LIBRftRV

nPRIN COUNTY FREE

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AMS
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.

PAINTING almost disappeared in

early medieval I -ranee under the
feudal anarchy brought by the col- 3 I I I I 00397 5826
lapse of the Carohngian dynasty. It
was reborn under the C^apetians, with
the aid of contributionsfrom the rest
of Europe the energetic art of Anglo-
:

Saxon England, the half-Byzantine

art of the empire of the Ottos, the
classical memories of Mediterranean
lands. In the Gothic period, France
swept to first rank with the creation
of a new, original, and integrated art
in the thirteenth century
of one
humanity's truly majestic accomplish-
ments. Paris became Europe's leading
intellectual and artistic center and,
from then on, provided European
manuscript with its
illumination
major driving force. Even with the
waning of manuscript illumination as
a major art form, the pictorial tradi-
tion developed in those early centu-
ries left Paris, at the fifteenth cen-
tury's end,one of the great centers
where the art of modern times was
formed.
The pages of this book tell a story
of systematic triumphs and sustained
creation. The evolution of I'rench
medieval painting which largely is

manuscript illumination has become

clear in recent years. In great measure,
this clarification has been due to two
important exhibitions held at the
Bibliotheque Nationale, in Paris,
where the key works of French man-
uscript illumination .were placed side
by side for the first time. All of the
recent advances in our understanding
of this vital, expressive art are incor-

porated in this volume. The nearly

200 large illustrations more than
half ofwhich are in full color or full
color and gold
have been chosen
for their importance in the formation
of the French pictorial tradition. They
cover the full range of French man-
uscript illumination from the tenth
to the sixteenth century.
 V^r i

hov2674
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DATE DUE
UPR 1 5 1977
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^JAN 3 197* JUN 1 ^9^^

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AUG 2 8 1986
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MAR 1 5 7nnn

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q759.4 Porcher, Jean

Medieval French miniatures

f'-ip - Ubrary
!
1
Civio I
',on Rtiild. '

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 ,

MEDIEVAL FRENCH MINIATURES

. f
 '.->v*

Augustiiic, Ettarrutiones, middle of the 1 2th century

ST.AUGUSTINE AND THE PATRON SAINTS OF THE ABBEY OF MARCHiENNES. St.

(Douai, Ms. 250, f. 2)

 JEAN PORCHER

Medieval

FRENCH MINIATURES

HARRY N. ABRAMS, INC., NEW YORK

lUsr VT
 TO JULIEN CAIN
DIRECTEUR DES B I BL I O T H EQ U E S DE FRANCE

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 59-I2874

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH BY JULIAN BROWN
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK MAY BE
REPRODUCED WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHERS
HARRY N. ABRAMS, INC., NEW YORK
COLORPLATES PRINTED IN FRANCE
BOOK PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE NETHERLANDS

L
"^60 J
 CONTENTS

FORI. WORD

ROMANESOUE ILLUMINATION

The Origin or thk Romanesque Style II

Antique and Carolingian Survivals II

The English Contribution

The German Contribution 22

The Mediterranean Contribution 25

The Romanesque Style Perfected 32

The Midi 33

The North 34

GOTHIC ILLUMINATION 43

Jean Pucelle 52

The Painters of John the Good and Charles V 55

Paris and International Art 57

The Painters of Jean de Berry 59

The Bedford, Boucicaut and Rohan Masters, and Their Group 67

Jean Fouquet 71

The Maitre de Jouvenel des Ursins 77

Minor Painters of the End of the 1 5 th Century 78

Rene of Anjou 79

Jean Colombc 80

Jean Bourdichon 81

The "Rouen" School 82

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL COMMENTARY 85

COLORPl.ATES 95

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 263

INDEX 270
 FOREWORD

Till purpose of this book is to provide a general easy task, sometimes even an impossible one, as we
commentarv on a scries of paintings. My chief advance in time and the independence of France be-
concern has been nc5t so much to write the detailed comes established. The Gothic chapter, on the other
history of illumination its outlines are shrouded hand, deals with a centralised art which grew by the
at many points and much will remain obscure for a addition of successive tributary streams, but did not
long time, perhaps for ever as to convey a broad change its course. It is arranged in chronological
impression of its development. I have divided my order, in so far as the chronology can be more or less

subject into two chapters, Romanesque and Gothic: accurately established.

a simple and which none the less
traditional division The pictures which illustrate the text of the book and
corresponds to the facts and which I felt bound to are its most important part accordingly fall naturally
follow. The internal arrangement of the chapters, on into family groups, depending on the chapter to
the other hand, presented many difficulties. French which they belong. Territorial boundaries were for
Romanesque painting, from the loth to the 13th ever changing in the course of the Middle Ages, and I
century, was the product of a meeting of currents take into account only those of present-day France,
from a number of neighbouring regions, and it is since that is the only way to avoid insoluble problems.
they, for the most part, that account for its variety. What I have written is only a sketch, the frame \,t'

But in the Gothic period, from the third decade of for which has been provided by three exhibitions
the 15th century onwards, the roles arc reversed. organised during the last few years at the Biblio-

France has come of age, and France calls the tune. thcquc Nationale; but two periods represented in the
The old pupil is the new master and everywhere the exhibitions are here omitted, for I do no more than
dominating influence is Paris, the intellectual centre allude to Merovingian and Carolingian art. To have
of Europe. Once a mere importer, France is now in a dealt with the latter, which is in itself of major im-
position to export. The contrast between these two portance, would have taken me far beyond the limits
opposite activities must be emphasized. The Roman- of time and space desirable in a work dedicated to
esque chapter not concerned with the definition of
is French painting alone. It would have led me on,
illusory schools and their supposed development, but little by little and from one allusion to the next, to

traces the various currents, from North, East and deal with the whole of Europe, since medieval art

South, which fed the painting of the time. Without knew no frontiers; and it would have rendered even
completely isolating these currents from one another, more schematic a picture whose outlines are all too
for they often blend together, it attempts to show bare as it is.

what each one of them contributed: not always an J-P-

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 ROMANESQUE ILLUMINATION

FRENCH illumination began with the emergence of regular clergy, the monks in their abbeys; and it was
France herself, under the Capetians The land of . transmitted by the monks through a series of ex-
Gaul already had taken an active part in all the ar- changes which ignored all frontiers, even ecclesias-
tistic movements that had affected the West, and The instruments of this culture were
tical frontiers.

in the 9th century great Carolingian schools of the books which the monks composed and copied
painting had been established on the Rhine near and which might or might not be decorated, more or
Charlemagne's own court, at Rheims, at Tours, at less elaborately. Apart from wall painting, book-deco-
Metz and at the court of Charles the Bald but the ; ration was the only form of pictorial art then known,
havoc wrought by the Norman and Saracen inva- and it ranged from simple decorated initials to whole
sions, the slow decline of political power, and the scenes with figures, which as sometimes happens in
conflicts to which it gave rise slowly but completely the Lives of saints or in the great picture-books of
destroyed the accumulated wealth of artistic treasures. a later period, might invade the entire volume and
The loth century, so brilliant in the Hast thanks to the even drive out the text. The history of the medieval
Ottonian inheritors of the Empire, so vigorous in book corresponds very closely to the historv of the
England, was in France the century of darkness. The monks; and if painting was reborn about the year
renaissance began with the change of dvnastv, about 1000, it was because the Cluniac reforms, slowly ma-
V:-
the year 1000, at the moment when, little bv little, turing during the whole of the preceding century,
France herself was beginning to be reborn. had by then, thanks to St. Odilo (994-1049), borne
France was divided, and the task of reassembling the fruit in all the monasteries of France, and because,

fragments was to call for centuries of patient labour. under Cluniac influence. Burgundy, NoriiKuuh muI ,

The central power was still weak, and the idea of later Eorraine and the district of the Meuse, lead by
territorial unitywas only to be imposed under Philip Richard ot Saint-Vanne, had everywhere experienced
Augustus Gothic century. To
in the i3thcentury, the a reviv^al of order and prosperity. Similarly, the de-
begin with, pictorial art was justas divided, distribut- cline of French Romanesque painting towards the end
ed among a number of loosclv-knit centres, which of the 1 2th century resulted in parr from the decline
were linked, in large but imprecisely defined groups, of the monastic establishments.
only by alHnities of time and place. And yet two major in the North, proximity to the countries which were
groups can be distinguished from the earliest times, then most fertile in artists England, the valley of
the North and the Midi; and this too is a reflection of the Meuse, and beyond it the Empire and its Byzan-
the political and intellectual climate. Culture in those tine dependencies occasioned an ever more brilliant
days was the business of the clergy, especially of the flowering of art which reached its perfection about
 ' ;

the middle of the 1 2th century, before dying away in tials are perhaps as old as the 6th century, and they
face of the preponderance of Parisian Gothic. In the arose,under conditions not as yet closely defined,

South Aquitaine and 1-angucdoc the inHuenccs of from the shape of the initial letter itself, which sug-
the Mozarabic culture of Spain, of Italy, of the Middle gested to the scribe some sort of figure: a bird, a

East and again of Byzantium had a different effect. It fish (Fig. i), later on a human
At the end of the
face.

was not that two irreconcilable artistic parties were 8th centurv, when closer contact was established be-
formed in France, for naturally enough points of tween the descendants of the barbarian tribes and the
contact were not lacking but the two pictorial groups
; world of Mediterranean art, decorators extended to
of the North and the Midi each kept to the end their the initial, itself increasingly heavily ornamented, the
distinct personalities. This distinction matched the imagery with which, after the Late Antique fashion,
differences of language (langue d'oi'l, langue d'oc) and they were beginning to illustrate their works: narra-
even of law (common law, Roman law), and the cor- tive scenes of subjects provided by the text, or scenes
responding differences of customs and taste. The of pure fantasy (both of these were later described as

picture presented by French Romanesque painting is, compounds in which

"histories"), or even synthetic
then, a diptych. textand drawing are worked together into a kind of
We must begin by defining what it is that distin- cryptogram (Fig. 2). In Northern France inventions
guishes the two wings of this diptych, and what it is ofthis sort often show an astonishing dexterity.

that unites them. The official art of the Carolingians, which deliberately
The decorated initial, so characteristic of Roman- sought to recover the spirit of antique art, nearly
esque illumination, is a medieval invention, and it everywhere suppressed these early efforts. But the
differs profoundly as between North and South. The Western instinct for decoration was f)nly lulled asleep

antique world knew only the simple capital letter, freed by the disappearance of Carolingian art, it soon
which was sometimes employed to emphasize not reawoke and gradually the Romanesque initial, heir
only the beginning of a book or of a chapter, as we to the precaroline, evolved. We shall see it grow in

do, Init the first word of a page, or even the end of stature and complexity, embroidering on the antique
the word if was divided. The appearance of the
it themes of hunting and combat of which it was parti-
page as a unit of script meant more to the scribe cularly fond, (.m motifs of both Christian and pagan
than the text it contained. The earliest decorated ini- inspiration, and on the rediscovered initials of Mero-

^y m-cr

rc^Hcar*cme term
rLunntn
fvci lb." cc Win nertv
ro
JJ
itrtXTV rto\

I - MEROVINGIAN ZOOMORPMIC INITIAL. SACRAMENTARY OF 2 - INITIAL WITH FIGURES. CORBIE PSALTER, BEGINNING OF THE
GELLONE, SECOND HALF OF THE 8tII CF.NTIRY (biBI.IOTI IFQl'F, 9TII CFNTIRY (aMIENS, MS. 1 8, F. 67 V.)
NATIONALE, MS. LAT. I 2O48, F. Ill V.)

