SEMINAR REPORT AUDIOSPOTLIGHTING

1. INTRODUCTION
Hi-fi speakers from piezoelectric tweeters to various kinds of mid range speakers and woofers which
generally rely on circuit ant enclosures to produce quality sound ,whether it dynamic , electrostatic or
some other transducer based design engineers have struggled nearly for a century to produce a speaker
design with the ideal 20Hz-20KHz capability of human hearing and also produce a narrow beam of
audible sound.

1.1 RECENT TECHNOLOGY

Audio spotlighting is a very recent technology that creates focused beam of sound similar to light beam
coming out of a flash light. Specific listeners can be targeted with sound without others nearby hearing
it i.e. to focus into a coherent and highly directional beam. It makes use of non-linearity of air .The
audio spotlighting developed by American corporation uses ultrasonic energy to create extremely
narrow beam of sound that behave like of light. Audio spotlighting exploits the property of no-linearity
of air. A device known as parametric array employs the non linearity of the air to create audible by
products from inaudible ultrasound, resulting in extremely directive and beam like sound. This source
can projected about an area much like a spotlight and creates an actual specialized sound distant from a
transducer. The ultrasound column act as a airborne speakers, and as the beam moves through the air
gradual distortion takes place in a predictable way .This gives rise to audible components that can be
accurately predicted and precisely controlled.

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2. THEORY

The regular loudspeakers produce sound by directly moving the air molecules. The audible positions of
sound tend to be spread out in all directions from the point of origin. They do not travel as narrow
beams. In fact the beam angle of audible sound is very wide just about 360 degree .This effectively
means of sound you hear will be propagated through the air equally in all directions. Conventional
loudspeakers suffer from amplitude distortion, harmonics distortion, inter-modulation distortion, phase
distortion, crossover distortion etc. Some aspects of their mechanical aspects are mass, magnetic
structure, enclosure design and cone construction.

In order to focus sound into a narrow beam, you need to maintain low beam angle and hence, more
focused sound. The beam angle is also depends on aperture size of speaker. A large loudspeaker will
focus the sound over a smaller area. If the source loud speaker can be made several times bigger than
the wavelength of the sound transmitted then a finely focused beam can be created. The problem here is
that this is not a very practical solution, thus the low beam angle can be achieved only by making the
wavelength smaller and this can be achieved by making use of ultrasonic sound.

FIG 2.1 :F.JOSEPH POMPEI AT THE MIT LAB. PROPAGATION OF SOUND BEAM FROM
AUDIO SPOTLIGHTING DEVICE

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3. TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW

3.1 HISTORY

The technology of using nonlinear interaction of high frequency waves to generate low frequency
waves was originally pioneered by researchers developing underwater sonar tech. in1960.In 1975 an
article cited on nonlinearity of air. Over the next two decades, several large companies including
Panasonic and Ricoh attempted to develop a loudspeaker using this principle. They were successful in
producing some sort of sound but with the higher level of distortion (>50%).In 1990 Woody Norris a
Radar technician solved the parametric problems of this technology.

3.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND AUDIO

SPOTLIGHTING

Audio spotlighting works by emitting harmless high frequency ultrasonic tones that human here cannot
here. It uses ultrasonic energy to create extremely narrow beam of sound that behave like beam of light.
Ultrasonic sound is that sound which have very small wavelength-in the millimeter range. These tones
make use of non linearity property of air to produce new tones that are within the range of human
hearing which results in audible sound. The sound is created indirectly in air by down converting the
ultrasonic energy into the frequency spectrum we can here.

In an audio spotlighting sound system there are no voice coils, cones or enclosures. The result is Sound
with a potential purity and fidelity we attend never before. Sound quality is no longer tied to speaker
size. This sound system holds the promise of replacing conventional speaker in home, movie theaters
and automobile-everywhere.

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FIG3. 2.1: CONVENTIONAL SPEAKERS

FIG 3.2.2: AUDIO SPOTLIGHTING

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4. RANGE OF HEARING

The human ear is sensitive to frequency range from 20 Hz to 20KHz.If the range of human hearing as a
percentage of shift from the lowest audible frequency to the highest it spans a range of 100,000
percentage. No single loudspeaker element can operate efficiently over such a wide range of frequency.

Using this technology it is possible to design a perfect transducer which can be work over a with range
of frequency which is audible to human hear.

