I. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS b.

Unloading/Sheeting
Latin sedimentum, settling or to settle Involves the loss of weight
Formed from consolidation of materials from pre- of overlying material;
existing rocks, from precipitation from solution, release of confining
and from secretion of organisms pressure
Derivation from life processes: from secretion of Characteristics of
organisms (secretion during formation of sediments/sedimentary
shells/skeleton)/ the skeleton per se of the rocks is deposition:
organism when it dies materials pile up
Sediments Materials under the pile will
Finely divided matter consisting of mineral grains and be subjected to greater
organic matter derived from pre-existing rocks and from forces (imagine spring) >
life processes, transported by, and deposited from air, When pressure is removed,
water, or ice spring will expand (similar
Sedimentation to rocks)
General term for conversion of sediments into Piled rocks are compressed;
sedimentary rocks removal of overlying
The process of forming sediments in layers, including material will cause
the separation of rock particles from the parent expansion (visualize packing
material, transportation of these particles to the site of of many clothes)
deposition, actual deposition/settling, lithification, and Exfoliation: formation of
consolidation into a rock curved sheets of rocks by
WETDL (Weathering, Erosion, Transportation, release of pressure
Deposition, Lithification) c. Biological activities
1. Weathering Animals (earthworm, beavers):
Physical disintegration and chemical burrowing [contributes to mini-
decomposition by which rocks are changed upon sheeting/unloading]
exposure to physical, chemical, and biological Plants: roots grow
processes at or near the Earths surface with B. Chemical Weathering
little/no transport of the loosened/altered Chemical decomposition; chemical
material (old definition) reaction involved
Now: no transportation involved; in situ (process Product: new materials (composition is
that occurs in place) different from parent material)
A. Mechanical Weathering Proceeds at a faster rate when water and
Physical disintegration heat are involved
purely physical process; no reaction Process by which chemical reactions
involved transform rocks and minerals into new
product: fragments/particles (only change chemical combinations that are stable
in size; smaller version of original rock; under conditions prevailing at or near the
original composition is retained); same earths surface
composition, different size More effective in warmer climates (heat
breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments increases the rate of most reactions)
by various physical stresses a. Hydrolysis
physical processes involved: involves water
a. Frost/Ice Wedging water can hasten the weathering
Least in our area process
Dominant in icy areas Ex: K-Feldspar (pink/brown; H=6;
Decrease in temperature> water is CD=2): swells when placed in water
affected> liquid to solid (water to > then decomposes; clay (Kaolinite)
ice is affected by expansion)> = product of decomposition of K-
tendency of water is to look for Feldspar [characterized by earthy
areas of least resistance (will enter smell]
a rock with fractures) > becomes b. Oxidation
ice inside rock > ice will pry open Involves oxygen
the rock > ice will thaw > fractures Usually affects iron (Fe)
are bigger > more volume of water Iron Oxide/Rust: product of
can be accommodated > when oxidation of iron
water freezes again, more Rocks also rust
expansion Rocks that rust imply that they are
Continuous cycle of freezing and iron-rich
thawing will lead to disintegration c. Dissolution
of rock Water: universal solvent
Ice and rock have interaction, but Karst Topography: areas underlain
water in the ice has no chemical by Limestone; features exhibited
reaction with the rock (purely are formation of
physical) caves/sinkholes/Chocolate Hills (a
product of dissolution)/Hundred
Islands
 Remnants of dissolution are what
we now see in Chocolate Hills and
Hundred Islands
2. Erosion
Forceful physical removal of material from the
parent rock mass , always accompanied by
transportation and eventually ends in deposition
Erosion and Transportation: go hand in hand
7 Agents of Erosion
1) Organic activity
2) Wind
3) Running water
Any body of water contained in a
channel
River, stream, brook, creek (same in
Geology; size does not matter)
4) Glaciers
Big moving body of ice
Iceberg: portion of glacier that is
broken off
Glaciers are from the interior of the
continent > moves to the coastline >
portions may break off and form
icebergs
5) Groundwater
In the water cycle: portion of water
will be absorbed by the ground >
water absorbed is called
groundwater
6) Waves and Currents
Waves: product of friction between
water and wind
Currents: basically a flow; changes in
temperature (high latitudes have
colder temperatures and lower
latitudes have hotter temperatures >
produce currents when they meet) ;
produced also by differences in
water densities; may also be
produced by the interaction
between wind and water surface
(similar to waves)
7) Mass Wasting
landslide(popular nontechnical
term) /mass movement
Not only sliding; may involve
freefall of rocks without surface
involved; or flow of material
Downslope movement of material
principally due to gravity
3. Transportation
Change of location; movement of material from
one point to another
Erosional agent = Transporting agent
Material undergoes changes while being
transported
Rounding/Roundness: wearing away of the sharp
edges and corners of the material; observable in
the outcrop; indicates the distance of transport
(from mountain to mouth of the river: size
decreases and shape of particles approach the
shape of a sphere); the closer the material to the
source area, the particles are larger and more
angular; as it goes away from the source area, the
particles become relatively smaller and rounder
4. Deposition
Involves settling
energy of transporting agent is lost > particles start
to settle
Largest and heaviest particles: first to settle
Smallest and lightest particles: last to settle
Pasig River: black/gray when not raining; brown
when raining; clear when not moving;
brown/gray/black are suspended particles; if river
does not move, it will smell worse
Shape of particles affects rate of deposition
Round particles: fall first before flat
particles (because friction disrupts fall)
Sorting: happens during deposition; separation of
materials according to size, shape, or specific
gravity
Well-sorted/Very Good Sorting/Poorly-
sorted: depends on sorting of size, shape,
specific gravity
5. Lithification
General term for a group of processes that would
lead to the conversion of unconsolidated sediments
into sedimentary rocks
From lithos (rock) + fic (making) = rock making
Involves chemical and physical processes; end
product is sedimentary rocks
Sediments
Product of weathering
Finely divided matter consisting of mineral grains and
organic matter derived from erosion and weathering of
pre-existing rocks and from life processes, transported
by, and deposited from air, water, or ice
Can be from precipitation of solutions
Ultimate destination/depositional area: ocean
From ocean, it can be deposited somewhere else again
(river, desert, lake, delta, etc.) > ultimately: still goes to
ocean
Common composition of sediments in ocean
if product of mechanical weathering:
#1: quartz
#2: clay
If product of chemical weathering:
Carbonates
Shape if already in ocean: rounded
Size if already in ocean: very small
Particle Size Classification for Sediments
Size Ranges Udden-Wentworth Size Sediment Name
(mm) Class (Particle Name)
> 256 Boulder
Gravel
64-256 Cobble
or
4-64 Pebble
Rubble
2-4 Granule
1/16-2 Sand Sand
1/256-1/16 Silt
Mud
< 1/256 Clay
Particle Name: use Udden-Wentworth Size class
Boulder = size of American football
Cobble = smaller than boulder
Pebble
Granule = coffee granule (Great Taste)
Sand = beach sand/hourglass sand
Sediment Name: Gravel/Rubble, Sand, Mud
Gravel: Rounded Particles
Rubble: Angular Particles
2 Major Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
Texture: size, shape, or arrangement of grains
1. Clastic Texture
Composed of distinct fragments or particles
(can be seen)
Greek klastos, broken
2. Non-clastic Texture
No fragments/particles can be seen
Forming an interlocking crystal pattern
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Detrital Sedimentary Rocks/Fragmental 2. Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
Primary basis for identification: particle size Primary basis for identification: composition
From the weathering and erosion of preexisting Product of precipitation of solution or derived
rocks from life processes
Texture: Clastic Texture: Clastic & Non-Clastic
e.g. Consolidated gravel/rubble > produces Texture Composition Rock Name Remarks
conglomerate/breccia Shells, shell
e.g. consolidated sand > produces sandstone fragments/
Shale/Mudstone: combination of Silt and Clay microfossils may
(none predominates) be present
Shale: exhibits fissility (separates into (+) rxn to HCl
layers); has weathering pattern of clover acid
chips Clastic/
Medium-Coarse
Mudstone: exhibits blocks (separates into Non- Calcite, CaCO3 Limestone
interlocking xtals
chunks); has weathering pattern of blocks Clastic
formed as
Note: Sedimentary Rocks exhibit layers inorganic
The Art of Kissing/Licking a Rock chemical
Siltstone:sucks/dries tongue; bits/grits precipitates
Claystone: no reaction (+) rxn to HCL
acid
Size Udden- Detrital Rock Name Mild rxn to HCl
Ranges Wentworth Size Non- Dolomite, Dolomite
acid; reacts to
(mm) Class (Particle Clastic CaMg(CO3)2 (Dolostone)
acid if powdered
Name) Cryptocrystalline,
> 256 Boulder Conglomerate (rounded dense,
64-256 Cobble grains)/ Breccia (angular conchoidal
4-64 Pebble grains) fracture
Non- Microcrystalline
2-4 Granule Chert Shells of
clastic quartz, SiO2
1/16-2 Sand Sandstone microfossils may
1/256- Silt Siltstone Shale be present,
1/16 (compact) (fissile)/ conchoidal
< 1/256 Clay Claystone Mudstone fracture
(compact) (blocks) Fine to coarse
Non-
Halite, Cl Rock salt crystalline; salty
clastic
taste
Non- Gypsum, Rock Fine to coarse
clastic CaSO42H2O gypsum crystalline; soft
Non- Altered plant
Coal
clastic animals