10
 1

vingian times, or finding in the text itself the tiiemes

for small narrative pictures. In the Romanesque

period the Midi no less than the North cultivated the
decorated initial, hut composed it from different ele-
ments, knew nothing of the narrative "historiatcd"
initial, and in general never combined the illustration
of a text with its one of the
decoration. Therein lies

more striking differences between the two wings of

the diptych.
The two wmgs do, however, have something in com-
mon, something that was, indeed, common to the
whole of medieval art from its earliest period. Deco-
rating a flat surface, the medieval artist scarcely tried
to create an illusion of depth, whether by linear de-
vices, by the use of shadows or by foreshortening.
Sometimes, as we shall see, he did try to do so; and
certain paintings, generally copies of antique or By-
zantine models, reveal such a striking understanding 3 - MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENTS. AUTUN TKOPLR, 996-1024
(bibliotheque de l'arsenal, MS. 1169, F. 15)
of mass and proportion that we cannot but wonder
how so gifted a copyist, so sure and brilliant a
draughtsman, was not able, long before the first at-
are, the important characters, human or divine
tempts of the 14th and 15th centuries, to work out
for himself the rules of illusionism. But consciously
evangelists, authors, potentates are portrayed in
conformity with our idea of them, arranged in a ma-
or unconsciously his interest lay elsewhere. He was
terial hierarchy not only by their place in the picture,
given a plane, and on this plane he projected his
which is self-evident, but by their stature or even by
images, confining himself, when he wished to indi-
a deliberate distortion of their proportions. Buildings,
cate the roundness of his forms, to certain more or
on the other hand, and the various pieces of furniture
less accurate indications of folds or colours. Indif-
are summarily indicated in two-dimensional silhouette
ferent to the outward look of the beings and objects
and look as if pasted to the background. And yet the
surrounding us, he aspired to paint them as we know
rule of the plane, like all rules, permits of subtle
them to be, to grasp their essence in its entirety. The
distinctions, wrong
and it is to exaggerate
rigour. its
special perspective which he used was perfectly adapt-
From the end of the nth century onwards some
ed to this end. Though different from ours it is no less
painters, more alive than others to sensible appear-
true, if the observer, instead of being on a level with
ances, attempted to portray depth, and we find these
the picture, the horizon at the same height as his eye,
attempts specifically amongst those painters whose
looks down on it obliquely. From this angle the
work was by now in large part or altogether un-
system of foreshortening seems to be reversed; it is as
if the reader were sitting at a table, on which objects
fettered bv tradition the painters of the Midi.
appear to him to be separate, distinct from one other
and arranged in a vertical scries. THE ORIGIN OF THE ROMANESQUE STYLE
It was only about the beginning of the 1 th century, 5
IROM THF. I;ND OF THF. lOTH CENTURY
in a period which traditional chronology classifies as
TO CIRCA 1130
still medieval, that the vertical plane was tilted back-

wards, separating sky and landscape and concealing

Antique and Carolingian Survivals
objects behind one another. Miniature painting, in
its new-found concern for deep perspective, then be- Poor was by compari-
as the loth centurv in France
gan to approximate to panel painting. Adherence to son with the imperial art of the Carolingians, a few
the rule of the vertical plane has certain consequences. miniatures have none the less survived from it. The
Perceived nf)t as they appear to us, but as thev really technique of painting had been lost, but not the taste

1
for learning, which was kept alive in the great abbeys.
Thanks to them the classical tradition inherited from
the previous ccnturv left lasting traces.
The type of drawing found in 9th-century copies of
Terence's comedies and of the poems of Prudentius
illustratedafter Late Antique models, notably at Fleury,
recurs in a Tropcr from Autun dating from the time
of King Robert and Bishop Gauticr (996-1024; Fig.
3). It recurs again at Saint-Aubin, Angers, in the first

half of the i ith century in a Terence and a Lives of the '}

-rL-.^:/:rTii-:^^-^^:^^'T^*''
i^i^A-^y^
Bishops of Angers (Fig. 4). The district of the Loire
long remained faithful to the traces of antique art
which had inspired the famous centres of Saint-
Martin at Tours and Marmoutiers; and this may per-
haps explain whv the illustrations in the early nth-
century manuscripts of the Abbey of Saint-Maur-des- 6IT>^RTe]V[pORe
Fosses near Paris, associated with that of Glanfeuil
5
- SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. MAURUS. LIVE AND M IRACLES OF
near Angers, present curious analogies with contem-
ST. MAURUS, SECOND HALF OI' THE ITH CENTIRY (tROYES,
I

MS. 2273, F. 77)

porary drawings from Saint-Aubin. Its Missal and two

copies of the Life and Miracles of St. Maiirus (Fig. 5)
are animated by stock v little figures, their draperies
summarily indicated in line with no regard for the
modelling of the muscles, like the characters in a

Terence. Behind these figures runs a rudimentary

architectural motif suggesting a building or a town.
,\ History of tlje foundation of Saint- Martin-des-Chanips
{circa 1070) is in the same vein (Fig. 6).
Itwas the age of relics: sacred relics round which old
abbeys were restored and new ones grew up. Many
fresh copies were made of the Lives of saints, several
of them illustrated; and nothing has a better claim to

the namcof popular art than the illumination of some

of these Lives, youthful in the novelty of its subject
matter and in its direct and spontaneous approach,
but feeble in technique and backward in style. Such
were the ioth-centur\- Lives of SS. Valericus and Phili-
hert and the Life of St. Wandregisil (Fig. 7) from Saint-

( )mer. Such too was the later Z.//* ofSt.Quintinus. The

agreeable roughness of these simple, unpretentious
paintings and their lively charm should not deceive
us. Whatever their origin, they simply reassemble
old elements or copy (^arolingian paintings (perhaps
frescoes), and they are the sign not of a rebirth hut

of a death, the death of the antique forms that had

4 - SCENESFROM THE LIFE OF ST. ALBINL'S. LIVES OF IHl BISHOPS
OF ANGERS, FIRST HALF OF THE IITH CENTURY (VATICAN, MS.
nurtured the rising art of the West. A comparison
REGIN. LAT. 465, F. 74 V.) between the scenes in a manuscript of Prudentius

12

JL^ . '.
and those in the I JfeofSl. IF WW/Y^v.r// affords clocjucnt which says much for the artistic poverty of his other-
proof of this assertion, if due allowance is made for wise important abbey. At Montmajour a handsome
the inter\''ention, even at this earlv stage, of factors Lectionary, also of the i ith century, again reveals the
which disrupt the methodical tidiness of our cate- proximity of Lombard Italy in the drawing of the
gories. closely-woven pointed interlace of its decorated ini-

Such links with the Mediterranean world, ancient and tials and in the amplitude of its figures (Isaiah, St. Paul
contemporary alike, had been traditional since (laro- praying before (Christ); as does also, less obviously,
lingian times and their influence was still apparent in a Gospel-book from Aix (Fig. 8).
a variety of ways. A copy of the Gospels made at There was nothing coherent or organic about these
about the end of the loth century, perhaps in some developments. Borrowings from the past and chance
Angevin abbey, contains a much altered inscription contacts hold no promise for the future, for that requi-
which indicates that its archetype derived from the res a more powerful impulse, the dominating in-

bookseller Gaudiosus, who kept a shop near the fluence of a living art. In the North of France just
church of St. Peter ad Vincula in Rome, perhaps in such an influence was brought to bear in the course of
the 8th century. At Fleury, earlv in the i ith century. the nth century by two centres in particular Eng-
Abbot Gauzelin commissioned the Lombard artist land and the district of the Meuse and Rhine. In the
Nivardus to decorate a magnificent Gospel-lectionary Midi, directly or indirectly, the dominating influence
in gold and silver letters on purple parchment, a fact was Byzantium. Of course, these contemporary in-

- 7 mffi -HVT -JteTf '^I'' ^\^rr. i^

\'^<f-
i<fi ^civil^ tiJiiLhic /'i.'fTin \iutn*^' ,

^ fr*f fl Oa-Tli'- f; ui-anc ft-Jf 'i

6 - FOUNDATION OF SAINT-MARTIN-Dl ^-^ I1AMI'^. HIMORY OF 7 - SCENES FROM illK LIFE OF ST. WANDREGISIL. LIVE OF ST.

SAINT-MARTIN-DES-CJIAMPS, CIRCA I067-IO79 (BRITISH MU- WANDREGISIL, lOTH CENTURY (SAINT-OMER, MS. 764, F. 9)
SEUM, ADD. MS. I 1662, F. 4)
 earlierMerovingian source, hut copies of contempo-
which had doubtless reached
rary Byzantine ivories
there by way of Germany (PI. and Fig. 9). Situated
i

on the border between the North and the Midi, the

great abbey at Limoges soon turned its attention
to Aquitaine; but at this earlv date Aquitaine had as
yet no art of its own (see p. 25).
(^ther obvious (^Carolingian survivals arc to be found
at Paris nearly a ccnturv later. What Saint-Martial

8- ST. LUKE. GOSPEL BOOK, SECOND HALF OF THE I ITH CENTURY

(aIX-EN-PROVENCE, MS. 7, F. 169)

flucnces did not entirely efface the (^arolingian and

even antique traditions on to which they were
grafted. French Romanesque painting was the prod-
uct of a variety of influences, ancient and contempo-
rary aUke, and was to blend them together, and
it

little by little them although

to emancipate itself from ;

full emancipation came only at the end of the Ro-

manesque period.
Carolingian survivals were everywhere to be found,
but they were cherished with particular devotion at
Saint-Martial, Limoges, down to the end of the loth
century. They include scrolls, palmettes, foliage and
boldly-drawn animals, as found at Saint-Martin,
Tours, in the time of Alcuin (796-804). A Lection-
ary from the same abbey adds to this Carolingian
9 - ST. PETER. IVORY. COVER OF THE GRADUAL OF HENRY H,
repertoire not only zoomorphic initials from an even CIRCA 1000 (bAMBERG, STAATSBIBLIOTHEK, MS. LIT. 7)

14
10 - COMML'NION or ST. UIONYSILS. MISSAL Ol- SAINT-DENIS, II - ST. MARK. GOSPEL BOOK OF SAINT-VANNE, FIRST HALF OF
MIDDLE OF THE 1 TH CENTLRY (bIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE,
I THE I2TH CENTURY (vERDUN, MS. 43, F. 28 V.)
MS. LAT. 9436, F. 106 V.)

owed to the proximity of Saint-Martin, Tours, Saint- Carolingian origin, except the exaggerated height of
Germain-des-Pres owed to the proximity of Saint- Our Lord, which conforms to the Romanesque
Denis. At Saint-Denis itself there reappeared, all but And yet the hard, abrupt modelling, empha-
canon.
unchanged under its Romanesque trappings, the stvle sizedbv black lines, flattens contours instead of
of illumination practised by the painters of Charles rounding them, and the crenellated wall which in
the Bald, who had inherited the tradition of Rheims. Carolingian painting represented an earthly or heav-
Charles had bequeathed some of his books to the enly city is here transformed, towards the back of the
abbey; in the second half of the nth century the picture, into a jagged rainbow which is purely decor-
painter of a Missal of Saint-Denis drew his inspiration ative and flies in the face of logic.
from their pictures and created an original work, Not from Saint-Denis, at Saint-Germain-des-Pres,
far

without actual innovations, under the guidance of under Abbot Adelard {circa 1030-1060), the scribe
models to which he owed everything attitudes, and painter Ingelard decorated a Lectionary and a
faces, decoration and frame (PI. ii). He borrowed Psalter (PI. iii) whose dehcately tinted drawings
from his distant precursors, but the passage of two against green and violet backgrounds also derive from
centuries had more or less completely obliterated what the Carolingian style of Rheims, but, this time, from
traces they themselves had retained of the antique the Rheims style of Hautvillers and Archbishop
feeling for form and relief. y\ huge Christ offers the Hbbo (circa 830). Can we speak of a Parisian school?

Communion to St. Dionysius and his companions in Saint-Denisand Saint-Germain-des-Pres followed

their prison (Fig. lo); everything in the picture is ot Rheims; Saint-Maur followed Angers. The manner

^u \^ sj J
*
12 - CHRlSr BETWEEN SS. BENtUICT AND GRECORI . llOMll.IhS ON 1 Zl tJllkL, lOlll CEN I L RY (ORLEANS, Mb. 175, P. Ijo)

"t^
 U.J<l;UnAnf imj*ttA
in which French Romanesque developed is here plain- r whMT.^MtT

h' revealed: the receptivity of artists quick to talce

their chances, to seize whatever came to hand since
thev lacked a tradition of their own, and to dress it

up after their own fashion since they were unfet-

tered bv anv formula. Ingelard's Lcctionary gives
pride of place to the life of St. Dionysius, and there
mav well be a good reason for this: the Parisian
painters went to school among the books of his fa-
mous abbcv. Similar Carolingian survivals mav lie

behind the handsome Lectionary of Saint-Andre, at

Le Cateau (PI. iv). It is far superior to the work that

was being done a few years earlier, in the middle of
the I ith centurv, at the neighbouring Abbey of Saint-
Scpulcre, at Cambrai, including ai\/ora//V7of St. Greg-
ory which is in the same style as the Lifes of saints
referred to above.
An even more surprising, because later, example of
such mimicry is an early 12th-century Gospel-book I3 - NATIVITY AND ANNUNCIATION TO THE SIIEPIIERUS. PSALTER

OF OUBERT, CIRCA I OOO (BOULOGNE, MS. 20, F. 5 8 V.)

from the Abbey of Saint-Vanne, Verdun. With
portraits of the Evangelists copied from a Rheims
model, it combines Franco- Saxon canon tables: two but he was himself a painter he signed his most
quite distinct Carolingian types deliberatelv chosen beautiful work, a Psalter (Fig. 1 3) and he interpreted
and reproduced with scrupulous care (Fig. 11). them in his own wav. He owed this interpretation to

his English neighbours. If the marginal figures in his

Psalter,which may be the work of collaborators un-

The English Contribution der his direction, recall the figures of the former
school of Rheims (those in the Gospel-book of Arch-
Of the abbevs bordering on the Loire the most vener- bishop Ebbo, circa 825-830, and in the so-called
able was Fleury, which preserved the link with the Ca- Utrecht Psalter), it is because his English masters
rolingian era, and which, as we have already observed, w-ere entirely dependent on the Rheims style, and it
had a taste for drawings in imitation of the antique was from England that he took both his style and his
style. Beginning in the loth centurv, continuous con- technique.Not onlv did he imitate English artists, he
tact with England, for which there is documentary brought several to work in his monastery; and one of
evidence, w-as to make itself felt in its manuscripts. A them decorated a superb Gospel-lectionary written
copy of St. Gregory's Howilies on Ezechiel, which a at Saint-Bertin in his time (PI. v). But although
dedicatory inscription in green and red capital letters Odbert put himself to school under English masters,
shows to have been written at Fleury, and which is he did not follow them slavishly, for he knew how to
decorated with initials clearlv painted at the abbev, take ideas from other sources and blend them with
contains a large drawing, certainly by an English theirs. He was familiar with the work of the earliest
hand, of Christ in a mandorla between SS. Gregory Saint-Bertin artists, in the reign of Louis the Pious,
and Benedict (Fig. Abbo, who was Abbot of
12). deriving from it the volutes in his corner-pieces and
Fleury from 988 to 1004, had spent two years at the fillets in his frames. Apart from his Psalter, we
Ramsey Abbey and had brought back presents, in- possess several Gospel-books from his hand (one
cluding manuscripts. His successor Gauzelin, who contains a (Christ in Majesty copied from an English
commissioned the Gospel-book from Nivardus, was painter and so proves his English connections) a copy ;

to receive books from Ramsey and Winchcombc. of the Phaeiwmena of Aratus in which the figures of
Odbert, Abbot of Saint-Bertin from 986 to 1004, was the constellations reproduce those of a Carolingian
acquainted with certain aspects of C'arolingian art; manuscript now at Levden, itself imitating an antique

