Fourth Year Bachelor of Engineering Thesis

Stability Analysis of Open Cut Mining

&
Road Cut Slope
By

Rajaram Koirala

16 th October 2015

Project Supervisor

Prof. Sabaratnam Prathapan

School of Engineering
Charles Darwin University

Secondary supervisor

Associate Professor Krishnan Kannoorpatti

School of Engineering and Information Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering



ABSTRACT
The stability of the slope is disturbed in the name of modern development. The speedy
expansion of numerous areas has guided in destroying natural slopes, which will encourage
imbalance and instability in the slope. The change in the natural slope may be for different
reasons; no matter what the reasons be, stability is important for both economic and social
safety. It is obvious that the failure mechanisms are mainly controlled by the specific rock
mass and the soil formation at distinct locations. Stability analysis of slopes form a vital
component of both open cut mining operations and the road cut slope throughout the life
cycle of the project.

The thesis is divided into two sections and studied separately to compare and contrast the
outcomes. The first part of the project focuses on the study of a deformation of the slope in
various open cut mining operations with example carried out from the field visit of Crocodile
Golds Northern Territory Operations. During the research period, field visit was carried out
to collect sample soil and informative mine data. In the laboratory, the collected sample was
used in performing appropriate laboratory test in finding the cohesion and angle of internal
friction; furthermore, using appropriate numerical modelling software factor of safety and
stability analysis was done.

The second part of the research was based on examining slope maintenance problems overall
and concentrating on roadside slope. Appropriate field visit was performed and the study of
the instability along the roadside was examined and studied. For this purpose, one particular
example was taken and the appropriate laboratory test was performed. After the research and
practical work of both sections of the thesis the clear conclusion was made appropriately
based on stability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project required enormous amount of work, study and commitment. During completion
of this multipart project, I came across large number of significant individuals and
organizations. Without their support and assistance I would not have been able to start and
complete this project.

First and foremost, I want to express my truthful thankfulness and gratitude to Prof.
Sabaratnam Prathapan, Senior Professor for permitting me to start on the current topic
Stability Analysis of Open Pit Mining and Road Cut Slope. I am very much thankful to him
for his proficient supervision and taking effort in refining my understanding of this project.
Similarly, I would like to thank to my second supervisor Assoc. Prof. Krishnan Kannoorpatti
and thesis coordinator Dr. Kamal Debnath for their ongoing support.

I am grateful to Croc Gold Mines officials and Senior Engineer Bikash Khatri who have
supported me in all sorts of problems for completion of the Thesis.

At last, I would like to thank my family and friends who have supported me to complete this
project successfully.

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Table of Contents

LIST OF FIGURES: .................................................................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLE: ....................................................................................................................................... vi
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background .................................................................................................................................. 1
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................... 1
3. SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................. 2
4. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................................... 2
4.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 2
4.2 Engineering Parameters of an open-cut mining .......................................................................... 3
4.3 Design Aspects of Open Cut Mining ............................................................................................. 3
4.3.1 Ultimate pit depth ................................................................................................................. 3
4.3.2 Berm Height .......................................................................................................................... 3
4.3.3 Berm width ........................................................................................................................... 4
4.3.4 Bench/Batter Slope ............................................................................................................... 4
4.3.5 Pit Slopes ............................................................................................................................... 4
4.4 Principles of Stability .................................................................................................................... 5
4.4.1 Different factors affecting Slope stability of road cut slope and open cut mining ............... 5
4.5 Rocks ............................................................................................................................................ 9
4.5.1 Types of Rocks ....................................................................................................................... 9
4.5.2 Interactive Rock Cycle: ........................................................................................................ 11
4.6 Determination of potential failure geometry ............................................................................ 12
4.6.1 Plane Failure ....................................................................................................................... 12
4.6.2 Wedge Failure ..................................................................................................................... 14
4.6.3 Circular Failure .................................................................................................................... 14
4.6.4 Toppling failure ................................................................................................................... 15
4.6.5 Rock fall ............................................................................................................................... 15
4.7 Stability of Mining and Road construction ................................................................................. 16
4.7.1 Cut Slope ............................................................................................................................. 16
4.7.2 Reasons for slope failure ..................................................................................................... 17
4.8 Factor of Safety .......................................................................................................................... 17
5. PRELIMINARY WORK .................................................................................................................... 18

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5.1 Field visit to Croc gold mine and Weavers cut in NT .................................................................. 18
5.1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 18
6. PROJECT METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 20
6.1 Methodology for Project ............................................................................................................ 20
6.2. Research Strategies ................................................................................................................... 21
6.3 Laboratory Tri-axial test for determining cohesion and angle of internal friction ..................... 21
6.4 Roc Lab ....................................................................................................................................... 24
6.5 Numerical Modelling .................................................................................................................. 27
6.5.1 Reasons for performing Numerical Modelling .................................................................... 27
6.5.2 Numerical Analysis Method Vs Limit Equilibrium Analysis methods .................................. 28
6.5.3 Different Numerical programs available for Stability analysis ............................................ 28
6.6 Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC) ................................................................................... 29
6.7 SLOPE/W .................................................................................................................................... 29
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 39
8 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 40
9. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................. 41
10. REFERENCE ............................................................................................................................... 42
11. APPENDIX - Screenshot ............................................................................................................ 46
11.1 Appendix I -Factor of Safety using UDEC & SLOPE/W .......................................................... 46
11.2 Appendix II- Roc-Lab for finding cohesion and angle of internal friction ............................. 72

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LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1 - Different Parameters of an open cut mining (Mechanics of Slope, 2009) ............................. 3
Figure 2 - Effect of slope angle (W. Anni & H. Scott, 2000) .................................................................. 4
Figure 3 - Normal faults (D. Chuck, n. d) ................................................................................................ 7
Figure 4 - Mohrs failure envelope with angle of internal friction ......................................................... 8
Figure 5 - Sedimentary Rocks (Rainbow Resource Centre, 2015) .......................................................... 9
Figure 6 - Metamorphic Rocks (Rainbow Resource Centre, 2015) ..................................................... 10
Figure 7 - Igneous Rocks (Rainbow Resource Centre, 2015) ................................................................ 10
Figure 8 - Rock Cycle Diagram (Annenberg Learner, 2015) ................................................................. 11
Figure 9 - Basic failure modes (Rai. R, 2002) ........................................................................................ 12
Figure 10 - Typical view of Plane failure (A=Sliding plane, B= Slope face) (Rai. R, 2002) .................... 13
Figure 11 - 3D view of plane failure along single discontinuities (Rai. R, 2002) ................................... 13
Figure 12 - Plane failure with condition of failure (Rai. R, 2002) ......................................................... 13
Figure 13 - Wedge failure (Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 2011) ....... 14
Figure 14 - Circular failure surface (Bardet. J, 2004) ............................................................................ 14
Figure 15 - Toppling failure (British geological survey, n.d) ................................................................. 15
Figure 16 - Rock fall (Dreams time, n.d) ............................................................................................. 15
Figure 17 Cost Vs Slope angle (mechanics of Slope, 2009) .................................................................. 16
Figure 18 - Inspecting the stability at Cosmo Gold mine, NT (Koirala. R, 2015) .................................. 18
Figure 19 - Use of vegetation for slope stabilization (Koirala. R, 2015) ............................................... 19
Figure 20 - Engineering application of the tri axial test Source : (GDS, 2013) ................................... 21
Figure 21 - Tri-axial test apparatus and samples ................................................................................ 22
Figure 22 - Specimen stress state during tri axial compression (GDS, 2013) ....................................... 23
Figure 23 - Cohesion and angle of internal friction using Roc-Lab for Road Cut Slope ........................ 26
Figure 24 - Cohesion and angle of internal friction using Roc-Lab for Open Pit Mining ...................... 27
Figure 25 - Sample screenshot (SLOPE/W) FOS 5.051 ..................................................................... 31
Figure 26 Sample screenshot (UDEC) FOS- 4.541 ............................................................................. 32
Figure 27 Sample Screenshot (SLOPE/W)- FOS 3.022 ...................................................................... 33
Figure 28 - Sample screenshot (UDEC) - FOS 2.951 ............................................................................ 33
Figure 29- Sample screenshot ( SLOPE/W)- FOS 3.679 ...................................................................... 35
Figure 30 - Sample screenshot (UDEC)- FOS 3.677 .............................................................................. 35
Figure 31 Angle of internal friction Vs factor of safety for UDEC (Open cut Mining) .......................... 36
Figure 32 Angle of internal friction Vs factor of safety for UDEC (Road Cut Slope) ............................. 36
Figure 33 Angle of internal friction VS factor of safety for SLOPE/W for Open cut mining ................. 37
Figure 34 Angle of internal friction VS factor of safety for SLOPE/W for Road Cut Slope ................... 37
Figure 35 Slope angle VS Factor of Safety for SLOPE/W & UDEC (Open Cut Mining) .......................... 38
Figure 36 Slope angle VS Factor of Safety for SLOPE/W & UDEC (Road Cut Slope) ............................. 38

