Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577

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Engineering Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Study of the rock foundation stability of the Aizhai suspension bridge

over a deep canyon area in China
Qi-Hua Zhang a,, Yu-Jie Li a, Mei-Wan Yu a, Hui-Hua Hu b, Jian-Hua Hu b
a
Yangtze River Scientic Research Institute, Wuhan, Hubei 430010, China
b
Hunan Provincial Communications Planning, Survey and Design Institute, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Suspension bridges have good spanning ability and seismic resistance. They avoid the need for tall piers and re-
Received 21 April 2015 duce the amount of foundation excavation. Therefore, suspension bridges are the rst choice when building
Received in revised form 28 September 2015 large-span bridges. Recent expansion of highways in the high mountainous region of western China has led to
Accepted 30 September 2015
the widespread construction of large-span suspension bridges. Mountainous areas with deep canyons feature
Available online 3 October 2015
complex topographic and geological conditions, such as constricted construction sites, extensive unloading of
Keywords:
rock masses and problematic stability of high and steep slopes, that adversely affect foundation stability and com-
Suspension bridge plicate surveys and analyses. In this paper, the Aizhai suspension bridge was used as a case study, and four key
Bridge foundation stability issues related to bridge foundation stability were analyzed. The results suggest that a comprehensive geological
Tunnel-type anchorage investigation is needed to develop a full understanding of the geological conditions, particularly unloading and
Pullout capacity dissolution-related geologic defects, in rock masses. The stability problem in the bridge foundation rock masses
Clamping effect occurs primarily in the high and steep slopes on both banks of the canyon. The design load did not cause signif-
icant deformation in the rock mass. If proper reinforcement measures are taken to ensure the stability of the slope
rock mass, the foundation rock mass will be stable. In addition, no signicant interaction was observed between
the structures. A tunnel-type anchorage can resist strong pullout forces via the clamping effect provided by the
surrounding rock. Because tunnel-type anchorages are rarely used, the rock mechanics of the surrounding rocks
have not been fully studied. Therefore, the pullout capacity of these anchorages may have been seriously
underestimated.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction environmental disruption. The anchor plug and surrounding rocks

Suspension bridges have good spanning ability and seismic resis-
tance. These bridges avoid the need for tall piers and can reduce founda-
tion excavation. Thus, suspension bridges are the rst choice for large-
span bridges. A suspension bridge consists of four primary structural
components: anchorages, which are the major supporting structures;
stiffened girders; main cables; and one or more bridge pylons. A suspen-
sion bridge can be classied as self-anchored or ground-anchored. The
ground anchors can be further divided into gravity-type and tunnel-
type anchorages.
A gravity-type anchorage develops frictional resistance between
large concrete anchors and their foundations to resist the large tension
from the main cable. Therefore, a gravity-type anchorage has a simple
mechanical conguration. A tunnel-type anchorage is a concrete plug
with an inverted wedge shape that is large at the bottom and small at
the top. A tunnel-type anchorage can use the resistance of surrounding
rocks and remain small (only 2025% of the volume of an equivalent
gravity-type anchorage), and it is also cost effective and produces less
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zqh7692@163.com (Q.-H. Zhang).
form a complex force system that resists the tension from the main
cable. The tension diffuses into the surrounding rocks through the
inverted wedge-shaped anchorage plug, and consequently, a large
zone in the surrounding rocks participates in bearing the tensile load.
The additional stress induced by the squeezing effects of surrounding
rocks in the zones near the anchorage consists primarily of compression
and shearing. Under such a stress state, the dilatancy and strain harden-
ing of the surrounding rocks allow the anchorage system to resist ex-
tremely large pullout loads. This tremendous pullout resistance is the
result of the clamping effect of the rocks surrounding the tunnel-
type anchorage. Because of the complexity of the pullout mechanisms
of the surrounding rocks, a tunnel-type anchorage is commonly used
in hard rock masses that have few cracks and good integrity.
Studies of large-span suspension bridges have primarily focused on
the technology of bridge design (Davis, 1998; Clemente et al., 2000;
Tang, 2011; Mathur and Molina, 2005; Hu and Shen, 2014), static struc-
tural stability (Gabriela, 1999; Cobo del Arco and Aparicio, 2001), struc-
tural response under dynamic loading (Wang et al., 1999) and risk
assessments of bridge structural reliability (Imai and Frangopol, 2002).
Geological surveying in large engineering projects has been studied
(Oliveira, 2011; Zhang, 2011), and numerical simulations have been

