiu ny.
Gii hn chy ch l sut qui c m vt liu bt u "chy", tc

tip tc bin dng vi ng sut khng i tng ng vi on nm ngang trn
biu ko (hnh PL 2.2a v b). Nhiu vt liu khng c on "chy" ny, lc
phi xc cinh gii hn chy qui c Q2 hay fo 2 ' sut qui c m
gin di d tng i (tc sau khi b ti trng) l 0,2%:
596 PH LC
0,2
,0.2 hay R0.2 , MPa,
trong pQ2 ~ t' trng t vo ng vi khi b n d gin di d tng i l

0,2% (hnh PL 2.3a).
Hnh PL 2.3. Biu ko xc nh gii hn chy qui c 0,2 (a)

v gii hn chy theo i lng bin dng ton phn khi tng ti 05 (b)
Gii hn chy ca cc vt liu thng tnh theo Q2 hay Rq 2 - Ngoi ra :n

gp gii hn chy tng ng vi i lng bin dng ton phn quy c Q5
fo 5. n l ng sut qui c ng vi ti trng t vo ti gin di tn
phn tng i (khc vi gin di d tng i) l 0.5% (hnh PL 2.3b);
P
'
MPa .
trong p,p - ti trng ng vi gin di ton phn tng i tc th l

0,5%.
Gii hn bn b hay (TCVN 197-85 gi l gi tr bn tc thi) l ing
sut qui c tng ng vi lc ko ln nht m mu chu ng c trc khi
t:
Ph
b hay , MPa .
'()
trong P|3 - ti trng tc dng ln nht ln mu trn biu ko (hnh PL2..c).
So vi gii hn n hi v gii hn chy, gii hn bn d xc nh hor v
o ti trng Pb khng lin quan n vic o chnh xc bin dng.
do
do c xc nh bng s thay i kch thc (chiu di v mt : t

ngang) ca mu sau khi b ko t so vi trng thi ban u.
VT LIU HC 597
gin di tng di (sau khi t) hay A (Allongement) hay EL (Elongation)

l t s tnh theo phn trm gia gin di tuyt i ca mu sau khi t vi
chiu di tnh ton ban u ;
. " -o
<5 hay A hay EL = ---------- . 100 % .
Trong cc ti liuk thut ca Lin X c v Nga, cc gi tr ca cho theo

niu di, nu th theo mu ngn phic chi" s km theo, v d, <55.
D tht tng di (sau khi t) V' hay z hay AR (Area Reduction), l t s

tiVih theo phn trm gia tht tuyt i ca mu sau khit vi din tch mt
ct ngang ban u :
-F ,
l' hay 2 hat AR = -------- , 100%,
^(
trong Fq - din tch mt ct ngang ban u ca mu;
F- - din tch mt ct ngang sau khi t ca mu ( ch gy, c tht).
PL 2.2. TH VA P
Th va p l phdng php tc dng nhanh (nn gi l va p) ln mu

(phn ln l c kha) c ch' to theo tiu chun (c ct ra t bn thnh
phm hay thnh phm) mt ti trng lm cho mu b gy. v xc nh cng
cn thit gy ra s ph hu . Th va p l cch nh gi kh nng ph
hu gin ca vt liu cng nh kh nng lm vic di ti trng va p.
PL 2.2.1. Mu th
Mun th va p u tin phi c mu th c chn theo nhng qui mh
ring (dc hay ngang th. v tr no trn sn phm) v c hnh dng kch thc
theo tiu chun. Ni chung cc nc u qui nh mu th l mt thanh c tit
din vung 10 X 10 mm vi chiu di 55 mm hoc 75 mm, chng khc nhau ch
yu l hnh dng vkchthc ca vt kha trn mu, ni to ra tp trung ng
sut ph hy gin.
C hai cch th va p v km theo l hai dng mu th : loi Charpy

(di 55 mm) v loi lzod (di 75 mm).
TCVN 312-69 qui nh mt mu chnh (hnh PL2.4a) v bn mu ph (hnh

PL2.4b,c,d,e)),
cc nc phng ty cn dng cch th lzod vi mu th c trnh by

hnh PL2.5.
PL2.2.2. S th v xc nh nng k/ng ph hy

S d th
So th va p c biu din trn hnh PL2.6. Ba vi khi lng p c

th roi t cao h, pvomu ri lm v n, v th ch trv ti cao h < h.
598 PH LC
_ SS^ _ Wto.w . rOCT ASTM JIS

StSU-ia 23 2 2203
) * - ^ iL KCU No 3
I.------- ~~7~jv~q--------
z7.5ffl.tz 7 r si
)
-^-4-=
i Type
c) i 4 - c No.s
s RO.i5tO.O5
i Type
d) KCV NoA
:-------- A
------------^
i^5tz
Ktio. ,
SiD.W
Hnh PL 2,4. Mu th va p (Charpy) theo TCVN 312-69

v cc k hiu tng ng theo rOCT, ASTM, JIS
0_ ,
1 ]
75
Hnh PL 2.5. Mu th lzod theo ASTM E23 (Type D)

Nng ing va p dng ph hy mu c xc nh theo cng thc:
= p . h - p . h' = p (h - h) .
Mu th Charpy v lzod c gn khc nhau vo my. Nu mu Charpy c
hai gi th mu lzod chi c kp cht mt u.
Nng lng ph hy v d dai va dp
Do mu c chun ha hon ton nn nng ing ph hy do vap

trn mu c trng c cho dai ca vt liu.
Nng lng (ph hy do) va p theo cng thc trn c tnh theo n v
cng. Trc y thng o th e o kG.m, th e o h quc t SI c o bng J
(U = 1N.m), M vn dng h thng Anh
Trong cc qui nh ca TCVN, rOCT, GB,. cn c khi nim v dai va p

a^, n l cng cn thit ph hy mt n v din tch, mt ct ngang ca mu
ch c rnh:
VT LIU HC 599
Nm/cm^/cm^ hay kJ/m^
cn n v c trc y l kG.m/cm^
Hnh PL 2.6. S th va p : a- cch g mu lzod;

b - cch g mu Charpy; c - s thit b v qu trnh th
Trc y Lin X c k hiu dai va p bng an, song rOCT 9454-78