LIST OF TABLE:

Table 1 : Pit slope design elements and risk areas (Source: The South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, n.d) ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Table 2 - Data obtained from the tri-axial test: ................................................................................... 25
Table 3- Factor of Safety for various slope angles in Open pit Mining ................................................ 30
Table 4 - Factor of Safety for various slope angles in Road cut Slope ................................................. 32
Table 5 - Factor of safety for different Cohesion and Angle of internal friction in Open Pit Mining ... 34
Table 6 - Factor of safety for various Cohesion and Angle of internal friction in Road Cut Slope ....... 34

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Natural disasters such as landslide, slope failures, rock fall etc. are big challenges for many
countries in the world. In the name of rapid infrastructure development, in recent years there
has been an imbalance in natural formations leading to severe human safety as well as huge
economy catastrophe. The primary failure conditions are both different and complicated.
According to ABC technology and Games (2015), 1Landslides in the open cut mines are
frequent and often lethal. So it is vital to deal with the stability of open cut mines to save
both human life and economy. On the other hand, the roads we use daily need to be safe.
According to Lee (2003), a common civil engineering problem in present days include the
artificially constructed slopes for various construction works which create social, economic
as well as environmental problems. Disturbance to soil particles due to constructional
activities has led to soil instability and high probability of failure.

With the rapid development in various sectors, artificial slope happens all over the world. The
stability is maintained by constructing retaining walls, sheet piling and many more. No matter
how they are constructed, what are the materials used and the technology, the focus will be
the safety. There are various factors that control the stability of the soil that includes
groundwater levels, seepage gradient, land profile and the geometry. Nevertheless, the
external factors such as external loads and dynamic load also play a vital role on soil
destabilization.

Limit equilibrium method is mainly used for the analysis of the stability of the slope. In
considering the likelihood of failure and consistency index, Limit equilibrium method give
factor of safety as indication of the stability of the slope. According to Hashash,, Marulanda,
Ghaboussi, & Jung (2003), Engineers are able to workout the detail construction process for
wide range of construction problems such as deep excavation, embankment loading and
many more using the soil deformation simulation. There are various numerical techniques,
which uses finite elements methods in solving equilibrium equations. FLAC, SLOPE/W,
UDEC, PLAXIS etc. are common numerical modelling tools. According to Arumogam,
(2011), understanding the functionality, their stability and consistency of any particular slope
includes the proper analysis of various slopes. Geo-technical engineers calculate the values of
numerical indicators such as possibility of failure and FOS by appropriate study and analysis
of the strength of soil (Arumogam, 2011).

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

According to Abramson, Lee, Sharma & Boyce (2002), depending on the naturally formed
slope or the slope constructed by human activities, the analysis of every slope includes the
factors such as materials properties, environmental ailments and the geographical locations.

The unsustainable development has brought distortion and decline in the stability of the
slope. According to Arumogam (2011), Factor of Safety analysed using various numerical
modelling software centred on limit equilibrium methods, scan the general idea in
construction of both open cut mining and road cut slope. Also, the distortion of the faces of
the slope is encountered by the excavation actions. Nevertheless, it is vital to calculate the
slope geometry by estimating the soil displacement directions and its faces, which includes
the soil movement and distortion of the faces. This project will analyse the slope stability of
both open cut mining and road cut slope by considering the factor of safety obtained by
appropriate laboratory tests and limit equilibrium analysis. Thus, the developments for
deformation, slope angle, soil properties and factor of Safety are studied for various different
soil and rock samples.

3. SCOPE
Analysis of the geological, ecological and other constraints and recognize them to
find the probable slope difficulties.
To conduct appropriate laboratory test for approximating angle of internal friction and
cohesion & analysing them for the outcome.
Establishing the effect of slope angle on the distortion and slope stability.
Calculating the factor of Safety using numerical modelling in the analysis of slope
stability.
To conduct the appropriate field visits and draw a clear conclusion on how the
stability of open cut mining and the road cut slope occurs.

4. LITERATURE REVIEW

4.1 Overview
Mining is the process in which the valuable and productive extraction of minerals or other
ecological materials takes place from the earth (Mission, 2015). There are numerous types of
minerals that are extracted from the earth.

It is true that the mining is one of the most commercial industries in the world. The extraction
process and the valuable mineral content in the natural soil might be different depending on
the type of minerals, but the main moto of the mining industry is to make the most profit out
of it. There are basically two main ways of mining extraction, Open pit mining and the
underground mining. No matter what sort of mining operation we take consideration into but
the stability always becomes an issue.

Continuing on the slope stabilization, the road slope stabilization is equally important. In
simple meaning, road slope stabilization is the practise of soothing slope neighbouring to
roads. Slope stabilization of the routine roads ranges from soil bioengineering techniques to
mechanical stabilization. The construction of the roads requires planning and site
investigation. It is obvious that applying appropriate techniques for slope stabilization works
during construction of new roads is much more cost efficient than repairing a site after

completion. But everything may not be perfect after completion. The fully constructed roads
may require treatment measures depending on the affected region, cost and practicability.
There are hundreds of road slope stabilization techniques applied during the construction
phase and maintained for continuing service works. Slope stabilization varies greatly from
regions to regions ranging from minimal control to big cost. No matter what are the reasons
behind the in-stabilization of the earth, but combined use of physical and bioengineering
techniques is always beneficial both environmentally and economically.

4.2 Engineering Parameters of an open-cut mining

Figure 1 - Different Parameters of an open cut mining (Mechanics of Slope, 2009)

4.3 Design Aspects of Open Cut Mining

4.3.1 Ultimate pit depth
It is clear from the starting phase of the mine that how long will the project run. The clear
judgment can be made depending on the financial charges and the fraction of the ores
available at the mine site. Ultimate pit depth is defined as the greatest depth the mine will
extent at the end of its life (Techno Mine, 2012). It is sometime challenging to discover the
ultimate depth of the mine as the mine gets extended with the feasibility and the accessibility
of the ores (Techno Mine 2012).

4.3.2 Berm Height

According to Techno Mine (2012), berm height is mainly determined by mining equipment
used under certain working conditions. Also, berm height is the sum of 3m and the bucket
height of an excavator. The berm height depends on the following factors (Techno Mine,
2012):

Type of the soil

Manufacturing approach which embraces functional cost, mixing supplies etc.

Slope strength reflections

Arrangement of mining equipment and the way they use.

4.3.3 Berm width

As the name suggests berm width is the breadth of the working bench. It is very essential to
estimate the correct breadth of the berm. Berm should be planned wide enough for the falling
fragments to be gathered and easy approach for their clean up. So it is obvious that the width
should be wide enough for the vehicle track. Also it should have some extra space to allow
clear space between the transport road and the broken pile of the rock at the corner (Pradhan,
2013).

4.3.4 Bench/Batter Slope

Depending on the dependability and the nature of breakdowns in that particular area the
batter slope should be design accordingly. The geo-technical conditions of the ore body and
the overburden decide the batter slope. (Techno Mine, 2012).