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.09.012
0013-7952/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
66 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577
used to analyze deformation and stability problems in the foundation
rock mass of heavy structures such as anchorages and cable pylons of
large suspension bridges (Hu and Shen, 2014). Zhang et al. (2006) and
Li and Li (2006) summarize the results of designing and laboratory
model testing gravity-style anchorages.
The construction of large-span suspension bridges spanning deep
canyons is problematic because of the complex topographic and geolog-
ical conditions, restricted construction sites, unloading and weathering
of rock masses and potential safety hazards on high, steep slopes. There-
fore, such construction projects frequently involve complex issues of
foundation stability. To date, few large-span suspension bridges have
been built in canyons. Thus, there is limited design and research experi-
ence regarding the foundation stability of such bridges.
To assess deformation features, failure modes and bearing capacity
problems in the rock surrounding tunnel-type anchorages, a few eld
model tests at various scales have been conducted in China (Xia et al.,
1997; Feng et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2015; Yu et al.,
2015). The test conditions and results are listed in Table 1. In summary,
the eld model tests demonstrated that the tunnel-type anchorage can
resist extremely high pullout forces.
There are similarities between the pullout mechanisms of the
tunnel-type anchorage and an uplift anchor or pile. Numerous studies
have examined pullout tests, pullout mechanisms and uplift resistance
values of uplift anchors and piles (Meyerhof and Adams, 1968; Dickin
and Leung, 1985; Chattopadhyay and Pise, 1986; Shanker et al., 2007;
Fahmy et al., 2013; Niroumand and Kassim, 2014). The deformation fea-
tures and failure modes, particularly those of the failure surfaces, are
major topics in these studies. In general, the properties of the soil and
the embedding depth are the most important factors affecting the uplift
capacity of the anchor. In dense sand, the shape of the failure surface is
generally a frustum or a parabola radiating outward in section view near
the footing edge. This shape tends to be more vertically elongated
(cylindrical) as the footing depth increases. In loose sand at shallow
depths, the failure surface is essentially vertical. The ultimate uplift
load has been analytically calculated based on the limit equilibrium of
the forces acting on the failure surfaces.
In general, there is insufcient information regarding the stress
transfer between the surrounding rocks and the anchorage body, the
deformation features and the failure modes of the surrounding rocks.
Thus, the allowable design pullout capacity of the surrounding rocks
has been somewhat conservative. There are no computational formulas
for the allowable pullout force or safety factor of the surrounding rocks
Table 1
Some eld model tests of tunnel-type anchorage in China.
Type of rock mass Scale of the model
The Guangdong Pelitic siltstone of 1:50
Humen Bridge poor integrity
The Chongqing Siltstone, pelitic 1:12.5
E'gongyan Bridge siltstone
The Hubei Siduhe Bridge Limestone 1:12
The Yunnan Puli Bridge Limestone 1:25
The shape of one anchorage
plug was cylindrical, whereas
the other was a conical
frustum.
In the table, 1 P equals the design load, which can be calculated via the similarity principle according to the scale of the test model.
in the corresponding standards, e.g., Bridge Design Manual (Texas
Department of transportation, 2009) and Design specication for high-
way suspension bridge (The Professional Standards Compilation Group
of the P. R. C., 2002). Consequently, designers calculate the pullout force
by referring to the mechanisms involved in a gravity-type anchorage in
which the total gravitational load is the sum of the weights of the an-
chorage and the rocks vertically above it. In this design philosophy,
the rocks located vertically above the anchorage are taken into account
in the calculation of the gravitational load. The clamping effect is thus
neglected. In summary, the pullout capacity may be underestimated in
the design. When the condition of the rock mass is inadequate, de-
signers may adopt a gravity-type anchorage instead of a tunnel-type an-
chorage. The rock mechanics involved in the pullout mechanisms of the
rocks surrounding the tunnel-type anchorage and the evaluation of the
allowable pullout force require further study.
2. Brief introduction to the Aizhai Bridge
The JishouChadong Highway is an important component of the
ChangshaChongqing Interstate Highway, and the Aizhai suspension
bridge (Fig. 1) is a critical project along that route. The bridge is located
in the town of Aizhai, Jishou City, Hunan Province, and spans the famous
Xiang-Chuan Way, which was built in the 1930s, and the beautiful Great
Dehang Canyon. The deck of the Aizhai Bridge consists of a stiff steel
girder spanning more than 1176 m, and the vertical distance between
the deck and the canyon bottom is 330 m. A tunnel-type anchorage
was installed on the north bank, the Chadong bank, whereas a gravity-
type anchorage was installed on the south bank, the Jishou bank. The
load on the main cable is 2 280 MN. Construction of the bridge
began in September 2007 and nished in March 2012. Because of the
extreme difculty of its construction and the high level of technology in-
volved, the Aizhai Bridge is highly regarded in the eld of bridge con-
struction in China. The technological achievements involved in the
construction of the bridge won the grand prize at the 2013 China High-
way and Transportation Society Science and Technology Awards.
The Aizhai suspension bridge is located over a typical deep canyon
bounded by steep slopes with complex geological conditions. Thus,
the usable area of the construction site was constricted, and certain im-
portant structures are close to one another and to the adjacent slope. To
minimize the amount of excavation, a detached pylon-girder structure
was included in the design of the suspension bridge. On the Chadong
bank, a cable pylon was installed on top of the highway tunnel a
Maximum test load Test results Test time
4.8P The deformation of surrounding rocks In 1995
transitioned to a plastic state when the test load
reached 4.8 P (Xia et al., 1997).
4.6P The test results indicated that the safety factor In 1997
(the ratio of the test load to the design load)
was greater than 4 (Feng et al., 2006).
7P The deformation, additional stress and In 2004
rheological deformation were all relatively
small under the maximum test load of 7P (Zhu
et al., 2006).
50P The deformation, additional stress and In 2012