qui nh k hiu bng KCU, KCV, KCT tu thuc kiu rnh ca mu. Trung Quc
cng k hiu dai va p bng a^.
Cc nc phng ty chi' dng nng lng va p, thng dng n v nng
lung CVN (Charpy-V-Notch) tnh theo on v ft.lbf (1 fl.lbf = 1,355 J).
Cn ch rng rnh c nh hng rt ln n nng ing va p v dai
va p. Rnh cng su v gc cng hp (gc ln R cng nh) cc gi tr o
c cng thp.
PL2.3. TH DAI PH HY
Th dai ph hy l phong php tc ng mt lc ko ln mu c vt

kha v nt mi cho n khi b ph hy. l phng php th co tnh quan trng
v c dng ngy mt rng ri.
600 PH LC
Tuy c dai ph hy ln dai va p u xc nh kh nng chng ph

hy gin ca vt liu, song v bn cht dai va p chi' l nh tnh v c tc
dng khi so snh cc vt liu vi nhau, v bn cht, dai ph hy c tnh nh
ing, biu th c tnh ca tng vt liu v c s dng trong tnh ton, thit
k. Gia hai i lng ny khng c s tong quan. Tuy nhin th dai ph
hu khng n gin nh th dai va p, hn na thit b v mu li t hn.
Ton b quy nh v th dai ph hy bin dng phng (plane-strain

racture toughness) K|0 c trnh by ASTM E399-90. y chi' nu rt s lc.
Trn hnh PL2.7 chi' trnh by mt dng mu th dai ph hy : mu khi

(compact) c rnh kha thng vi hai l lp cc trc ngm ko. Ni chung
mu th u c dng tm vi rnh kha khc nhau, ri bng cch tc ng ti
trng thay i theo chu k gy nn vt nt mi vi yu cu :
Hnh PL 2.7. Mu ngn th dai ph hy theo ASTM E399-90
Vt nt mi to thnh phi cng chiu vi rnh kha v chy di trn mt

chiu dy ca mu B = W/2.
Trn c hai b mt ngoi, vt nt mi trn b mt no cng phi n su

vo t nht l 1,3 mm.
Chiu di nt a (bng rnh ban u v nt mi) phi bng chiu dy B

ca mu hay t 0,45 n 0,55 w. T s W/B thng bng 2 (i vi mu
chun). Tin hnh th dai ph hu phc tp hon nhiu so vi th
dai va p.
VOr LIU HC 601
Phi c thit b o dch chuyn ca chiu rng rnh kha N v ghi ii mt

cch t ng biu quan h ti trng tc dng - dch chuyn nh
biu th hnh 4,29b/
Xc nh ti trng Pq (tng ng vi Fq trn hnh 4.29b) theo cc qui tc

nht nh, ri sau tnh ra Kq theo cc cng thc qui nh ring cho
tng loi mu,
Kim tra gi tr ca Kq trong mi quan h vi Q2- Nu ph hp theo

qui cnh th gi tr Kq k trn c coi l K|Q.
Nu gi tr Kq khng ph hp phi tin hnh li trn mu khc c chiu

dy B ln hn.
PL2.4. 0 0 CNG
PL2.4.1. c im
Do cng l phdng php xc nh c tnh ngin nht, c dng ph

bin nht v cng c nhng ngha quan trng.
Ngi ta o cng bng cch n (p) ln b mt vtliu mt mi m

lmbng vt liu cng hu nh khng b bin dng do (thp ti cng, hp kim
cng, kim cong) bng mt ti trng xc nh. Khi b ti, mi m s li trn
vt liu mt vt lm : vt lm cng to hoc cng su thi gi tr cng cng
thp.
Vy cng l kh nng chng li bin dng do ca vt liu thng qua tc

dng ca mi m.
D cng c nhng c im sau ;
cng chi biu th kh nng chng lj bin dng do ca b mt ch

khng phi ca ton sn phm, nu vt liu c cu trc khng ng nht
(gia b mt v li);
cng biu th kh nng chng mi mn ca vt liu, cng cng cao

tnh chng mi mn cng tt,
cng c quan h nht nh vi gii hn bn ko v kh nng gia cng

ct;
o cng n gin hn nhiu so vi th ko v va p : mu nh v

n gin (c th o ngay sn phm), nhanh (thi gian chi vi chc giy),
khng ph hu v c th thc hin trn cc vt mng, thit b th nh gn
hn v r hn.
Chnh v vy o cng c dng thng xuyn trong sn xut v nghin

cu. C hai loi cng : th i v t vi. cng ni chung u l cng
th i v mi m ln lm bin dng nhiu ht v pha, nn cng o
dc phn nh kh nngchng li bin dng do ca tp hp pha. Khi o
cng t vi phi dng mi m nhvi ti trng nh. tc dng vo tng pha (ht)
602 PH LC
ring r vi s tr gip ca knh hin vi quang hc. Cch ny phc tp hn v

chi' dng trong nghin cu khoa hc. CXJi y trnh by cc phong php xc
nh cng (th i).
PL 2.4.2. cng Brinen
cng Brinen l s th nguyn (kG/mm^- n v c hoc i ra MPa) c

xc nh khi p mt vin bi tiu chun di ti trng p xc nh (tnh ra kG) ln
b mt vt liu, sau khi b ti trng bi s li mt vt lm VI din tch mt
p
trong lm F (tnh ra mm^), (hnh PL 2.8a). s o Brinen HB tnh theo t s hay:
p ___________ 2P_________
HB =
jiD
trong p - ti trng p ln bi, kG :

o - ng knh ca vin bi, mm;
d - ng knh ca vt lm, mm.
vi ti trng p v ng knh vin bi D c nh th kt qu o ch cn
ph thuc vo ng knh vt lm d (c xc nh bng knh lp c thc mu
ti chnh xc 0,05 mm) nh biu th hnh PL2.8b .
0 I 2 3 5 b 7
b)
Hnh PL 2.8. S o cng Brinen (a) v o ng knh

vt lm bng lp c thc mu (b)
TCVN 256-85 quy nh o cng Brinen nh sau :
Vin bi em dng c ng knh D : 10; 5; 2,5; 2 v 1 mm v c cng

khng nh hn 850 HV (Ihng lm bng thp cacbon ti cng).
Ti trng c chn ph thuc vo ng knh vin bi v loi vt lij. T

s PID^ c chn nh sau;
30 - cho thp v gang,
10 - cho ng, niken v cc hp kim ca chng,
5 - cho nhm, magi v cc hp kim ca chng,
yT LIU HC 603
2,5 - cho hp kim talt,