4.3.5 Pit Slopes

Figure 2 - Effect of slope angle (W. Anni & H. Scott, 2000)

Pit slope stability depends on various factors. The diameter of the pit, slope of the pit itself,
angle of the slope and the cohesion of the materials forming the slope affect the stability of
the slope. To make pit slope more stable they are divided into numerous benches with less
slope angle. The cutting of slope into benches not only makes the pit slope stable but also
helps in the extraction process. As mentioned earlier the slope of batter and the slope of
whole pit depend on the infrastructure and the properties of the soil and rocks at that
particular location. In large open pit mines, slight changes in slope angle have a significant
effect on project value. It is important to note that the materials that are stronger can have
more pit angle compared to weak materials. The angle can be fluctuated depending on the
type of rock, geological condition and the mission of the project. It is important to have a
deep study of the pit slope mostly in the case of mining extraction as small increase in slope
can have big effect on project value.

4.4 Principles of Stability

It is always vital to understand the basic principles of slope engineering regardless the
availability of modern numerical analysis programs. According to Sankar (2011), based on
the circumstances that the slopes are made by human daily activities or either occurs
naturally; slope stability principles clearly suggest it is necessity to understand the geological
and hydrological properties of the soil. Any analysis is incomplete without accounting the
time of analysis, surface and sub-surface conditions, the soil movement on and in the ground
and the external load. It is obvious for mountainous countries that the slope stability problem
is the utmost difficulty faced by both road constructors and the mining operator. There are
basically two main types of stability problems.

Gross stability Problems- According to Sankar (2011), large rotational type of shear failure
causes huge quantity of extremely battered soil and rock to come down the slope causing
gross stability problems.

Local stability problem: This is basically small problem and can be repaired with low cost.
The small volume of rock or soil is eroded due to shear plane jolting. The main reason for
this problem is due to surface drainage, (Sankar, 2011).

Although the principle of stability is same for both mining and the road constructions but the
pattern and the operability is different. Reduction in angle for open pit mining cost billions of
dollars in terms of economy but the same ideologies might be beneficial for road
constructions in long run. In context of slope stability there are numerous similarities and
differences in between road construction and open pit mining, which will be discussed as
separate topic.

4.4.1 Different factors affecting Slope stability of road cut slope and open cut mining

The below listed dot points are the common factors affecting slope stability, (Sankar, 2011)

Geometry of the slope

External loading
Geological Structure
Ground water table and seepage through the slope
Strength of soil and rocks
Angle of internal friction
Cohesion

4.4.1.1 Geometry of the Slope

There are certain engineering considerations, which determine the slope stability both in open
cut mining and road cut slope. As listed earlier bench altitude, breadth, batter slope, and
overall pit slope etc. plays a vital role on slope stability of open cut mining. On increasing the
overall slope of the batter the slope stability decreases and vice-versa, (Pradhan, 2013). In
large open pit mining slight changes in the slope angle have significant effect on project
value. According to knight Pie sold Consulting (2012), 2the overall slope angle that is

achieved in a pit is typically flatter than the maximum inter-ramp due to inclusion of haulage
ramps.

Table 1 : Pit slope design elements and risk areas (Source: The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, n.d)

From table 1, the bench geometry is a function of both geotechnical conditions and mining
systems. It is also true that environmental factors play a vital role in certain geotechnical
conditions but in larger scale geotechnical issues plays a principle role.

4.4.1.2 External Loading

The stability of any slope is disturbed and damaged due to operational activities such as
blasting and vibrations. The use of modern equipment such as jackhammer, wagon drill etc.
will disrupt the soil particles and rock close by creating instability. The use of heavy vehicles
such as trucks, dumpers, wagons, conveyors etc. for the transportation of the ore and other
materials from the mines causes soil instability. The shear stress increases rapidly from
blasting and vibration while drilling that may result in dynamic accelerations of the materials.
According to Safe Work Australia (2011), the use of different types of blasting systems such
as smooth blasting, controlled blasting etc. should be prioritize in modern days to minimize
the risk of slope failure and disturbance to the stabilized faces from blasting and vibrations.

Collection of water at different surfaces can add up for surcharge. The areas that are present
at high altitude within the open pit mining can result in building up of the ground water
pressure behind the faces, that adds up to the instability of the slope. The external loading
such as dumps and unwanted materials for storage can add up for surcharge causing
imbalance in the stability.
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4.4.1.3 Geological structure

Geological structures play a significant position in slope comportment. According to Pradhan
(2011), most of the instability of the slope is caused due to the presence of faults, folds, slips
etc. that in true sense is the discontinuities in geological structures. These discontinuities in
geological structures affect both open cut mining and the road cut slope. Geological
structures that affects most to the stability of the slope in open cast mines is listed below
(Pradhan, 2013):

Bearing and Level connected with slope

Old botch planes
Geological features with faults
Thrashing in shear strength provides littler resistance to sliding.
The loose rocks provide sufficient passage of drainage.
Acts like pipe for flow of rainwater.
Arrangements of fragile and durable layers

Slope instability develops if strata incline towards excavations 3(Pradhan, 2013). The figure
3 clearly shows that the faults and the folds provide instability of the slope causing the

Figure 3 - Normal faults (D. Chuck, n. d )

neighbouring rock to loosen. The materials near faults are loose due to seepage and
permeability, which provide less stability to the benches. As already stated the slope may
have faults and cracks due to blasting and other human activities for construction purposes,
due to these uncontrolled human behaviours the rock and the soil next to these faults make
the slope unsafe if not actioned on time.

4.4.1.4 Groundwater table and seepage through the pore

Slope stability is clearly disturbed by the local geology, the pressure of the groundwater and
the gradient of the slope. Water plays a very important role in influencing the strength of
slope forming materials by different physical and chemical compositions (Sankar, 2011).

Chemical composition and its reaction

Seepage clearly minimizes the shear strength

It also increases the pore water pressure.

It softens the solid clays and sands.
Capillary effect minimizes the cohesion in both soil and rocks.

The chemical reactions may occur in the joints that affect the friction and the cohesion of the
soil and the rocks due to outflow through the pore.

4.4.1.5 Strengths of soil and rock

Mineral configuration regulates integral rock strength and sensitivity to weathering which
ultimately determine the reason for stability analysis. Depending on the behaviour of the rock
such as elastic, plastic and brittle and the control on rock mass stability, soil strength can be
determined, which directly impact the stability of any sort of slope (Pradhan, 2013).
According to Pradhan (2013), the presence of faults, folds and discontinuities in the
neighbouring rocks changes the quality of the rock to affect the pit slope. Also, the strength
of the rock is also determined by the size of the rocks and the falling pattern (Sankar, 2011).

4.4.1.6 Angle of internal friction

Angle of internal friction for a given soil is the angle obtained by extending the tangential
line drawn on Mohr circle, which cuts the stress in y-axis, and the angle obtained is denoted
by . Tangent line drawn provides the coefficient of the internal friction, which is the
degree of amount of competency of a soil or the rock that is able to withstand shear stress
without failure (Pradhan, 2013). This is clearly affected by element size and its slope.
According to Sankar, (2011), the particles size determine the angle of friction to be big or
small. Smooth and particles with round shape will have more angle of internal friction
compared to that of irregular rock samples. Also, the particle slope and particle size is
determined by the amount of quartz in that particle (Sankar, 2011). Angle of internal friction
is shown in figure 4, and is denoted by .

Figure 4 - Mohrs failure envelope with angle of internal friction

4.4.1.7 Cohesion (c)

According to Pradhan (2013), Cohesion is simply defined as the soil or rock property that
actions how effectively and efficiently it opposes from being cracked or deformed by external
forces such as gravity. It is the force with in the materials that holds the particles together.
True cohesion and apparent cohesion are two basic form of cohesion that can be
distinguished easily with their composition. According to Sankar (2011), the causes of true
cohesion is due to presence of chemicals such as Fe2O3, CaCO3 and NaCl but apparent
cohesion happens due to the effect of capillary and pore pressure while completing the
undrained loading.

Cohesive force plays a vital role on the stability analysis of both open cut mining and road
cut slope. There are various factors that may weaken the cohesive forces of the rocks and the
soil (Pradhan, 2013):

Adding weight to the soil due to high water content deteriorates the cohesion force.
Destabilizing in slopes also weakens the cohesive strength of soil and the rock.
Mass movement due to both human and natural calamities affects stability.