Limestone: reacts with HCl acid = effervesce

Coal: from plant remains; indicator of paleolatitude
(plants grow in marshy/swampy areas and vegetation is
buried then inundated with flood waters > repetitive
cycle | marshes and swamps are found near the
equator; Antarctica has coal industry = was once near
the equator)
temperature limit of coal: 200oC (beyond this, forms
another rock type)
(vs. Charcoal: burnt wood; man-made)
Fossils
Found in Sedimentary Rocks
Remains, traces, or imprints of a plant or an animal that
has been preserved in the earths crust for some
prehistoric time
Evidence of past life (needed by Charles Darwin)
E.g. Cyanobacteria, Glossopteris (fern-like),
Archaeopteryx (winged + teeth), Foraminifera, Insect in
amber, Dinosaur footprint, Conodont (revealed to be an
organism, not teeth), Radiolarians
Prehistoric time:> 10,000 years
Prerequisites for Fossilization Texture Clastic
Presence of hard part Composition Fragments from pre-existing rocks
Rapid burial and Preserving Medium
Classification Detrital Sedimentary Rock
Rapid burial because exposure to
Particle Size Granule to Pebble Size
oxygen causes decomposition
Particle Shape Mixed rounded and angular > estimate
Modes of preservation
which is more = there are more
o Amber (from tree sap)
rounded particles
o Ice (causes shrinkage)
(Sub-angular to rounded particles;
o Tar Pits
degree of roundness implies distance of
o Silica (petrification)
transport = relatively far but did not
o 2 Broad Rocks
reach the end)
Microfossils
Sediment name Gravel
Fossils studied under the microscope
Seagrass have small shells = large forams Sedimentary Rock Conglomerate

ROCK IDENTIFICATION
Look at Texture

(no pic)
Texture Non-clastic (no fragments/particles)
Classification Biochemical
Composition (Scratch to check composition via hardness;
e.g. Quartz: H=7; Calcite H=3)
Hardness = 7
Rock Name

(no pic)
Texture Non-clastic
Classification Biochemical
Composition (Taste) Not Salty Texture Clastic
(Scratch) Not scratched Composition From parent rock
(Scratch w/ knife) produces powder=softer Classification Detrital Sedimentary Rock
than knife (Calcite) Particle Size Granule, Sand, Pebble
Rock Name Limestone (ordinary) Particle shape More angular particles (source
material is fine grained; close to origin)
Sedimentary Rock Breccia
Texture Clastic Texture Clastic
Fragments From organisms; coral fragments (in Fragments From pre-existing rocks
front), red algae became white Classification Detrital Sedimentary Rock
because dead (back), bivalves/shells
Classification Biochemical Sedimentary Rock Particle Size Sand-sized
Sedimentary Rock Sandstone
Composition Calcium Carbonate
Sedimentary Rock Limestone
o Coralline Limestone: if
abundant corals
o Fossiliferous Limestone: if
abundant fossils

Description 3 layers (layers are determined by

changes of color, changes in particle
size)
Texture Layer 1&3 (gray): clastic
Layer 2 (blue): clastic
Fragments Layer 1&3: From pre-existing rocks
Layer 2: From pre-existing rocks
Texture Non-clastic (no fragments, there are
Classification L1&3: Detrital Sedimentary Rock
fossils)
L2:Detrital Sedimentary Rock
Classification Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
Particle Size L&3: Smaller than sand
Composition (Scratch w/ knife) scratched, so L2: Sand-sized
Calcite Sedimentary Rock L&3: Claystone
Sedimentary Rock Limestone L2: Sandstone

Texture Clastic
Fragments From pre-existing rocks
Classification Detrital Sedimentary Rock
Particle Size Combination of silt and clay-sized
particles
Sedimentary Rock (no distinct plane of weakness)
Mudstone
 Foliation: parallel arrangement of
minerals/texture when pressure is dominant
a. Static Pressure
Pressure applied on the body is
equal on all sides
Visualize: pressure on body
when in swimming pool is equal
on all sides
Physics: Hydrostatic Pressure
b. Dynamic Pressure
Pressure applied is unequal
i. Compressive Dynamic Pressure
Body is elongated
perpendicular to applied
pressure
Texture Non-clastic Visualize: stress ball/eating
Fragments (To know if composed of crystalline: a burger
no fragments/particles are ii. Shearing Dynamic Pressure
exhibited) No particles; appears to Body is elongated parallel
be smooth; there are crystals when to applied pressure
put under the microscope; change in Visualize: rolling pin
color = stratification (same quartz); flattens dough (there is
Lamination: specific rock layer for compressive force, but
< 1cm shearing force has more
(vs. Bed: > 1cm layers) effect)
Classification Biochemical Sedimentary Rock
Types of Metamorphism
Composition (Test w/knife: no powder) Quartz
Determined by agents (check which is more dominant in
Sedimentary Rock Chert
affecting the metamorphic process)
1. Contact/Thermal Metamorphism
Metamorphism resulting from the intrusion of hot magma
II. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
into cooler rocks
meta (change)+ morphe (form)
Dominant factor: temperature
rocks resulting from changes in temperature and
Pressure is also involved during intrusion of hot magma
pressure conditions or the introduction of chemically
into cooler rocks; contribution of temperature is still
active fluids
greater
3 agents: temperature, pressure, chemically active fluids
Products: new sets of minerals and larger crystals
Crystals are larger than igneous/sedimentary rocks
(interlocking crystals that are relatively big)
(even when subjected to changes in temperature and
Only small areas are affected; localized close to the
pressure)
intrusive bodies
Form new mineral assemblages (no longer limited to
2. Regional Metamorphism
quartz, feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole); new
Affects wide and broad areas
mineral assemblages (e.g. talc, more muscovite than
Both affected by both temperature and pressure
biotite, etc.)
There is a case in which the temperature could
Rocks are denser and more compact
produce impacts as large as region-wide space: There
Summary of difference from other rock types:
is a type of intrusive body with the size > 100 km2 (still
Different mineral assemblage
intrusion).
Larger crystals
Dominant factor: pressure
More compact
Products: large crystals but most have foliation
Denser
Foliation: parallel arrangement of minerals/structures
Principal Agents of Metamorphism
1. Temperature
Min: rarely below 200oC (temperature for
formation of coal; above 200 means formation of
metamorphic rock, no longer coal e.g.
anthracite)
Max: happens before the melting temperature of
the rock (because Metamorphic Rock forms only
through a solid state reaction; no melting
involved because the product of melting is not
metamorphic rock, but magma/lava)
Any rock can be subjected to changes in
temperature and pressure, the product will still
be metamorphic (e.g. igneous => metamorphic;
sedimentary => metamorphic; metamorphic =>
metamorphic)

