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± all materials will have a varying level of discontinuity at the surface
consisting of µpeaks¶ and µvalleys¶ (asperities) that will prevent full/direct contact between
adjoining materials. When a surface is prepared by smoothing the surface (machining, polishing,
plastic deformation between adjoining materials) there will likely still be some variance between
the two surfaces. 
   ± Contaminant Layers such as absorbed gases,
moisture and/or greases can cause different problems in welding like forming unwanted
particles/voids in solidifying weld metal or can be the reason for cracks appearing in the fusion
zone. Also, oxide layers that form at the metal surface can impede electrical flow by varying the
location of anode/cathode spots in the arc during arc welding. Oxide layers can also react with
the molten pool in fusion welding.  

 ± Free energy at the material surface
causes surface tension that must overcome interfacial free energy occurring between two
adjoining materials in order for joining to occur. This can be accomplished by supplying energy
(kinetic, chemical, electrical potential, etc.). Strong interfacial bonding requires crystallographic
matching at the interface, which will help to lower the interfacial free energy.


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The Lorentz force is the electromagnetic force associated with the current density vector carried
throughout the arc and the induced magnetic flux associated with the flow of current, where
FLorentz =J x B. The arc flows towards the work piece, provided conditions are appropriate
(electrical input, electrode type, work piece distance, etc.), because this is the path of least
resistance in order to complete the electric circuit.
As the current density field within the arc diverges/converges to/from the small area at the
electrode tip to/from a larger area at the work piece (typically giving a conical formation) there
will a vertical component of the Lorentz force that is directed in the downward direction. This
occurs because the current density vectors/flowlines at the boundary of the arc are not
perpendicular to the work piece, resulting in a net electromagnetic (Lorentz) force that is both
inward and downward. [Sin Do Kou, The Physics of Welding]


   

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The arc force is the combination of forces induced by the Lorentz/electromagnetic pressure and
arc gas/vapour pressure. Where electromagnetic pressures are effected by current density flow
and magnitude (effected by factors such as electrode size/shape) and gas/vapour pressures are
effected by gas flow rates (and the distance the gas/vapour travels), arc gas/vapour densities
(where the difference between Argon and Helium gives differences as shown in the notes;
Helium is a lighter than air gas and in overhead welding this can be beneficial to arc
flow). Gravitational forces can also play a role in the arc force.

   

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Using a constant voltage (CV) power supply with a corresponding constant wire feed rate, an
equilibrium state will arise so that the stickout will return to this established point after there is a
variance in the arc length. With a decrease in arc length there will be a decrease in the resistance
of the system, this will bring an increase in current that will increase the melt off rate at the tip of
the consumable electrode, and with an increase in melt off rate the electrode tip will tend to
return back to the equilibrium operating point. The opposite will occur if the arc length
increases.


 

      


A weld joint is how the work piece to be joined is constructed. Examples are a T-joints and
Butt-joints:
A weld type describes the weld that is being used at the given joint. Examples are a Fillet or
Groove weld.

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In DCEP welding of Aluminum it is not expected that there will be thermionic emission. The
reasons for this expectation are: (note that Thermionic emission exists when a material reaches
an elevated temperature and beings to emit electrons and possibly ions, this temperature is its
incandescence temperature)
Aluminum is not a refractory metal, which are more likely to produce thermionic emissions of
magnitudes large enough to affect current density (this doesn¶t mean that thermionic emission
from the surface is impossible, but that a detectable quantity of emission is reduced).
An Aluminum work piece will act as a powerful heat sink and will tend to distribute heat away
from the weld, where this will act to cool down the cathode area/spot. Thermionic emission is
the release of electrons/charged ions on a surface due to elevated surface temperature. With less
heat at the surface there is less chance for emission to occur. [the physics of welding]

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Generally the anode will generate the most heat. This is the location within the arc that has the
highest concentration of electrons, which in the column will generate the highest temperature. Pg
126 ³The Physics of Welding´

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DCEP (DCRP).


   
 


      
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Rectifier changes AC to DC, High-speed switch (inverter) converts DC to high frequency AC,
Transformer brings to a lower voltage and ³isolate the output from the utility line´ (transformer
is small due to the incoming high frequency AC power), solid state rectifier converts back to DC,
filtered smooth DC characteristic.
Advantages of using an inverter power supply are: smaller, more compact than other power
sources make it more accessible, especially during field work. Precise control of current allows
for better control of varying welding processes and is more easily manipulated to give required
output characteristics (pulsing and waveform manipulation). [Modern Welding Technology]

The curves of group ³a´ have lower voltages than the curves in group ³b´ because the electrode
used in group ³a´ is Thoirated Tungsten, which operates below the melting point (ie, the
electrode tip will not melt and become spherical like with a pure Tungsten electrode, which tends
to cause the cathode spot to wander). The lower work function of thoriated material ³permits
equal current density of electron emission at lower temperatures.´ [The Physics of Welding,
pg153] This reduction in the power usage means that less voltage is required to achieve the
same current.

(Anode/Cathode only molten ± In either case the conductivity in the arc rises due to higher
concentration of metal vapour that is being evaporated from the molten pool. This increased
concentration is a possible reason for increased conductivity in the arc, which will give higher
currents at a lower voltage. The anode generates slightly higher heat than the cathode and
therefore should also mean a slightly higher concentration of metal vapour in the arc.

Both Cathode and Anode Non-molten ± This situation occurs when heat sinking is greatest out of
both cathode and anode materials, giving less energy for metal evaporation to occur and hence
lower conductivity (higher resistance) in the arc.
A general definition given from ³The Physics of Welding´ is, ³The arc power is equal to the heat
losses from the cathode, anode and arc column added together´ and that the less heat transmitted
to the surroundings will give a correspondingly lower arc voltage. So the case of the greater heat
sinking (cathode and anode non-molten) suggests more heat is being transmitted to the
surrounding area, instead of through the arc. This statement also corresponds to part 4.a) in that
the smaller diameter electrode of group ³a´ is also transmitting less heat to its surroundings and
this will also be a contributing factor as to its lower voltage.