4.5 Rocks
Rocks are seen all around us. It is simply defined as the naturally formed minerals from the
remains of living animals and other sediments. According to Scienceviews (2008), rocks are
formed from different types of silts, sand, pieces of crystals and other small pieces of rock
itself. It is also true that the rock is formed from remains of many dead living creatures.

4.5.1 Types of Rocks

According to Annenberg Leaner (2015), rocks are continually changed from one to the other
by many processes such as weathering, compaction, melting and cooling. Based on the
formation of the rocks, they are classified into three main types.

Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Igneous

4.5.1.1 Sedimentary Rocks:

According to Annenberg Leaner (2015), the

sedimentary rocks are created from the sediments
that collect on the earths surface. They are formed
from the sediments of silt, gravels and other wastes
of materials. When these sediments accumulate over
long time they gets harder and come as sedimentary
rocks with distinct properties. Sometime we can see
the layers of sedimentary rocks that are formed by
deposition of various materials. It is also true that
Figure 5 - Sedimentary Rocks (Rainbow Resource these rocks are formed from the mixture of various
Centre, 2015)
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small pieces of rocks with distinctive character. There are three main of types of sedimentary
rocks (Scienceviews, 2008):

Clastic: Clastic sedimentary rocks are easily seen and most common form of rocks made
from the accumulation of small fragments of rocks and silts. These sediments harden over the
time forming clastic sedimentary rocks (Scienceviews, 2008). Example: sandstone, claystone,
conglomerate.

Chemical: According to Scienceviews (2008), Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed

exactly same as clastic rocks but the water present while sedimentation are evaporated after
the chemical reactions. This process involves dissolving of minerals present in the sediments.
Examples: Chert, rocksalt

Organic: As the name suggests organic rocks are formed from the remains of large number of
living things. It is obvious that different animals parts are formed from various chemicals.
When the animals parts pile up as sediments then they form organic sedimentary rocks
(Scienceviews, 2008). Examples: Dolostone, coal etc.

4.5.1.2 Metamorphic rocks:

According to Annenberg Learner (2008),

Metamorphic rocks are formed due to the change in
temperature and pressure. Basically metamorphic
rocks are formed by change in the physical and
chemical properties of the rock due to heat and
pressure. As shown in the figure 6, metamorphic
rocks are shiny minerals due to the change in their
form. Although there are few different forms of
metamorphic rock but the basic principle of their
Figure 6 - Metamorphic Rocks (Rainbow Resource formation is same. Examples: marble, schist, phylite,
Centre, 2015)
quartzite.

4.5.1.3 Igneous Rocks

According to Annenberg Learner (2008), igneous
rocks are formed from the cooling and hardening
process of lave that are spread out during volcano.
As lave is in liquid form, it takes time to change that
form into solid igneous rock. So, we can say there is
a phase change in this formation. Because this is

10

Figure 7 - Igneous R ocks (Rainbow Resource
Centre, 2015)


formed from volcano eruption there is a chance to form tiny holes within the rock. When lave
moves down the crest it starts to form the hard materials. Igneous rock are further classified
into different rock types:

Volcanic rocks
Hypabyssal rocks
Plutonic rocks
Pyroclastic and volcanoclastic rocks

4.5.2 Interactive Rock Cycle:

It is interesting to understand the interactive rock cycle. Rocks formed from different
processes are interchangeable. It is also clear from the rock study that all rocks change slowly
from one type to another, again and again. There are various chemical reactions and
biological interactions on and off the earth surface that makes rock changes from one to
another.

Figure 8 - Rock Cycle Diagram (Annenberg Learner, 2015)

The diagram above (figure 8) clearly explains that the rocks are continually changing from
one type to another and back again. There are various phases involved during the phase
change. The factors that play a vital role on change of form is cooling, heating and pressuring
weathering and erosion. If we start from the metamorphic rock for the study of rock cycle we
can easily see that weathering and erosion change the metamorphic rock into sedimentary
rock. Then formed sedimentary rock changes into metamorphic rock under heat and pressure.
In the same way when the metamorphic rock are melted under the earth surface they come

11



out to the earth surface as magma and cooling of this lave form igneous rock. The igneous
rock formed this way under the influence of heat and pressure can change into metamorphic
rock. So this is an ongoing process. It is obvious from the diagram that the elements of the
rock are never created and destroyed but constantly changes from one to another.

4.6 Determination of potential failure geometry

Figure 9 - Basic failure modes (Rai. R, 2002)

With the availability of numerous modes of failure, it is important for geo-tech engineers to
make a decision on specific failure modes during construction activities. To determine the
failure potential it is also essential to determine the geological factors such as alignment,
layout, cohesion, strength, angle of internal friction etc. Figure 9 shows the basic failure
modes, which include plane, toppling, circular, and wedge failure. The basic failure modes in
earth and rock mass are (Sankar, 2011):

Plane Failure
Wedge failure
Circular failure
Toppling failure
Rock fall
4.6.1 Plane Failure
Plane failure is caused due to low angle of internal friction compared to that of slope angle.
During this condition the whole mass of the rock or the soil slide down the failure plane on
quarry floor. This type of failure is the most common, easiest and simple form of rock slope
failures that occurs in the benches and also easy to analyse (Sankar, 2011). From figure 10 we
can clearly see what are the faces involve in plane failure. Slope toe and Slope crest are the
two bottoms and the top portion in plane failure. The other part involves major structure and

12



the tension cracks. It is also clear that how the plane failure initiates and what makes it to
slide down to slope toe.

Figure 10 - Typical view of Plane failure (A=Sliding plane, B= Slope face) (Rai. R, 2002)

Figure 11 - 3D view of plane failure along single discontinuities (Rai. R, 2002)

Figure 12 - Plane failure with condition of failure (Rai. R, 2002)

13



As it is clear from the figure 11 & 12 when the slope face slide down the failure plane due to
the initiation of the tension cracks, a planar failure of rock slope occurs. The figure above
also shows the detail of the sliding mechanism and 3 dimensional representation of the
failure.
According to (Rai, R) plane failure occurs due to following three reasons:
Slope of the slope face should me greater than the slope of the failure planes.
Slope of discontinuity should be greater than the frictional angle.
The slope trend of the planar incoherence must be within 20 degree of the slope path
of the slope face.
4.6.2 Wedge Failure
According to Sankar (2011), wedge failure
occurs when the dip of intersection is greater
than angle of friction and the failures initiates
from the two neighbouring failure planes. The
line of intersections of the two-failure plane is
almost perpendicular to each other causing the
mass of soil or rock to slide down the face
(Sankar, 2011).
According to Quarterly Journal of Engineering
geology and hydrogeology (2011), wedge
failure is usually formed by two main reasons:
Angle of friction is less than the slope of
connection and the failure plane is facing
towards the excavation plane. The figure 13
clearly shows the conditions and the 3D mode of wedge failure.

Figure 13 - Wedge failure (Quarterly Journal of

Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 2011)

4.6.3 Circular Failure

This type of failure is mostly popular in soft
soils and weak rocks. As seen in the figure 14,
this type of failure doesnt actually fails
forming full circle but forms some sort of
circular arc (Rai, 2012). This type of failure
purely depends on the soil properties and the
water content. As this type of failure modes are
commonly found in loose soil it is important to
consider the proper drainage while carrying out
constructional activities in these sorts of soil.
Considering the affected area by circular
failure, this mode of failure is further
subdivided into further three types (Rai, 2012) Figure 14 - Circular failure surface (Bardet. J, 2004)
Slope failure
Toe failure
Base failure

14



4.6.4 Toppling failure

This type of failure involves the rotational

movement of the mass or the rocks without
totally damaging the base. The initiation of
this type of failure occurs from the top
surface of the rock mass. According to
British Geological Survey, this type of
failure happens at the single point at the base
or somewhere near to surrounding base.
Also, when the base of the mass or the rock
gets loosen due to weathering the top of the
cliff topples creating this sort of failures. As
this type of failure involves rotational force,
the toppled mass or the rocks falls forward
causing serious trouble in both the road cut
slope and the open cut mining. The figure
alongside shows an example of toppling
failure. According to Rai (2012), there are
basically three main types of toppling
failure: Figure 15 - Toppling failure (British geological survey, n .d)
Flexural toppling
Block toppling
Block flexural toppling