2. Pressure
Tendency of rock to acquire a certain direction:
Textures of Metamorphic Rocks o Pyllite: when subjected to high pressure =>
Refer to size, shape, arrangement of the minerals produces Schist
1. Foliated o Schist: when subject to high pressure =>
Parallel arrangement of minerals/structures produces Gneiss
A. Very Fine to Fine-Grained Minerals o From Slate to Phyllite to Schist to Gneiss:
a. Slaty increasing degree of metamorphism (proof: Slate
No luster and Phyllite are very fine to fine-grained, Schist
b. Phyllitic and Gneiss are medium to coarse-grained; the
Metallic/silky luster fact that phyllite exhibits metallic luster, it shows
B. Medium to Coarse-Grained Minerals that its minerals are bigger than slate; Gneiss
a. Schistose requirement of highest pressure and
No alternating bands temperature is shown by its obvious zebra-
b. Gneissose patterns produced because the minerals are
Alternating bands of light and forced to align themselves according to
dark-colored minerals (zebra-like) composition and color)

Crystal Size Rock Name Remarks

Very fine-grained Slate Well-developed slaty
cleavage
Fine- to medium- Phyllite Silky, metallic luster
grained
Coarse-grained Schist Mostly micaceous
minerals, type is on the
basis of mineral content
Coarse-grained Gneiss Well-developed color
banding; mostly non-
micaceous minerals

2. Non-foliated
Interlocking crystals Description Silky/Metallic Luster
A. Hornfelsic Texture Fine-grained (<1mm)
Fine-grained minerals Metamorphic Rock Phyllite
Minerals are oriented randomly
(imagine scattered needles); 1mm
B. Granoblastic
Granular, grains (imagine sugar lumped
together)
Mineral size: 1 to >5 mm (Medium: 1-
5mm; Coarse: >5mm)

Rock Name Description

Quartzite Composed of interlocking crystal grains, hard
enough to scratch glass
Amphibolite Composed of amphibole and plagioclase;
coarse-grained
Hornfels Composed of pyroxene/quartz and plagioclase; Texture Foliated; Fine-grained; Silky/Metallic
fine-grained Luster; Phyllitic
Marble Composed of interlocking calcite grains, Metamorphic Rock Phyllite (name of one of the minerals
variably colored, too soft to scratch glass; comprising the rock: Graphite)
effervesces, coarsely crystalline
Serpentinite Composed chiefly of serpentine; mesh-like;
mottled green, violet veins

Classification Based on Texture

Parent Rock: passes on certain characteristics (either
texture or composition) to resulting rocks
A. Foliated Metamorphic Rock
Rock Name Texture Parent Rock
Slate Slaty Tuff, Shale
Phyllite Phyllite Tuff, Shale
Basalt, gabbro, tuff,
Schist Schistose
andesite, shale, rhyolite
Granite, shale, diorite,
Gneiss Gneissose
rhyolite Texture Foliated (parallel arrangement-
o Shale: when subjected to high pressure => white lines); Medium-grained;
produces Slate schistose (no zebra pattern)
o Slate: when subjected to high pressure => Metamorphic Rock Schist
produces Phyllite
 structure (like sieve/strainer that are vein-like)
and there are green stuff between spaces

Texture Foliated (check all sides); not zebra-

like because not all sides have white;
coarse-grained; schistose
Metamorphic Rock Schist Texture Granoblastic (sugar-like)
Composition Calcium carbonate
Hardness 3
Metamorphic Rock Marble
VS.

Texture Foliated; medium to coarse-grained;

gneissose
Metamorphic Rock Gneiss

B. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks Texture Granoblastic (sugar-like)

Rock Name Texture Parent Rock Composition Quartz
Any fine-grained Hardness 7
Hornfels Hornfelsic
rock Samples parent rock Chert
Granoblastic, Metamorphic Rock Quartzite
Quartzite Sandstone
fine-grained
Limestone,
Marble Granoblastic
dolomite Description Has black parts because it is
Granoblastic, beginning to disintegrate; greenish
Serpentinite peridotite
mesh-like part has veins; scale-like
o Hornfels: inherited texture of parent rocks (grain Texture Granoblastic (mesh-like)
size is smaller when compared to shale, Metamorphic Rock Serpentinite
mudstone, siltstone, claystone because fine-
grained rock is subjected to high temperature to
produce Hornfels)
o Quartzite: not necessarily fine-grained; inherited
composition; quartzite is quartz-rich (sandstone
is composed of sand-sized particles, composition
is not taken into account, but composition of
sandstone is important in the formation of
Quartzite => not all sandstones, when subjected
to high temperatures produce quartzite [only
quartz-rich sandstones will produce quartzite]);
also formed by Chert (composed of
microcrystalline quartz) when subjected to high SOIL
temperature A combination of mineral and organic matter, water,
o Marble: inherited composition (calcium and air
carbonate); will effervesce but not as vigorous as Portion of the regolith that supports plant growth
that of limestone or dolomite Regolith: loose blanket of decayed materials
o Serpentinite: inherited composition of peridotite Located on the upper portion of the regolith
(Olivine and Pyroxene); formation requires Important for plant growth and home to many
alteration of olivine (when olivine is altered by organisms
metamorphism, it produces serpentine); Proportions (in % volume) of the major compositions in
serpentine is color green; serpentinite has mesh- soil layers
 Product of disintegration and decomposition
Soil Components
(~45%) Mineral Matter: disintegrated & decomposed
rock
(~25%) Water: complex solution containing many
soluble materials
(~25%) Air: source of Oxygen and CO2
(~5%) Humus: organic matter; decayed remains of
plants and animals
Percentages would vary
Not standard percentages; may vary, but variety must
be within the percentages above
When the percentage of one component is too little, soil
cannot be formed; when too much, can damage the soil
Mineral Matter misleading; rock is not only mineral;
should be composed of minerals, rock fragments,
fossils, glass but these are locked together as mineral
matter
Air and Water are important to support life
Humus is important; no humus, no soil; serves as
fertilizer; too much (>5%), the soil would be acidic =>
high acidity burns plants
Controls of Soil Formation
1. Parent Material
Source of the mineral; can either be:
Bedrock: residual soil; foundation of
the area
Unconsolidated sediment: transported
soil
E.g. (for unconsolidated sediment) sand in the
beach => subject to weathering and erosion =>
decomposition => soil formation
Residual soil: resulting soil of bedrock
Transported soil: resulting soil of unconsolidated
sediment; transported is misleading because it
appears that the soil has been moved from one
location to another, but the unconsolidated
sediment is the one transported (from point A to
B then weathering occurred)
2. Time
General rule: the longer the soil has been
forming, the thicker it becomes, and the less it
resembles the parent material
E.g. basalt (from previous studies) => now rice
field
E.g. Tanay: had Diorite (before) => now
crumbling; now mapped as weathered diorite
3. Climate
Most influential control of soil formation
Temperature and precipitation
Controls the hype of plant & animal life
PH: rate of chemical weathering is fast because
climate is hot and humid
E.g. La Union: now crumbling outcrop
(alternating beds of sandstone and siltstone)
4. Plants and Animals
Decay => organic acid = hastens weathering
Strong influence in the chemical and physical
properties of the soil
Furnish organic matter
Soil fertility ~ (dependent on) amount of organic
matter present
Too much decomposing matter would produce
organic acid; too much organic acid can burn
plants
E.g. Lava flows from Mayon are now made into
plantations; fertility was increased because of
dead bodies
5. Slope
Steepness; rise over run
Important where the slope is facing (e.g. hot
when facing the sun)
Angle of slope to develop soil: flat and
undulating (NOT steep slope associated with
marsh and swamps and soil will easily erode,
cannot absorb water and will run off; steep
mountains do not have soil; marshes will form
thick dark soils and organic matter is abundant,
so organic acid is high; swamps are plants that
grow in marshes)
Variations = variety of localized soil types
Best type: flat and undulating
o Criteria: can absorb water absorb
water but will not hold water (holding
water will make the condition marshy);
there should be an area for discharge;
sufficient infiltration and discharge
o more stable sediments (compared to
steep)
o lower rate of erosion
Note: Organic acidity cannot be controlled. Adjustment should be
on the plants to be planted. (Suggestion was Limestone to
neutralize acid: problem is it produces hard water)
Soil Profile
vertical cross section from surface down to the parent
material
Soil Horizons
distinct layers formed in the well-developed soils
assigned letters for each layer
we now know that soils can have complete or
incomplete layers
Eluviation
washing out of fine soil components from the upper
layer (A-horizon) by upward percolating water
percolate: to pass slowly through something that has
many small holes in it
Leaching
depletion of soluble materials from the upper soil by
downward percolating water
Hard pan
very compact and impermeable layer formed as a result
of accumulation of clay
formed only in extreme cases (e.g. extreme
accumulation of clay layers)
 Soil Types
Climate Temperate, humid (>63 cm rainfall)
Vegetation Forest
Pedalfer (Greek pedon [soil] + Al + Fe)
Soil Type Soil characterized by the accumulation of Iron
oxides and aluminum-rich clays in the B-horizon
Sandy, light-colored, acidic (forest floor is
Top Soil
littered with remains)
Enriched in Al, Fe, and clay
Subsoil
Brown color
Extreme development in conifer forests (>
humus makes the groundwater acidic);
Remarks
produces light gray soil as a result of the
leaching out of iron