rheological deformation were all relatively
small (Zhang et al., 2015).
The failure mode of the cylindrical anchorage
was similar to that of a short pile, and the mean
lateral friction calculated based on the test data
The loads were large enough
was approximately 2.6 MPa. However, the
in order to assess failure
ultimate pullout resistance of the conical
modes of rock mass.
anchorage was approximately 4.5 times that of
the cylindrical anchorage. Therefore, the
clamping effect is signicant (Yu et al., 2015).
 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577
Fig. 1. The Aizhai Bridge span over a deep canyon. The Chadong bank is on the left; the Jishou bank is on the right.
distance of 52 m from the tunnel arch. The outside of the cable pylon
foundation is located a horizontal distance of only 60 m from the top
of the excavated slopes. The tunnel-type anchorage is located a vertical
distance of 23 m above the highway tunnel, as shown in Fig. 2(a). On the
Jishou bank, there are free surfaces on both sides of the bridge abutment
slope, leading to a 60-m-tall cliff. There are serious unloading
dissolution fractures in the rock mass in the cliff, and two unstable
rocks are present in the face of the cliff. The cable pylon foundation is
adjacent to the entrance to the highway tunnel and is located 50 m
from the unstable rocks. The gravity-type anchorage is located at the
back of the mountain, as shown in Fig. 2(b). In general, the distances be-
tween the adjacent structures and between the structure and the cliff
are very small. Fig. 3 shows these relationships and the distances be-
tween the cable pylons and the slopes on both banks.
In such constricted topographic conditions, the construction of a large-
span suspension bridge faces many challenges, such as the stability of the
high and steep slopes and the foundation stability of the structures, in-
cluding the anchorages, cable pylons and tunnels. In addition, the interac-
tions between the structures and between the structures and slopes
created by the constricted construction site are also problematic. The
core issue underlying all of these problems is whether bridge foundation
stability can be achieved as designed. This article presents an analysis of
many key issues related to the site investigation, design and calculations.
Multiple means and methods were introduced to perform the geological
surveys, computational analyses and construction monitoring. Thus, this
study may provide a valuable reference for analyzing rock mechanics in
large-span suspension bridge projects. In addition, the high pullout capac-
ity of tunnel-type anchorages due to the clamping effect of the sur-
rounding rock identied in this study may provide a reference for future
studies of pullout mechanisms in tunnel-type anchorages.
Fig. 2. Geological structure cross section and design line drawing of the bridge on both banks. (a) The Chadong bank; (b) the Jishou bank.
67
3. Identication of unfavorable geological conditions
The bridge is located in an area of complex geological conditions. The
rock mass is composed of hard, horizontally bedded, Cambrian lime-
stone and dolomite; the majority of the beds are thick (1030 cm),
and a few thin beds are present. There are two sets of steeply inclined
joints in the rock mass. During the geological evolution of the rock,
dissolutionunloading fractures developed in the slope. In addition,
there are dissolution-related defects that are difcult to detect. These
geological defects destroyed the soundness of the rock mass and re-
duced its strength and may threaten the stability of the slope and
structures.
Multiple investigatory techniques were applied to determine the
geological properties of the rock mass at various stages of design and
construction. For example, two exploratory adits, each more than
100 m long, were excavated at the areas of the cable pylon and anchor-
age on the Chadong bank. Tests for dissolutionunloading zoning, engi-
neering rock mass classications, and rock mass deformation and
strength tests were performed in the exploratory adits. Techniques in-
cluding electromagnetic wave computer tomography (CT) drilling
scans, in-hole TV cameras, transient electromagnetics (TEM), and seis-
mic surveys were used to study the regularity of the karst development.
Ground-penetrating radar was also used to identify karst defects in the
rock mass surrounding the cable pylon and anchorage.
3.1. Slope on the Chadong bank
At the site-investigation stage, surface melting grooves and dissolu-
tion fractures were identied on the slope of the Chadong bank. Geolog-
ical logging was performed in two exploratory adits to determine the
68 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577
Fig. 3. The cable pylons on both banks are near cliffs due to the constricted construction site. (a) The Chadong bank; (b) the Jishou bank.
distribution and orientation of the fractures in the adit walls.
Seismic surveying was used to detect the embedding depths of the
dissolutionunloading zones (Fig. 4) in the rock mass. The ndings
were as follows.
(1) Lithology: The limestone strata were generally 0.10.3 m thick.
Minor zones displayed bedding thinner than 0.1 m, and other
beds were thicker than 0.5 m. The orientation averaged N73E/
SE b 9, and there were local undulation and small interlayer
shear zones.
(2) Joints and fractures: The joints can be classied into two sets
based on their strikes, which are nearly NS and nearly EW.
Both sets are steeply inclined. The joints were generally planar
and slightly rough, and the majority displayed high-strength sur-
faces with calcareous cementation. The average line density of
the joints was 1.3 lines per m. Most of the joints extended less
than 10 m, but a few were longer. The dissolutionunloading
fractures generally coincided with these steeply inclined joints.
(3) Rock mass structure: The rock mass structure was primarily of a
clamping style consisting of a thin layer between thick layers.
Structural planes were developed locally and cut the rock mass
to form a sub-blocky structural type, which can be determined
according to the Standard for engineering classication of rock
masses (The National Standards Compilation Group of the P. R.
C., 2015).
(4) Dissolution and unloading: A serious dissolutionunloading
zone extended to a depth of 8 m in the exploratory adit. A
zone of strong dissolutionunloading was observed at a depth
of 816 m, and a zone of weak dissolutionunloading was ob-
served at a depth of 1626 m.
(5) Hydrogeology: Areas near the adit entrance displayed minor to
moderate dripping, whereas zones deeper than 23 m were dry.
Fig. 4. Distribution of elastic wave velocities with depth in the exploratory adit on the Chadong bank.
During the construction period after excavation, multiple small karst