FIG 4.1: RANGE OF HEARING

5. WORKING

The original low frequency sound wave such a human speech or a music is applied into an audio
spotlight emitter device. This low frequency signal is frequency modulated with ultrasonic ranging
from 21kHz-28KHz.The output of the modulator will be the modulated from of original sound wave.
Since ultrasonic frequency is used the wavelength of the combined signal will be in the order of few
millimeter. Since the wavelength is smaller the beam angle will be around 3 degree, as a result the
sound beam will be a narrow one with a small dispersion.

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FIG 5.1 AUDIO SPOTLIGHTING EMITTER

While the frequency modulated signal travels through the air, the nonlinearity property of air comes
into action which slightly changes the sound wave. If there is a change in a sound wave ,new sounds are
formed with in wave. Therefore if we know how the air affects the sound waves, we can predict exactly
what new frequency will be added into the sound wave by the air itself. The new sound signal
generated within the ultrasonic sound wave will be corresponding to the original information signal
with a frequency in the range of 20-20KHz will be produced within the ultrasonic sound wave. Since
we cannot hear the ultrasonic sound waves we only here the new sound s that are formed by non-linear
action of the air. Thus in an audio spotlighting there are no actual speakers that produce the sound but
the ultrasonic envelope acts as the airborne speaker.

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FIG5.2:DIRECTIVITY

The new sound produced virtually has no distortion of sound is freed from bulky enclosers. There are
no woofers or crossovers. This technology is similar in that you can direct the ultrasonic emitter toward
a hard surface, a wall for instance and the listener perceives the sound as coming from the spot on the
wall. The listener does not perceive the sound as emanating from face of the transducer, but only from
the reflection from the wall. For the maximum volume that trade show use demands, it is recommended
that the audio spotlight speaker, more accurately called a transducer is mounting no more than 3 meters
from the avg. listener ears, or 5 meter in the air. The mounting hardware is constructed with a ball joint
so that the audio spotlighting are easily aimed wherever the sound is desired.

6. DIRECTING THE SOUND

6.1 Properties of audible sound:

1.The human hearing ranges from a frequency of 20Hz to 20 KHz

2.Wavelength lies between 2cm to 17m.

3.Beam angle - 360 degrees.

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The audible portion of sound tends to spread out in all directions from the point of
origin. The beam angle of audible sound is very wide, just about 360 degrees. This means the sound
that you hear will be propagated through air equally, in all directions, which is why you dont need
to be right in front of a radio to hear the music.

6.2 In order to focus sound into a narrow beam the requirement is:
1. A low beam angle

-The smaller the wavelength, the lesser the beam angle and hence more focused the sound.
The human hearing ranges from a frequency of 20Hz to 20 KHz. Therefore the audible sound is
mixture of signals with varying wavelength between 2cm to 17m. Except for very low wavelength,
just about the entire audible spectrum tends to spread out at 360 degrees.

2. Large aperture size

A large loudspeaker will focus sound over a smaller area. If the source
loudspeaker can be made several times bigger than the wavelength of the sound transmitted, then a
finely focused beam can be created. But this is not a very practical solution.

This is where the ultrasound came to the rescue.

Properties of ultrasound:

The frequency ranges above 20 KHz

The wavelength is less than 2crn
Small beam angle hence highly coherent and directional.

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7. ULTRASOUND IN AIR
Researchers discovered that if short pulses of ultrasound were fired into water, the pulses were
spontaneously converted into low frequency sound. Dr. Orhan Berktay established that water distorts
ultrasound signals in a nonlinear, but predictable mathematical way. It was later found that similar
phenomenon happens in air also. When inaudible ultrasonic sound pulses are fired into the air, the air
spontaneously converted the inaudible ultrasound into audible sound tones, hence proving that as with
water, sound propagation in air is just as non-linear, but can be calculated mathematically. As the
beam moves through the air gradual distortion takes place giving rise to audible component that can
be accurately predicted and precisely controlled.

The problem with firing off ultrasound pulses, and having them interfere to produce
audible tones is that the audible component created are nowhere similar to the complex signals in
speech and music which contains multiple varying frequency signals, which interfere to produce
sound and distortion.

7.1BERKTAYS EQUATION
In 1965, Dr. H.O. Berktay published the first accurate and more complete theory of distortion of
ultrasound signal in air. He uses the concept of modulation envelope. The air demodulates the
modulated signal and the demodulated signal depends on the envelope function. Berktay assumes the
primary wave has the form

P1 (t) = P1 E (t) sin (Wct)

Where we is the carrier frequency and E (t) is the envelope function which in this case is the speech
or music signal.