1 - cho thic, ch v hp kim ca chng.
Thi gian gi (duy tr) ti trng cngtng ln nu nhit chy ca vt
liu cng thp : thp, gang - 10 - 15s; Cu, AI, Ni - 30s; Sn, Pb - 60 - 180sj
Mu th phi c b mt nhn, phng, c chiu dy ln, vt lm cch

xanhau v cch mp (3 -i- 6),
D cng iu kin tiu chun (P =3000 kG. D = 10 mm, thi gian gi ti

trng 15s) c k hiu n gin bi HB v s o (khng cn ghi th nguyn),
v d HB 229. Khi o cc iu kin khc(phitiu chun) th phi ghi r cc
iu kin , v d th vi bi 5 mm, ti trng 750 kG, thi gian gi 20s s c
ghi^ 8 5 /750/20 vi s o. v d HS5/750/20 229.
T cng HB c th suy ra gii hn bn ko (kG/mm^) ca mt s hp

kim nh sau :
Thp (tr thp khng gi', bn nng) |3 ~ 0,344 HB
Thp c b = (0-3 - 0,4) HB
HB - 40
Gang xm b =
6
ng, latng, brng trng thi bin cng b = 0,40 HB
trng thi b = 0-55 HB
uara b = 0,35 HB
Tuy nhin cng HB khng c dng trong cc trng hp sau :
Vt liu c cng cao hon HB 450 (tc chi' p dng cho loi c cng
thp, trung bnh ; khng p dng cho thp ti).
Lp ha bn qu mng, lp ti b mtha nhit luyn,v chiu su vt

lm vt qu chiu dy ha bn;
Chi tit my c b mt cong (trc ng knh nh);
Khng nhanh v tin li bng cch o Rcven.
PL 2.4.3. O cng Rcven
D cng Rcven c p ng rt rng ri trong sn xut v nhanh, tin li

(cho ngay kt qu trn my), o c cc vt liu t mm n cng, vt lm nh
khng nh hng n b mt lm vic, c th o cc vt mng, nhvngay trn
thnh phm.
Khc vi cng Brinen, cng Rcven l loi cng qui c (khng c

th nguyn) xc nh bng chiu su gy ra bi tc dng ca ti trng chnh
P-I t vo ri b i (khng phi bng ti trng tng gy nn) nh biu th hnh
PL 2.9.
Gi tr ca cng Rcven c tnh t cng thc HR = k - e,

tro n g - chiu su qui c k = 100 ivicc tha ng A, c, D v super
604 PH LC
k = 130 i vi cc thang cn li (dng mi bi),

e = 0,002 mm i vi cc thang thng thng,
0,001 mm i vi cc thang super.
Khi o cng Rcven bao gi cng c hai ln tc ng ti trng. Thot
tin tc ng ti trng s b Pq (10 kG vi cc thang thng v 3 kG vi cc
thang super), chiu su vt lm tnh t y. Sau tc ng ti trng chnh
ri b ti trng ny. tnh su thm do cc tc ng ny.
Mi m c hai loi ; kim cng

v thp. Mi kim cng c hnh nn vi
gc iVih l 120 v bn knh cong
R = 0,2 mm dng o cc vt liu
tong i cng, cng v rt cng. Mi
thp c dng bi trn vl ng knh
1/16, 1/4 v 1/2 in o cc vt liu
mm v cng trung bnh ( 250 HB).
C nhiu thang o cng Rcven

ty thuc vo loi mi m v ti trng
tc dng, nh trnh by bng PL 2.1.
/ / / *
TCVN 257-65 v 41170-85 ch qui Mu o
nh cho cc thang A,B,C,N v T. Trong
thc t dng nhiu nht cc thang B
(HRB), A (HRA) v c (HRC). Hnh PL 2.9. V tr tng i gia mi
m v mu o cc thi im o :
HRB (dng bi th p ng knh 00 - lc cha o;
1/16 in hay 1,588 mm v p = 100 kG) 11 - ti
tai trng sO
so b
b / o ;
p dng ch o cc vt liu mm v 22 - thm ti trong chnh / ) ;
33 b ti trng chnh / i
cng va vi cng HV trong khong
60 - 240 hay HRB 25 - 100. Thng p ng cho thp, gang sau khi , hp kim
ng, Iihm.
Bng PL 2.1. Cc thang o d cng Rcven
Ti trong tng Ti trng tng

Thang Mi m / = / ' + /* kG Thang Mi dm r = / o + kG
Rcven thng thng Super Rcven
A kim cng 60 15N kim cng 15

B bi 1/16 in 100 30N kim cng 30
c kim cng 150 45N kim cng 45
D kim cng 100 15T bi 1/16 in 15
E bi 1/8 in 100 30T bi 1/16 in 30
F bi 1/15 in 60 45T bi 1/16 in 45
G bi 1/16 in 150 15W bi 1/18 in 15
H bi 1/8 in 60 30W bi 1/8 in 30
K bi 1/8 in 150 45W bi 1/8 in 45
VT LIU HC 605
D cng HRC (mi kim cng v p = 150 kG) c S dng nhiu nht cho
cc vt liu c cng trung bnh v cao vi cng HV trong khong 240 7- 700
hay HRC 20 H- 67. Thng p dng cho thp, gang sau khi ti v ram.
cng HRA (mi kim cng v p = 60 kG) thng chi' c s dng cho
cc vt liu rt cng vi cng cao hn HV 700 nh hp kim cng, lp thm
xyanua m lc ny o thang HRC khng chnh xc. Phm vi o ca thang ny t
HV 360 n 900 hay HRA 70 ^ 85.
o chnh xc cng ca lp dy di 0,30 mm phi dng cc thang

super vi cc ti trng t vo nh hn.
PL 2.4.4. cng Vicke
L loi cng c phong php o tong t nh Brinen, song chi khc

nhOng im sau :
mi m lm bng kim cng, hnh thp bn mt u vi gc inh giOa

hai mt i din l 136 (hnh PL 2,10).
ti trng tc dng nh, t 1 n 100 kG. trong mc 30 kG vi thi gian

gi ti trng 10 - I5s c coi l iu kin tiu chun.
khi n mi hnh thp, t l gia cc ngcho vt lm nhn c khi