caves as well as dissolution fractures that were either tangential or nor-
mal to the slope surface (all tracking the steeply inclined joints) were
observed on the slope. The slope rock mass was cut into relatively
large blocks, as shown in Fig. 5. By contrast, the rock mass surrounding
the pylon foundation displayed no dissolution defects. The regularity
and depth of the karst development in the exploratory adit under the
pylon foundation indicated that the dissolution defects were present
primarily at depths of 2030 m below the slope surface and would not
affect the pylon foundation.
3.2. Slope on the Jishou bank
A 46- to 63-m-tall cliff is located in front of and left of the slope on
the Jishou bank (Fig. 6 (a)). The bridge abutment was placed outside,
and the cable pylon was placed inside, as shown in Fig. 2 (b). The cliff
top was excavated to build the bridge abutment. In addition to two
sets of steeply inclined joints and gently inclined bedding in the rock
mass, multiple dissolutionunloading fractures were observed during
the investigation and construction stages. In addition, some sinkholes
and karst caves were observed. Deterministic dissolutionunloading
fractures, such as L1L14, were observed near the bridge abutment
and pylon foundation, as shown in Fig. 7. In a certain portion of the
slope surface, the fractures were extensively developed and extended
down to the bottom of the cliff. The rock masses were cut signicantly
and displayed a sub-blocky structural style (Fig. 6 (b)). The left side of
the cliff was cut off completely by these steep joints, resulting in the for-
mation of two unstable rocks containing multiple sinkholes and small
karst caves (Fig. 7). In the preliminary design, the pylon foundation
was offset a sufcient distance from the unstable rocks at the front of
the cliff.
 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577
Fig. 5. Dissolution defects observed during excavation on the slope of the bridge abutment
of the Chadong bank.
4. Key issues in the stability of the foundation rock mass
The bridge site is topographically and geologically complex. Steep
slopes are located on both banks. The construction site was constricted,
and the structures were near one another and adjacent to the steep
slope. Moreover, the foundation rock, although consisting of hard, thick-
ly bedded limestone and dolomite with good foundation rock mass
characteristics, contained steeply inclined joints and fractures. Obscure
geological defects such as karst caves, dissolutionunloading fractures
and unstable rocks were also present. Taken together, these unfavorable
geological conditions might seriously affect foundation stability and
greatly complicate surveys and analyses. There are four primary issues
with respect to the stability of the foundation rock mass:
(1) The stability of the unstable rocks on the left side of the bridge
abutment slope on the Jishou bank was problematic. These
rocks are cut by two sets of steeply inclined joints and multiple
dissolutionunloading fractures and are prone to sliding or top-
pling failure. Excavation and dissolutionunloading fractures af-
fect the slope stability on the Chadong bank and the level of
assurance provided by reinforcement measures.
(2) The loads are high, i.e., tens of millions of kilograms. The
main cable load is 2 280 MN, and the cable pylon load is
2 540 MN. The potential deformation and stability of the
gravity-type anchorage and cable pylon foundation, bearing ca-
pacity and safety factors of the rock mass surrounding the
tunnel-type anchorage were concerns.
(3) The structures on each bank are near each other and adjacent to
the high steep slope, and the stability of their foundations and
potential interactions between the structures were problematic.
Fig. 6. Topographic and geological conditions along the slopes of the bridge abutment on the Jishou bank. (a) The upper slope is a near-vertical cliff. (b) Joints and unloading cracks were
observed in the excavation; the rock mass was extensively fractured and displayed a sub-blocky structure.
69
These problems may or not support the proposed design layout,
such as the effect of the cable pylon loading on the stability of
both the highway tunnel 52 m below and the slope less than
60 m away on the Chadong bank.
(4) Key issues included geological defects, such as the karstic fea-
tures observed during excavation, their effects on the foundation
rock stability and whether these effects would signicantly inu-
ence the predetermined layouts and types of structures.
Among these problems, the stability of the slopes on both banks was
the most important concern in the planning, design and construction.
The steep slopes on both banks restricted the choice of construction
site. Early in the planning, comparisons and selections of bridge axes, in-
cluding the main line, C line, S line, M line and Q line, were conducted.
Based on comprehensive geological investigations and analyses of the
distribution of geological defects, such as dissolutionunloading frac-
tures, karst, and unstable rock masses, each plan of the bridge axis
was analyzed using a three-dimensional (3D) elasto-plastic numerical
model and block theory. The stability of the anchorage systems and
slopes were studied, and eventually, the plan for the Q line was devel-
oped. The primary design parameters were also developed.
After excavation began, the numerical analysis was extended to
evaluate the foundation rock stability and reinforcement measures
based on the newly discovered geological conditions. During construc-
tion, the deformation and stress transfer in the slopes and structure
foundations on both banks were monitored. The deformation and sta-
bility of the rock masses were inversely analyzed, and the rock mechan-
ical parameters were conrmed, thereby providing a basis for assessing
the safety of the Aizhai Bridge.
Below, we discuss the results of the stability analysis of the rock
mass after excavation and the results of the monitoring.
5. 3D numerical analysis of the foundation rock stability on the
Chadong bank
5.1. Geological and numerical analysis models
3D numerical analyses of rock mass stability are important methods
of determining the foundation stability of structures and interactions
among them and the stability of slopes as well as determining whether
a design is feasible. In the early design stage, several numerical analyses
were conducted to compare bridge sites and make a selection. After the
completion of excavation during construction, a detailed numerical
analysis was performed based on the newly discovered geological
conditions.
The software product FLAC-3D was used for the numerical simula-
tion. The subjects of the numerical analysis included the slopes,
70 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577