The secondary wave or demodulated wave is given by

P2 (t) =d/dt2 E (t)

This is called berktays far field solution. The berktays solution states that the demodulated signal
is proportional to the second time derivative of the envelope squared. This is the fundamental
expression for the output resulting from the distortion due to air.

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8. HYPERSONIC SOUND TECHNOLOGY
The ultrasound signal is used as a carrier wave and the audible speech and music signal are
superimposed on it to create a hybrid wave similar to the amplitude modulation. The resultant hybrid
wave is then broadcast. As this wave moves through the air, it creates complex distortions that give
rise to two new frequency sets,

(i) One slightly higher than the hybrid wave. This sideband is identical the original sound wave

(ii) Slightly lower, than the hybrid wave. This sideband component is a badly distorted
component. These two sidebands interfere with the hybrid wave and produce the two signal
components - the normal and the distorted components. But the problem that arises is that the
volume of the original sound wave is proportional to that of the ultrasound, while the volume
of the signals distorted component is exponential. So, a slight increase in the volume drowns
out the original sound wave as the distorted signal becomes predominant.

An MIT Media labs researcher, Joseph Pompei, managed to crack the problem by studying current
technique and he realized that the focused should have been on the signals distorted component.
The technique to create the audio beam is simple,

Modulate the amplitude to get the hybrid wave

Calculate what the berktays equation does to this signal

And do the exact opposite

In other words distort it before the distortion by air takes place. When this wave is passed through
air and what you get is the original sound wave component. But this time

(a) The volume of the original sound wave component is exponentially related to the
volume of the ultrasound beam

(b) The distorted component volume now varies directly as the ultrasound

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FIG.8.1

You could also bounce the beam off a reflecting surface, so that people in the path of the audio
reflection can hear the sound. This is known as projected audio. In short, unlike ordinary speakers,
you will hear the sound only if you disrupt the sound beam, whether you stand in its path or in the
path of a reflection from an acoustic mirroring surface. If you step away from the path of the sound,
you will hear nothing. The sounds source is not the physical device you see, but the invisible
ultrasound beam that generates it.

9. ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY
There is another alternative approach to creating targeted audio, other than the
ultrasound modulation technique. One is the parabolic dish approach that essentially uses antennae
.to focus and direct sound. Here a relatively omni directional loudspeaker is placed at the focal
point of a parabolic dish pointing towards it. When the loudspeaker generates the sound signal, it
acts as a point source, emitting waves that reflect off the parabolic dish that is pointed towards a
particular direction. This is very much in use, but the size of the parabolic dish required to
accommodate the longer wavelengths of lower frequencies is too large.

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9.1 SIGNAL PROCESSING
In order to convert the source program material to ultrasonic signals, a
modulation scheme is required. In addition error correction is needed if distortion is to be reduced
without loss of efficiency. The goal is to produce the audio in the most efficient manner while
maintaining acceptably low distortion levels. The type of modulation adopted also has importance
the requirement is for a method for modulation and distortion reduction mat

Is able to minimize distortion by creating output that matched the ideal modulation envelope
while simultaneously

Does not increase bandwidth requirements i.e. reduction of bandwidth

Allows high modulation index for good efficiency

Allows the lowest possible ultrasound operating frequency for greater output

Preprocessing:
There should be necessary preprocessing for reducing the distortion due to air.
Referring back the Berktays equation it can be seen that the demodulation due to the medium gives
an output that is the two-time derivative of the envelope square. Therefore the necessary
preprocessing required are

1. Double integration and

2. Square rooting

The two time derivative operations Berktays solution translates to a 12db/octave high
pass slope in the output which can be corrected independent of the modulation scheme, with an
equalization factor.

The Berktays solution says that the audio signal will be proportional to the envelope.
Not the spectrum. Therefore there is considerable freedom in choosing the modulation scheme. The
two modulation schemes used are

1. Double sideband amplitude modulation (DSB) with square root

preprocessing - which results in many sidebands

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2. Single sideband amplitude modulation (SSB) - so that the interaction
between the sidebands are eliminated.

Square rooting the audio before the modulation gives the proper envelope for a DSB system.

Comparing the envelopes of DSB with square rooting:

9.2 The envelope of DSB with square rooting-

FIG.9.1.1

The envelope of SSB-

FIG.9.1.2

It can be seen that both the schemes result in a waveform that has the same envelope.