thay i ti trng lun lun khng i, iu ny cho php tng hay gim
ti trng ty thuc vo mc ch nghin cu.
V v y c ng
Vicke c dng o
cng cc vt liu t
rt mm n rt cng
v i l p c n o r t
mng (c th ti 0,04 TO
-- 0,06 mm) trong cc
mu mng (0,3 ^ 0,5
m m ), c c o i l
cng chun trong
nghin cu khoa hc.
Hnh PL 2.10. Mi m hnh thp (a) v vt lm
S o cng (b) khi o cng bng phong php Vicke
Vi cke c xc nh
theo cng thc :
2P sin-
.. p 2 p
w = - = ----- 5 = 1,854 ^ kG/mm
trong p - ti trng. kG;

a = 136 (gc gia hai mt i din ca mi thp);
d - gi tr trung bnh s hc ca hai ng cho vt lm, mm.
D cng iu kin tiu chun chi cn vit vn tt bng HV v s o. v d
HV300 (khng cn ghi th nguyn). cng iu kin phi tiu chun th phi
39 - VLH
606 PH LC
ghi thm cc iu kin HVyQ20 300 l cng HV khi o bng ti trng 10 kG

vi thi gian gi ti trng 30s l 300 kG/mm^.
cng Vicke c dng c trong cng tvi.
PL 2.4.5. cng Knoop
Cch o cng Knoop cng ging nh o Vicke song vi mim klm

cng hnh thp c cu to sao cho vt o li c dng hnhth o i (hnh
PL 2 11).
------- ---------
L/b = 7,1(
b / t - 4.00 /
o)
b)
Hnh PL 2.11. Mi m hnh thp (a^ v hnh dng vt lm (b)

nh vc p dng in hnh cng Knoop l cho cc vt liu gin nh gm.
cng Knoop c k hiu l HK vi s o (c th nguyn kG/mm^) c xc
nh theo cng thc
p p
HK = - = 14.2^ , kG/mm^ .
trong / - gi tr di ln nht ca vt lm, mm.
PL 2.4.6. cng t vi
Dy l phng php xc nh cng ca tng pha ring l theo nguyn l

ca phong php Vicke, nhng s dng ti trng rt nh (t vi gam n vi trm
gam) v o kch thc vt lm phi dng h thng knh hin vi c thc o
micromet. Phng php ny dng ch yu trong cng tc nghin cu xc nh
bn cht cc pha cng nh s phn b vi m ca cng.
Ph lc 3
PHN TCH T CHC T VI
T chc t vi l hnh nh b mt mu nhn thy bng knh hin vi. Knh hin
vi em dng c th l quang hc (dng nh sng thng - tc nh sng trng
hoc tia cc tm) hay in t. y ch gii thiu t chc t vi quan st c
bng knh hin vi quang hc vi nh sng trng, l loi dng c quang hc tng
i n gin v c dng ph bin trong sn xut. Nh bit, c tnh, tnh cng
VT LIU HC 607
ngh cng nh tnh cht l - ha ca vt liu khng nhng ph thuc vo thnh

phn ha hc m cn ph thuc rt nhiu vo t chc t vi ca n.
Nhim v ca phn tch t chc t vi l :
Xc nh bn cht cc pha cu to nn vt liu thng qua cc c im

ca chng trn t chc t vi,
Xc nh ln cc ht cng nh s lng, hnh dng, kch thc v s

phn b' ca cc pha, nh c th xc nh gn ng tnh cht ca vt
liu.
Sau y trnh by qu trnh phn tch t chc t vi.
PL3.1. CH TO MU
PL3.1.1. Chn mu
Thng thng mu c ct t cc lot sn phm hay bn thnh phm, ly
ch no v mt ct theo hng no (vung gc hay dc th, b mt hay
gia) l ty theo yu cu phn tch. D iu tra nguyn nhn h hng, gy v
mu c ly ngay ch gy v, trong nhiu trng hpi vi tit din nh v
vt liu gin c th b gy quan st.
PL3.1.2. Mt gy v t chc th i
Ouan st b' mt kim loi ch gy, v (gi l mt gy) bng mt thng
c th thy c mt s dng khuyt tt ln nh ht qu to v to, cc vt nt
r ln c kch thc khng nh hon 0,3 mm l gii hn phn gii ca mt.
Sau khi mi nhn mt gy bng mi. giy nhm, tm thc (n mn nh)

bng cc dung dch thch hp s c mt mu nhn th itrn ni ln t
chc uc gi l t chc th i v thng c quan st bng knh lp v
phng i nh hn 30 ln. Nh c th pht hin c nh khi quan st bng
mt thng cc khuyt tt c kch thc nh hn, Nh tm thc trn t chc th
i s ni ln cc dng khng ng nht nh thin tch (nhnh cy, vng), th,
lp ti cng hay ha nhit luyn.
PL 3.1.3. Mu nhn t vi
Vic nghin cu t chc t vi ca kim loi cng nh cc vt liu khng trong
sut khc chi' c th da vo nh sng phn x t cc b mt cn nghin cu,
do vy b' mt mu phi c ch to cn thn. NhGng mu nh c b mt nh
vy c gi l mu nhn t vi.
Mu thng c b mt nghin cu khong mt vi cm^. cao khong 1,5-r2 cm

hay hn mt cht d cm khi mi. Mu c th c ct ra khi sn phm
Dng ca hay bng mi ct dng a. nu mu qu nh c th dng kp hay
nha.
Trc tin b mt nghin cu thng c mi v giy rp t th n tinh.