Fig. 7. Distribution of dissolution-unloading fractures at the top of the bridge abutment slope of the Jishou bank.

anchorages (including the cable splay saddles), cable pylon foundations according to the detecting results of the seismic survey. The zone was
and the highway tunnel. Based on the depth of the dissolution simulated, and the modulus and shear strength decrease within the
unloading zone observed in the geological survey, various portions of zone as shown in Table 2. The concrete for the cable pylon and the
the rock mass were classied as a dissolutionunloading zone and tunnel-type anchorage was in direct contact with the rock mass in the
fresh rock mass. Simulations were performed of key interlayer shear modeling because there was no relative sliding or separating along
zones, karstic voids, and dissolution fractures adjacent to the anchorage
body observed during excavation. Three unloading cracks parallel to the
slope surface and ve longitudinal dissolution fractures observed during
excavation (Fig. 5) were simulated. The 3D model is shown in Fig. 8.
Based on experiences from the eld, laboratory tests on rock me-
chanics and an understanding of excavated rock masses, the rock me-
chanics parameters for simulations were determined (Table 2).
According to the standard for engineering classication of rock masses
(The National Standards Compilation Group of the P. R. C., 2015) (ve
levels; level one is the best), the strength parameters of the fresh rock
mass are at level three (the internal friction angle is approximately
3950, the cohesion is approximately 0.71.5 MPa, and the modulus
of deformation is approximately 620 GPa). The rock mass in the disso-
lutionunloading zone is at level four (i.e., the internal friction angle is
approximately 2739, the cohesion is approximately 0.70.2 MPa,
and the modulus of deformation is approximately 1.36 GPa). The inter-
layer shear zone is between level three (the internal friction angle is ap-
proximately 1929, and the cohesion is approximately 0.060.1 MPa)
to four (the internal friction angle is approximately 1319, and the co-
hesion is approximately 0.030.06 MPa), corresponding to the classi-
cation of the structural plane. Because the dissolution fractures do not
consist entirely of voids due to the presence of llings, their state was
equivalent to that of a continuous medium with a lower modulus. A
ubiquitous-joint plasticity model in FLAC-3D (Itasca Consulting Group
INC., 2005) was adopted to determine the effect of continuous layers
in the rock mass. This model can simulate variations in the rock mass
mechanics between the directions normal to and tangential to the
layers. Two sets of steeply inclined joints are widespread in the rock Fig. 8. Numerical simulation model of the Chadong bank. (a) 3-D model; (b) left anchorage
mass, and their mechanical effects were equivalently characterized centerline section. (1) Unloadingdissolution fracture parallel to the slope; (2) longitudi-
into comprehensive parameters that included a consideration of the nal fracture; (3) excavated abutment slope; (4) pylon foundation pit; (5) anchorage exca-
vation; (6) karst cave; (7) dissolution fracture penetrated into the anchorage excavation;
mechanical strengths of both the joints and rocks.. (8) highway tunnel; (9) anchorage excavation; (10) contact between the anchorage
There was an excavation-disturbed-zone around the anchorage concrete and the rock mass; (11) interlayer shear zone; (12) dissolution-unloading
holes. This zone extended approximately 1 to 2 m into the rock zone; (13) fresh rock mass.
 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577
Table 2
Mechanical parameters used in the numerical simulations.
Rock material Unit weight
(kNm3)
Fresh rock mass 26.5
Dissolutionunloading rock mass 24.5
Bedding plane in fresh rock mass Ubiquitous-joint plasticity model
Bedding plane in dissolutionunloading rock mass Ubiquitous-joint plasticity model
Interlayer shear zone 24.5
Dissolution fracture (equivalent) 24.0
Contact between concrete and rock 24.5
Anchorage concrete 24.0
this contact. In other words, the element meshes were con-
tinuous. There were a total of 575,383 elements and 101,793 nodes in
the model.
5.2. Results of numerical calculation
(1) After excavation of the rock mass
Unloading-rebound deformation occurred after excavation, and
the deformation of rock mass on both sides of the dissolution
fractures displayed some discontinuous features. The maximum
displacement was approximately 4.5 mm. In addition, there
was no signicant overlapping among the deformation regions
caused by the excavations for the anchorage, pylon foundation
and highway tunnel. The deformation characteristics are
shown in Fig. 9. In general, the values of deformations were
millimeter-level, comparable with the monitoring results.
After the excavation, large-scale plastic zones were located pri-
marily at the outer edge of the slope, at the entrance of the high-
way tunnel, and at the arch of the anchorage hole. Therefore,
these locations were important for support, as shown in Fig. 10.
It was concluded that the effects of the dissolution fractures and
other karstic caves on the slope stability could be mitigated, and
these geological defects were therefore cleaned and backlled
with concrete. This treatment was judged sufcient to ensure
the long-term stability of the rock mass because the rock mass
is hard, the rheological deformation is slight, and the geological
dissolution process proceeds at a negligible rate compared with
the operational lifespan of the bridge.
(2) Applying the structural design load
The structural design load, which was determined under consid-
eration of bridge structure stability and operation loads, was
input into the numerical calculations. Under normal operating
conditions, the main cable load is 2 280 MN, and the cable
pylon load is 2 540 MN. The deformation characteristics after
applying the design load are shown in Fig. 11. The maximum dis-
placements of the rock mass surrounding the anchorage and
cable pylon foundation were 1.1 mm and 1.8 mm, respectively.
The anchorage compressed the surrounding rocks under the ten-
sion of the main cable, resulting in little increased stress in the
rocks surrounding the lower end of the anchorage. The plastic
zone in the surrounding rock mass near the bottom of the an-
chorage expanded slightly, as shown in Fig. 12. In addition,
bands of shear failure developed along the dissolution fractures
near the anchorage. However, no continuous failure faces
emerged, and the band of shear failure cannot induce destructive
effects on the anchorage.
In general, the load on the main cable did not cause signicant
changes in the stress condition and stability of the surrounding
rock mass.
In terms of interactions among the structures, the cable pylon
loading caused a displacement of less than 0.6 mm in the arch
of the highway tunnel. The cable pylon load had no signicant ef-
fect on the stress conditions in the surrounding rocks of the
71
Deformation modulus (GPa) Poisson ratio Shear strength Tensile strength
(MPa)
C (MPa) F
15 0.220 0.500.60 0.90 0.300.40
8 0.250 0.300.40 0.70 0.150.20
0.100.15 0.500.60 0.050.08
0.050.10 0.400.50 0.020.05
3 0.32 0.05 0.300.35 0.01
12 0.32 0.050.10 0.400.50 0.020.05
8 0.25 0.3 0.70 0.15
15 0.167 Elastic
highway tunnel beneath the anchorage, and on the stability of
the bank slope.
Overall, compared with the events after excavation, the design
load did not cause any signicant change in the stability of the
rock mass, and there was no signicant interaction between the
structures because there was no distinct overlap among the de-
formation regions due to application of the design loads. There-
fore, as long as effective reinforcement measures are applied to
the rock mass of the slopes on both banks, the rock mass will
be stable under the design loads.
(3) Test loading and demonstration of the clamping effect
To evaluate the pullout capacity of the anchorage system and to
simulate the deformation of the rocks surrounding the tunnel-
type anchorage, test loads well in excess of the design loads
were applied to the main cable. The maximum deformations of
the surrounding rocks were 4.6 mm and 10.4 mm after applying
test loads of 3P and 5P, respectively. These deformations were
relatively small. When the test load exceeded 5P, the plastic
zone in the surrounding rocks did not enlarge greatly (Fig. 13)
compared with the application of the design load (Fig. 12).
Overall, the numerical simulation of the test loads revealed that
the surrounding rocks of the anchorage acted as an integrated
force body and provided a clamping effect with a large pullout
capacity. Therefore, the loading capacity of the tunnel-type an-
chorage might have been underestimated in the current design
strategy.
6. 3D block-cutting analysis of the cliff stability on the Jishou bank
Because the orientations, extensions, spacing, and positions of frac-
tures form randomly in rock masses and vary signicantly, the geomet-
ric congurations and features of the resulting blocks are extremely
complex and difcult to characterize. In hard rock masses, block sliding
is the primary mode of rock failure. A key issue in the eld is identifying
all closed blocks cut by a great number of arbitrarily oriented fractures
of nite sizes. Traditional methods such as block theory (Goodman
and Shi, 1985) do not address this issue. The so-called method of 3D
block-cutting analysis is one solution.
3D block-cutting analysis (Lin et al., 1987; Jing, 2000; Ikegawa and
Hudson, 1992; Shi, 2006; Zhang, 2015) can be used to identify all of
the spatial blocks cut by fractures of nite size in the rock mass zones.
The identied blocks are not only exposed but also located inside the
rock mass. Among all of the blocks, identifying the potentially unstable
blocks is a critical issue in rock mass stability analysis. After the 3D
block-cutting analysis, the topological structures and the interrelation-
ships among all of the spatial blocks are known. Then, by referring to
the judgment principles of the translational failure modes in block the-
ory, i.e., single-face sliding, double-face sliding, and lifting (Goodman
and Shi, 1985), we can analyze the progressive failure of the block sys-
tems. The progressive failure blocks are potentially unstable blocks,
meaning that the blocks may not self-stabilize and may instead become
72 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577