Climate Temperate, dry (<63 cm rainfall)

Vegetation Grass and bush
Pedocal (Greek pedon [soil] + CALcite
Soil Type Soil characterized by the accumulation of
calcium carbonate in the upper horizons
Top Soil Commonly enriched in calcite
Subsoil Enriched in calcite; whitish color
caliche: term applied to accumulation of
Remarks
calcite

Climate Tropical
Vegetation Grass and trees
Laterite (Latin latere [brick])
A red, highly leached soil type found in the
Soil Type
tropics that is rich in iron oxides and aluminum
oxides
6 layers (O, A, E, B, C, Unweathered Parent Material)
These zones are not well-developed; enriched in
O Horizon: composed of humus Top Soil
Fe & Al; brick red in color
A Horizon: mineral matter + humus Subsoil
All other elements were removed by leaching
E Horizon: simply a horizon of leaching and eluviation
B Horizon: accumulation of clay occurs Bacteria destroy humus, the accumulation of
Remarks
C Horizon: partially weathered materials iron
Unweathered Parent Material: aka bedrock Some cases: abundant iron oxides and aluminum oxides
Topsoil: O and A => mined; e.g. Camarines
Subsoil: B Bauxite: ore of Aluminum oxide
Solum/True Soil: O to B; important component of Topsoil and Subsoils are indistinguishable; iron is
the regolith; found at the upper portion of the retained because bacteria destroy humus => iron is not
regolith leached out, causing red color (compare with gray soil in
Hardpan: develops in B (from A downwards) conifer forest)
Regolith (loose blanket of decayed materials): O to Climate Extreme arctic/desert
C Vegetation Almost none, so no humus develops
Mature: complete soil horizon Soil Type ------
Immature: incomplete soil horizon; because of: Top Soil ------
1. Timing Subsoil ------
2. Slope: steep slope will not form soil No real soil forms because organic matter is
Remarks
absent; chemical weathering is very slow
No soil type; components should be complete to form
soil

(ternary diagram of texture pyramid)

Estimate percentage/relative proportions of clay, silt,
sand (texture- sizes of grains; compositions would be
siliceous, calcareous)
 Will rot but will serve as fertilizer (vs. clothesline metal
that will rust and produce iron