Sau khi mi nh th mu vn cn vt xc nn phi mi bng c hc trn d,
608 PH LC
n c tm dung dch bt mi crm hoc nhm oxyt hay bng in phn. Mu dc

coi l t yu cu khi b mt phng v nhn bng gn nh gng c kh nng
phn x nh sng tt.
Bc tip theo l bi (nhng) mt mi bng bng dung dch n mn nh

hay cht tm thc, gy nn n mn cc pha (c cu trc khc nhau) vi tc
khc nhau to nn nhp nh hoc mu sc cho chng, do c kh nng
phn x khc nhau.
PL 3.2. KNH HIN VI KIM LOI HC V T CHC T VI
Knh hin vi sinh vt hc cho nh sng i qua mu, cn knh hin vi kim
loi hc dng nguyn tc phn x nh sngt b mt mu. Knh c h thng
vt knh, th knh, nhng c thm chm tia sng song song chiu vung gc vo
b mt mu nhn t vi, Cc tia ti gp mt phng ngang s phn x li vung
gc vi mt mu qua vtknh, th knh ti mt nn ta thy sng, cc tia ti gp
mt nghing phn x li s khng i vo vt knh v khng ti mt nn ta thy
ti.
Nu mu c mi bng th ton b nh sng c phn x li v chi thy

sng (hnh PL3.1a) tr mt s pha khng phn x nh sng nhu gratit trong gang. Nu
mu c tm thc th vng bin gii b n mn nhanh hdn nn lm xung, to
Hinh PL 3.1. S phn x nh sng t b mt mu nhn t vi

v t chc t vi tng ng :
a) mu cha qua tm thc; b) mu st sau khi tm thc;
c) thp 0.80% vi t chc peclit tm (hn hp ferit-xm entit dng tm )
VT LIU HC 609
ra mt nghing, nh sng b lch ra khi vt knh nn thy ti, trn t chc t vi

thy r cc ht sng vi cc ng bin gii ti (hnh PL3.1b). Cng c th gii
thch nh th vi t chc peclit tm. khi tm thc ferit b n mn nhanh hon, lm
nh ln cc tm xmentit mnh hOn vi cc mt nghing, do cc vch ti trn
t chc t vi biu th xmentit tm trong peclit, cn nn sng l ferit (hnh PL3.1c)
PL 2.2.3. Xc nh ht
Nh bit ht to hay ht nh c nh hng rt ln n cc chi tiu c

tnh c bit i dai. ht c xc inh qua hai thng s ln (ng
knh) trung bnh hay din tch trung bnh ca cc ht tinh th, song thng gp
hn c l cp ht theo atlat chun inh sn. Trong atlat chun c cc c ht
khc nhau t to n nh theo cc cp v phng i c nh (thng l
xioo). T chc cn nghin cu cng phi c quan st phng i nh ca
atlat chun mi c th so snh xc nh mu kim tra c ht cp no.
v' c bn mi nc u dng chun cp ht ca ASTM (hnh PL 3.2). Cc

ht c ln khc nhau c phn thnh 16 cp chnh t 00, 0, 1, 2 ... n 14
theo trt t nh dn, Gi z l s ht c trong hnh vung cnh 2,5 cm ( chnh
l 1 inch^ = 6,25 cm^) v N l cp ht, chng c quan h :
z = 2^-^ .
ht cp 1 l ht c din tch l 1 inch^ hay trong 1 inch^ c mt ht trn

t chc t vi phng i xioo, cp 4 l ht c din tch 0,125 inch^ hay
80,6 m m ^ hay trong 1 inch^ c 8 ht trn t chc t vi phng i xioo
(xem bng PL3.1).
Bng PL 3.1. Cc cp ht chun chnh (ASTM)
S ht c trong 1 inch^ S ht c trong 1 mm^ Din tch tht ca mt

Cp
( phng i X 100) tht ca mu ht, mm^
00 0,25 4 0,258
0 0,5 8 0.129
1 1 16 0,0645
2 2 32 0,0323
3 4 64 0,0161
4 8 128 0,00807
5 16 256 0,00403
6 32 512 0,00202
7 64 1 024 0,001008
8 128 2 048 0,000504
9 256 4 096 0,000252
X) 5112 8 200 0,000126
11 1 024 16 400 0.000063
12 2 048 32 800 0,0000315
13 4 096 65 600 0.0000158
14 8 200 131 200 0,00000788
610 PH LC
Hnh PL 3.2. Atlat chun v cp ht theo ASTM ng vi phng i xioo

VT LIU HC 611
Hnh PL 3.3. Atlat chun v cp gratit tm theo ASTM ng vi

phng i x100
612 PH LC
PL 3.4. Xc nh cp gratit
Nh bit, di ca gratit tm nh hng xu n c tnh, vic quy mh

di cho php i vi mi mc gang xm l mt trong nhOng tiu chun kim
nghim, cn ch l chi xc cfnh gratit (s ing, hnh dng, kch thc v
s phn b) mu nhn khng cn tm thc.
Cc qui nh v cp grait tm theo ASTM c trnh by hnh PL3.3 v

bng PL3.2.
Bng PL 3.2. cp gratlt theo ASTM
Chiu di trung bVih ca tm gratit Chiu i trung bVih tht ca tm

cp phng i xioo, mm g ra lit, mm
1 > 100 >1

2 100-50 1-0,5
3 50-25 0,5-0,25
4 25-12 0,25-0,12
5 12-6 0.12-0,06
6 6-3 0,06-0,03
7 3-1,5 0,03-0,015
8 <15 <0,015
Ph lc 4
BNG CHUYN I CNG CHO CC THP

(KHNG PHI AUXTENIT) THEO ASTM
HRC HV HB HK HRA HRD HR15-N HR30-N HR45-N
bi thp bi HK P3r500g
cng
68 940 - - 920 85,6 76,9 93,2 84,4 75/
67 900 - - 895 85,0 76,1 92,9 83,6 74,2
66 865 - - 870 84,5 75,4 92,5 82,8 73.3

65 832 - 739 846 83,9 74,5 92,2 81.9 72.C
64 800 - 722 822 83,4 73,8 918 81,1 71,0
63 772 - 705 799 82.8 73,0 91,4 80,1 69,5

62 746 - 688 776 82.3 72,2 91,1 79,3 68,6
61 720 - 670 754 8^8 7\5 90,7 78,4 67,7
60 697 - 654 732 81.2 707 90,2 77.5 66,e

59 674 - 634 710 80,7 69.9 89.8 76,6 65,
58 653 - 615 690 80,1 69,2 89.3 75.7 64,3
57 633 - 595 670 79,6 68,5 88,9 74,8 63,2
56 613 - 577 650 79,0 67,7 88,3 73,9 62,c

VT LIU HC 613
HRC HV HE HK HRA HRD HR15-N HR30-N HR45-N
bi thp bi HK P:500g
cng
55 595 - 560 630 78,5 66,9 87,9 73,0 60.9
54 577 - 543 612 78,0 66,1 87,4 72,0 59.8

53 560 - 525 594 77,4 i 65,4 86,9 71,2 58,6
52 544 500 512 576 76.8 1 64.6 86,4 70,2 57.4
51 528 487 496 558 76,3 63,8 85,9 69.4 56,1