17
 fied his staple English diet in many ways. His greedy
eclecticism and unbridled curiosity are tvpical of the
earlv Romanesque period in general, and yet his per-
sonality was strong enough, even then, to stamp his
faces with features that were all his own (true, they are
all alike). He created a style and imparted it to his col-
laborators, since the decoration of his manuscripts is

obviously not all bv his own hand. His taste for

colour was reliable, as may be seen in a Martyrdom of
St. Dionysius (PI. vii) painted in a harmony of pink
and silver.
Soon after the time of Odbert at Saint-Hertin, the
Abbey of Saint-Vaast, Arras, started work on a Bible

in four large volumes. It appears that the scribes, at

least six in number, were also the decorators (Fig 14).
The monks of Saint-Vaast began by following English
art even more closely than the monks of Saint-Bcrtin;

but whereas Odbert had directed the artistic activity

of his abbey and was himself an artist, the Arras

group seem to have formed a kind of artistic co-oper-
ative, without strong direction. Their Bible, which
is the masterpiece of painting at Arras, suffers from
the want of it. It is a strange and beautiful work,
astonishingly composite, in which as at Saint-Bertin
the most disparate influences meet but never blend,
in pictures which are often badly composed and some-

times positively clumsy. But it appeals to us through

its very defects, which expose the elements of which

it is made. It was appallingly mutilated in the 19th

century, but incomplete and half-ruined though it is,

the Bible deserves to be closely studied, since it testi-

fies to a commendable, even bold enterprise. These

14 -DAVID AND THK SI ILLAMITi; APPIiARANCE OF THE LORD TO
:
men who set out to give their abbey a book worthy of
SOLOMON. BIBLE OF SAINT-VAAST, FIRST HALF OF" THE Til 1 I
its name followed the best available models, namely
CENTURY (arras, MS. 435, VOL. I, F. 128 V.)
the English successors to the artists ot the Bene-
dictional of St. Aethelwold; they strove to imitate
m(jdel; and, a more original work, a /./res of SS. Ber- their style of drawing, and we see in the Bible a
tiniis, 1'olqninns, Silviiuis and ir7w/r;r,which is a compen- ponderous version of and nervous line.
their lively
dium of easily recognisable borrowings. St. Bertinus Their decoration is the so-called Winchester decora-
and his companions, for example, appear in a frame tion, but thinner and more linear, with heavy rosettes
in the Carolingian Franco-Saxon style as revised in in the corners and uprights of the frames. That was
England; surmounted by a profusion of architec-
it is not all: in their search for precedents they turned to
tural motifs also drawn from the (Carolingian reper- the famous works of past and more glorious ages,
toire but enriched by Ottonian features of the kind and some of their miniatures can only lie explained
found at Cologne, and embellished with palmettes, by supposing that they knew the illustrations of a
which in spite of their greater stylization recall the manuscript similar to the Lorsch Ciospels, or the
manuscripts of Charles the Bald, and with medallions Gospels of Saint-Medard, Soissons. Tiius it was the
decorated with strange Anglo-Irish beasts (PI. vi). Carolingians and the English who fostered the art of
Odbert took something from everywhere and diversi- Saint-Vaast, as they had the art of Saint-Bertin.

18

'"i
 rum ciKa.4c nn
^ Albertus and Alardus mentioned above. The work-
shop that produced the Saint-Vaast Bible is, therefore,
well known to us; we can even see it at work, de-
picted in the liveliest possible fashion, on the first

XL page of the Bible.

Fleury, Saint-Bertin and Saint-Vaast all introduced
I^nglish art and on a large scale, but their enter-
artists

prises were local ones and in general had no lasting

Sic effect: the work of individuals, as at Fleury and Saint-
Bertin, or of a group, as at Saint-Vaast, they hardly
civm survived their authors. Nothing shows more clearly
how empty is the conception of school or workshop
when applied to French Romanesque painting, at
7C-s.-ft.4'.' least in its early stages. Useful enough as a means of
arranging paintings in place or time, it may none the

less falsify our perspective and lead us to attribute a

degree of continuity to what in fact were isolated
achievements as ephemeral as the men who inspired
them, to be followed, sometimes after a long interval,
sometimes not at all, by fresh achievements of a total-
15 - ST. AUGUSTINE. ST. AUGUSTINE, DE CIVITATE DEI, END OF ly different kind.
THE ITU CENTURY (bIBLIOTHEQL'E NATIONALE, MS. LAT. 2058,
I

F. 1)
In the history of artistic contacts between France and
England Normandy is a special case. ;\fter the Nor-
man conquest the two shores of the Channel formed
There existed at Saint-Vaast, contemporary with a single unit which historians find it difficult to divide

the Bible and grouped around it, a number of man- and the question is further complicated by the fact
uscripts in which we can descry another influence, that the creation of the Anglo-Norman kingdom
absent at Saint-Bertin, that of antique art: as clearly gave a new character to the decoration of manuscripts
in direct borrowings caryatids, personifications of in its territories. In England the art of illumination
the winds, sphinxes, ortheangelin acopy of St. Greg- changed, or was modified; in Normandy,
at least

ory as in the partly marginal illustrations to a more strikingly, it was created. At first sight it looks
Gospel-lectionary, now at Boulogne, in which, odd- as if the determining influence was that of England
ly enough, we find ideas closely resembling ( )dbert's on Normandy, but at closer range the matter is not
and, in places, the same style. We know the names of so simple. The two most important works of art
many of the Saint-Vaast scribes, who were without with figures that we come across in Normandy
doubt painters as well, since the style of certain paint- immediately after the conquest are English. For the
ings corresponds with certain handwritings. Alardus Bayeux Tapestry, convincing proof of this has re-

copied a Confessions of St. Augustine (PI. viii), and if cently been adduced; it was
seems certain that it

he painted the miniature on its opening leaf, he also commissioned from English embroiderers between
painted the leaf with large figures in the volume
first 1077 and 1082 by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, to mark
of the Bible. If Albertus decorated with his own hand the dedication of his cathedral. Again, in 1082,
the Miracles of St. l^edasius which he signed, he also when the Conqueror's brother Robert founded a col-
painted at least three illustrations in the second and legiatechurch at Mortain in honour of St. Ebrulf, his

third volumes of the The names of the other

Bible. gifts included a (iospel-book, the decoration of which

painters of the Bible are unknown, but they may well he commissioned from an English painter. On the
be hidden among the names of the scribes given at other hand, from the end of rlie iith century on-
the beginning and end of each gathering of a copy of wards, there is nothing to connect with England
the Discipline Hcclesiastica of Rcgino of Priim, which either the series of manuscripts executed at Mont-
was the work of at least ten monks, among them the Saint-Michel or the distinct group executed in Lower

19
Normandy. Apart from an carlv 11th-century
"E XVUCAT PROLOG VS-
copy of the Recoffii/ioiies of St. (Jement that begins
with an interesting hut rough painting of the scribe
presenting his hook to
later
St. Michael
Sacramentary (end of the century) of similar
(PI. ix), and
in-
a
NCIP I)ANK:U'riSA:
spiration to a Civi/as Dei from Canterbury, now in
Florence, which is certainly by an Hnglish hand, the
manuscripts ofMont-Saint-Michel form a homogene-
ous group. Their contents are all patristic (SS. Augus-
tine, Ambrose, Jerome) and the text is generally
preceded by a large portrait of the author writing or
disputing, painted in dull colours dominated by chal-
ky greens and pinks. They are quite independent of
English art and seem to have been influenced by the
neighbouring province of Anjou (PI. x). The great

family of Lower Norman abbeys, Bayeux, Saint-

Evroult, Lyre, Preaulx, La-Croix-Saint-Leufroi, Le
Bee, are again remarkably uniform in style, favouring
initial letters with heavily modelled foliage, prefer-
ably in red and green, embellished with human figures
and dragons and various kinds of animal (PI. xi and
Fig. 1 5). There is no denying that this style produced
a change of taste in Flngland. We know that William
of Saint-Calais, Bishop of Durham, returned from his
exile inNormandy (1088-1091) with a number of
books which ser\"ed as models for his own decorators.
17 - NEBUCHADNEZOR AND TIIF. JEWS IN THE FURNACE. BIBLE
The thesis that the Normans imparted certain ideas OF STEPHEN HARDING, BEGINNING OI- THE I2TII CENTIRY
to their English neighbours, but that the debt con- (dijon, MS. 14, r. 64)
tracted by the latter was simply the result of taking

back some of what they had themselves previously

lent, has been argued tenaciously and is perfectly
possible. Similar processes may as easily be shown to
have taken place almost anywhere. It is better, how-
ever, to keep to general outlines, lest one complicate
still further a question already all too confused by
uncertainties of date and place. What was the origin
of this artistic tendency in the abbeys of Lf)wer Nor-
mandy? Burgundy, perhaps, if the same tendency ap-
pears at about this time at (jteaux, in a collection of
the Letters of St. Jerome: a simple hyp(Jthesis that I

will not insist upon in view of what I have just said.

We ought, however, to bear in mind the relations

established in the course of the i ith century In Wil-
liam of Volpiano and by Suppo, Abbot of Mont-

iMimi i^iJLH

\
between Saint-Benigne, Dijon, and
Saint-Michel,
Lower Normandy. Personal contacts may well have
forged artistic links of the kind clearly established be-
16 - DECORATED INITIAL. ST. GREGORY, MORALIA IN JOB, BE-
GINNING OF THE I2TH CENTIRY (dIJON, MS. 70, F. 59) 1
tween Normandy and England by Lanfranc and St.

20
Anselm, who were successively monks at Avranchcs
andl.cBcc and Archbishops of (Canterbury. Ikit in
fact the comparison delays without answering the

question: what is the origin of Burgundian decora-

tion? \X'e must resign ourselves to not knowing all

the answers and to finding ourselves confronted with

artistswho are inventive enough to confuse the scent.
As French painters establish their independence, this
same situation will constantly repeat itself, and the
hunt for artistic influences, acceptable enough as a
means of clarifying origins, will more than once be
frustrated by an original talent which makes a mock-
ery of our categories and which we must learn not to
question but simply to accept.
In Burgundy itself, at Citeaux, at the beginning of
the eleventh century, there appeared two styles, un-
related toone another and utterly diff"erent in tech-
nique and in inspiration, even though they are separa-
ted at most by only a few years a belated but perfect :

example of the coexistence at one place of differing,

even rival "schools". The style of the first group
looks to England (which is why it belongs here).
Unless the connection is direct and the group no more
than a single artist; for there is nothing to show that
Stephen Harding, the monk of Sherborne who in
1 109 became Abbot of Citeaux and ruled the abbey
until was not the sole author of the witty
1153,
drawings, touched with washes, that illustrate a Bible
in four volumes which he himself revised for the use
of his monks. The first two volumes were finished, as
far as the scribes' work was concerned, in 109, the 1

year in which Stephen became Abbot. The others, in

a different format, were written after his arrival and
-V~- .-mi
more richly decorated, with initials peopled by char-
acters whose lively good humour, tinged with irony,
I 8 - THE CREATION. COMMENTARIES ON THE BIBLF. VENDOME,
;

has no parallel in France at that period. These char- liusr HALF or THE IZTU CENTURY (VENDOMI., MS. I 7, I-. l) 1

acters come from the Abbot's own entourage and are

drawn from life (perhaps a unique case) in a spirit of
gentle caricature (Fig. 16). The same spirit recurs in a masterly talent tor decoration, among them an initial

copy of St. Gregory's Moralia in four volumes, three R formed of two superimposed figures, elegant ath-
of which had been completed by 24th December, letes attacking a dragon (PI. xii). The narrative
1 1 1 I . These tinted drawings have nothing in common scenes, like those of the life of David, are clear

with contemporary French art; on the contrary, and well-arranged despite the crowd of little figures
everything connects them with the Fnglish tradition: cramped together in several registers. At the begin-
vivacity of line, sense of humour (already), and their ning of the Book of Daniel is a fat and furious
light colouring. If they are not the work of Harding, Nebuchadnezor, thoroughly comic, whom a courtier
they were executed by some other Englishman, also can barely restrain from throwing himself upon
from Sherborne or thereabouts. Besides the initials, the three men whom the Ford is protecting from the
the two books contain large paintings which reveal a fire (Fig. 17). Flarding appears here in an unexpected

21
light. I'A'cn if wc admit that he was not himself tiic
artist of the pictures in his Bible, they were painted
under his supervision and their generous, tonic art
shows that this man whom the written sources de-
scribe as a pillar of the strict and even harsh Cisterician
observance, this scrupulous corrector of the Scrip-
tures, was also a lover of gaiety and an observant
man who delighted in his surroundings and knew
how to draw from familiar scenes a composition that
was at once highly decorative and full of freedom.
Thus does the evidence of works of art complete and
enrich the evidence of written history.
We have reached the beginning of the 12th century,
when for the time being the influence of the British
Isles was interrupted. Harding was in this respect
already isolated, a relardataire. But before passing on
to another phase in the French apprenticeship,we
must notice a curious case of imitation of English
art at La Trinite, Vendome. The introductory min-

iature in a Commentary on the first four books

of the Bible dating from the first half of the 1 2th
century and written, if not at Vendome itself, at

least in France, recalls in a general way the Harrowing

of Hell in an F^nglish Psalter oi circa 1050. It portrays
the Creation (Fig. 18). Attended by three angels with
crossed wings God the Father, with a cruciform nim-
bus like Christ's in the Harrowing of Hell, bends
forward over Chaos and disengages the sky and its

stars, the sea and and the earth, represented

its fish

by stylized plants towards which four animals are

leaping. A new wave of English influence was to be
felt during the last few years of the century, but the
welcome accorded to it by the French was to be very
different. Full of new on the threshold of
strength,
the Ciothic age in which their mastery was to be con-
firmed, they knew how to learn from it instead of 19 - MIRACLES OF ST. MARTIN. CJOLLhCTANhA ON ST. MARTIN,
merely copying it; and the foreign and the native ITRST HALF OF TIIL I 2TH CENTIRY (kPINAL, MS. 73, F. 5 V.)
streams were intimately commingled.