The following is the waveform both put together for comparison.

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FIG.9.1.3

The blue is the DSB line. The red gives the SSB waveform. It can be seen that though they are of
different values they result in the same envelope. Hence SSB gives a distortion free signal with no
preprocessing or additional signal conditioning so in case of no preprocessing; SSB is vastly superior
to DSB.

SSB also gives a controlled measure of self equalization to the demodulated audio thus eliminating
the effect of the 12db/octave roll off.

10. TRANSDUCER TECHNOLOGY

1. To cover a certain frequency range.

2. To have a certain dispersion pattern which In order to make this technology work, ultrasonic
energy must be emitted into the air. Electrical signals are converted into these acoustic signals
by means of an ultrasonic transducer. Acoustic transducers or emitters can be designed Is sharp.

3. A bandwidth from around 20 KHz to infinity.

4. A sharp dispersion pattern that gives a collimated beam of ultrasound

5. Unlimited output capabilities.

What is practically possible is a usable bandwidth of 20 KHz for use with SSB modulation giving
20 KHz of audio bandwidth, a resonant peak where the carrier will be placed, and a falling output
level with frequency to provide a measure of self-equalization in the system. The frequency
response of a transducer designed for 500Hz to 20 KHz flat audio response is much more realistic,
because the overall performance will be much better. These will be output below 500Hz just not at
the same level as the rest of the bandwidth.

Collimated beam is a must. In a point source the wave fronts are expanding spherically around the
source, so the intensity falls as the surface area of the sphere grows. With a plane wave source

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where the radiating surface area of the diameter is much greater than the wavelength being emitted,
the wave front do not spread appreciably and a collimated beam results. The only losses in intensity
occur due to molecular friction. The attenuation is gradual over distance. The attenuation grows
with increasing frequency so lower operating frequencies are desirable for minimizing losses.

Some of the emitters used are:

1. Monolithic dim ultrasonic transducers

2. Electrostatic

3. Piezoelectric film

4. Planar magnetic emitters

5. Pressure based PVDF

In the thin film transducers the piezo film generates the greatest ultrasonic output per unit area
while providing easily scalable singular structures of any diameter desired for a given application.
Piezoelectric Film Transducer

The most active piezo film is Polyvinyl dine diflouride or PVDF for short. In order to be useful for
ultrasonic transduction, the film must be polarized or activated. The film needs to have a conductive
electrode material applied to both sides in order to achieve a uniform electric field through it.

FIG.10.1

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The piezoelectric films operate as transducers through the expansion and contraction of the x or y
axes of the film surface. For use as an emitter, the film will not create effective motion in the z
direction unless it is curved or distended so that the expansion and contractions can be converted
into z axes movement and create displacement generating acoustic output.

In one of the simplest implementations of the concept, a sheet of PVDF is taken and it is laid over a
metal late within an array of holes in it. Pressure or vacuum can be applied to one side of that plate
to create an array of PVDF diaphragms, each with the diameter of the hole under it. A schematic
cross-section of such a device is shown below

FIG.10.2

The size of the hole is related to the resonant frequency of the carrier signal. Therefore there is
flexibility in calibrating the resonant frequency. Through the use of a new type of proprietary PVDF
film, which is the first purpose built transducer, the current emitter is stable, repeatable and very
practical device to manufacture. It has the following advantages:

Very high efficiency

Attenuated, self equalization slopes at the sideband frequency

Adjustable resonant frequency

Correct bandwidth needed to reproduce the widest band audio.

Repeatable, simplified construction.

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Greater than 140db ultrasonic output capability.

Inherently low distortion

11. BEAM DISPERSION

FIG 11.1: DISPERSION OF SOUND BEAM

12. COMPONENT OF AUDIO SPOTLIGHTING

SYSTEM

1. Power supply
2. Frequency oscillator
3.Modulator
4. Audio signal processor
5. Microcontroller
6. Ultrasonic amplifier

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7. Transducer

FIG12.1: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN AUDIO SPOLIGHTING SYSTEM

1. Power Supply: Like all electronic systems, the audio spotlighting system works off DC
voltage. Ultrasonic amplifier requires 48V DC supply for its working and low voltage for
microcontroller unit and other process management.

2. Frequency oscillator: The frequency oscillator generates ultrasonic frequency signals in

the range of (21,000 Hz to 28,000 Hz) which is required for the modulation of information
signals.