Fig. 9. Deformation after excavation. (a) Displacement vector graph (section through centerline of the left anchorage). (b) Displacement isochromatic diagram (section through centerline
of the right anchorage).

key blocks when the fractures do not possess sufcient mechanical
strength.
Progressive block failure occurs when exposed surface blocks col-
lapse, the restraint they imposed on adjacent inner blocks vanishes,
and the inner blocks consequently become surface blocks and may
fail. The analysis procedures are as follows: (1) judge the failure
modes of the blocks located on the surface of a rock mass. If the blocks
may fail, they form the rst batch of failure blocks. (2) Judge the failure
modes of the inner blocks next to the failed blocks. Because the con-
straints from the failed blocks disappear, the inner blocks may fail.
(3) Repeat the judgment and obtain different batches of failure blocks
until no failure blocks appear.
The cliff on the Jishou bank displays many fractures, and the rock in
the cliff consists of hard limestone. Thus, the stability and failure mode
of blocks cut by these fractures are concerns in the design. Block-
cutting analysis can be used to identify all of the blocks cut by the fracture
networks and characterize their congurations. Then, based on progres-
sive failure analysis, the potentially unstable blocks can be identied, and
their degree of development and extended range can be evaluated along
with the failure modes of the blocks. Because there are always stochastic
joints that cannot be investigated one-by-one, except deterministic frac-
tures, numerous stochastic simulations are needed, and the statistical
regularity and extent of the potentially unstable blocks can then be
assessed. Based on such analysis, block reinforcement can be designed,
 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577 73

Fig. 10. Distribution of plastic zones after excavation (section through centerline of left anchorage). In the gure, shear indicates shear failure, tension indicates tension failure, n indicates
that the zone is at active failure, p indicates that the zone has failed in the past, and n indicates joint plane failure. Bands of shear failure developed along the dissolution fractures near the
tunnel-type anchorage. Because the zones of shear failure were conned within the dissolution fractures, they cannot induce destructive effects on the anchorage.