4.6.5 Rock fall

The name suggests that the rock fall is simply
falling of debris or the rock pieces rapidly
without any warnings. According to Sankar
(2011), small to big pieces of rocks separates
from a big slope of rock due to weather
conditions or the artificial human activities
causing rock fall. The main reason for this
type of failure involves the physics that is
basically expansion and contraction of the
rock pieces. This type of failure is very
popular in road construction in the Himalayan
regions where the roads are constructed
through the massive cliff of rocks.
Figure 16 - Rock fall (Dreams time, n .d)

15



4.7 Stability of Mining and Road construction

It is very importance to understand the principles of
stability in constructing the well-organized and
sustainable mining operations and road for daily
uses. Without understanding the basic concepts and
the failure modes of the slope it is impossible for
geo-tech engineers to start on any projects. It is also
a vital to know the reasons behind the slope failure
both in mining operation and road construction.
Without significant knowledge of the essential
elements such as proper design and site
investigation, understanding the soil and the rock
arrangement and knowing the surface and sub-
surface water situation, it is impossible to carry on
with stability analysis.
As discussed earlier, slope angle plays a vital role
for stability. No matter what sort of construction
activities are to be carried out the price of the
property matters. Increasing the slope angle means
creating steeper slope that might not be beneficial
in some circumstances. From the figure alongside
(Fig: 17) we can see that on increasing pit slope,
probability of failure increases, the accompanying
works of failed mass usually increase and therefore
additional costs are encountered in handling these
failures. But for road construction the costs will
offset the benefits. Roads are constructed for many
years. The longer the neighbouring soil stays safe Figure 17 Cost V s Slope angle (mechanics of Slope,
the better are the roads. So for road construction 2009)
slight decrease in slope angle might be beneficial
for long run.
4.7.1 Cut Slope
In all civil engineering projects a shallow and deep cuts are important features. According to
Lee et al. (2002), it is essential to design something, which runs efficiently for long period of
time and minimizes maintenance cost. In the context of slope design the same principles
exists. There are various factors that influence the design of the slope, some of them include
geological conditions, surface and subsurface hydrological conditions, construction
techniques, pressure in the neighbouring soil and the rocks and the natural catastrophes which
is beyond human hands. Economic factor plays a vital role for the construction of steep slope.
For the sudden and immediate failure of any construction activities involving the cut slope, it
is essential to plan and design the project accordingly, which provides the long run stability
saving lot of maintenance cost. It is obvious that flat cut slope may be stable for the indefinite
period but are often uneconomical and impractical for long run. A slope that is too steep may
remain stable for short period of time. Steep and unstable slope may be hazardous both for
life and property. Catastrophe failure can be dangerous to everything and also involve huge
amount of expenses in financial sector.

16



4.7.2 Reasons for slope failure

According to Sankar (2011), there are many reasons behind the slope failure; some of them
can be summarized as below:

Excessive slope angle or height

Poor drainage
Low strength foundation
Removal of vegetation that hold surrounding soil
Increased loading
High groundwater table
Unsuitable geological features
Poor handling of fill materials
High groundwater table
Liquefaction
Presence of aquifers

4.8 Factor of Safety

There are various ways in defining the Factor of Safety. The factor of safety is simply defined
as the ratio of the highest capacity of the soil to tolerate the maximum applied load. The most
common interpretation for FoS assumes that the FoS is constant along the slip surface, and
can be defined either by the force or moment equilibrium (Cheng & Lau, 2008). The factor of
safety F may be expressed as follows:

Force equilibrium: Factor of Safety in case of force equilibrium is simply given by the
following formula where failures planes are composed of resisting and driving forces.

!"#$#%$&' !"#$%(!r)
Ff= !"#$#%& !"#$%(!d)

Driving force: According to Humboldt, driving force is directly proportional to slope height
and the steepness of the slope plus the rock density.
Resisting forces: The resisting forces are present due to the potency of the slope constituents
and roots of the holding trees (Dunne and Leopold).

In the analysis of slope stability, it is very essential for engineers to provide a reasonable FoS
that satisfies not only the safety but also the economy of the whole project.

17



5. PRELIMINARY WORK

5.1 Field visit to Croc gold mine and Weavers cut in NT

Figure 18 - Inspecting the stability at Cosmo Gold mine, NT (Koirala. R, 2015)

5.1.1 Overview
The study of stability analysis of open cut mining and the road cut slope includes field trip to
Cosmo Gold mine and Weavers cut in Northern territory. Part of the thesis scope includes
completing the field visit to mines nearby and collect the appropriate data and samples for lab
testing. On 29th April 2015, a field visit to Croc gold mine was carried and a sample for lab
testing was collected. Starting out with Weavers Creek on the way to mines, where the
stability of the road cut slope was studied. Here I saw open pit mining and the processing
plant including the mining taskforce continuance workspace. The main focus goes to the
safety of the people where there is Zero tolerance on safety of the people. As there was
underground exploration, I was lucky enough to see the underground mining operation and
the activities such as drilling, remote loading, rock support installation, ventilation,
underground exploration, refuge chambers and many others.

5.1.1.1 Cosmo Gold Mines:

Cosmo gold mine is located approximately 200km from Darwin city. According to Cosmo
gold, 4Cosmo gold are hosted within the upper to middle Koolpin Formation, which consists
of interbedded siltstones, carbonaceous mudstones, banded ironstone, Phyllites, dolerite sills
and greywacke units.

Cosmo includes three core-mineralized layers, which are pondered individually for regulating
appropriate mining techniques (Cosmo gold mine). Talking about the stability of the slope,
they have wisely used the mesh to prevent ravelling and rock fall. The reason for using cable
bolts, rods, and shear pins etc. was to increase the stability of the slope that minimizes the
slope failure. The control of surface drainage was well implemented for slope design. Various

18



water pumps were fitted to

pump water out from the
collected areas to the
designated zone. Surface
water drainage paths through
and around the mine was
designed, constructed and
maintained such that water
does not collect at the crest or
the toe of the precarious
slopes of the pit. Routine
Figure 19 - Use of vegetation for slope stabilization (Koirala. R, 2015) supervising was methodically
maintained to support the
geological factors and the proper design was carried out in a well-organized manner to stop
slope failure and save the life of both human and the economic property. As it is clear from
the above discussion that slope strengthening can utilize vegetation, concrete, polymers and
other materials that can be seen at open pit mining. But the vegetation was planted where the
mining operation was completed and there was no vegetation used nearby the operating
plants. The figure 19 clearly demonstrates the use of vegetation in slope stabilization.

5.1.1.2 The Weavers Creek

The weavers Creek on the way to mines includes the various slope stabilization techniques to
make the road safer and cost effective. The creek was well drained to control erosion. The use
of different varieties of vegetation, clearly suggests that the proper soil bioengineering
techniques was implemented for the control of slope damage. There were few joints and
breakdowns for proper drainage of water during flooding. The rock was pretty strong which
was made using diverse earthwork practices & controlled physical movement of rock and
soil. The slope angle was maintained by proper study of the road site. It was clear from the
study that before construction starts the main aim of the site, its topographic locations, water
content, weather conditions and the physical properties of the soil was studied properly.
Water management was maintained in a proper manner with suitable use of surface drainage,
proper use of inlet and outlets etc.

19



6. PROJECT METHODOLOGY

6.1 Methodology for Project

Sejng up Specic Objeclves through Research &

Requirement

Appropriate review of feasible literatures

Collelon of Samples

Conduclng appropriate laboratory

test

Finding the values of cohesion &

angle of internal friclon

Slope design with varying

slope angle for various
numerical modelling

Study of calculated
Factor of Safety

Results and
Discussion

Conclusio
n

Reco
mme
ndal
on

20



6.2. Research Strategies

Proper understanding of several modes of failure.
Croc Gold Mine and Weavers Creek were visited for understanding real life scenario
and the practicality of the project.
Laboratory experiments were completed using the sample collected from the field
study.
Numerical modelling software UDEC and SLOPE/W were studied and used
appropriately.
Using numerical modelling parametric studies was completed.
The effect in the slope was also studied by varying slope angle of the pit from 38 to
78 at an interval of 10.