The German Contribution nach for instance: broad, tightly-woven, fiowering

Just as the North- West turned towards England, so
the East of France was bf)und to turn towards
Ottoman neighbour, towards the art of the
kingdom. At the beginning of the
bot Suthard of Saint-Pierre, Senones, near Saint-Die,
commissioned a Gospel-book whose initials contain
a kind of interlace found only in the region between
the Rhine and the Moselle, at the Abbey of Ixhter-
out here and there into round or globular petals, and
drawn in red on a background of bare parchment. Its
its Canon Tables, on the other hand, are in the Franco-
German Saxon style, with the curious beast's head in which
i ith century Ab- that style delighted and which y\ngl(j-lrish decorators
had derived from the Middle East or beyond. We
have already noticed this (^arolingian survival on the
banks of the Meuse (p. 17). Another Gospel-book
from Lorraine its exact origin is unknown, but it

22
dv hi cnionr
nt^lCTTU CO
i^

ItjttlUJ IIIMoljifl

jflu uot) uc
a.r 111 nob fir'

f iiiciputiffu

^iUidiuiinii

^i.\r :;:Mic(or

lidui nnii I."!*!

.TCD umr ai.vc

oiil).\lK-(nrpA|

c iinriMMoijir

."li-l AC i((r en
5:111. iclutc.'

.VTicmuiu-li
c (Xcnr poffii

miu'ti nof)
iMciuilv.' or^wT
vinAmis

"T
20 - PENTtCOST. LECTIONARY FROM CLUNY, ENU OF THE IITH 21- THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST; THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. SACRA-
CENTURY (bIBLIOTMEQUE NATIONALE, MS. NOUV. ACQ. LAT. MENTARY OF SAINT-ETIENNE LIMOGES, CIRCA I OO (bIBLIO-
; I

2246, F. 79 V.) THEQUE NATIONALE, MS. LAT. 9438, F. 24)

belongs a little earlier, at the end of the loth century books and Lectionaries decorated for his abbey, with
contains gold initials ringed with red in the form initials containing figures drawn in outline and sober-

of branches, which recall certain paintings from Saint- Iv tinted with blue, violet, green and red, recall by
Gall. Hut themost active centre in Lorraine about theit classical elegance the paintings executed towards
the year was the Abbey of Saint-Vanne in the
i loo the end of the loth century for Egbert, Archbishop
Diocese of Verdun, which Abbot Richard had at of Trier, by the great artist who is known as the

the beginning of the i ith centurymade the centre of Master of the Registruni Gregorii, after a manuscript
a monastic reform that embraced a number of com- of his now in the library at Trier. At Metz, at the
munities in the district of the Meuse. The Gospel- Abbey of Saint-Martin, at much the same time, two

^3
 church in (>hristcndomj exhibit an obvious and
close relationship with Ottonian art; and documen-
tary evidence, too often wanting for other centres,
supports the evidence of the paintings. Abbot Hugo
(1049-1109) had not only spread the glorv and in-
fluence ofCluny throughout the whole of Europe;
a godfather of Henry iv of Germany, he was at
Canossa when on 28th [anuarv, 1077, Grcgorv vii
agreed to receive the Emperor and, at his instance

and that of Countess Matilda of Tuscanv, to pardon

him and as counsellor to that Pope and to his successor
;

Urban 11, whose master he had been at Clunv, he

never ceased to intercede for his godson. His per-
severing friendship for this descendant of the Ottos
may perhaps explainwhv painting at Clunv was in-
spired by the best model of the period, namelv C^t-
tonian art, and through it bv the art of Byzantium,

from which the Ottonian artists had borrowed so

much. We have nothing but ruins to judge bv, among
others a mutilated Lectionary of the end of the i ith
century, saved from the savage destruction which
befell everything that came from Clunv. It contains
no more than six paintings, with initials in the Rhe-
nish style (Fig. 20). Oddlv enough, the technique
of these paintings appears Byzantine in its fragility;

so much so that we wonder whether

are entitled to
some foreign master was not working at (]lunv at
INCONSTANTI the time.
The part played by Ottonian art in the formation of
VHPCCOO French art may be seen, even more distinctlv, in a
Sacramentary from the Cathedral of Saint-I^tienne,
Limoges, of the late iith or earlv 12th centurv. The
vigour of the drawing, its schematic character, and
certain details of the decoration, associate this strange
nfponfA coyfiyvx-x^rtyv:' er ir tUtc tniiic-
ta^ aiufir Hit cuirupdMntrn U'jncio |>- and magnificent work with the general characteristics
of Limoges illumination, and even with the South;
22 - BISHOP I.I;ANDKR; AQI ITAINIAN initial. ST. GRKGORV, but the overall effect is infinitelv more complex,
MORALIA IN JOB, END OI Till. IITll CliNTSRY (nORDHAlIX, MS. severe and even hard. The colouring is hot and vio-
24, F. I)
lent, the modelling abrupt. The tigures, with their
slender, sinewy and the pathos of their
forms
attitudes, suggest an Ottonian model of the ith cen- i

drawings tinted with liri^ht vcllow illustrate a collec- turv, reworked and dramatized bv a Limoges artist;
tion of texts on St. Martin which is a replica of a hut the exact origin of the model remains to lu- dis-
volume now at Trier (PI. xiii and Fig. 19). covered. This connection is also indicated bv certain
.\t this early stage Romanesque contacts with Ger- details of iconography. The Jordan is represented by
many were not confined to the North-East of France. two river-gods, Jor and Dan, as in a Gradual from
What remain of tlie manuscripts of (]lunv (thev were the Abbey of Priim, in the Rhineland (Fig. 21). The
dispersed in 1809-18 13 at the time of the demoli- Ascension is of a type which was not then known in
tion of this the larirest and most beautiful monastic France but which occurs in a Gospel-lectionary from

24

'%% X
Salzburg (PI. xiv). The waving ribbons which unite
Christ in the Pentecost with his disciples derive from
the inverted, more or less stylized torches, which at

Reichenau and Ratisbon were regularly used as

symbols of heavenly or prophetic inspiration. Lastly,

ther/rf/7, gold rectangles freely used to decorate gar-
ments, were otherwise unknown in France and so
certainly come from models such as the Gospel-
lectionary of Bamberg Cathedral, of the beginning of
the 9th century. It has also been observed that in
drawing and colouring the paintings in the Sacra-
mentary closely resemble Limoges enamels. Who
knows whether the technique of enamelling, which
afterwards achieved such splendours at Limoges, may
not have had as its point of departure Ottonian en-

24 - ST. MICHAEL. ST. JOHN CHRVSOSTOM, HOMILIES, t;iRCA

1078 (bIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, MS. COISL. 79, F. 2 V.)

amel-work, which had been so brilliant in previous

centuries and which was itself the descendant of By-
zantine enamelling? The great Bible of the collegiate
church at Saint-\'rieix, to-day in the town-hall, is con-
temporary with the Sacramentary of Saint-F.tienne,
whose style and colouring it in part resembles. Both
works must belong to the same pictorial tradition.

The Aiediterraman Contribution

The first traces of French art in the South appear

about the year looo round Albi. Inter-
in the district
lace, a simple pattern inherited from pre-Roman

times and diffused throughout Europe, has in Lan-

guedoc and the adjacent provinces a particular thread-
NiAa)(Kii5E(r) like form. It is generally "reserv^ed" against a ground

of dark colour- purple, green, deep violet and ends
in broad branches or palmettes with flat spear-shaped
25 - Dl.CORAILU l.NlllAl.. BIULl, Ol UlL GRANDE-CI lAK I Rla SE,
BEGINNING OF THE I 2TH CENTURY (GRENOBLE, MS. 7, F. leaves. These palmettes derive from Byzantine capi-
I I
75)
25 - CANON TABLES. BIBLK OF SAINT-MARTIAL; LIMOGES, SECOND 26 - CANON TABLES. GOSPEL BOOK, END OI 1 HE I ITH CENTIRV
IIALI- OF THE lOTII CENTl'RY (bIBLIOTI lEQLE NATIONALE, MS. (PERPIGNAN, MS. I, r. 13 V.)
LAT. 5, VOL. II, 1 . I 5 l)

talsof the period of Justinian (527-565), as found at broad, jagged and striated (Fig. 22). This sort comes
Hagia Sophia in C^onstantinoplc or at S. Vitalc at from Monte Cassino (how and whv we shall see in
Ravenna, to name two examples. Their stvle has been a moment); and it may have inspired the artist who
called "colourist". The derivation is all the more ob- in about iioo decorated the curious Bibles of the
vious because the painter, in order to detach his pat- Grande-Chartreuse (Fig. 23). At Albi itself the gold
tern from its background, employed colour to repro- filigree work in a Psalter (PI. xvii) can best be com-
duce the sharp effect of high relief, in which the pared with similar work that borders the robes of
pattern looks white against the black shadows in the St. Michael and the Emperor Nicephorus Botaniates
areas where the stone has been cut away (PI. xv). (1078-1081) in a famous copy of the works of St. John
"Reserved" interlace occurs elsewhere in Germany Chrysostom of which he himself was the owner (Fig.
(we have already seen examples of it there), in Italy 24). These modest but undeniable indications, the
and in Spain, and before that in the decoration of Aquitanian palmette and the filigree work, reveal the
Insular manuscripts; but nowhere else is it accom- distant origins, direct or indirect, of Romanesque art

panied by palmettos of this sort. Round Narbonne in the Midi: the eastern Mediterranean and Byzan-
the palmette is somewhat different: still flat, but tium.

26

"V
Another siirn of this connection we shall see several Gascony in those days and need not mean that the
a sign no less eloquent of Bvzantium although not artist was a Spaniard. He interpreted his model like

so exclusivclv confined to I.anguedoc, are the scenes ot
fighting monsters crowded onto the
pilasters and "reserv^ed" against a coloured back-
ground, an example of the influence of sculpture. The
later development of this decorative theme is well
known. It appears in sculpture at Moissac from the
the impetuous decorator that he was, so as to give the
vertical faces of greatest possible pleasure to the eye. From the Spanish
Beatus manuscripts he drew a few pages which are
worthy of a place among the marvels of Romanesque
painting in the West and which owe nothing, either
in technique or in inspiration, to the great contempo-

end of the nth century onwards, hut it is also to he rary schools of England and the Rhineland. The
found two hundred years earlier at Tours, in (3arolin-
gian manuscripts of the time of Alcuin, and in the
loth century, doubtless derived from Tours, at Saint-
Martial, Limoges (Fig. 25). This Tours formula was
also drawn from the Greek East (perhaps via Britain,
but that is another story). It reaches its climax at

Roussillon (Fig. 26). Fighting animals and hunting-

scenes occur in profusion in Byzantine ivories, dip-
tvchs, caskets, horns, and in Roman mosaics and if the
;

destruction of meciieval works of art in the Near

East had been less disastrous, we should doubtless
possess more stone reliefs like the fragment now in
the Louvre, coming from .Vthens, yet already so
close to Languedoc in style that it would not be out of
place at Moissac (Fig. 27). By what routes the pal-
mette and the fighting animals infiltrated into the
Midi at this period we do not exactly know, but as
much as of Constantinople or Ravenna or Monte
Cassino, we must think of Spain. Mozarabic art owes
much to the Eastern Mediterranean, and it may have
been through Spain that the vital influence of Byzan-
tium reached Southern France.
The famous copy of the Commentary on the Apo-
calypse composed by Beatus, a monk of Liebana,
illuminated in the ith century at the Abbey of Saint-
1

Sever in Gascony, is a gallicised replica of the Moz-

arabic manuscripts of Beatus: gallicised, but none
the less preserving many traces of its origin the rich
and brilliant colours, the animated and sprightly
figures, and above all certain precise details of the
decoration. Here everything is opposed to the art of
the North. The drawing is simple and bold. The rig-
orously unbroken colours arc dominated by a lively
red and a bright yellow that arc thoroughly Castilian.
The figures are intensely alive and their demeanour is

full of fire, in spite of the absence of relief (PI. xviii).