Fig. 11. Displacement after exerting the design load (section through centerline of the left anchorage).

and certain design parameters such as rock bolt lengths and spacing can analysis. We therefore developed a computer code that was validated by
be developed. Block-cutting analysis is not a common tool in rock stabil- three standards provided by Zhang (2015). The code has been used suc-
ity analysis, and there is no commercial software for performing such an cessfully in this study and other practical analyses.

Fig. 12. Distribution of the plastic zone after exerting the design load.
74 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577

Fig. 13. Distribution of the plastic zone after exerting an overload of 5P.

Table 3
Geometrical parameters used in the DFN simulations.

Joint set Orientation Average trace length (m) Average spacing (m)

J2 N0W/E(W) b 85 8 3
J3 N90W/S(N) b 85 8 3
Bedding plane N70E/NW b 13 Long enough 2
Deterministic fractures Directly input into the simulation according to the measured position, orientation and extension data

6.1. Development of fractures
A 40- to 60-m-tall cliff is located above the bridge abutment slope on
the Jishou bank. Two sets of steeply inclined joints and gently inclined
bedding planes and deterministic dissolution fractures, such as L1
L14, were observed in the rock mass as shown in Fig. 7. An analysis per-
formed based on the standard for engineering classication of rock
masses (The National Standards Compilation Group of the P. R. C.,
2015) demonstrated that the integrity of the slope rock mass ranged
from less fractured to fractured and that the structural type of the rock
mass ranged from a thinly layered blocky state to a fragmental state.
Block failure was the major potential failure mode of the slope and the
key issue in the stability analysis..
The fracture networks must be modeled before 3D rock block-
cutting analysis can be performed. The geometric parameters of the
fractures were investigated (Table 3). Two sets of steeply inclined joints
and rock bedding planes (summarized as stochastic fractures) were sto-
chastically generated using a Monte-Carlo algorithm, and the determin-
istic dissolution fractures were generated directly based on the
characteristics observed in situ.
The extent of failure is of a statistical nature even though the failure
process is undened. The progressive block failures generated in various
stochastic simulations reveal the statistical regularity of their extent.
The simulated failure blocks were neither restricted to only the slope
surface nor expanded to a very large range. Instead, the failure blocks al-
ways extended approximately 10 m from the surface of the slope. The
number and average volume of the progressive failure blocks were ap-
proximately statistically similar. Based on the potential extent of such
a failure, the cliff was reinforced with rock bolts. The rock bolts were
15 m long and were perpendicular to the cliff surface and descended
at 35 to achieve the necessary anchoring effect in the horizontally
bedded rock. The bolts were spaced 34 m apart. Between the rock
bolts, pre-stressed steel grids were installed to prevent the spalling of
small blocks. The reinforcement was very difcult to install on the cliff
(Fig. 17).