3. Modulator: In order to convert the source signal material into ultrasonic signal a modulation
scheme is required which is achieved through a modulator. In addition, error correction is
needed to reduce distortion without loss of efficiency. By using a DSB modulator the
modulation index can be reduced to decrease distortion.

4. Audio signal processor: The audio signal is sent to electronic signal processor circuit
where equalization and distortion control are performed in order to produce a good quality
sound signal.

5. Microcontroller: A dedicated microcontroller circuit takes care of the functional management

of the system. In the future version, it is expected that the whole process like functional
management, signal processing, double side band modulation and even switch mode power supply

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would be effectively taken care of by a single embedded IC.

6. Transducer: It is 1.27 cm thick and 17 in diameter. It is capable of producing audibility up

to 200 meters with better clarity of sound. It has the ability of real time sound reproduction with zero
lag. It can be wall, overhead or flush mounted. These transducers are arranged in form of an array
called parametric array in order to propagate the ultrasonic signals from the emitter and thereby to
exploit the nonlinearity property of air.

FIG12.2: PARAMETRIC LOUDSPEAKER

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13.MODES OF LISTENING

There are two modes of listening

13.1 Direct mode

13.2Projected mode

FIG13.1.1: DIRECTED AUDIO AND PROJECTED AUDIO

13.1Direct mode: Direct mode requires a clear line of approach from the sound system unit to the
point where the listener can hear the audio. To restrict the audio in a specific area this method is
appropriate.

13.2Projected or virtual mode: This mode requires an unbroken line of approach from the
emitter of audio spotlighting system, so the emitter is pointed at the spot where is to be heard. For this
mode of operation the sound beam from emitter is made to reflect from a reflecting surface such a wall
surface or a diffuser. A virtual sound source creates an illusion of sound source that emanates from a
surface or direction where no physical loudspeaker is present.

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14.ADVANTAGES

1. Can focus sound only at the place you want.

2. Ultrasonic emitter device are thin and flat and do not require a mounting cabinet.
3. The focused or directed sound travels much faster in a straight line than conventional
loudspeaker.
4. Dispersion can be controlled very narrow or wider to cover more listening area.
5. Can reduce or eliminate the feedback from microphone.
6. Highly cost effective as the maintenance required is less as compared to conventional loud
speakers and have longer life span.
7. Requires only same power as required for regular speakers.
8. There is no lag in reproducing the sound

15.HYPERSONIC SOUND SYSTEM: FACTS AND

LIMITS
1- The output is proportional to the area of the ultrasonic column.

2- Ultrasonic design is based directly on emitter diameter,

3- Directivity directly depended on the length of the ultrasonic column.

4- Lower modulation index decreases distortion.

5 -Greater modulation index increases gain.

16. APPLICATIONS

1.Automobiles: Beam alert signal can be directly propagated from an announcement device in the
dashboard to the driver .Presently Mercedes Benz buses are fitted with audio spotlighting speaker so
that individual travelers can enjoy the music.

2.Retail sales: Provide targeted advertising directly at the point of purchase.

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FIG:16.1
3.Safety officials: Portable audio spotlighting device for communication with a specific
person in a crowd of people.

4.Public announcement: Highly focused announcement in noisy environment such as

subways, airport, traffic intersections etc..

FIG:16.2
5.Emergency rescue: Rescue can communicate with endangered people far from reach.

6.Entertainment system: in home theatre system tear speaker can be eliminated by the
implementation of audio spotlighting and the properties of sound can be improved.

FIG:16.3

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7.Museums:
In museums audio spotlighting can be used to describe about a particular object to a person
standing in front it ,so that the order person standing in front of another object will not be able
to here the description.

FIG:16.4
8. Military applications:
Ship to ship communication and shipboard announcements.
9. Audio/video conferencing:
Project the audio from a conference in four different language, form single central device
without the need for headphone.
10. Sound bullets:
Jack the level 50 times the human threshold of pain and an offshoot of audio spotlighting sound
technology become a nonlethal weapon.