The name Stephanus Cjarsia, which occurs in the
volume, may be that of the painter who illuminated
the hook during the abbacy of Gregory Muntaner
27 - IIGIITING ANIMALS. MARBLE, GREECE, IITII CENTIKY
(1028-1072). Garsia was a common enough name in (PARIS, MUSEE DU LOUVRE)
 But the Romanesque Midi has another more amiable
side, which is apparent in other paintings contempo-
rary with the Saint-Sever manuscript and coming like

it from the region of Auch. There are, fc^r instance,

standing out in the same bold silhouette and dazzling

our eyes with the same colours as Garcia's monsters,
the dancing women and jugglers in a Troper fa-
miliar to musicologists: a collection of chants design-
ed to accompany the Office, which they develop and
paraphrase, but whose illustrations contain no litur-
gical allusions and might just as well decorate the
verses of some troubadour (PI. xvi).

These were promising beginnings, but here as else-

where in French Romanesque painting they did not

last long and had no posterity. No tradition was

created in the country round Auch, and once themen

who Abbot Muntaner and others had been pa-
like

trons of the Gascon artists had disappeared, the art

of Saint- Sever disappeared likewise. Almost imme-
diately. Southern painting was born again not far

away at Toulouse, at the same moment as the art of

sculpture, neglected in France since the Gallo-Roman
period. The rude and fleshy figures which serve as

frontispiece to a late nth-century copy of the De

Bella Judaico of Flavius Josephus gaily betoken this

revival. Their unbroken colours relate them to the

jugglers of the Troper but are more discreet, as if

muted. The volume reached Paris in the 17th cen-

28 - APOSTLE. MARBLL., TOLLOL'SE,
(TOULOUSE, EGLISE SAINT-SERNIN)
tury among a group of manuscripts from Moissac,
but its was somewhere in tlic vicinity
place of origin
of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse (PI. xix).On a double page,
Titus and Vespasian sit grandly on their thrones, the
imperial insignia in their hands and cnnvns on their
heads, while Josephus, running forward along a road
paved in the Roman fashion, presents, laid out on a
cloth, the book that he has dedicated to them. Behind
hNU OF THE IITIl CENTURY
Josephus the crowd, simply drawn in outline, presses

forward, curious an inscription tells us to discover

for themselves what is in the book. All is life and
South, centred on the Mediterranean, enriched in art movement, in spite of the artist's limited technique
as in literature by contact with a civilisation which and his flippancy or clumsiness (he has deprived
was able to transmit, in however changed a form, Josephus of his left arm). Though working flatly on
recollections of the antique world and of the East, a two-dimensional surface, he none the less has a
entered the Romanesque era with a masterpiece which feeling for depth and renders it in his own way, which
surpassed anything that the North, in spite of its greater is ingenious enough. A vertical band cuts otl'the fig-

diversity and prolificacy, had so far produced. It is ures of the crowd and they are slightly displacetl in an
wild and grandiose, and a Commentary on the Apo- upward direction so as to push them into the back-

calypse is a fitting subject for this tumultuous reve- ground; but some of their legs overlap the imaginary
lation of southern painting. proscenium arch, and thanks to this simple device the

28
 low foreheads, the great eyes blazing out from plump
faces, the hooked noses, the round bellies tightly

swathed in metallic draperies, the stick-like legs-- all

these details betray their common descent (Fig. 28).

Here again Byzantium comes to the surface. The dra-
peries with their concentric folds and the tvpe of face
reproduce in detail the attitudes and the faces low
foreheads, huge black eyes, hooked noses between
full cheeks of, to take one example, the angels at
Sant' Angelo in Formis, near Capua, which were
painted in the time of Abbot Dcsiderius of Monte
(.assino (105 8-1086) and derive from Byzan-
directly
tium (Fig. 29; see also Fig. 24). And if they were not
the actual models, others exactly like them were soon

brought to Roussillon though not, it is true, without
damage in transit, as may be seen in the frescoes of
Saint-Martin, Fenollar. But there is no trace here of
anything Spanish. Are we then to suppose some per-
sonal contact between Toulouse and Monte Cassino?
Direct contact certainly existed between Aragon and
the Holy See, since the famous Gregory vii, who
preceded Desiderius (Victor iii) as Pope, was ac-
cepted as overlord in 1068 by King Sancho Ramirez
(1063-1094) and kept a permanent legate at his court.
The same situation was to be repeated a few years
later in Catalonia; and the relations maintained be-

tween the Pope and Raymond iv, (>)unt of Saint-

Gilles, who was to succeed his brother William in the
29 - HEAD OF AN ANGEL. RESCO, SANT ANGELO IN FORMIS, END
OF THE IITH CENTURY County of Toulouse in 1088, were hardly less close.
Faced by the Mohammedan threat, the Papacy was

figures seem from the page. As at Saint-

to spring out
Sever, the figures are beings without volume, mere
fctirfcuif uirnin^ fcviiVmc r^dih^H
shadows, waiting to fill out and come to life. The
realism of the Midi, by a strange detour, has travelled luruu
back to join hands with antique illusionism.
We shall observ^e elsewhere certain isolated signs of
the same confused aspiration towards a return to the
portrayal of sensible appearances, but they are no-
where so clear as at Toulouse. The taste for solid,

tangible matter, scarcely expressed in painting for

want of a suitable technic|ue, can be seen in the sculp-
ture of Saint-Sernin, where the use of relief makes
possible a literal representation of volume and depth.
Whatever the origin of sculpture
still
in
a subject of controversy), the painting
Languedoc
is
(it is

deriv-ed
J
NCIPIT^IT/Xscr
from it. Ain' and weightless, Josephus, Titus and
Vespasian are brothers to the stone-cut figures of
30 - BLSTS OF SAINTS. LIVES Ol' SAINTS, END OF THE IITH
Saint-Sernin. The hair plastered down in curls over CENTURY (lE MANS, MS. 2 1 4, F. 53 V.)

29


intimatch concerned with the situation in the Western the abbey itself during the i8th century, but the
Mediterranean. books illustrated in Gerard's time and the frescoes at
From his native Lans^ucdoc the "Toulouse man" Chateau-Ciontier, a dependency of Saint-Aubin, are
spread to the centre. meet him again some time
\X'e in all probability by Fulk. In any case a new art ap-
later at Vic, still and ardent and still clad in
restless peared in Anjou at this date, akin to the murals at
metal, in cleverly composed frescoes which contrast Saint- Savin, to a Life of Si. Radegiiud from her mon-
inexplicably with their environs (Saint-Savin, Brinay) astery at Poitiers (Fig. 31), and also to the frescoes
unless we accept their Southern origin. He runs and at Vic.

dances in a way which was then scarcely known north Vic, Poitiers and Saint-Savin are linked to the South
of the Massif Central. He has kept his fiery^ gaze and and to Catalonia. Angevin painting is therefore a
idiosyncratic features, and an impassioned air which Southern enclave in Carolingian territory. This ex-
imbues with a kind of violence the touching scenes of plains the strange and severe style of the Bible of
the Fall and the Redemption. Few passages in French Saint-Aubin, of its Psalter and of the Life of its patron
medieval painting can equal the Kiss of Judas in the saint; wholly foreign to this region, it was perhaps
almost monochrome frescoes at Vic, with its triangle introduced by Fulk, the itinerant painter whose con-
of figures stretched high up towards the pale face of tract exactly coincides with its appearance. The im-
Christ and its atmosphere of trembling, y'et motion- mense full-page Christ in Majesty of the Bible
less agitation. This penetration of the North by the stands out against a background of bare parchment,
South might be questioned if the evidence was con- its gigantic height emphasized by the smallness of the
fined to Vic; but it is confirmed by a group of manu- head. The stiff folds, flat as if they had been ironed,
scripts from the Abbey of La Couture, now at Le remove all sense of volume, all appearance of corpo-
Mans. They are illustrated by large historiated initials reaUty; but the face is gentle and calm and the expres-
of a kind unknown in the district of the Loire and sion profoundly human: a contrast w^hich the artist

even more significantly by a frieze of quarter- length deliberately sought, combining infinite goodness
figures of saints whose relationship with Vic, Tou- with infinite power. Nobility of poise and feature also
louse and the Byzantine art of the Mediterranean distinguishes the holy King David from his four mu-
bey^ond seems to be established by more than one sicians, who arc heavier and closer to ordinary hu-
likeness that is too close to be accidental (Fig. 30). manity (Fig. 32). Again, in the Life oj Si. .llhiitus

At Le Mans also a further proof the Ascension (PI. xx) there is a contrast between the intellectual

window in the Cathedral [circa 1145) was obviously gifts and moral authority of the saint and the vul-
inspired bv the Sacramentary of Saint-Etienne, garity of the guests sitting down to a feast given to
Limoges. celebrate an incestuous marriage; and there is a like

And so the art of the Midi reached and even crossed contrast between the splendid Norman soldiers drawn
the Loire. In the West it was make the essential con-
to up in regular ranks on the deck of their ship and
tribution to the formation of Romanesque painting the disorderly rabble of the men of Guerande, who
in Anjou. At the important Abbey of Saint-Aubin, however routed them thanks to the protection of
Angers, had not entirely ceased during
artistic activity St. Albinus.
the preceding decades, as we know from the drawings The drive to the North did not stop there. We may
in a Terence and a Lives oj the Bisljops of dingers referred hesitate to attribute to Southern infiltration the ner-

to above. Burnt to the ground in 1032, the abbey was vous quality of the evangelists painted at Corbie at the
forced to rebuild (a single great tower, isolated in the end of the ith century; the influence is perhaps that
i

centre of the town, still survives from these new of Rheims and England (PL xxii). But the singular
buildings), and doubtless to make good some part of analogies between the Josephus from Toulouse and a
Abbot Gerard (1082-1 108)
its library. called in a lay- late I ith-century Life oj St. Audomanis seem to reveal
man named Fulk who undertook, in return for the southern influences on the very borders of France.
gift of a house for life, to paint the whole abbey, to There is a violence wholly foreign to Saint-Bertin and
execute its stained-glass windows and, in general, to a taste for relief which at that date only the Midi could,
do whatever work was required of him. The windows however laboriously, express evident in the trouble
and murals of Saint-Aubin disappeared along with the artist takes to mark the frame of his picture and

30
31 - SS. RADEGUND AND MliUARDLS. LU E Ol ST. RAUEGLND, END OF THE 1 ITH CENTURY (pOITIERS, MS. 250, l". If V.)
 TTlE ROMANESQUE STYLE PERFECTI-D
FROM THE END OF THE llTH CENTURY
TO CIRCA 1230

In the preceding pages an attempt has been made

to sketch in outline the varied expressions of French
painting during its first century, a long "century"
extending from about the year 1000 to the year 1 1 30.

It undoubtedly had its share of successes, even of

masterpieces, but borrowing was the order of the
day. The 1 2th century is was the
less easy to analyse. It

period of Romanesque maturity, and though bor-

rowing continued as in the ith century, the sources
i

were fewer and the decorative capital accumulated

from all sides could be drawn upon at leisure. Groups
were formed which seem to be autonomous but can-
not easily be analysed. English influence ceased, at

least for a time; the same was true of Italy; and Ger-
man influence entered only by way of the Mcuse.
Itwas the Mediterranean that now chiefly enriched

French art Byzantium and her dependencies and the
classical tradition she inherited. The cause, as much
perhaps as the Crusades, was the revival of interest in
the culture of the Eastern Mediterranean in all its

32 - UAVIU. PSALTER OF ANC;ERS, END OF THE IITII CENTURY aspects (witness the schools of translators established
(amIENS, MS. LESCALOIMER 2, I-. I
1 '^
V.)
at Palermo, at Constantinople and in Spain) and
the closer and more direct contacts in art, literature

and science, which culminated in the theological and

moral conclusions of the Suainia of St. Thomas
immediately to make his figures overlap it on all sides Aquinas.
(PI. xxi). It is true that the stiff, fluted draperies, so This movement began early, at Rheims. There,
typical of the Southern style, are not without paral- throughout the Middle Ages, art was continuously
lels in Mosan paintmg. A sacramentarv from Liege, inspired by Antiquity. Many of its different aspects
adapted for Saint-Bcrtin, perhaps explains the dress were imitated, by the painters of Archbishop Ebbo's
of St. Audomarus's companions. But it lacks the es- Gospel-book in the 9th century as in the 1 3th-century
sential quality, the frenzy of the South. Visitation in the Cathedral. The tendency may be ex-
We may add that our hypothesis is substantiated by plained by the presence of numerous Gallo-Roman
a fact. In 1084 Baldwin i. Count of Boulogne and remains on what had been the site of the ancient
Guines, on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostella, metropolis of Belgica Secunda. To mention only one
stopped at the Cluniac Abbey of Charroux, which of several manuscripts, a late 11th-century Lec-
lies north-west of i.imogcsin the territory of Aqui- tionary given to the Cathedral before 1096 liy its

taine,and was struck by the order and discipline of provost Manasses contains initials with figures ob-
the monastery. He had recently founded an abbey at viously borrowed from the classical repertoire and
Andres, in his native Morinie, and thither he brought recognisable as such in spite of some Romanesque
monks from Charroux, one of whom he appointed reworking: a beater armed with an axe and blowing
abbot. A flow of gifts to the new community fol- a horn a huntsman pursuing a monster; a young man
;

lowed the Southern monks, and they were confirmed crowned with leaves; and a serv^ant offering his mas-
by Gerard, Bishop of Thcrouanne, the seat in those ter a cup of wine, in illustration of Christ's saying,
days of the modern bishopric of Saint-Omer. "No man can serv^e two masters" (PI. xxiii).