50 513 475 481 542 75.9 1 63,1 85,5 68,5 55,0
49 498 464 469 526 75,2 ' 62,1 85,0 67,6 53,8
48 484 451 455 510 74.7 61,4 84,5 66,7 52.5
47 471 442 443 495 74,1 60,8 83,9 65,8 51,4
46 458 432 432 480 73,6 60,0 83,5 64,8 50,3

45 446 421 421 466 73.1 ' 59,2 83,0 64,0 49,0
44 434 409 409 452 72,5 1 58,5 82,5 63.1 47,8
43 423 400 400 438 72,0 1 57,7 82,0 62,2 46,7
j
42 412 390 390 426 715 56,9 81.5 61,3 45.5
41 402 381 381 ' 414
1
70,9 56,2 1 80.9 60,4 44,3
40 392 371 371 1 402 1 70.4 55.4 80.4 59,5 43.1
39 382 1 362 362 391 69.9 54,6 79,9 58,6 41,2
38 372
353 353 ! 380 1 69,4 53,8 79,4 57,7 40,8
37 363 1 344 344 ! 370 ! 68.9 53,1 78,8 56,8 39,6
1
1
36 354 336 336 ' 360 68,4 52.3 78,3 55,9 38,4
3) 345 327 ' 327 | 351 ' 67,9 , 51,5 77,7 55,0 37.2
1
34 336 319 319 342 67,4 50.8 772 54,2 36,1
1
33 327 311 311 i 334 1 66.8 ' 50,0 76,6 53.3 34,9
1
32 318 301 301 326 66.3 1 49,2 76,1 52,1 33.7
31 310 294 294 318 65,8 1 48.4 75,6 5X3 32,5
30 302 286 286 311 ' 65,3 47,7 75,0 50,4 31,3
29 294 279
1
279 304 64,8 47,0 74,5 49,5 30,1
28 286 271 i 271 1 297 64,3 46,1 73,9 48,6 28,9
27 279 264 264 1 290 63,8 45,2 73,3 47,7 27.8
26 272 258 258 284 63,3 44.6 72,8 46,8 26,7
25 266 253 253 278 62,8 43.8 72,2 45.9 25,5

24 260 247 247 272 62,4 43.1 71,6 45,0 24,3
23 254 243 243 266 62,0 42,1 71.0 44,0 23,1
: 22 248 237 237 261 61,5 i 41,6 70,5 43,2 22,0
1 21 231 231 256 61,0
40.9 69,9 42,3 20,7
20 238 226 226 251 60.5 40.1 69.4 4t5 19,6
614 PH LC
HRB HV HB HK HRA HRF HR15-T HR30-T HR45-T
bi thp P^SOOg
100 240 240 251 61.5 93.1 83.1 72.9
99 234 234 246 60.9 92.8 82.5 7t9
98 228 228 241 60,2 92.5 8^8 70.9
97 222 222 236 59.5 92.1 81.1 69.9
96 216 216 231 58.9 91.8 80.4 68.9
95 210 210 226 58.3 91.5 79.8 67.9
94 205 205 221 57.6 91.2 79.1 66.9
93 200 200 216 57.0 90.8 78.4 65.9
92 195 195 211 56.4 90.5 77.8 64.8
91 190 190 206 55.8 90.2 77.1 63.8
90 185 185 201 55.2 89.9 76.4 62.8
89 180 180 196 54.6 89.5 75.8 6^8

88 176 176 192 54.0 89.2 75.1 60,8
87 172 172 188 53.4 88.9 74.4 59.8
86 169 169 184 52.8 88.6 73.8 58.8
85 165 165 180 52.3 88.2 73.1 57.8
84 162 162 176 5X7 87.9 72.4 56.8
83 159 159 173 5^1 87.6 71.8 55.8
82 156 156 170 50.6 87.3 71.1 54.8
81 153 153 167 50.0 86.9 70.4 53.8
80 150 150 164 49.5 86.6 69.7 52.8
79 147 147 161 48.9 86.3 69.1 51.8
78 144 144 158 48.4 86.0 68.4 50.8
77 141 141 155 47.9 85.6 67.7 49.8
76 139 139 152 47.3 85.3 67.1 48,0
75 137 137 150 46.8 99,6 85.0 66.4 47.8
74 136 135 147 46.3 99.1 84.7 65.7 46.8
73 132 132 145 45.8 98.5 84.3 65.1 45.8
72 130 130 143 45.3 98.0 84.0 64.4 44.8
71 127 127 141 44.8 97.4 83.7 63.7 43.8
70 125 125 139 44.3 96.8 83.4 63.1 42.8
69 123 123 137 43.8 96.2 83.0 62.4 4^8

68 121 121 135 43.3 95.6 82.7 6 40.8
67 119 119 133 42.8 95.1 82.4 61,0 39.8
66 07 117 131 42.3 94.5 82.1 60.4 38.7
65 116 116 129 41.8 93.9 8t 8 59.7 37.7
64 114 114 127 41.4 93.4 81.4 59,0 36.7
63 112 112 125 40.9 92,8 8^1 58.4 35.7
62 110 110 124 40.4 92.2 80.8 57.7 34.7

VT Liu HC 615
HRB HV HB HK HRA HRF HR15-T HR30-T HR45-T
bi thp p?500g
61 108 108 122 40.0 91.7 80.5 57.0 33.7
60 107 107 120 39.5 91.1 80,1 56.4 3^7

59 106 106 118 39.0 90.5 79.8 55.7 3 \7
58 104 104 117 38.6 90.0 79.5 55.0 30.7
57 103 103 115 38.1 89.4 79.2 54.4 29.7
56 101 X)1 114 37.7 88.6 78.8 53.7 28.7
55 XX) 100 TI2 37.2 88.2 78.5 53.0 27.7
54 111 36.8 87.7 78.2 52.4 26.7
53 110 36.3 87.1 77.9 51.7 25.7
52 109 35.9 86.5 77.5 51.0 24.7
51 108 35.5 86,0 77^ 50.3 23.7
50 107 35.2 85,4 76.9 49.7 22.7
49 106 34.6 84.8 76.6 j 49.0 2X7
48 X)5 34.1 84.3 76.2 48.3 20.7
47 104 33.7 83.7 75.9 47.7 197
46 103 33.3 83.1 75.6 47.0 18.7
45 W2 32.9 82.6 75.3 46.3 17.7
44 W1 32.4 82.4 74.9 45.7 16.7
43 100 32,0 81.4 74.6 45.0 15.7
42 99 31.6 80.8 74.3 44.3 14.7
41 98 312 80.3 74.0 43.7 13.6
! 40 * 1 - 97 i 30,7 79.7 73.6 43.0 12.6