6.3 Laboratory Tri-axial test for determining cohesion and angle of internal
friction
Tri-axial test is one of the most broadly used common tests where the strength and the
mechanical properties of the soil are determined. Before the failure of the sample the true
value of the principal stress is determined. The main reason for using tri-axial test is the
control use of drainage during the sample testing periods. According to GDS (2013), there are
three types of Tri-axial test.

Consolidated drained
Consolidated undrained
Unconsolidated undrained

The main use of tri-axial test is to establish 1 and 3 for various soil samples. The
obtained reading is used in drawing the Mohr-Circle to find the approximate value of angle of
internal friction and cohesion.

As stated earlier tri axial test provided the data that is then used to calculate the shear stress
and the normal stress on the failure plane which is widely used in geotechnical design (GDS,
2013). Also GDS states that this test got controlled drainage which provides the measurement
of pore water pressure and that is used in finding the soil and rock properties for various
constructional activities. The distortion comportment of the soil sample and shear strength of
the soil and the rocks. Although this test is used widely for various purposes but the primary
role for this project involves the finding of the angle of internal friction , cohesion c and
undrained shear strength Cu (GDS, 2013). The figure 20 clearly shows the real life
experience of the tri axial test where slip circle, tri-axial compression and tri-axial extension
are clearly shown.

Figure 20 - Engineering application of the tri axial test Source: (GDS, 2013)

21



While performing the tri axial test, a cylindrical soil sample is covered with rubber membrane
to prevent water from entering into the sample, which then placed in a rigid bottom, and top
plate into a chamber for the test to start. While performing the test it is also important to
know that the size of the specimen has height to diameter ratio of 2:1. The set up and the
preparations of the sample are listed in the picture (figure: 21).

Figure 21 - Tri-axial test apparatus and samples

According to GDS (2013), tri-axial test includes the application of a vertical load and the
horizontal load. Vertical load includes stress from surrounding water and deviator stress but
the horizontal stress includes stress only from the surrounding water. It is essential to

22



maintain the water pressure and water level throughout the test. The rubber membrane is used
in preventing the water to get into the sample.

A tri-axial test reading provides major principal stress, minor principal stress and deviator
stress. According to Sean Rees (2013) 5The deviator stress q is generated by applying an
axial strain a to the soil, the deviator stress acts in addition to the confining stress in the axial
direction, with these combined stresses equal to the axial stress a, or major principal stress
1. The figure below clarifies the stresses on various directions.

Figure 22 - Specimen stress state during tri axial compression (GDS, 2013)

The general procedures for conducting the tri axial test are listed below (Texas department of
Transportation, 2014):

The soil sample was placed in the cylinder to make the appropriate sample cylinders.
The standard height to diameter ratio was measured and confirmed.
The rubber membrane was used to cover the prepared sample for preventing water to
enter the sample while testing. All the air in-between the sample surface and
membrane was pumped out.
The sample was secured on top and bottom using O-rings.
The made sample was positioned on the base of the testing chamber and was made
secured.
The loading piston was set up properly without disturbing the sample.
The locking device was used to secure the chamber.
The hand pump was used in pumping the water to fill the testing chambers.
The air between chamber and the sample was removed by filling the water all the way
to the top.
The pressure was released to slowly flow water back.
The same procedure was repeated to gather different sets of data.

23



The reading was taken and the value of cohesion and angle of internal friction was
calculated using Roc Lab computer software.

6.4 Roc Lab

According to RocLab (2015), Roc-Lab is used in finding the rock mass strength constraints
based on Hoek-Brown failure criterion. It is a simple but very useful software programme.
With the help of this simple software, user can easily evaluate the values of cohesion and
angle of internal friction without drawing a Mohr-Circle. The effect of changing rock mass
properties can be easily seen in the graph drawn and the necessary conclusion can be made
based on the graph obtained. According to Roclab, it is clear that the result obtained from
Roc-lab is directly used in numerical modelling software such as FLAC, Slope/W, UDEC etc.
If the user knows the type of rocks, their structure and the surface condition then he/she can
easily calculate the rock parameters with desired graph. Nevertheless, if the soil or the rock
properties are unknown then one can input the tri axial lab test data (1 and 3) into Roc-
lab and it will provide with necessary information such as cohesion and angle of internal
friction. The other advantage of using Roc-lab is copying of data from spreadsheet directly
into Roc-lab screen for the simulation purpose (Roclab, 2015).

According to Roclab, (2015) there are basically 4 steps involved in the calculation of
cohesion and angle of internal friction which are listed below:

Unconfined compressive strength of intact rock (Roclab, 2015)

Geological strength index (Roclab, 2015)
Intact rock parameter (Roclab, 2015)
Disturbance factor (Roclab, 2015).

Depending on the rock properties and their strength, the above-mentioned parameters are
easily estimated. To obtain the uniaxial compressive strength, intact uniaxial compressive
strength chart is used which consists of field estimate of strength and strength of the materials
(Roclab, 2015). The properties of the soil are listed with respective strength values, from
which the user can choose the right value for the calculation purpose. In the same way the
GSI value can be picked using the chart that consists of structure samples and their surface
conditions. The structure is divided into various sections such as intact or massive, blocky,
very blocky and so on with their respective quality listed in surface condition sections. A Mi
value is also picked in the same way following the chart given. Finally the disturbance factor
D is also estimated from the table provided to calculate the required values of cohesion and
angle of internal friction. As discussed for road cut slope the tri axial test data was input into
Roc Lab for estimating cohesion and angle of internal friction but for pit stability the tables
and charts were used in estimating materials properties and eventually cohesion and angle of
internal friction as attached in appendix.

24



Table 2 - Data obtained from the tri-axial test:

Sample No. Stress (MPa)

1 3
1 2.75 0.3
3.25 0.6
3.80 0.8
2 2.58 0.35

3.47 0.60

3.38 0.82

3 1.5 0.1

2.7 0.2

3.0 0.4

4 1.9 0.09

2.5 0.19

3.2 0.24

Taking the average of these 4 samples and using Roc Lab; cohesion and angle of internal
friction was found to be 58.5 kPa and 66 degrees respectively.

But in case of Open Pit Mining, due to the unavailability of Laboratory resources, the rough
estimation of cohesion and angle of internal friction was made using the software named Roc
Lab.

25



Mohrs Circle obtained from the Roc Lab Program:

Figure 23 - Cohesion and angle of internal friction using Roc-Lab for Road Cut Slope

26



Figure 24 - Cohesion and angle of internal friction using Roc-Lab for Open Pit Mining

6.5 Numerical Modelling

Introduction

According to Ali (2011), Numerical modelling is an appropriate method for complex scenario
that cannot be determined by conventional methods. It is true that all rock slopes involves
many discontinuities such as joint, fault, bedding plane etc. that needs to be solved using
numerical modelling. In general, most of the slope instability associated with difficulties to
material anisotropy, non-linear behaviour, geometry etc. will be carried out using numerical
analysis (Ali, 2011). Numerical analysis is widely used for analysing complex issues but it
also provides the comparative study. It is also true that when these numerical modelling are
properly used; these methods can produce realistic results in solving engineering problems.

6.5.1 Reasons for performing Numerical Modelling

There are various advantages of using numerical modelling for stability analysis. Some of
them are listed below (Pradhan, 2013):

27



With the use of numerical modelling one can calculate the factor of safety with the
identification of failure plane.
Using numerical analysis the user can easily analyse and compare the 2D as well as
3D models.
Experimental results can be compared and clarified using numerical analysis

6.5.2 Numerical Analysis Method Vs Limit Equilibrium Analysis methods

After the complete analysis of slope using numerical model, a comparison is made based on
the results obtained. Different factors such stresses, physical properties, failure, slip surface
etc. was considered for comparison purposes. The advantages of a Numerical approach to
slope stability analysis over traditional limit equilibrium methods can be summarized as
follows (Pradhan, 2015):

With the use of numerical modelling complex situations can be easily sorted out. The
stability problems, which occur while constructing retaining walls, shallow
foundation and deep foundation etc., can be easily analysed.
Numerous possibilities in designing of the structure and the projects are evaluated
using numerical analysis.
Manual calculation doesnt include faults joints etc. while analysing the results, but
numerical analysis can include such key geological features.