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FUTURE SCOPE OF AUDIO SPOTLIGHTING
Even the best loudspeaker are subject to distortion and their omnidirectional sound is annoying to the
people in the vicinity who do not wish to listen .Audio spotlighting system holds the promise of
replacing conventional speakers. It allows the user to control the direction of propagation with sound.
Audio spotlighting really put sound where you want it. "So you can control where your sound comes
from and where it goes," says Joe Pompei the inventor of Audio Spotlight. Pompei was awarded a Top
Young Innovator award from Technology Review Magazine for his achievements

The targeted or directed audio technology is going to tap a huge commercial market in entertainment
and in consumer electronics, and the technology developers are scrambling to tap into that market.
Analysts claim that this is possibly the most dramatic change in the way we perceive sound since the
invention of the coil loudspeaker. The technology that the Holosonics Research Labs and the American
Technology Corporation are lining up may seem to be a novelty of sorts, but a wide range of
applications are being targeted at it.

Continuing to improve on the commercial success of the Audio Spotlight sound system, Holosonics has
announced that its next-generation laser-like sound system, with improved performance and lower cost,
is now actively in production. These new systems are being exhibited at the 2004 Consumer Electronics
Show in Las Vegas alongside MIT Media Lab technology.

The performance and reliability of the Audio Spotlight have made it the choice of the Smithsonian
Institution, Motorola, Kraft, and Cisco Systems etc.

Holosonics put in four individual Audio Spotlights into the Daimler Chrysler MAXX cab prototype
truck to let all the passengers enjoy their own choice of music. Boston Museum of Science - as well as
the United States military. There is an even bigger market for personalized sound systems in
entertainment and consumer electronics.

Holosonic Labs is working on another interesting application at the Boston Museum of Science that
allows the intended listeners to understand and hear explanations, without raising the ambient sound
levels. The idea is that museum exhibits can be discretely wired up with tiny speaker domes that can
unobtrusively, provide explanations

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. There are also other interesting applications that they are looking at, such as private messaging using
this system without headphones special effects at presentations as well as special sound theme parks
that could put up animated sound displays similar to today light shows. Holosonic has installed their
Audio Spotlight system at Tokyo Sega Joyopolis theme park.

The US Navy has installed sound beaming technology on the deck of an Aegis-class Navy destroyer,
and is looking at this as a substitute to the radio operator headphones.

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CONCLUSION
Audio spotlighting is really going to make a revolution in sound transmission and the user
can decide the path in which audio signal propagate. Due to the unidirectional propagation it finds
application in large number of fields. Audio spotlighting system is going to shape the future of sound
and will serve our ears with magical experience. We were able to test in a relatively reflection-free area
on the roof of a parking structure.

The only reflecting surface was the cement floor, but its contribution was minimal. This environment
provided an excellent testing area as all the simulation results generally were confirmed. Although we
did not have a sound meter available, audio inspection was possible and appropriate from the intended
applications.

Another possible source of discord is the audio equipment. We lack the equipment to successfully
determine the transfer function of the equipment used to play the signals. Although we did use an
oscilloscope to measure the delay at several frequencies, there could be coupling between loudspeaker
elements, thereby creating oddly delayed signals or signals pointed in unexpected directions.

Although we gathered the expected results from the roof excursion, they did not fare well enough. The
simulations had predicted high directivity as well as promising pressure levels for attenuation outside of
the desired listening area. However, these levels were not distinct enough for actual applications
probably due to the human ears logarithmic listening attributes. Reducing sound levels by attenuation
never brought the sound pressures to the point that the sound was confined distinctly to that area.
Additionally ,the constraint that we be in a non-reverberant environment limited the initial plethora of
applications.

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REFERENCES
[1]. T. Chen, Guest Editor. The Past, Present, and Future of Audio Signal Processing,

IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, pages 30-57, September 1997.

[2]. W. F. Dryvesteyn and J. Garas. Personal Sound, J. Audio Eng. Soc., vol. 45, no. 9,

pages 685-701, September 1997.

[3]. J. Eagle, Loudspeaker Handbook, Chapman and Hall, New York, 1997.

[4]. D. Johnson, Array Signal Processing: Concepts and Techniques, Prentice Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1993.

[5]. D. Meyer. Computer Simulation of Loudspeaker Directivity, J. Audio Eng. Soc.,

vol. 32, no. 5, pages 294-315, May 1984.

[6]. J. Proakis and D. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing, Principles, Algorithms,

and Applications, 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey,

1996.

[7]. G. Smith, An Introduction to Classical Electromagnetic Radiation, Cambridge

University Press, New York, 1997.

[8]. M. Yoneyama and J. Fujimoto. The audio spotlight: An application of nonlinear

interaction of sound waves to a new type of loudspeaker design, J. Acoustical

Society of America, vol. 73, no. 5, pages 1532-1536, May 1983.

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