Soil Erosion Lumindol, Bumaha, Pumutok na Bulkan, Gumuhong Bundok: Ang

A natural process; environmental problem associated Kwento ng Bayan Ko
with soil; rock cycle will not continue if soil erosion is Of all the nations in the world, the Philippines has
removed experienced the most natural hazards in the 20th
A part of the constant recycling of Earths materials Century; India was a distant second, followed by the
(rock cycle); no erosion, no sedimentary rocks, no rock United States in the third position. (Kovach, RL, 1995)
cycle In terms of most natural hazards in the 20th Century: PH
Everything affects everything else. is first
In the past, it occurred at a slower rate; human activities In terms of risk of hazards: PH is second after Vanuatu
have greatly accelerated its rate Sendong in December 2011; Yolanda; Lando
A growing problem as human activities expand and 6.8 magnitude-earthquake in Negros (epicenter is in a
disturb growth and rate of Earths surface blind fault/unidentified by PHIVOLCS; limited personnel,
People can move 40 to 45 gigatonnes of earth per year many islands)
Affects fluvial environment; eroded materials are Bohol earthquake
deposited to bodies of water
Related problems: Philippine Tectonics: An Overview
1. Expansive deposition of sediments in lakes,
reservoirs, and streams
Capacity of the reservoir is
diminished
Limits the usefulness of the
reservoir:
o Flood control
o Water supply
o Hydroelectric power
generation
In streams and other waterways, it
can restrict navigation and lead to
costly dredging operations (high
sediments => boats cannot go to
shallower portions
2. Soil particles contaminated with pesticides
used in farming
Quality of water supply is limited Seismic Map/Earthquake Map of the PH
Endangers aquatic organisms Earthquakes with magnitude of 5 or greater
Stimulates the growth of the plants Almost of all the PH experienced earthquakes
Excessive growth leads to Based on earthquake distribution, PH can be divided
oxygen depletion and early into 2 blocks:
death of the lake Philippine Mobile Belt: where we see the most
(competition for oxygen earthquakes
between plants and fishes) Palawan Continental Block: least earthquakes;
Eutrophication (process composed of Palawan, Reed Bank, Sulu,
mentioned above) portion of Panay, Mindoro, Romblon Island
Solutions: conservation using proper trees/vegetation group
for the proper slope
(not just any kind of tree because e.g. Southern Leytes
St. Bernard Landslide area was covered with coconut
trees that added weight to the soil)
Can never be completely eliminated
Soil conservation programs can substantially reduce soil
erosion
Some effective measures:
Windbreaks (planting rows of trees;
sometimes planted around the mining site to
prevent air pollution)
Terracing (e.g. Banaue Rice Terraces: for
irrigation + prevention of erosion slope is
broken => gentler slope => erosion
prevention)
Plowing along the hill contours (instead of
against the hill contours)
Crop rotation
PH won in BBC Challenge: entry was Coconet
Made of coconut fibers => weaved into nets
Placed along slope of mountain to hold the slope
 We have many structures that would generate
earthquakes such as Trenches
Trench: deep narrow grooves on the earths surface;
seismically active
Surface of the earth is composed of slabs of
rocks
Slabs of rocks interact:
Collision: when slabs collide, one of the
slabs would plunge beneath the other
slab *subduction = process of plunging;
*subduction zone = area of subduction
Trench: surface manifestation of subduction
Slab that underwent subduction => upper part
will partially melt to produce magma (hot,
mobile, molten silicate mass) => magma will
rise until it reaches the surface => will create a
submarine volcano called seamounts
if volcano is active => piles up to form island
arc (volcano above sea level)
wrong notion that island is floating on water;
island is actually attached to the seafloor
Trench Systems: in east and west parts of PH
PH is bounded by 2 Trench Systems
o Western Part
Manila Trench
Negros Trench
Sulu Trench
Cotabato Trench
o Eastern Part
East Luzon Trough
Philippine Trench
PH has a fault in the middle; Philippine Fault: longest
(active) fault (1,200 km) in the Philippines and extends
from Luzon to Mindanao [different from Valley Fault
System (in Luzon)]
Earthquake Generators: Fault, Trench
There is a line of volcanoes from Taiwan to Bataan that
is related to Manila trench; Mayon Volcano in Bicol is
related to PH trench; All volcanoes in the eastern part
are related to PH trench; All volcanoes in Sulu are
related to Sulu Trench, etc.
Geohazard (Natural Hazard)
An unexpected/uncontrollable natural event of unusual
magnitude that threatens the activities of
people/people themselves (risk)
E.g. earthquake, tsunami, mass wasting, volcanic
eruption, flashfloods, floods
Natural Disaster
Natural hazard event that actually resulted in
widespread-destruction of property or caused injury
and/or death
Actual death, actual loss of property, actual injury
E.g. Yolanda, Ondoy, Fukushima earthquake, Indian
Ocean Tsunami, Katrina, Patricia
Catastrophe
Massive disaster, requiring significant expenditure of
time and money for recovery
Disaster for some can be considered catastrophe for
others e.g. Ondoy is not that catastrophic for us
Why should we be concerned about Natural Hazards?
In our lifetime: at least 1 natural hazard => great impact
In 1995, 2006 = tsunami in the Indian Ocean;
not limited to one area
Deadly earthquakes; e.g. Fukushima
earthquake, Negros and Bohol earthquakes in
PH
Catastrophic flooding; e.g. floods of unusual
magnitude, since 2006 there were big
typhoons and floods every September (cycle
was broken this year)
Strongest El Nio in record
o Result of enormous forces that are
at work both inside and on the
surface of our planet
Affect the lives of millions of people around the world
Several million people were killed in the past few
decades
Average annual loss of life: 150, 000
Financial loss: now exceeds US $50 billion/year
Not included: social (e.g. employment) losses, mental
anguish, and reduced productivity
Natural Hazard
Geologic processes that were produced inside and
outside forces that area affecting the planet Earth
Process is hazardous if there is presence of people and
structures
In some countries, disaster assistance to communities is
partially paid for by everyones taxes
There is no such thing as a complete recovery
Disaster can forever change our ways of living
Natural Hazards are repetitive
events (e.g. epicenter of tsunami
was in Manila Bay twice)
Detailed study of pre-historic and
historic behavior + knowledge of
present conditions and recent
events + land-use changes
Fundamental Concepts for Understanding Natural Processes as
Hazards
a) Natural Hazards are predictable from scientific
evaluation
Scientific method: systematic way of solving a
problem
Can be monitored and mapped (e.g. typhoons)
Can be predicted
Risk Analysis: an important component in our
understanding of the functions/effects of
hazardous processes (amenable to risk analysis)
Risk = probability of the event occurring x
consequences should the event occur
Risk analysis = estimates of risk
(pic from slide) Risk is rock that could fall.
Consequence: the man and woman may be
injured or killed
Problem encountered when making risk analysis:
lack of reliable data for analyzing either the
probability or the consequences of an event (e.g.
 PH only has estimates/projections on records for
sea-level rise; longest is 30 years; tidal gauges are
either broken or stolen)
b) Linkages exist between natural hazards and between
hazards and the physical environment.
Hazardous processes are linked in many ways
Earthquakes can produce landslide and
tsunami
Typhoons can cause flooding and coastal
erosion
c) Hazardous events that previously produced disasters are
now producing catastrophes
The magnitude and frequency as well as
severity of hazardous events may be
influenced by human activity
The present is the key to the past.
Situation is worsened by concentration of
people and structure on one area
d) Consequences of hazards can be minimized
Requires an integrated approach:
Scientific understanding
Land-use planning and regulation
(applicable only to still undeveloped
areas; difficult in urban places)
Engineering (structures are built)
Proactive disaster preparedness
(National Disaster Risk Reduction
Management Council, also
Provincial/Barangay Disaster Risk
Reduction Management Council)
Note: Philippine Sea sea east of PH, not Pacific Ocean
Natural Hazards
Understanding when, where, why, and how natural
hazards occur is the first step in minimizing their
impacts on our lives
Can happen anytime
Where do natural hazards occur? Everywhere!
Who studies and monitors natural hazards?
Geographers
Atmospheric scientists (meteorologists and
climatologists)
Geologists
Social scientists and psychologists
Others NOTE: During fieldwork: scope the area first. Start from a distance
We must all be aware and prepared now
How do we cope with natural hazards? Adaptation/
Mitigation
Adaptation: adjustment to the natural hazard
Mitigation: the process of reducing the severity of
the impact of natural hazards through planning
Includes the avoidance of, lessening, or
compensation for anticipated harmful
effects of an action with respect to the
natural environment
2 Types of Solutions
Soft Solution: development of
hazard maps,
removal/limitation of people
from hazardous places
Hard Solution: using
engineering solutions,
structures are built
Each hazard requires a specific type of mitigation
(different hazards have different characteristics)
Engineering solutions (e.g. earthquake-
resistant building) to at least temporarily
reduce the impact of the hazard;
engineering provides a false sense of
security
Only form that is guaranteed to be
successful is to LIMIT or NOT ALLOW
human activities where hazards occur
(difficult for developed places)
Mass Wasting
Synonymous terms: mass movement; downslope
movement
a.k.a. landslides
e.g. Guinsaugon, Southern Leyte (February 2006)
movement of materials (rock, regolith, soil, debris)
downslope as a result of the pull of gravity
Gravity = main driving force
Rain, earthquakes are just triggering mechanisms
Classification of Mass Wasting Processes
1. Type of material
unconsolidated material
bedrock