5^

jy^
The M}di it is their general air of exalted calm and their free-
dom that gives these paintings their unique char-
A Bible made for the Abbey of Saint-Martial, Li- acter. Life itself animates forms and features alike and
moges, about iioo contains Aquitanian interlace renders them mote supple and more spiritual, in spite

which recalls Albi; its precise and dynamic style is of the extreme firmness of the drawing. It is in fact

reniiniscent of Toulouse; and the lively colouring, precisely this firmness that saves them from being
together with certain decorative themes, comes from mere imitations of the sensible world, although such
Saint-Sever-sur-Adour. But the painters of this mag- imitation was from now on to be the goal of every
nificent work, one of the masterpieces of French endeavour, through an infinity of detours, fresh starts
Romanesque painting, infinitely surpass their prede- and repentances. A new age was beginning. In the
cessors. Their use of a regular geometric framework, Lectionary, a Virgin in a Tree of Jesse is labelled
which we can easily reconstruct, results in a new har- "Theotokos", an unambiguous stamp of her origin.
mony and equilibrium (PI. xxvi). The slender pro- Byzantium has declared herself, although there are
portions of the figures and the discreet stylization give clear signs of a Mozarabic intermediary. That alone
to their pictures an elegance which we can only com- would explain the appearance of Kufic characters in
pare, although it is less cold, to that of the second one of the frames; and a general relationship with
style of Citeaux (see below). As though
at Citeaux, the Bible of Saint-Martial, and through it with the
earlier, classicism
derived perhaps from Mozarabic art of the South-West, leads one to suppose that this

Spain permeates the whole work. Most of the col- Byzantine influence came from the South. The rela-

umns, in the Canon Tables and elsewhere, end in tionship is only a general one, and objects of Oriental
bases and capitals formed bv animals or little figures of origin were very widely available to the artists of the
caryatids and Atlases, crouching or standing, single period; so we must be wary, even suspicious, in
or in pairs (Fig. 53). Identical figures are to be found plaving the game of attributions. At Citeaux in any
in North Italian sculpture at the same date, in the case, whatever the reason, there was an abrupt break
pulpit of Sant' Ambrogio, Milan, and a little later at between the first style, that of Harding, and the sec-

Verona. How are we to explain the obvious connec- ond. And if at Clunv, as we have seen, the paintings
tion between the two? The Italian sculptor must have already show signs of Byzantine influence, the deco-
taken his ideas from bev^ond the Alps Italy has given : ration of its initials, which leaves no rocMn for inter-
France so much that France can well afford, from pretation and so can never mislead us, proves that
time to time, to make her a present in return. It
remains to explain the presence of these strange mo-
tifs at Limoges; probably, as in the loth century (see

p. 27), they are a Carolingian surv'ival.

The immediate successor of Stephen Harding's witty
draughtsman (or of Harding himself; see p. 21) was
a painter
one of his manuscripts is dated St. Law-
rence's Dav, loth August, 11 34 who illustrated for
Citeaux and the Abbey of La Ferte-sur-Grosne a

series of books diametrically opposed in character to

those of his predecessor. We possess a Lectionarv,
two volumes of St. Jerome's Commentaries on the
Prophets, a copy of St. Gregory's Moralia^ and a few
initials in the Bible of Saint-Benigne, Dijon, in which

he collaborated. Some of his miniatures are justly

c ,xr till
famous: a Christ surrounded by twelve little proph-
ets, Daniel in the lions' den (PI. xxiv), and a full- c<r,xvviui.
page Virgin and Child (PI. xxv). Even more than
53 - ATLASES. BIBLi; OI'SAINT-MART! AL LIMOC.I.S, ENU Ol- THE
;

their bare simplicity and their rather forbidding no-

I ITU CENTURY (bIBLIOTIIEQUE NATIONALE, MS. LAT. 8, VOL. II,
bility, of which other examples exist from Limoges, 1-. 170 V.)

33
 a

^ The North
mlt' Imif ftr undc mincao mmijjirui pinoim*
gniuif innoitfar' (j^ (<r
In about 1
1
30 and in the years that followed, masters
with Mosan afhliations were working at Saint-Bcrtin.

Thev were no less active than their predecessors in

the 1 ith century. English influence, which had once
been so powerful, no longer counted for anything,
and the same stvlc prevailed at FlorefFc, Averbode
and Saint-Bcrtin, and perhaps also at Hcnin-I.ietard,
uorvf qiulnai indiar.'qui longr unless the delightful Gospel-book which once be-

camf pttftarT^am cotUtabo

rcb; longed to that abbey is really a product of Saint-Ber-
mimiano aflcnr qnmm <minut tin,of whose style it is a perfect example (PI. xxix).

quj- ud unaud fcnfuud taaont The mannerism of a St. Matthew surrounded by half-
medallions in the Mosan (and Rhenish) manner is
carnrc- lumta lafnomUf amictdir

balanced by severely stylized modelling and its

Or um qma ab rnttmif *tn^-. tninfi
its

warm and varied colours, daringly juxtaposed. The

btUb; ocuiof cUufim^- <sf mfUnUb;
round faces, the pink patches on the cheeks, and the
ifamnr "yUruq*- bomitir it 5CCD
smiling expressions degenerate in less careful work
qi^ ipfc dt f; pc bif qupcuta Tpfnm into inflammation and rictus, where the pigment
funt umoamur- Cumq; n inrac; is applied too thickly and destroys the spontaneity
mur qo i0e fir (cd qui& pofftr rm of the drawing.
aatpnonC' pfwurum tipcpfonif- From Saint-Bcrtin a number of interesting illuminated
f; aduonnb; duoni jSicq;
9c Ttb;
manuscripts have survived, and it looks as if already,

as in the 1 5 th century, painting had in part become an

frc ur if quoq; apuo nof imnf ni Ot
.

industry, divided between a draughtsman, who was

fpahonon ucnt^ qiu fimf bonoia
sometimes excellent (PI. xxvii), and a more or less
mr qua dum^ bif quf/ crga ilUim competent assistant who painted, and all too often
funr bonotabiUf KU)mir.'Vcbu5
daubed, his compositions. A Bible and a St. Gregory
fuif inpcamuK' nrb pofVpomtur-
of the late 1 2th century, for instance, are illustrated by
unam
S; omp5 x>5 bommum 5c foU admirable drawings frequently coarsened by heavy
qiuUnm/ intmxx^ morm^ -"mk paint. Although their technical training was Mosan,
the draughtsmen of Saint-Bertin drew freely from the
repertoire of Bvzantine figures. Their pictures con-
tain sirens, centaurs, huntsmen, wrestlers, sphinxes,
monkeys and pairs of beasts facing one another, some-
times "reserved" against the capital of a column
34 - THE VIRC;iN HOLDING A MEUALLION OF JOB. ST. GRECORY, technique which points to the imitation of reliefs, as
MORALIA IN JOB, END OF THE 2TH CENTURY (SAINT-OMER,
1
in Aquitaine a century earlier.
MS. 12, VOL. II, I'. 84 V.)
The painting of Saint-Bcrtin, therefore, is Mosan in

style, but its decorative figures are all of antique ori-

gin. Since the beginning of the Middle .\gcs small

ivories, textiles and enamels from the P^astern Medi-

thereat any rate the Byzantine influence came through terranean had entered tlurope and had been copied
Germany. There is no trace of such influence at constantly not only in France but throughout the
Citeaux or at Saint-Bcnigne, where Abbot Jarento West. The 12th century saw a general intensifica-
(1078-1 1
1}) maintained contacts, which resuhed in a tion of this process. Not only decorative figures but

free exchange of presents, with Raymond, Count of subjects of illustration were imitated. It was from By-
Galicia, the son of William, Duke of Burgundy, and zantium that a Saint-Bertin painter, in about 1160,
husband of Urraca, Queen of (>astille. borrowed the idea of showing (at the beginning of

34

:^:^

jyfc


35 - SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. AMANDUS. LIFE OF ST. 36 - CARPET PAGE. BIBLE OF SAINT-AMAND, SECOND HALF OF
AMANDUS, SECOND HALF OF THE I ITU CENTURY (vALENCIENNES, THE I2TH CENTURY (vALENCIENNES, MS. 5, F. 1 6 V.)
MS. 502, F. 29)

the First Book of Samuel) Peninnah, one of Elkanah's in the same volume, another indication of the oriental
two wives, carrying a medallion of one of her sons origin of these motifs.
a sign of motherhood which distinguishes her from Imitations such as these were purely formal and Ji

the other wife, the unfortunate Hannah, on whom superficial,though better was to come. The same was
the Lord eventually took pity and who became the true of the other abbeys in the same district, which
mother of Samuel. This woman with the medallion formed between them a kind of group that must now
recalls a famous icon at (Constantinople, the Vir- be examined: Corbie, in Picardy, whose painting at
gin of Blachernae, who presented her son in the same this date has nothing in common with that of earlier
way; it was imitated on many Byzantine objects, times (see p. 30), Marchiennes, Anchin and Saint-
among them a piece of i ith-century pottery now in Amand, in Hainault.
the Louvre. By the same painter, in his illustrations to The artistic activity of (Corbie is spread over some
St. Gregory's Moralia, is a magnificent drawing of thirty years, from the time of Abliot Robert (1123-
the Virgin holding a medallion portrait ot Job, the II 42) until 1164, the date of what seems to be the
man of sorrows of the Old Testament, whom Greg- latest surviving manuscript. To begin with it was
ory compares to Christ, the Man of Sorrows of the scarcely brilliant: the scribe took precedence over the
New (Fig. 34). Exotic trees, including palms, iden- decorator .ind he alone counted, lie was named; he
tical with those seen in (Jreck paintings, occur was depicted in the frontispiece or in an initial, of-

35
 exactly contemporary with each other (PI. xxxi). The
group is interesting enough in itself, but even more
interesting in view of its "open" character. It was
anything but a closed circle and some of its members,
whose names Siger
and Oliver are, unusually
enough, known to us, were active in the second half
of the century, concurrently with a painter named
Felix who worked at Corbie but was much superior to
his colleagues. These artists foreshadowed in the
plainest possible way the art of the great Bibles (which
will be discussed in a moment), or perhaps thev mod-
elled themselves on that art, for it is impossible from
what we at present know to sav which (PI. xxviii).

The Bibles themselves contributed in great measure

to the formation of Gothic art.

The art of these Bibles, which date from the end of

the 1 2th century, follows on from the art of Corbie,
Marchiennes and Anchin. It can hardlv be explained
except as the direct result of Byzantine influence. The
development of painting at Saint-Amand followed
a parallel course. A first Life of St. Awaiidns, of the
second half of the nth century, has all the general
characteristics of work done at that period in the
neighbouring districts and at the Abbey itself, even
though it is impossible (and pointless) to define their
37 - PETER LOMBARD. SENTENCES, SECOND HALF OF THE I2TII
CENTURY (VALENCIENNES, MS. 1 86, F. 2 V.) exact relationship (Fig. 35). The first Life served as
model for two others, both much later, and a com-
parison between the three is all the more interesting
ferin^ his work to the author of the hook or to because it reveals certain curious fluctuations.
St. Peter, the patron of the Abbey (PL xxx). The Soon after 1 150 the painter Savalo signed several of
painters, of whom there were a number, are little su- his works, including a copy of St. Hilary of Poitiers
perior to the mediocre assistants who coloured the and a Bible of which he illustrated four volumes.
miniatures of Saint-Bertin, but unlike that of the He also decorated a copy of the Sentences of Peter
latter their work is not redeemed by the quality of Lombard and part of the second Life of St. yiwandiis.
the drawing. The twin abbeys of Marchiennes and Each volume of whole page
his Bible opens with a
Anchin, on the other hand, possessed first-class artists carpeted with ornament. These carpet-pages were
who excelled in their decorative initials (though less obviously inspired by similar decoration commonly
conspicuously elsewhere). They lavished upon them found in Byzantine manuscripts, especially at Con-
a whole treasury of invention and a rare talent for stantinople (Fig. 36). Whether Savalo ever saw
drawing and colour. These men appeared on the such a manuscript we cannot say, but it is unlikely,
scene suddenly, about the middle of the century, as we know of no Greek illuminated manuscript
breaking with the modest tradition represented bv a entering France in the Middle Ages. More proba-
venerable Ijfe of St. Ricfrnde, of the i ith century, and bly the volutes or scrolls, decorated with a plamette
certain related manuscripts. They had no bonds with or an acanthus which characterise his carpet-
leaf,

other centres, and appear to have formed their art by pages, came to him from Islamic ivories. But that
studying antique and Byzantine models, which they does not explain the carpet-pages themselves, and
interpreted according to their differing temperaments there is nothing to connect them with those of
and differing degrees of skill. Many of them were at the earliest Insular manuscripts, in which the decora-
work together and they were doubtless more or less tive motifs were completely diflerent. All the less so

56
as Savalo used the same volutes in his initials. Con-
tact with Byzantine decoration and with ivories, and
the necessity of using precise contours in order to
reproduce the effect of ivories in a drawing, are both
perfectly in keeping with the rather heavy firmness of
his sure and decisive line, which forms wide, power-
ful curves, both in his decorated initials and in his
portraits, such as that of Peter Lombard (Fig. 37).