6.2. Simulation results

One result of the stochastic simulations of the block development on

the cliff is shown in Fig. 14, and the corresponding progressive block
failure is shown in Fig. 15. The progressively failing blocks obtained
from another simulation sample are shown in Fig. 16. In Fig. 15, the
rst batch of failure blocks indicates that these blocks are exposed on
the slope surface and collapse rst. Then, the restraint imposed by the
failed blocks on the adjacent inner blocks vanishes. The inner blocks
then become exposed blocks and can fail, forming the second, the
third, and so on batches of failure blocks. Thus, block failure may devel-
op progressively, but the number of newly identied failure blocks in-
creases only slightly in the subsequent failure batches until nally Fig. 14. The development of blocks in the cliff on the Jishou bank (one sample of the sto-
there are no remaining blocks that may fail. chastic simulation).
 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577
Fig. 15. Progressive failure blocks obtained in one stochastic simulation. (a) First batch of failure blocks; (b) the rst and second batches of failure blocks; and (c) all of the failure blocks.
There is a total of 12 batches of failure blocks in this simulation. However, the newly identied failure blocks increase only slightly in the subsequent failure batches. Therefore, the number
of all of the failure blocks is close to that of the initial two batches of failure blocks.
7. Safety monitoring during construction
Safety monitoring was performed during construction. In accor-
dance with the geological investigation and stability analysis, the mon-
itoring primarily focused on the deformation and stress changes in the
slopes, the foundations, and their interactions. The following targets
were monitored: the deformation characteristics of the slopes on both
banks during excavation and after reinforcement; the loss of pre-
stress in the anchorage cable; deformation of rocks surrounding the
tunnel-type anchorage before and after installation of the main cable;
deformation and stress changes in the gravity-type anchorage founda-
tion; deformation and stress in the arch of the highway tunnel under
the cable pylon on the Chadong bank; and explosion vibrations. The
four-year monitoring program revealed the following:
(1) The slopes on both banks were stable in general, and the
slope rock mass did not exhibit apparent outward deformation
based on the results from the borehole inclinometers, as shown
in Fig. 18;
(2) The deformation of the rocks surrounding the tunnel-type an-
chorage did not exceed 0.5 mm under loading from the main ca-
bles, and installations of the main cable and bridge deck did not
cause signicant deformation of the anchorage. These ndings
are based on monitoring of multipoint displacement meter M7
(Fig. 19), which was installed parallel to the anchorage on the
upper right side of and 8 m from the anchorage. The monitoring
results were consistent with the numerical analysis results.
(3) The changes in stress and deformation were small in the rock
masses of the cable pylon foundation (with the highway tunnel
beneath it) on the Chadong bank. Thus, the interactions between
the cable pylon and the highway tunnel were insignicant.
Fig. 16. Progressive failure blocks obtained in another stochastic simulation: (a) front
view; and (b) left side view. The gure shows that the failure blocks always extended ap-
proximately 10 m from the surface of the slope.
75
Dozens of sets of mechanical parameters were set using the orthog-
onal design according to the variations of the potential range of param-
eters. Then, the forward analyses were conducted using each set of
mechanical parameters with the aforementioned numerical analysis
model. By comparing the calculated displacement with the measured
displacement at some typical monitoring points, the primary mechani-
cal parameters of the rock mass were determined. The back-calculated
parameters, i.e., the three key parameters of deformation modulus, fric-
tion angle and cohesion, were nearly equal to those used in the previous
calculations, as shown in Table 2. These parameters were then inserted
into the forward analysis model to calculate the values corresponding to
the actual measurement points. There were signicant similarities be-
tween the measured and calculated displacement values (Fig. 20).
Therefore, the back-calculated mechanical parameters were considered
reasonable, and the numerical calculations based on these parameters
were considered reliable. The previous numerical calculations of the de-
formation and stress levels under various conditions were also reliable.
It is difcult to precisely measure displacement that is smaller than
1.0 mm in hard rock mass in long-term eld monitoring. Monitoring
can reveal the macroscopic range of deformation and facilitate the as-
sessment of rock mass stability from a civil engineering perspective;
however, the current measurement instruments may not be sufciently
precise for scientic studies.
8. Conclusions
Large-span suspension bridges in deep canyons have attracted in-
creasing attention in transportation engineering construction. However,
a limited number of such bridges have been built. Thus, experience of
surveys, design and research in the eld of foundation rock mass stabil-
ity has been limited. Challenges such as complex topographic and geo-
logical conditions, restricted construction sites, extensive unloading of
Fig. 17. Reinforcement of the unstable rock mass on the left side of the Jishou bank cliff.
76 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577

Fig. 18. Typical monitoring results from borehole inclinometers in slopes of both banks: (a) horizontal cumulative displacement curve of IN1 on the Chadong bank slope; and (b) horizontal
cumulative displacement curve of IN4 on the Jishou bank slope.

rock masses and problematic stabilities of high steep slopes create com-
plex problems in foundation stability and complicate surveying and
analysis. In this study, the Aizhai suspension bridge was used as a case
study, and four key issues concerning structure foundation stability
were analyzed. The following insights and conclusions were obtained
from this study:
(1) The focus of the geological survey in the canyon area was
unloading of rock masses, and the focus of the karst rock survey
was dissolution-related geological defects. A multi-technological
approach is necessary for systematically investigating and test-
ing the bridge foundation rock mass to determine the geological
conditions, particularly geological defects.
(2) The results of calculations and simulations indicated that the sta-
bility problems in the bridge foundation rock mass were primar-
ily concentrated on the slopes of both banks. The design load did
not cause signicant deformation of the rock mass and did not af-
fect the rock stability after excavation. If proper reinforcement
measures are applied on the slopes of both banks after excava-
tion, the stability of the foundation rocks during construction

Fig. 19. Monitoring results from multipoint displacement meter M7 on the Chadong bank. In the gure, T1 and a black arrow below indicate the time at which the main cable was installed,
T2 is the time at which installation of the bridge deck began, and T3 is the time at which the deck installation was nished.
 Q.-H. Zhang et al. / Engineering Geology 198 (2015) 6577
Fig. 20. Comparison of the back-calculated and monitored displacement values. In this gure, points 1 through 5 are located in the rocks surrounding the tunnel-type anchorage at various
distances, and points 6 and 7 are located on the slope.
and operation can be ensured. The interactions among the struc-
tures were not signicant, which is favorable for the stability of
the foundations.
(3) The monitoring and inverse analysis of the displacements during
construction indicated that the slopes on both banks were gener-
ally stable and that the design loads did not induce apparent de-
formation in the foundation rock of each structure.
(4) After applying the design loads and test loads, the tunnel-type
anchorage can resist huge pullout forces because of the
clamping effect induced by the surrounding rock masses. Be-
cause our experience with tunnel-type anchorage construction
is limited and related rock mechanics problems have not been
properly studied, the current design philosophy may seriously
underestimate the load capacity of this type of anchorage.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all parties that supported and cooperated
in the construction of the Aizhai Bridge. This research was sponsored
by the Basic Research Funds for Central Public Welfare Research Insti-
tutes of Yangtze River Scientic Research Institute (CKSF2014066/YT),
and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
41272350).
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