Depending on the type of material involved,
terms are affixed on the mass wasting process:
o debris, mud, or earth: affixed
to the description when and regolith
dominate in the mass wasting
process (e.g. landslide => debris
slide, mud slide, earth slide [this
implies the inclusion of
unconsolidated sediment]) (rock
slide: involves the bedrock)
2. Type of motion: fall, slide, flow
Type of material is affixed to type of motion
Fall: when the movement involves the free-fall
of detached individual pieces of any size
Benguet: Rockfall
Slide: occurs whenever material remains fairly
coherent and moves along a well-defined
surface (e.g. surface is can be a joint, fault,
bedding plane)
La Union, Ilocos Sur: Rockflow
Flow : occurs when water-saturated material
moves downslope as a viscous fluid in the
form of lobes (teardrop-like) or tongues
before approaching the outcrop. Reason: to check whether or not
the rock is safe.
PICTURES
Debris Flow (type of material involved: unconsolidated)
Dingalan, Aurora lobe
Guinsaugon, Souther Leyte tongue
Real, Quezon tongue
Debris Slide/Slump
Carass Piddig Roa, Ilocos Norte
Itugon, Benguet
If debris slump, the material in front curls upward.
3. Rate of movement
A. Slow movement
Creep
Imperceptibly (unseen) slow gradual
downhill movement of soil and
regolith
Causes
o Alternate expansion and
contraction of surface
material caused by
freezing & thawing or
melting & drying
o Organic activity (e.g. lambs
and sheep on the side of
 mountains push the
materials downslope)
Effects (because creep is
imperceptible)
o Tilted fences (and utility
poles; e.g. trees in Sunken
Garden curl starts from a
point and curls downslope)
o Tilted gravestones
o Displaced retaining walls
(pic: Figure 9.4 Indicators of Creep grave
cartoon)
(pic of a cross section of a mountain/hill w/
geologic hammer => layers of rocks are
Sedimentary because of layers; Clastic SR;
Fine-grained; Mudstone because layers are
blocky)
B. Fast Movement
Rock Avalanches
Rock and debris move downslope at
speeds exceeding 200 km/hr
Bedrock + Unconsolidated Material
Mudflow
Relatively rapid type of mass wasting
that involves a flow of soil and
regolith containing a large amount
of water
Frequently follow canyons and
stream channels
Lahar
Origin: Indonesian term for mudflow
Debris is from volcano
Vs. Mudflow debris is from other
sources; material: unconsolidated
material; motion: flow
(lobes/tongues); follow canyons and
stream channels
Debris + Water
Sound generated is equivalent to
stampede of herd of horses/cows
2 Types:
o Normal Lahar (malabnaw:
water>debris)
o Hyperconcentrated Lahar
(malapot: debris>water)
- both have the same
erosional power, can
erode dams, river
channels)
(pic of complex slide Cherry Hills, Antipolo)
Complex Slide: slide because there is a defined
surface where material moved; complex because
different types of materials are involved
Outcrop of Cherry Hills (from pic): vegetated,
additional weight on slope; rocks are fractured (2-
week rain) => water seeped through the cracks
Triggering Mechanisms: Heavy rainfall & earthquakes
Philippines is visited by an average of 20 typhoons per
year
Contributing Factors
a) Steep Slope
Gentler slopes do not have mass wasting
Plant the right plants for the right slopes
e.g. vegetation vs. slope angle
(Landslide despite thick vegetable vs. No
landslide despite cogon grass vegetation only)
b) Deforestation
Whether it I legal or illegal mining, legal or
illegal logging, it can cause mass wasting
c) Intense Weathering
(insert pic of porphyritic andesite) Igneous
Rock; Color index: intermediate; texture:
porphyritic; rock name: porphyritic andesite
(pic of porphyritic andesite ^) => (pic of
unloading/sheeting overlying material is removed,
rocks underneath start to expand, resulting to flaking of
slabs of rocks) => intensive weathering => color orange
(oxidized)
(pic of rock fall with man; rocks fell because of
contribution of steep slope, overloading of slope
surfaces, fractured rocks)
(Brgy. Maratudo, Magsingal)
(Brg. Maasasin, Magsingal)
d) Presence of Open Fractures
2 types of fractures
o Joint: fracture w/o visible
displacement (pic of tile-like basalt
rocks; joint)
o Fault: fracture w/visible
displacement; units on either side of
the structure are mismatched
(pic of race track fault)
Bed contacts: e.g. if rocks on the side of the
road are sedimentary (composed of layers),
there is a problem if the beds are tilted at an
angle): layered rocks of alternating sandstone
and claystone, sandstone acts like a sponge in
absorbing water => layers on top will be
lubricated, so rocks will slide downslope
e) Overloading of Slope Surfaces
e.g. many houses/trees
Note: Red soil implies that it is oxidized; thus weathered (weak).
What can be done?
Structural/Engineering Measures
Non-Structural
I. Structural Mitigation
Aimed at controlling the hazard
Aim of MGB: For the blocks to become stable,
the Resisting Forces (friction) should be
GREATER than the Driving Forces (main:
gravity).
Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)
MGBs mantra: PAKAPITIN, SALUHIN,
PADAANIN, BAWASAN, TAPALAN, IWASAN
1. Pakapitin
Rib Concreting
e.g. Pasig City
Before: steep/vertical, open
fractures, weathering, overloading
of slope surface (by structures on
top); solution: Rib Concreting
 Shotcreting
e.g. ULTRA, Pasig City
Before: steep slope, weathered
rock, fractures, vegetation
Solution: Shotcreting
soil is cemented on top and
weep holes/drain holes are
added
small stairs: to break the force of
water
Structural Mitigation
Rock Bolting/Soil Nailing
e.g. Zentouku Landslide on
Tokshima Island, Japan
big concrete slab + steel pile is
driven through the soil until it
reaches the bedrock (as if nailing
the concrete slab on the side of
the mountain)
no need to make weep holes
Retaining Walls
There are still weep/drain holes
PH version in Mandaluyong
E.g. Banaue Rice Terraces: slope is
graded; for irrigation + lessen
steepness (Under Retaining Walls)
>30o slope: susceptible to
movement
2. Bawasan
e.g. Santa, Ilocos Sur
>30o slope: susceptible to movement
=> surface was removed to lessen
the slope
(insert pic of right and wrong slopes;
see pic from phone)
Drawback: Expensive
II. Non-Structural Mitigation
Use of Geohazard Maps
check name of map
check scale of map (normally 1:50,000
[meaning for every cm in the map, it
covers 500 meters of the actual surface];
new map is 1:10,000 [every 1 cm, 100
meters])
check legends
Red High Susceptibility
Green Moderate Susceptibility
Yellow Low Susceptibility
Mass Wasting/Landslide: Things to Look Out For
a) Tension cracks and terracets
b) Doors jamming, walls tilting, floors cracking
c) Tilted trees
d) Springs, seeps, or saturated ground in areas that have
not typically been wet before (implies displacement of
groundwater; groundwater moved to the surface)
A faint rumbling sound that increases in volume as the
landslide/debris flow nears
Other Lessons
o Avoid settlements below/on steep slopes
e.g. Bonton, Leyte gullies (on the mountain;
where water passes through when it rains)
o Avoid settlements at the mouth of rivers, especially
those that are deeply incised
o Unless properly mitigated, avoid structures on top of old
landslide deposit; avoid areas that had previously
experienced landslide
Guinsaugon, Southern Leyte: tragedy waiting to happen; primed
for mass wasting; near the trace of Philippine Fault; weathered
and broken rocks;slope is heavy with coconut trees
Recurring Problems = let nature take its own course
EARTHQUAKE
o Weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the
sudden movement of rock materials below the earths
surface
o Artificial (dynamite/bomb explosion; vibration caused by
vehicles) or Natural
o Earthquake-Related Hazards
Types of Natural Earthquake
a) Volcanic Quakes
Earthquake produced by movement of magma
beneath volcanoes
PH has may volcanoes; PH is susceptible to
volcanic quakes
Many volcanic quakes imply that magna is
near the surface
b) Tectonic Quakes
Earthquake produced by sudden movement
along faults and plate boundaries
(pic of San Andreas Fault illustration)
(pic of strike-slip fault (shear))
Global Map showing the epicenters of
different earthquakes with a magnitude of 5
or greater (1980-1990); red dots are related to
plate boundaries
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
East Pacific Rise
Pacific Ring of Fire
Faults Unifying theory of the Earth Sciences (could explain the
Fractures in the Earths crust along which slippage or occurrence of earthquakes, volcanism, distribution of
displacement has occurred earthquakes and volcanoes
1. Dip-Slip Faults Combination of 2 earlier ideas:
Vertical movement Continental Drift
Terms used only if there is an angle: Seafloor Spreading
o Hanging Wall: mass of rock above Plates
the fault plane Segments of plate tectonics
o Footwall: mass of rock below the Move relative to one another; no interaction occurs
fault plane with the plate; all interaction occur along plate
a. Normal Fault (tensional) boundaries
Hanging wall has moved down with Move as a unit
respect to the foot wall Processes Involved in Interaction of Plate Boundaries
b. Reverse Fault (compressional) 1. Seismicity/Seismic Activity
Hanging wall has moved up with 2. Volcanism
respect to the footwall 3. Mountain Building
High-angled fault (>30o) Composition of Plates
c. Thrust Fault (compressional) Oceanic Materials
Hanging wall has moved up with Continental Materials
respect to the footwall (same as b) Combination of Oceanic and Continental
BUT Low-angled fault (<30o) Materials
e.g. There is a fault with an angle of 35o. Classification of Plates
Apparently, the footwall has moved up with Major: large-sized plates
respect to the hanging wall. = Normal Fault o North American
2. Strike-Slip Faults (Shear) o South American
Horizontal Movement o Eurasian
a.k.a. Lateral Fault o African
Straddle the fault; Check which block is o Indian-Australian
apparently closer to you with respect to a o Pacific
particular structure (e.g. river) o Antarctic
Sinistral Fault Left Lateral Fault; Minor: small to intermediate-sized plates
Dextral Fault Right Lateral Fault; o Southeast Asian
o Nazca
o Caribbean
o Arabia
o Philippine
Philippine Plate: does not exist; there is no plate
beneath the Philippines; only Philippine Sea Plate
Implication: We have our own sea
Philippine Sea: eastern side of PH
Types of Plate Boundaries