Savalo failed to take from his Byzantine masters all

that he might have, but that was not the case with his
successor, who painted the fifth volume of the Bible,
decorated a copy of Gilbert de la Porree, and, most
notablv, completed the illustrations in the second
Life of St. Awandiis, to which Savalo had contributed
onlv the decorated capital letters (PI. xxxii). We
know nothing of him except that, conscious perhaps
of his own originality, he took pains to scratch out his
predecessor's initials and to paint them over with
patterns of his own ; whereas he executed his paintings

on the back of previously prepared drawings (Fig. 38)

which he preserved and followed closely, not so
much out of respect for the artist as for the saint they
portraved. His paintings have a movement, a sup-
pleness and a kind of inward glow which the work of
Savalo and of earlier artists at Saint-Amand lacks.
These aualities become more clearly defined and at
the same time stylised, as happened also in the style of
38 - SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. AMANDIJS. LIFE OF ST.
Citeaux, in the work of a remarkable group of artists, AMANDL'S, SECOND HALF OF THE 1 2TH CENTIR Y (yALENCIENNES,
apparently numerous, to whom we owe, at Saint- MS. 500, F. 54)

Amand and elsewhere, a series of paintings as im-

I
portant for the development of Romanesque art as
those of the Burgundian abbey. They had under- Stretched out to the right, holding the book. The ex-

stood their lesson and had allowed themselves to be pression on the imperious mask of a face emphasises
1

saturated with the teaching of Byzantium, for at that the superhuman strength of the man who remodelled
period it is from Byzantium alone that such teaching the liturgy of the West. The portrait was imitated
IK
^K
could have come. And eventually they passed beyond at Marchiennes {frontispiece) and at Saint-Martin,Tour- ^
the stage of copying and learnt to understand the very nai. The Crucifixion in a Sacramentary from Saint-
w
spirit of their models. This can be seen in a famous Amand belongs to the same family and may even be
portrait of St. Gregory, which need only be looked by the same artist, but it carries stylization a stage
at closely in order to appreciate its hidden laws (PI. further and tends to be mechanical. The Romanesque
xxxiii). The hug the limbs so that the cloth
draperies concern for decoration asserts itself in the artificial

is The tight folds, cal-

stretched tightly over them. undulations of the draperies, their unnatural But-
ligraphically but naturally drawn, form long, com- tering, and the highly schematised anatomy ot the
plementary furrcjws. The painter has exaggerated the Christ (Fig. 39).
smallness of head, hands and feet in order to accen- We no longer find the masterly simplicitv ot the
tuate the impression of power conveyed by the figure St.Gregory in the majestic figures of SS. Mark and
as a whole. The line of the palliuin is slightly dis-
John from the Abbey of Liessies all that remain
placed towards the left of the picture in order to from a sumptuous book now utterly destroyed. The
balance the inclination of the head and the arm painter's style is so close to the Bible preserved at

37

.- ./ -
 0 *|nif nnn i^xxcd infcnlnt
"^ tntiA v^ri A1U in 6.\\o qiifdX fiicwi
.

poft-^mnwm quo ttfpoiult ctfc^

'\^|><v (mm: ttpUnftm diu tiinr xtS

39 - THE CRUCIFIXION. SACRAMENTARY OF SAINT-AMAND, 40 - DECORATED INITIAL.ST. AUGUSTINE, WORKS, FIRST HALF
SECOND HALl- OF THE I2TH CENTURY (vALENCIENNES, MS. lo8, OF THE I2TH CENTURY (c;AMBRAI, MS. 559, F. 40 V.)
F. 58 V.)

Lambeth Palace, to the Dover Bible (both from influence, and it in no way detracts from the achieve-
Canterbury) and to a Psalter now at Glasgow ment of that painting nor from that of Savalo earlier.
(from York), that wc should perhaps see in it a last A copy of the Works of St. Augustine, which may
sign of the P^nglish influence to which this part of have been decorated for the Abbey of Saint-
Northern France was for so long exposed (PI. xxxiv). Sepulcre, Cambrai, shows how far the new formulas
The frames of the paintings are embellished with had enriched even the technique of ornament, how
large acanthus leaves and medallions in the manner deeply they had penetrated (Fig. 40). The two volutes
of the so-called Winchester School. And there is the with palmettes which form the bow of an // (com-
same taste as in Lambeth and Dover alongside ap- bined with a winged monster of oriental demeanour)
preciable diff"crences in detail both for continuous
a recall those of the Byzantine carpet-pages. The ele-

line,enveloping the whole figure and restricting the gant fighter with cock's feet is squeezed into a
body and the drapery as if with a metal rim, and for garment whose folds stand out like ropes as at
folds bounded by double contours which make them Liessies. And as if to underline the origin of these
stand out like ropes. The strange rim and the double features certain paintings in the same manuscript take
contours clearly imitate Byzantine formulas, those of us back in the most striking wav to the Middle Hast
the painters of the Macedonian Renaissance in the itself (Fig 41).
9th century, or rather of the ivories which followed But the great masterpiece of Saint- Amand, coming
their style. This hardening, compared with the por- at the end of a process of evolution whose main out-
trait of St. Gregory, mav be due to some outside lines have now been traced, is the third Life of its

38

V.

\ Mk
 .

patron saint. The painter of the seven miniatures

that adorn it has both preserved and rendered more
tint*;. '\tx "^ "'"a. lAtidAimuni Afatf<tii

nitndAc
supple the characteristics of his predecessors. From
an exaggerated schematism he has escaped into sim-
plicity. He makes delicate use of patterned gold and CfllodATI

boldlv contrasts different tones, delighting in new

and warm harmonies: orange and olive green, nciu r7\

bright blue, pink, violet. The attitudes of his figures

are varied but never forced, and an atmosphere of Attrrni
elegance (it mannerism
could be called worldliness, if

were not entirely absent) permeates the whole work,

enveloping the figures of the saints who seem to
move quite naturally in luxurious and unreal world
.1

of their own (PI. xxxv).

The second period of Romanesque art reaches in this

work its climax and conclusion. New qualities ap-

pear: suppleness, expressive faces, animated but calm,
and a feeling for a general harmony in which spiritual
forces and physical appearances are in equilibrium.
There is an intelligent understanding of the classical

tradition transmitted by Byzantium. All these are

united with a genius which transmutes natural forms
into decoration and subjects them to the discipline
of the plane. As a precursor of Gothic art this painter
has no rival; but although Romanesque art had
prepared the soil, Ciothic art could not flower until r cum m
other more compelling motives for change had been
brought to bear, along with technical innovations
that were to whole course of painting.
alter the \J'
Before the new style emerged in a coherent form, at
Paris about 1250, a troubled period was to interrupt
and disorder the development of painting. The dis-
order is only apparent, the result not so much of the
profound transformation that the art of illumination
noli
and art in general underwent, as of our own ignorance C
I

of the period, which a closer investigation of its works rebrL

of art may dispel. Among those works of art, there II
.ibfolt
are few more mysterious, in spite of the excellent (I
tie an
studies devoted to them, than the twin groups of
large Bibles which date from the end of the 2th i

century and the first years of the 13th: two different

but complemcntar)- series. In the first series, some of tunf fcpc coitcur pttcm
the Bibles are homogeneous in style, others contain
a mixture of styles, and at least two draw their images 41 - TNTRl TllFULNESS. ST. AUGUSTINt, WORKS, FIRST HALF
OF THE I2TH CENTURY (CAMBRAI, MS. 559, F. 73 V.)
from the Byzantine repertoire, one without making
any changes. The latter Bible, the more interesting of
the two, comes in theory from the Abbey of Souvigny,
though that abbey received it as a gift only in the first
half of the 1 5 th century. Another member of the first

39
42 -SCliNF.S FROM TIIH. I.I IE OF DAVID. SOUVIGNY BIBLF,, SECOND 43 - CANON TABLES. PONTIC, NY BIBLi;, SECOND HALF OI THE
HALF OF THE I2TI1 CENTURY (mOULINS, MS. I, F. 93) I2TH CENTURY (bIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, MS. LAT. 8823,
F. 4 V.)

group, sumptuous but close to the first in style

less and the intelligence of the painters at Saint-Amand
and iconography, and the only one whose origin is and elsewhere. Scenes which in the Greek Psalter,
practicallycertain, comes from Saint-Sulpice,Bourges. now in Paris, are divided into a harmoniously bal-
The library at Lyon possesses a third, of which Vol. anced composition in two registers, full of air and
I belongs to the same stylistic family, whereas the life, arc in the Souvignv manuscript squeezed into
figure-painting in Vol. ii, impregnated with Byzan- the left The French artist,
half of the lower register.
tine influence from a source other than that of the using a decorative scheme from which verisimilitude

Souvigny Bible, is the work of an isolated and cu- was quite excluded, was less concerned to convey an
riously independent painter. We do not know its illusion of life than to suggest the bare facts. Opposite
origin (PI. xxxvi). Lastly, there is the Bible presented the young David, already trampling on his enemy
in 1795 to the library at Clermont-Ferrand, which in although he has only that moment discharged the
pictorial qualities is the most remarkable of the group fatal stone, a second Goliath, the stone embedded in
but again is of unknown origin (Fl. xxxvii). his forehead, menaces him with a spear, which,
The power which Byzantium exercised over the overlapping into the middle register, becomes
artists of these Bibles is plain to see in the Souvigny entangled in the legs of characters unconnected with
volume; yet the difference between the Latin the fight. The Greek artist, hismind still imbued with
spirit and the spirit of the Greek Hast with its classical antique themes, depicts behind David the Force that
heritage is very marked, in spite of the many contacts upholds him and the Boastfulness of Goliath in

40

Jrt^i:
 it with the district round Sens, and in particular with
Pontigny, the Cistercian abbey at which Thomas
Beckct, y\rchbishop of (>anterbur)% took refuge in
1 1 and from which his companion Herbert of
64,
Boshani is known to have taken back to England

books painted in a similar style. This second style is

more homogeneous than the first, but the situation
is complicated by the existence of various more or
less intimate links, as yet imprecisely defined, with
two other volumes: the first attributed to Pontigny
itself (obviously cousin to an extraordinarily wild
and violent Bible formerly at Saint-Andrc-au-Bois,
near Saint-Omer; Fig. 44), the second to Saint-
Bertin (PI. xxxviii), where monks from Canterbury
took refuge at the time of Becket's exile in 1164.
Finally, to complete the confusion, the Bible of
Saint-Germain-des-Pres referred to above and an-
other magnificent Bible, perhaps from Saint-Denis
(PI. xxxix), possess certain general traits of style

which appear to link them to the first, Byzantinizing

group; and when we consider from this angle the
other Bibles in their group and a number of other
contemporary French manuscripts, we find a striking
uniformity in the initials. Careful scrolls ending in a
large, exuberant acanthus doubled over at the edge
44 - DECORATED INITIAL. BIBLE OE SAINT-ANDRE-AL'-BOIS, are repeated time and time again, closely resembling
SECOND HALF OF THE I 2TH CENTURY (BOULOGNE, MS. 2, F. 46)
a certain type of Byzantine acanthus of which they
are probably an imitation (Fig. 45).
This uniformity gives us a foretaste of Gothic
uniformity. The ground was slowly, almost in-
sensibly, being prepared, but under what precise
flight: persDnitications that will have been meaning- conditions we do not know. They will one day
less to a 12th-century Frenchman. Nor is lack of have to be elucidated. The Abbey of Clairvaux seems
space enough to explain why the groups of Israelites to have played a leading role in the preparations,

and Philistines, a necessary part of the Byzantine which is all the more strange because its founder,
picture, are missing from the Latin Bible; they were St. Bernard, who died in 11 53, had waged an
pointless in a scene of which the bare idea was in energetic campaign against the abuse of painted
itself sufficient and the setting, a battlefield full of decoration in manuscripts and had imposed on his
soldiers, superfluous (Fig. 42). own house, though without securing its adoption
A scribe named Manerius, who describes himself as elsewhere, a type of simple initial of the utmost
a native of Canterbury, signed a Bible in three plainness and severity. Fven at (Clairvaux, however,
volumes now in the Bibliotheque Sainte-Cienevieve. the reform scarcely survived his death. Decoration
Its illustrations resemble those of a fragment formerly reappeared, the same essentially Byzantine decoration
Abbey of Pontigny (Fig.
(in the i8th century) at the as before, and drawing also, as in the Northern

43) and of two other Bibles from Saint-Colombe, abbeys at this date. Pontigny and Clairvaux, both
Sens, and Saint-Germain-dcs-Pres. The Manerius daughter houses of Citeaux, appear largely respon-
Bible was purchased in 1748 from the church of sible for these developments.
Saint-Loup, Troyes. The origins of this second And so at the end of the 1 2th century in France many
group, or its recent origins at least, thus associate roads lead to Byzantium. We must not sec her

41

-tr <
influence everywhere; yet neither must we ignore the sustained impetus which from the earliest
the many signs, open and hidden, of her insinuating strivings of the 12th century onwards she imparted
presence. Thev form and icono-
are plain to see in to the representation of earthly life and to the expres-
graphy alike; in the colour-scheme of blue, red and sion of a new spirituality, both mf)rehuman and less
gold which was to dominate Gothic painting; and in rigid than before.