,
1 1
39 96 1 30,3 79.1 73.3 42.3 ne

38 29,9 1 78,6 73.0 416 10,6

i 1
37 94 29,5 78.0 72.7 4^0 9.6
36 93 ' 29.1 77.4 72.4 40.3 8.6

35 92 28,7 76,9 72.0 39.6 7.6
34 91 28.2 76,3 71.7 39.0 6.6

33 90 27,8 75.7 7X4 38.3 5.6
32 89 27,4 7 5 2 7X0 37.6 4.6
31 - 8 8 27,0 74,6 70.7 37.0 3.6
30 - 87 26,6 74,0 70.4 36.3 2.6

616 MC LC
Mc
lc

T ra ng
Li t a 3
C h ng m u 7
0 . 1. K lii nim v v t li\i 7
0.2. Vai tr ca v t liu troug pht trin x hi v k th u t 8
0.3. Vi n t v lch s s dng v pht trin v t liu 9
0 .4 . i tng ca v t liu hc 11
P H N I. VT LIU HC c s
C h ng 1. CU TRC TIN H TH E CA VT LIU 14

1.1. Cvi to v lin k t n gu yn t 14
1 .2 . Sp xp n gu yn t trong v t ch t 20
1.3. K lii nim v m ng tinh th 24
1.4. M t s cu trc tin h th in hnh ca v t rn 34
1.5. Sai lch m n g tiiih th 45
1 .6 . n tin h th v (ta tinh th 61
C h ng 2, G I N PH A 64
2. 1. Cc khi nim c bn 64
2.2. S ha ta n trng th i rn v cc gin pha 68
2.3. S to th nh oc pha tn m g gian v giii pha 75
2.4. G in pha c chuyn bin thi hnh v clm yn bin 78
trn g th i rn
2.. Q uan h gia dng gin pha v tnh ch t v t liu 79
2 . 6 . G in pha F e-C (Pe-PeaC) 82
2 .7. S lc v gin pha ca h ba cii t 89
C h n g 3. KHUCH TN V CHUYN p h a t r o n g v t l i u 95
3 .1. liu c li tn trong v t li\i 95
3.2. N liiig c s ch\iiig ca chuyn pha trong v t liu 103
3 .3. Q u triih k t tinh t pha lng 113
3 .4. C huyn pha trng th i rn 119
Chng 4. BIN DNG V c TNH CA VT LIU 136

4 .1. B in dng u hi 136
4 .2. B in dng do 142
4 .3. Chy nht (viscous flow) 17
4 .4. H in tng gi n hi-do (hiu ng nh hm li) 1 8
4 .5 . Ph hy 161
4 .6 . c im bin dng cc loi v t liu 178
4 .7 . Phing php n n g cao c tn h tng hp 185
VT LIU H C ______________________________________________________________________________ 67
T rang
C hng 5. L T N H CA VT LIU 194

. 1 . T n h ch t in 194
.2. T n h ch t n liit 224
.3. T n h ch t t 233
5.4. T n h ch t quang 253
Chng 6. N MN V BO V VT LIU 269

6 . 1 . K lii nim chung v n mn kim loi 269
6.2. Tc n mn 271
6.3. in th in cc 271
6.4. n g hc qu trnh n mn 273
6 .. S th ng kim loi 278
6 . 6 . N h n g yii t nh hng ti n m n in ha 279
6.7. Cc d ng n m n 281
6 . 8 . B o v kim loi 283
6.9. ii m n ha hc (n mn kh) 288
6 .1 0 . S i n mn cc v t liu g"m 290
6 . 1 1 . Sv thoi ha ca cc v t liu polym e 290
P H N II. CC LOI VT LIU THNG DNG

T R O N G C N G N G H I P
C h ng 7. T H P V GANG 292
7.1. T hp cacbon 292
7.2. Khi nim v thp hp kim 302
7.3. T hp cn nng th ng dng 317
7.4. T hp k t cn 321
7.5. T hp dvmg c 329
7.6. T hp v hp kini c b it 340
7.7. S lc v thp nitd 38
7.8. Cc loi gang 361
C hng 8. KIM LOI V H p KIM MU 379

8. 1 . ng v hp kim ng 379
8.2. N lini v hp kini nhm 390
8.3. M agi v hp kim liagi 404
8.4. T ita n v hp kim tita u 406
8.5. M t s" kim loi d chy v hp kim ciia chng 410
8 .6 . Cc kim loi kh chy v hp kini chu nng 412
Chng 9. VT LIU v c 416

9.1. K hi nim chung 416
9.2. c im cu trc v tn h ch t ca v t liu v c 417
9.3. Gni v v t liu chu la 430
9.4. T hy tinh v gm th y tiiih 444
9.5. X im ng v btng 449
618 MC LC
T ra n g
C h ng 10. VT L I U B T
10.1. K lii qu t
10.2. Cc pluiig php s n x u t bt kim loi 406
10.3. Cc phng php to h nh ^^0
10.4. T h iu k t 463
10.5. V t liu b t m i v dng c ct 466
10.6. V t liu bt k t cu
10.7. Hp kim x'p v th m
10.8. V t liu th iu k t c s t ch t cao 482
Chng 11. VT LIU HU c (POLYME)

11.1. N li ng v n chung 487
11.2. C u to polym e 493
11.3. T nh ch t c - l - n h it ca polym e 507
11.4. n g d ng v gia cng polym e
Chng 12. VT LIU KT HP (C0M P0ZIT)

12.1. Cc khi n im chung v v t liu k t hp 531
12.2. Tng tc gia n n v ct 34
12.3. C om pozit h t ^36
12.4. C om pozit ct si 540
12.5. C om pozit cu trc ^^4
Chng 13. XU TH PHT TRIN, LA c h n v s d n g 557
VT L IU
13.1. Xu th p h t trin v t liu 7
13.2. La chn v s dng v t li\i 72
P H N IIL PH LC
Ph l c 1. Cc li th ng k h iu v t liu kim loi 586
Ph l c 2. X c nh cc ch tiu c tn h thin g gp 592
Ph i c 3. P h n tch t chc t vi 606
Ph l c 4. B n g ch u yn i cng cho cc thp (khng phi a u x ten it) 612
th eo ASTM
Ch bin L CNG DNG
T Ull HC
% % c
C h u tr c h n h i m x u t bn Pgs. Pts T NG HI
B in tp NGUYN KIM ANH
Sa b n in KIM ANH, MINH NG HIP
V b ia HNG LAN
NH XUT BN KHOA HC V K THUT

70 TRN HNG O - H NI
In 1000 cun kh 19x27cm, ti Cng ty In Cng on Vit Nam,
169 Ty Sn, ng a, H Ni. Giy php XB s 451-16
ngy 29/5/2000. In xong v np lu chiu thng 8 nm 2000.