1. Divergent Plate Boundaries

Plates separate
Creation of seafloor
2 scenarios:
Note: PALMS TECHINQUE
a. Oceanic Plate Divergence
Fault Plane: space between hands
Oceanic plate separates
Plate Tectonics
Process involved in separation:
Holds that Earths outer shell called the lithosphere,
seismic activity
consists of about 7 major and numerous smaller
volcanism (when plates
segments called plates that are in motion relative to
separate, you can see lava
each other
in opening)
Most of Earths seismic activity, volcanism, and
Lava would solidify to create
mountain building occur along the dynamic margins of
seafloor
these plates
Composition of seafloor:
basaltic composition
 Oceanic Ridge: feature that
emits lava in the middle of the
ocean; area where seafloors are
created
Thickness: 4 to 8 km
b. Continental Plate Divergence
Composition of continental
crust: granite
Process involved in separation:
Seismicity
Volcanism
Thickness: >8 to 40 km
Rifts/Rift Valleys: series of
faults formed when continental
crust separates
Rift valleys would separate and
widen enough for emitting
basaltic lava => solidify and
create new sets of ocean
e.g. African Plate: separated
from Arabian Peninsula by the
Red Sea; there was a time when
Africa and Arabian Peninsula
were one continent (implies
that Red Sea is an area of
rifting)
East African Rift Valley: in
Kenya
Tanzania: there is a lake from
an earlier formed rift (implies
that rift valleys form lake that
will go into the sea =>
postulates that in the future,
the Red Sea will be as big as the
Atlantic Ocean)
Evolution of Oceans: Rifts =>
Lakes => Seas => Oceans
Africa will become smaller
2. Convergent Plate Boundaries
Plates converge
Destruction of seafloor
Rules:
Old : cold; tendency to sink
(denser)
Young: hot; tendency to
rise (buoyant)
Oceanic Plate: composed of denser
materials (basalt); normally gives
in/subducts to Continental Plate
(granite); basalt is denser than
granite
Surface of the earth is composed of
slabs of rocks
Subduction: sinking or plunging
Trench: one of the features created
a. Ocean-Ocean
e.g. old oceanic plate and
young oceanic plate: old would
subduct beneath young =>
upper part of subducted slab
will melt to produce magma =>
magma (hot mobile molten
silicate mass) will rise until it
reaches the surface => creates:
seamounts (if
underwater)
island arcs (above sea
level)
processes involved:
seismicity (during
subduction)
volcanism (when
upper slab melts)
Basaltic lava: emitted
b. Ocean-Continent
Oceanic plate will subduct
beneath the continental plate
Trench: dipping landward
Subducted slab will melt to
produce magma => will form:
Magmatic arc
Processes involved:
Seismic activity
(during subduction)
Volcanism (melting
slab)
Mountain Building
Edges of continent would be
affected by the subducting
oceanic slab; edges would have
warping => creates small
mountains along the edges
Features formed:
Trench
Magmatic Arc
Composition of Lava:
Intermediate type wuhose
composition is between basalt
and granite (basalt + granite)
c. Continent-Continent
(note) Composition of plates:
oceanic, continental, or
combination
Composition of continental
plate: granite
e.g. [cont] [ocean] [cont]
*oceanic plate will subduct until
it is consumed
*cont and cont will have
upwarping to produce
majestically high mountain
belts
 *e.g. collision between Eurasian
plate and India => produced
Himalayan Mountains (collides
even at present)
processes involved:
mountain building
seismicity
Collision Zone: marks former
areas of subduction
Features:
Collision Zone
Majestically High
Mountain Belts
3. Transform Fault Boundaries
Plates would simply slide past each
other
Neither create nor destroy seafloor
Features (and processes involved)
Faults (can have seismicity)
e.g. San Andreas Fault: major
boundary separating the Pacific and
North American Plate & Juan de
Fuca Fault
(map shown) Tectonic Setting of the Philippine Setting
with respect to the other features: Marianas Trench,
Philippine Trench, Philippine Sea Plate (PSP), collision
between Eurasia and India [stresses that occur in the
collision sometimes translate into trenches, so there is
movement along trenches]
Earthquake Generators
Fault
Volcanoes
Trenches
(map) Most Damaging Earthquakes from 1900 to 1999
2 Ways to Describe the Strength of the Earthquake
1. Intensity
Subjective
Based on the relative effect of
shaking to people and structure (if
no people/structure, then low
intensity; no matter how
destructive)
Measured using:
Modified Mercalli Scale:
written in Roman
numerals (1-12)
PHIVOLCS Earthquake
Intensity Scale (PEIS):
written in Roman
numerals (1-10)
o 3: Weak
o 5: Strong
o >5: Damaging
2. Magnitude
Objective
Measured is total amount of energy
released at the earthquakes point of
origin
amount of energy during an
earthquake does not change
measured using:
Richter Scale: written in
Arabic numerals; open-
ended scale (can be <1 to
infinity)
*Logarithmic (difference is
10 times; e.g. magnitude
of 2 is 10 times more
powerful than a
magnitude of 1)
Strongest earthquake recorded so far in the Richter Scale: 9 to 9.5
magnitude(1906 in San Francisco; 1956 in Chile and Alaska;
recently in Japan; Indian Ocean Earthquake with 9 to 9.5
magnitude EQ; Baguio with 7.8; Bohol with >7; Big One is
predicted with 7.2)
Earthquake Hazards
1. Ground shaking
2. Ground rupture
1994 Mindoro Earthquake Fault Rupture
3. Liquefaction
Materials would be__ by liquid
Fine grained sediments are vulnerable, e.g.
sand particles are cohesive with little water,
and cohesion is lost with too much water
When material is subjected to stress, fluids
can be squeezed out and the sand will lose
weight, as a consequence, can cause buildings
to sink
Visualize using ketchup: newly opened
ketchup wont come out, so straw is used to
introduce air; bottom is relatively dry at first,
moisture can be seen once you start tapping it
Visualize using quicksand:
Water-saturated clay- to sand-sized sediments
are most vulnerable
When shaken suddenly, the grains lose
cohesions and the grains flow
 Can cause buildings to sink (just like what
happened in Dagupan during the July 16, 1990
earthquake) or tip on their sides and
underground storage
Tanks and sever lines to float upward
Pic of Earthquake Risk Zonation Map of Manila
(yellow & red: high risk)
4. Tsunami
tsu (harbor) + name (waves)
series of giant sea waves generated by various
geologic processes
not equal to tidal wave
English: Seismic Sea Waves
Can be generated by: earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, landslides, meteoric impacts
To Identify If a Tsunami Will Occur
1) Felt Earthquake: normally of a
magnitude 6.5; epicenter is in the
sea
2) Sudden Rise or Fall of Sea: result is
exposure of marine life forms; e.g.
during Indian Ocean Tsunami in
Thailand, marine life forms were
seen
Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis (only
those with magnitude 6.5 and epicenter is in
the sea)
Most destructive tsunamis are generated by
shallow-focus earthquakes (if deep-sea focus,
the energy released will just be absorbed by
other layers)
Large tsunamis are likely to be generated by
earthquakes with magnitude 7 (7 usually
reaches local areas; >7 can reach region-wide
or global scale)
Wong and Chan: 2 scientists in 2006 studied
earthquakes and tsunami records particularly
from 1981 to 2005; came up with the
following generalization:
6.5: tsunami affecting areas
approximately 100 km away from
the epicenter
>7.5: region-wide/regional tsunamis
>8: ocean-wide tsunamis (e.g. Indian
Ocean reached Africa, tsunami from
Haiti earthquake reached Mindanao)
Tsunami Vulnerability of the Philippines: PH
has 34, 000 km of coastlines (all are vulnerable
to tsunamis from historical tsunamis, presence
of local and foreign generators)
Tsunamigenic Earthquake Events in PH
1976 in Moro Gulf
1994 in Mindoro
1828 at 6.6, 1863 at 6.5 in Manila
Bay (reported by chroniclers of
galleon trade; repetitive, can happen
again)
5. Landslide
6. Fire
Volcano