6.5.3 Different Numerical programs available for Stability analysis

The study of slope stability problems using numerical programs provides more understanding
of the detailed forces on each slice. It also helps in understanding failure mechanisms. Many
physical parameters that are interrelated to the factor of safety are studied using suitable
numerical programs. There are various programs used such as (Pradhan, 2015):

FLAC SLOPE
GALENA
OASYS
ROCKFALL
UDEC
SLOPE/W
SLIDE
SVOFFICE
DIPS
GEOSTUDIO
FLAC3D

Among them 2 of them named UDEC (Universal Distinct Element Code; Itasca Consulting
Group, 2000) and SLOPE/W was considered for numerical analysis for this specific project.
Numerical modelling software named Roclab was used to calculate angle of internal friction
and cohesion. The separate values of angle of internal friction and cohesion were used at
different circumstances for two different software named UDEC & SLOPE/W. With the use
of this two popular software Factor of Safety was calculated and compared.

28



6.6 Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC)

According to NMEICT slope, Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC) is complex
modelling software that treats a slope as a group of deformed and discontinuous rock mass
for the analysis purpose. Also to model complex mechanisms and the movements of the
rocks, the considered fragments segments are made to move relative to each other for the
analysis purpose. According to Rai, the force displacement and the Newtons second law are
combined between the so-called fragments pieces and the whole block for the analysis of the
displacement within the whole block of the rock. Due to all these reasons this software is
very popular among the geo-tech for the analysis purpose. This software has been very
popular from the design purpose of road cut slope as well as the stability analysis of the open-
pit mining, (Rai. R).

According to ITASCA (2015), UDEC simulates numerous intersecting joints and analysis
separately providing the results in 2 dimensional models. According to UDEC manual UDEC
is widely used software for the analysis of the stability as this simulates large variety of
problems and consider wide variety of the boundary conditions. According to ITASCA
(2015), as UDEC model looks complex with the inclusion of various fragmented blocks
within the single big block, but each of the deformed block act as a finite- difference zones.

Basic outline in simulating the slope problem using UDEC model involves:

Problem definition
Understanding the failure mechanism
Selection of appropriate Numerical methods
Modelling the problem/Project setup
Defining the boundary conditions
Initial in situ conditions
Entering the material properties
Assigning the fixed velocity boundaries
Gravity setting
Solving the problem
Analysing the results

6.7 SLOPE/W
According to SLOPE/W (2012), SLOPE/W is popular and well-accepted numerical analysis
software used in the analysis of stability of the slope. Also the principle used for the analysis
is limit equilibrium where various methods are used in calculating factor of safety for
analysis of the stability. According to GEO-Slope (2015), SLOPE/W can solve almost all the
stability related problems and are easily analysed for the design purpose. According to N.
Sivakugan and Braja M. Das (2010), the major components in solving a slope stability
problem includes:

Geometry is defined as first step in modelling

Soil properties are defined and also consigned to the specific regions
29



The thirst step involves defining the water table.

Forth step involves defining slip circles and the method used for analysis purpose.
Once the method is selected, then the problem is solved
The last step involve displaying of the results

It is always beneficial to understand the problem and have a rough sketch before starting the
sketch in SLOPE/W. Using the DEFINE program the drawing is created on the screen with
right dimensions and required slope angle. It is essential to set up the drawing space by
setting a page size, a scale and the origin of the co-ordinates system on the page.) After
defining the drawing space and displaying the problem domain, it is essential to specify the
materials properties and assigning the regions. Using Draw/Materials properties, the materials
properties are entered and applied. The next step is defining the piezometric line that is
simply done by selecting the coordinates.

According to Das (2010), the methods of analysis and the slip surface are defined using the
commands on the draw menu. A single slip circle can be defined with the grid and Radius
method by collapsing the centre-grid into a single point and by collapsing the tangential lines
into a single line6 (Sivakugan. N). Several steps are followed to obtain the result and view
the model to see slip surfaces and Factor of Safety.

Table 3- Factor of Safety for various slope angles in Open pit Mining

Serial No. Slope angle Angle of Cohesion Factor of Safety

(Degree) internal (kPa)
friction
(Degree) Slope/W UDEC

1 38 25 80 5.321 5.017
2 48 25 80 5.071 4.869
3 58 25 80 5.051 4.541
4 68 25 80 4.750 3.935
5 78 25 80 4.094 3.291

30



Figure 25 - Sample screenshot (SLOPE/W) FOS 5.051

31



Figure 26 Sample screenshot (UDEC) FOS- 4.541

Table 4 - Factor of Safety for various slope angles in Road cut Slope

Serial Slope Angle of Cohesion Factor of Safety

No. angle internal
(Degree) friction
(Degree)
Slope/W UDEC

1 38 19 45 3.292 3.121

2 48 19 45 3.022 2.951

3 58 19 45 2.834 2.693

4 68 19 45 2.789 2.321

5 78 19 45 2.381 1.941

32



Figure 27 Sample Screenshot (SLOPE/W)- FOS 3.022

Figure 28 - Sample screenshot (UDEC) - FOS 2.951

33



Table 5 - Factor of safety for different Cohesion and Angle of internal friction in Open Pit Mining

Serial No. Cohesion (kPa) Angle of Factor of Safety

internal friction Slope/W UDEC
(Degree)
1 50 19 3.280 3.256
21 3.361 3.267
23 3.347 3.373
25 3.430 3.455
2 60 19 3.791 3.624
21 3.876 3.736
23 3.959 3.841
25 4.044 3.935
3 70 19 4.290 4.096
21 4.381 4.219
23 4.474 4.301
25 4.559 4.411
4 80 19 4.827 4.568
21 4.880 4.678
23 4.974 4.787
25 5.071 4.869

Table 6 - Factor of safety for various Cohesion and Angle of internal friction in Road Cut Slope

Serial No. Cohesion (kPa) Angle of Factor of Safety

internal friction Slope/W UDEC
(Degree)
1 25 19 1.935 1.988
21 2.013 2.016
23 2.094 2.086
25 2.177 2.157
2 35 19 2.437 2.456
21 2.515 2.541
23 2.595 2.623
25 2.678 2.705
3 45 19 3.022 2.951
21 3.016 3.033
23 3.097 3.126
25 3.272 3.208
4 55 19 3.538 3.419
21 3.618 3.513
23 3.701 3.607
25 3.679 3.677

34



Figure 29- Sample screenshot ( SLOPE/W)- FOS 3.679

Figure 30 - Sample screenshot (UDEC)- FOS 3.677

35



Fricfonal Angle Vs Factor of Safety for UDEC (Open Cut Mining)

5
4.8
4.6
4.4
Factor of Safety

4.2
50 kPa
4
60 kPa
3.8
70 kPa
3.6
80 kPa
3.4
3.2
3
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Angle of Internal fricfon (Degree)

Figure 31 Angle of internal friction Vs factor of safety for UDEC (Open cut Mining)

Angle of Internal Fricfon VS Factor of Safety for UDEC (Road Cut

Slope)
3.9
3.7
3.5
3.3
Factor of Safety

3.1
25 kPa
2.9
2.7 35 kPa
2.5
45 kPa
2.3
2.1 55 kPa
1.9
1.7
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Angle of Internal Fricfon (Degree)

Figure 32 Angle of internal friction Vs factor of safety for UDEC (Road Cut Slope)

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Fricfonal Angle Vs Factor of Safety for Slope/W (Open Cut Mining)

5.2
5
4.8
4.6
Factor of Safety

4.4
50 kPa
4.2
4 60 kPa
3.8
70 kPa
3.6
3.4 80 KPa
3.2
3
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Angle of Internal Fricfon (Degree)

Figure 33 Angle of internal friction VS factor of safety for SLOPE/W for Open cut mining

Angle of Internal Fricfon Vs Factor of Safety for Slope/W (Road Cut

Slope)