Vật Liệu Học - Dư NG Lê Công

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vật Liệu Học - Dư NG Lê Công

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ch bin L CNG DNG

NH XUT BN KHOA HC V K THUT

Ts. NGUYN VN CHI (chong 3)

L CNG DNG MINH NGHIP

NGHIM HNG NGUYN KHC XNG

TRN QUC THNG NGUYN VN T

Ngy nay, s pht trin ca tt c cc ngnk k thut nh ch to c kh, xy

L tnh : trin h by bn cht ca cc tinh cht vt l thng dng nh in,

Gs, Ts L CNG DNG

S hnh thnh cun sch ny l bc di u tin nhm thc hin tng

0.1. KHI NIM

trng hp, chiiis c c( tn gi khc nhau uh polyetyleii (PE). poly)ropylen (PP).

0.2. VAI TR CA VT LIU TRONG PHT TRIN x H

n a y k h i i o t h t a c h i'o i S I t i i ( i) C.IC v t li ' i ( t c h i t k c v t . l i u c : o m p o z i t .

Iniiio kiin loi.

Thi k s ( cc vt ii c sn trong t nkic ; Dy l tli i tin s ca lot

0.4. I TNG CA VT LIU HC

l u i i (I n i i ( i i a i i lu.' t ' h ; i t c h v<ji f l u ' la n (ti ( li; k i i i p l n d n g ) ) li i) c u g u g h ^

s a o c h o v ;it, l i u ( l t (l c c a c l i n l i c lia t iiK u m im i ii. N l n f cn n u d t r u , q u a tr iiih

rh t' l o v si'r ( l i i i ' , v:,J li(, u lu ' l l u ' k y X IX l iV i V(> t.r<)c c h vu ( a th e o k in h

iiK lin ^ n i T n h h n h I i y ( l l l i a v ( l i V(' v l);'in v d l a i i I h k X X V (i s i p l i a . t . r i o n

V t l i i i h c l m n l< I)o ;i l i o c k l i ; t ( i s ; i i l ) ; u i ( l i : i t c i i a v t h \ i . m i ( |\U J 1I h g iV a

( 'a u t n c v t i h c l i i l c l n i i i i ' , . t i fl(i d (' i ; i | l n t ( f i i ' p l i a p c l i t o v s ( l ii> ' t l i c l i

t r o n g v t . l i u ( k (;i t p ( ' l i a l v V ('l i n 'r i ) v i k i r l i t . ln r c q u a n s a t r ti c h n g n i a l

c t i i h . C'h t o b i i ' (' (' c n n t U l i k h n c I i h ; n i . K l u 11011^ t h c h i i i c i i ' I i y h c h

t n h c lu Y t < 'lio t i i i n h o m v l i i l o i v ; i f l i r u V(i r ; i ( ' CU I i . u i i c h t o v g i a ('IIP

kluu' nhnii. t, (l (t I';i plim vi iifiln. cnhi

CRU TRC TINH TH CA VT LIU

1.1. CU TO V LIN KT NGUYN T

Trong nic ny s trnh by mt s khi nim rc bn VP CIU t.o iigiyn l vn

v tiili i-luVt cu vi rnn vii vt liii.

1.1.1. K H I N I M C N V (' U TO NGUYN T

S lng K hiu K hiu phn S lng trng S' lng in t c th

V d. nguyn t (tng (Cu) vi .s th l nguvn t z - 29, c phn b iii t.

1.1.2. CC DNG L I N K T N G U YN T TRONG C H T RN

ug\iyn t Li cho nit in t tr l l i i i l i uguyn t F nhn nit in t

c lin kt ch yn l lin kt ion.

Hnh 1.2. Lin kt lon ca L|F

1.1.2.3. Lin kt kim loi

Ae 69 Th 90 Pa 91 u 92 Np 93 Pu 94 Am 95 Cfn 96 Bk 97 C l 98 E b 99 Fm 100 Md 101 No 102 Lw 103

liii kt d cc (gia cc Iigiiy ii t ca cc uuyn t khc nhau), in t ha t r

1.1.2.5. Lin kt yu (lin kt Van der VVaals)

1.2. SP XP NGUYN T TRONG VT CHT

1.2.1. KH NG TR T T HON TO N , CHAT K H

Tron^ vt r ii tin h tli, mi n<uyen t co v tr i lioii toii xar n li khiiK chi

(iitr liiiili nh c;i in nini ^p picin d) cni (hnh ].()). H in li l)

trong mang tinh th

H iih 1.7 l c th xc sual lm thy Dtuyr-Ii l t;ii khong cch d so vi nguyn

1.2,3. CHT LNG, VT RAN VI TINH THE V v NH HNH

Cn h ii rng, nu lm ngui kim loi hoc hp k iji liig vi tc lu (ln

T nhng trn h by cc phn trn v s dc lni r thm cc chng tip

lin kt v tnh cht

liu bng 1.3. loai vt liu thng gp

Bng 1.3. c im lin k't v tnh cht ca mt s vt liu

Dng Cht v nng lng M hinh Tinh cht (*)

ng Kim cng (7.0) Cao Cao Thp Cao Thp

in t ha tr Cao Cao Thp Cao Thp

Kim Na (1,1) Mng ca cc ion Trung Trung Trung Trung Cao

loi Cu (3,5) trong khng gian binh - binh - bnh- binh-

Ti (4.8) in t t do cao cao thp thp

(*) T, - nhit nng chy; E - mun Young; IX - h s gin di; p - in tr sut.

1.3. KHI NIM

nghin CII s sp xp ca cc nguyn t (ion. plin t) trong v t rn tinh