A vent that is connected to a reservoir of magma in the
depths of the earths crust to the surface of the earth
Volcanic cone/edifice: mountain of the volcano;
created as a result of the accumulation of material
around the vent (pyroclastic material and lava would
accumulate; succeeding eruptions will cause build up)
During volcanic eruption, release of: lava, pyroclastic
materials, gas
Most volcanoes are associated with plate boundaries
Active layers of volcanism are found adjacent to volcanic
ridges, trenches, and along the interior of the plate
Most of the volcanic eruptions are observed in the
Pacific Ring of Fire
Volcanic activities are seen in Hawaii (not related to
trench and oceanic ridge but there is volcanism), Iceland
(surface expression of oceanic ridge), Southern Europe,
bottom of the sea (seamounts)
Hotspots create volcanism as well
Many volcanoes in PH
Banahaw: active volcano
Volcanic Hazards
o Lava flow
o Ash fall
o Pyroclastic flow
o Lahar
o Volcanic gas
o Volcanic bombs: fresh magmatic materials
that solidify while in transit; boulder size
Ash under microscope: composed of glass; broken
Precursors of an Impending Volcanic Eruption
1. Increase in volcanic activity
2. Increase in frequency of volcanic quakes
3. Increased steaming activity (white to gray;
gray means ash)
4. Crater glow (orange color in the mouth of the
volcano means ground swelling)
5. Ground swells (because rising magma is hot,
causes expansion and deformation)
6. Ground tilt
7. Ground fissuring
8. Localized landslides
9. Drying up of vegetation
10. Increase in the temperature of hot springs,
wells, and crater lake near the volcano
Mt. Pinatubo: change in color of steam, increase in
carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide concentration,
increase in radon gas
Volcanic quakes: reason is the rising of magma that
results to exertion of pressure, pressure will cause rocks
to break, causing quakes (also reason for ground tilting
and swelling(
Mount Saint Hellens: deformation occurred
Monitoring Which Eruptions
Volcanic stream planes rise from new
fumaroles
Increase in frequency of volcanic quakes.
Why?
Series of small ground cracks appeared on the
water floor of Mount Saint Hellens before it
erupted
Flood Hazards breaching of dike in
Flood Zambales)
too much water at the wrong place o Sheet Flooding (Downstream floods)
Causes: Covers large areas and is not
o Heavy rainfall concentrated in a well-defined
(Metro Manila, e.g. Typhoon Ondoy on channel
September 26, 2009) Flood water does not easily
o Dam or Dike Failure subside (can take months)
(e.g. Botolan, Zambales on August 2009) E.g. Infanta, Quezon on
o Storm surge [coastal areas] November 30, 2004; Candava
(e.g. Zamboanga City, Typhoon Mitang on Swamp is susceptible
November 28, 2007) Parts of River
Names of Tropical Cyclones in the Philippines Channel
At the middle: high energy, so large particles
(boulder, sand can be found; flowing water at
the middle can carry different sizes)
Natural Levees: deposited ridge of sand at the
sides of the channel/parallel to the channel (if
top view) when level of water fluctuates
Floodplain: where floodwater goes when there is
flood; water will rise, plains will be inundated
Low energy; mud, silt, clay
Classification of Channels
1. Straight Channel
Implication: youthful
Although there are old ones (means
that the channel is just passing
through a structure; e.g. old river
appears straight when following a
fault)
2. Meandering Channels
Implication: mature
Sinuous curves
Names are repeated every 4 years Age depends on tightness of curves
Destructive ones are removed from list (tighter = older)
Types of Flooding 3. Braided Channels
1. According to Location Appearance from top view is braided
o River flooding (River floodplains) because of obstructions, e.g.
o Coastal flooding (Shorelines) boulders, small islands made of sand
o Urban flooding (Paved roads & at the middle
grounds) Point bars: deposits in the river^
Typhoon Ondoy caused both river and Marikina River
urban flooding in Metro Manila
Yolanda: coastal and urban flooding
2. According to Duration
o Flash Flooding (Upstream floods)
Floods of short duration with
relatively high peak discharge
Discharge: amount of water
passing through a given point at
a given time
Lag Time: difference between
time of start of rain and peak
discharge; can be in minutes,
hours, or weeks Yellow arrows: path of river (upstream and
Lag time of flashfloods: short downstream)
(minutes or hours) High energy as it flows hits the outer bend
Types: (erosional)
Natural Inner bend of the river: low energy (deposition
(e.g. Timababan River is prevalent)
in Madalag, Aklan) High energy = erosional
Induced: caused by Low energy = deposition
artificial damming of a River can shift: eroded part can become
river depositing part
(e.g. landslide blocked Solution: cement both sides and entire stretch
the river river can (problem: width of channel will be restricted)
breach the blockage
water will rush in and
cause flash floods; e.g.
 Flood Hazard Map of Metro Manila o chain swamps, marshes,
o control erosion
o improve navigation
Drawback: Costly; can provide a false sense of
security
II. Nonstructural Approach
Sound Floodplain Management
1. Floodplain regulation
Idea: designing with nature
(applicable in undeveloped areas)
Developed areas use physical
barriers and floodplain regulation
Assign structure to be built in an
area (applicable in undeveloped)
2. Determination of Flooding Rainfall
Using Flood Hazard maps
Non-structural Mitigating Measures
o Land Use Planning (Flood Plain Zoning)
o Community awareness and preparedness
using flood hazard map (check name of
map, scale of map, legends)
Floodplain Zoning
Flood hazard maps are used to designate
land use
a. Floodway District
Designated to provide
passage for a
minimum 100-year
Periwinkle: areas susceptible to 500 to 100 year floods flood
Yellow: areas susceptible to 2 to 10 year floods Land use: farming,
*x year floods = statistics; probability of a great flood pasture, plant
occurring x years nurseries, wildlife
Typhoon Ondoy Scenario sanctuaries, parking
Wawa River/Dam area (upstream of Marikina area, recreational
river) facilities, boat docks,
Marikina (area of about 53,000 hectares) ramps, piers
243, 425, 000 m3 of water were contributed (similarity: people do
to the typhoon in a span of 24 hours (can fill not stay in these
up 97, 370 Olympic-sized swimming pools) places permanently)
Flood reached over 5 meters Require permits
Typhoon Ondoy Flooding in the Metropolis No above ground
Contributory Factors storage of hazardous
1. Occupation of areas along river banks materials
and major floodways mainly by informal b. Floodway Fringe District
settlers Land between the
2. Indiscriminate disposal of waste/garbage flood way district and
3. Inappropriate design of drain systems the minimum
4. Heavy siltation (e.g. Laguna de Bay) elevation flood by
5. Accumulation of water hyacinth (esp. 100-year flood
with the mouth of the Pasig River; Land use: almost
particularly Napindan Channel section) same with floodplain
Flood in Manila = Flood of Inconvenience district, but there are
Mitigation of Floods residential structures
I. Construction of Physical Barriers now
a. Artificial levees No above ground
b. Concrete flood walls storage of hazardous
c. Flood-control dams materials
d. Channelization Farther from areas
Note: Everything affects everything else. commonly inundated
Channelization by a great flood
strengthening, deepening, widening, The flooding problem in Metro Manila has also been
enlarging, clearing or lining any existing blamed much on the lack of urban or land use planning
stream channel While many areas in the Metropolis line on naturally
e.g. Meandering Channel made straight flood-prone (e.g. Marikina, San Mateo, Cainta, Malabon,
for easier flow of water Navotas)
any modification of channel
Note that something will be sacrificed Understand Nature. Be alert and prepared!
objectives:
o control floods -END-