3.5

25 kPa
Factor of Safety

3
35 kPa

45 kPa
2.5
55 kPa

1.5
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Angle of Internal Fricfon (degree)

Figure 34 Angle of internal friction VS factor of safety for SLOPE/W for Road Cut Slope

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Slope Angle Vs Factor of Safety For Slope/W & UDEC (Open Cut
Mining)
5.5

5
Factor of Safety

4.5

Slope/W
4
UDEC

3.5

3
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Slope angle (Degree)

Figure 35 Slope angle VS Factor of Safety for SLOPE/W & UDEC (Open Cut Mining)

Slope Angle Vs Factor of Safety For Slope/W & UDEC (Road Cut
Slope)
3.5
3.3
3.1
2.9
Factor of Safety

2.7
2.5
Slope/W
2.3
2.1 UDEC
1.9
1.7
1.5
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Slope angle (Degree)

Figure 36 Slope angle VS Factor of Safety for SLOPE/W & UDEC (Road Cut Slope)

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7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results were obtained using numerical modelling software named UDEC and SLOPE/W.
The collected sample from the field visit was used in performing the tri-axial test at lab to
calculate the major and minor principal stress; the values obtained are used in the software
named Roclab to find the value of cohesion and angle of internal friction. In case of road cut
slope the sample collected was used in performing tri-axial test and the results are finally
analysed using numerical software to calculate Factor of Safety. In case of open cut mining
Roclab program is used for rock sample in estimating materials properties to calculate
cohesion and angle of internal friction. With the use of compressive strength, geological
strength, disturbance factor and rock parameters of the rock sample, the value of cohesion
and angle of internal friction is determined. The obtained values are compared and tabulated
to compare the results. It is obvious that the newly constructed road cut slope or surface
mining are more stable compared to that of aged slope. It was also seen that in case of rock
slope the failure starts with the cracks and can only give little notice before it totally collapses
but the soil surface failure can happen suddenly without any notice due to weathering, poor
drainage, and human activities.

The effect of cohesion, slope angle and angle of internal friction were studied and listed in
the graphical form which can be summarized in the bullet points:

In case of road cut slope, the tri-axial test was performed and using the results from
Tri-axial test the Cohesion and Angle of internal Friction were found to be 58 kPa &
66 degrees respectively.
But in case of Open Pit mining, due to the unavailability of laboratory resources in
performing the tri axial test, the software named Roc-Lab was used in finding the
Cohesion and Angle of internal Friction, that were found to be 72kPa & 40 degree
respectively.
It is obvious from Table 4, that on increasing slope angle of the pit, the factor of
safety decreases from 5.321 to 4.094 using SLOPE/W and from 5.017 to 3.291 using
UDEC. The value of cohesion was fixed at 80kPa while changing the angle of internal
friction.
UDEC and SLOPE/W give very similar values for Factor of Safety. There is less than
10% difference in the values obtained using different software.
Figure 5 shows the obtained values of FoS using Slope/W.
In case of Road cut slope Factor of Safety changes from 3.292 to 2.381 on increasing
the slope angle from 38 degree to 78 degree at constant cohesion. The FoS was almost
similar while using UDEC at the same conditions.
Sample screenshot was shown in figure 26, where the FoS was found to be 4.541.
Table 5 & 6 shows the interrelation between Cohesion and angle of internal friction
and factor of Safety. It can be shown how factor of safety is changed increasing angle
of internal friction with constant cohesion. It is also clear that on increasing the value
of cohesion factor of safety increases. So there is a direct relation between cohesion
and Factor of Safety.

39



The graph shown in figure 31 further clarifies the relation between frictional angle
and factor of Safety in open cut mining.
The relation between angle of internal friction and factor of safety is shown in figure
32 where there is direct relation between them.
From figure 33 & 34, it is observed that for same angle of internal friction, higher the
cohesion value more is the factor of safety and for a particular cohesion value, the
factor of safety increases with increase in angle of internal friction.
Figure 35 & 36 shows the change in factor of safety with slope angle both in UDEC
and SLOPE/W. It proves that on increasing slope angle, the factor of Safety decreases
in both cases.

The figure listed above (33-35) shows the relations between the slope angle and the factor of
safety. Although the value of face angle for safe construction depends on materials
properties, weathering conditions, availability of materials, period of construction, age of the
slope and many more, but from the study it can be safe to say 50-60 degree of slope face is
considered safe for road cut slope. From table 2, with slope angle of approximately 68
degrees the FOS was found to be 2.321and 2.789 using the software named UDEC and
SLOPE/W respectively which is considered as safe for the design purpose. To make the
design safer and to minimize the probability of failure the slope face can be covered with
mess to prevent from weathering. As water plays a vital role in destabilization of the slope it
is very important to control water. The drain holes present in the mess and surface and sub-
surface run off should be maintained properly for long lasting results. The necessary support
should be provided for long-term stability of the slope. It is also obvious from the above
figure 33 & 34 that slope stability doesnt just depend on the slope angle but also on angle of
internal friction and cohesion. The principle of stability is same in both open cut mining and
road cut slope. It is important to understand the life of the project where road cut slope may
have longer life compared to that of open pit slope. The road cut slope are made for longer
period of time and need to have longer life, but in case of open pit mining, the cut slope is
ignored once the ores are extracted from the pit.

8 CONCLUSION
This project was completed with the study of slope stability in different geotechnical
conditions for both roads cut slope and open cut mining. In designing open pits and the road
cut slope, the depth, location, height, movement of transportation, surcharge etc. plays a vital
role on slope stability. It is also important to consider the level of stress, driving force and
dragging force, external loading and geological structures while considering stability of any
slope. Ground water table and the drainage system affect the slope in great extent. The fault
present in the rocks minimizes the stability causing sudden failure. It is also necessary to
understand the slope stability of rock back fill slope where the height and the bench slope are
considered. It is also understandable from the report that the road cut slope exists for longer
period of time but the mining slope is there for only short period of time. So, it is important to
consider long-term slope stability in case of road cut slope compared to that of pit slope, but
the safety is important in both cases.

40



The laboratory results and the values obtained using numerical modelling recommends to use
face angles of the slope between 50 to 60 with the FOS of 3.291 for open pit mining slope
but in case of road cut slope the FOS can be less. There are always accepted standards that
need to be followed during the construction process. The calculated values using lab results
and numerical modelling should be compared with available and prescribed standards for the
better results. It is essential to consider the design Factor of Safety and the probabilities of
failure before the start of any project.

Based on the literature review and the laboratory work we can conclude that the Factor of
Safety changes with slope angle. It was also clear from the preliminary study that the increase
in the cohesion and angle of internal friction makes the slope more stable. A broad study
from literature, field visits and the laboratory results recommends the information on how to
make slope stable and long lasting. It is understandable that for the success of every project
proper work plan, project verdict, site study and the history are to be known in advance. In
case of slope stability analysis also this principle exists. Different failure modes and their
causes were presented to find the solution for respective approaches. It was studied and
concluded the role of water table and their management mechanisms for the stability of the
slope. It is always safe to be safe; so rather than totally relying on individual results and
mechanisms it is always beneficial for using the modern days approach and their accepted
standards. Thus, understanding these practices will aid in the selection of suitable slope
stabilization techniques to stabilize the slope.

9. RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended to use laboratory test results along with the standards adopted from the
past. It is always beneficial to run-through all of the gathered data together with the
geotechnical mapping data. It is also vital to understand the influence of wet season storm
water and ground water pressure. It is recommend having proper surface and sub-surface
drainage to manage storm-water for slope stability. It is also vital to consider the faults,
cracks, joint surfaces and their effect on slope stability. It is also suggested to consider
ecological disturbances and other important factors while working with numerical modelling
software. As only angle of internal friction & Cohesion was considered for practical purpose
it is always beneficial to include other important parameters. This project only uses UDEC
and Slope/W for the analysis but the use of other numerical software such as Slide, OASYS,
Flac/Slope, etc. can also be considered for better comparison.

41



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11. APPENDIX - Screenshot

11.1 Appendix I -Factor of Safety using UDEC & SLOPE/W

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11.2 Appendix II- Roc-Lab for finding cohesion and angle of internal
friction

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