45 -
ACANTHUS LEAF. LETTERS OF ST. GREGORY,
SECOND HALF OF THE 1 2TH CENTIRY (bIBLIOTHEQI'E
NATIONALE, MS. LAT. 2287, F. 2)
 GOTHIC ILLUMINATION

THEprogress of Gothicillumi nation saw thegradual shade. The revolution ended when the spectator felt
conquest of the world of sensible appearances-the able to step forward into the interiors created by
veil that shrouded the realities with which alone the the painters or to set foot upon the soil of their
medieval spirit had hitherto been concerned. Already landscapes, with the horizon at eye level and an
in the Romanesque period artists had attempted to open sky above.
impart to a flat plane the illusion of space and depth; The first signs of this spiritual and technical
at the beginning of the nth century at Toulouse, revolution appeared in the second half of the 1 2th
for example, by an ingenious device which we may century. The monastic centres of art were, as we
best compare to the wings of a stage. But such have seen, losing their power; they were soon to
attempts are rare and uniform. Not until towards the be wholly or nearly silenced, as if rased to the ground,
end of the 14th century do we find similar formulas and none of them ever revived. The arts fell into
more maturely handled, in the earliest attempts to new hands, as though new teams of artists had long
portray true landscapes and convey an impression been preparing to succeed the old. Only one ex-
of distance. During the first century of French planation is possible: the patrons and clients

Gothic art say from 1250 to 1330 the will to changed, the artists followed. Art lives on pro-
escape from the fllat plane reveals itself not so much grammes and programmes depend on commissions,
in the modelling of individual figures, which had on the people who distribute them, whether individ-
earlier been understood by the Romanesque artists, uals or officials, single or in groups. Behind every
as in the search for movement. Forms grow softer and work of art lies the patron who called it into being.
more pliable, though in some cases they are still no At this period the clientele was changing. Everywhere
more than flat silhouettes proportion and perspective
;
the abbeys and cathedrals were being replaced as
are now used to portray objects not according to centres of learning by the universities, especially the
the artist's idea of them, but as they appear to him. University of Paris, to which scholars flocked from
Little by little the world is cut down to the human all over Europe; and by an increasing number ot
scale, the first stage in a revolution which was only patrons for romances, histories, didactic treatises and
to be completed in the i$th ccnturv. Its progress works of private devotion, of whom the most impor-
is marked by the gradual development of the back- tant was the king. Every French king after St. Louis
ground, at first simply a decorative pattern or was an owner of books. Louis himself bequeathed his
sketchy outline, later becoming an integral part of library to Royaumont and in his lifetime opened it
the space that the figures and objects occupy, sur- to Vincent de Beauvais, thus assisting the com-
rounding them and enveloping them in its light or pilation of the gigantic Speculum in which that erudite

43

-i*"' $ V
 painted figure-subjects or "histories". Illustrators con-
tinued to draw their ideas from the whole of the
Latin West, and even from beyond, as they had done
in Romanesque times and as the University itself

did in another sphere. But whereas the Romanesque

period was purely receptive, French Gothic art
exports; it takes the ideas of others and marries them
to its own, but what emerges is French and bears an
unmistakable stamp of its origin.
Let us now consider who the new patrons and cus-
tomers were, what changes they provoked, and how
they were carried t)ut. Everywhere the abbeys were

and although certain northern houses were

in decline,

to carry on an honourable existence for some time

longer, only Saint-Denis, the royal abbey, pro-
duced an important artistic innovation. Its most
distinguished Abbot was Suger (1082-1152), coun-
sellor to the king and regent of France from 1 147 to
1
1
50 during Louis' absence in the Holy Land; and
he was, if not the creator, at least a promoter of what
he himself calls the "new style" of architecture and
stained glass. He has described his activities in a
treatise which is all the more precious because it does
not simply list his own works. It explains how the
new methods of building had made it possible to
reduce the wall-space, to open up broad bays and to
allow a play of light on large windows decorated
with "histories". Earthly brightness could thus be
used to evoke the idea of heavenly brightness.

46 - CHRIST AND MARV MAGDALENE. SCENES FROM THE LIKE OF

A sparkling tapestry, the stained glass window
CHRIST, SECOND HALF OF THE I 2TH CENTURY (nEW YORK, replaced the fresco, for which the dwindling of the
PIERPONT MORC.AN LIBRARY, MS. 44, F. 1 2) wall-space left less and less room; and thanks to the
material and spiritual importance which they assumed
under the auspices of architectural technique, the
encyclopedist summed up the learning of his time. windows took the lead in pictorial art, of which
The distant journeys of the (Crusades, the discovery they are themselves a variant. The illuminators, or
of Greek and Arabic science, and the social changes at least those of the new workshops, set themselves
provoked by the establishment of communes and to learn from the windows, upon which they mod-
the emergence of a mercantile and financial bour- elled their composition, their iconography, their
geoisie created similar conditions to those which colours, their forms, and even, in spite ot certain

provoked, for like reasons and with like results, the necessary differences, their technique. So much so
Renaissance of the 15 th and i6th centuries. The that on occasion illumination and stained glass
production of books passed into the hands of the seem to be the work of the same artists. We say
laity. Round the University of Paris and elsewhere, "seem", cautiously, since all we lack is proof, the
to supply a shifting population of teachers, students name of a single artist who worked both on books
and ordinary book-lovers, there sprang up publishing and in glass. Yet how are we to explain the strange
houses, which gathered together the different series of pictures in the Life oj Christ in the Picrpont
specialists: scribes, correctors, illuminators, some Morgan Library, New York (Fig. 46), except as the
of whom painted the decoration onlv, while others work of one of the artists of the windows at Chartres

44

v, r-
(circa 1150-60) or at least of a pupil (the manuscript i nfnmftrfftcnflCftniflrotT
p.)ssib!v later), so closclv does it resemble the Life
is t cfotr t02 ftuu cxtnd l|H)n t> mf ftcopftittm-anajct) *

^
of (Ihrist in the west window at Chartres. From one <r cmoftw loif rtmmr }xucr)
to the other, style and iconography arc indistinguish- ? ourldUVbitftijteniuf <ft' fouotrkf atorr rmtrr
sJ onutnf hirtuotrtrfpuif
able.
The fabrication of a window presupposes the prep-
aration of a design in the form of a painted car-
toon, and in the manuscript which consists of a
single (and complete) gathering of sixteen leaves
with a blank page at either end wc possess what
must be a designer's pattern-book. The windows at
Chartres were inspired by the windows at Saint-
Denis, and the new style of illumination, which A conmbmtcnulrthir B cmamnr^bom Itmcitii
owed so much and which the little
to stained glass j etmif.tfcfcntfrt-cfnir \ etoimmrcnnatoni
d' tonftrivrfultmatncr I *Uftcn fnnf rcpainci-
pattern-book with its linear modelling and unbroken
^ mfroirodutiirt" ftifcncf toi Vfift- Icfrcnf cn*Inct'
colours so clearly foreshadows, was formed in a
^ nfts fiuf fcnfcfUnflUcr wpwift-nft-fbntt?4i(h
milieu which resembled, and may perhaps have iftcnfefaifdtotrs'fiuicf
t ? fotfTftm- amflnetu
tci-
been identical with, the royal abbey. After the thick T ourarftn 02 Ujiu-Ic Will- I ouncuv ^MrT^ltiMfoi
paint and general softness of Romanesque art in ?- en cot Wranr mn faiO- 3 ouftcr'wtucrtTftWii'fuot
(jy tit-trrtcfuirfDituurcf 1
decline, painting needed the discipline of clean, dry ij
J) CgtukfcibicnftuS-ftutcf r irtncn-ncncirleloi crtagc
line and of light boldly distributed over large, plain
b CU6 Jiif tottr tcncme^Joitairf
surfaces. It was precisely this discipline that stained
_ cilujir icftctiffljm-fmmtf
glass had to offer, and it may well be that the small
but well-placed group of artists who manned the
new workshops were partly recruited from the
cartoonists.At the end of the 15 th century, when
illumination had lost its decorative quality and
approximated to panel-painting, engravers were re-

cruited from the designers of cartoons for embroidery.

A development of the same sort in the second half
of the 1 2th century would account for one of the
technical changes which transformed the art of 47 - THE MACCABEES. LA NOBLE CHEVALERIE DE JIUAS MAC-
CHABEE, 1285 (bIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, MS. FR. I5IO4, F.
painting in the 13th. The Life of Christ points to
26 V.)
a connection of this sort; the imposing Bible moralisee
executed about 1250 in the royal workshops and,
even more emphatically, the Psalter of St. Louis in the Old Testament with events which they pre-
confirm it. figured in the New
here gives way to moralising,
The marks the completion of a change
Bible (PI. xl) which is more didactic, better suited to the public
which had begun in the middle of the 12th century. for whom the Bible was intended. The enormous
It is neither more nor less than a set of stained glass labour presupposed by the decoration of this monu-
windows transposed on to parchment. The thick mental work, of which several copies were produced,
volumes contain nothing but historiated medallions must have been equalled by the no less considerable
disposed in groups of eight, and each of the painted labour of making extracts from the text and its moral
openings forms a diptych separated from its neigh- commentary, which comes from the Postillae in
bours by a pair of empty pages. The medallions are Bibliam of Hugues de Saint-Cher, a Dominican who
arranged in pairs and are explained by an inscription died in 1262. The task must have required a learned
at the side; one represents a scene from the Bible, director, assisted by scribes and painters, and con-
the other contains a picture which reveals its moral siderable funds. It is thought that another Domi-
significance. Typology the comparison of events nican, Vincent de Beauvais, may have been asso-

45
ciatctl with the work he \v:is not one to take fright Guillaumc Ic They show that illumination was
Clerc.

at the sight of a no more than

long job; hut that is still closely dependent on stained glass, although it
a conjecture, and there seems to be no reason why was not to remain so for very long. Thick black
Hugues dc Saint-Cher himself should not have had very firmly drawn, surround the various
lines, all

a hand in the methodical plagiarising of his own colours like the lead in a window, and modelling is

text.There still exist three copies of the Bible, of achieved as in glass, whether plain or coloured, by
which the best, the royal copy, is at Toledo and means of delicate grisaille. The illuminator was too
New "^'ork. A fragment of the French translation is at well acquainted with stained glass not to have been
Vienna. It is in the same style, possibly even bv the a master glazier, or at least a designer accustomed to
same artists as a (iospel-lectionarv for the Sainte- preparing cartoons for windows (Fig. 47). It is

Chapelle in Paris (circa 1260-70). This lectionary, enough to examine the section devoted to "portrai-
which was executed at two different dates, is in its ture" in the collection of plans, designs and models
latter part completed some ten years later the made by the architect Villard de Honnecourt, in

work of artists who are even more certainly associat- about 1250, to be certain that his system of "portrai-
ed with the crown. They are the authors of a splendid ture" reproduces the system used in the contem-
Psalter, also for use in the Sainte-Chapelle, which was porary Bible iiioralisee. The geometrical framework
executed for St. Louis after 1253 and doubtless little used is one on which balanced compositions can
before his death in 1270 (PI. xlii). be rapidly and easily which
constructed a device

The manuscript begins with a series of 78 full-page has a Icjng history and was well known to the Ro-
paintings in front of the text, portraying scenes mans. The techniques of the architect and of the
from the ( )ld Testament from the offering of Cain painter had combined (Fig. 48).
and Abel to the Coronation of Saul (several of the The influence of stained glass was not in itself
early scenes are missing); they face one another in enough to form Gothic illumination; artists drew
pairs, and on the back of each page is simply an from other sources the material to develop it. To
explanatory inscription. The elements of the style
are still Romanesque, but it is animated by a new
spirit. The liveliness, the elegant proportions, the
supple forms with their tendency towards a slightly
stylized realism, the warm but harmonious colours,
enriched by the gold of the backgrounds all these
give to the work a youthful, springtime quality. The
trefoil arches and architectural features which sur-
mount each columns which di-
scene, with the thin
vide them as occasion demands, are the only element
in the miniatures which is (jothic in the full sense of
the word. They are a faithful reproduction of the
arcades, gables and rose windows of the Sainte-
Chapelle, and it seems as if we must certainly recog-
nise in them the directing hand of St. Louis' architect,
Pierre de Montreuil, perhaps even the personal inter-
vention of the king. Nothing of the kind had been
seen before. It was in the entourage of St. Louis that
French Gothic art, and especially painting, had its

trueongm.
Somewhat later, about 128$, are two treatises (the
first dated) illustrated by an illuminator who comes
possibly from the northern part of the Ile-de-France,
48 - THE WHEEL OF FORTUNE. SKETCHBOOK OI' V1I.LARI3 DE
if not from Paris itself: the Noble chevakrie de Judas
HONNECOURT, MIDDLE OF THE 3TH CENTURY (bIBLIOTHEQUE
I

Machabee and a copy of the Bestiary as translated by NATIONALS, MS. FR . I9O93, I-. 21 V.)

46
begin with, naturally enough, they retained the
grammar of late Romanesque ornament, as we find

it in the great Bibles of the late i zth century de-

scribed earlier. would be easy to point to these
It

same features in a number of illuminated manu-

scripts dating from the first half of the 13th century,
the most important of which are no longer Bibles
but Psalters. A change was already under way. The
Bible, which in those days was often of enormous
size, was the fundamental reference-book ot the
monks, a work which e\x'ry abbey possessed and
which was sometimes magnificently decorated. The
Psalter, which replaced it as the l/rre de luxe, was
intended for lavmen, and no surviving example is
bigger than a large modern octavo. It was for use in
private devotions, and in the form in which it
appears at the beginning of the 13th century was the
precursor of the Book of Hours, which entirely
superseded it for that purpose towards the end of
the 14th century. Psalters of this kind were an English
invention; or at any rate the English, in the second
half of the 12th century, brought them to a pitch of
sumptuous perfection unknown in France.
Of the Psalters that have survived one of the most
valuable for the history of French illumination is in
the University Library at Leyden. It was written at
the end of the 12th century for Geoffrey Plantagenet,
who was Archbishop of ^'ork from 1191 to 1212,
and must have fallen into the hands cjf Philip
Augustus's son Louis when he crossed the channel
to assist the barons in their revolt against King
John. It is supposed that Louis gave it to his wife
Blanche of Castille and thatwas thus that the young
; it

St. Louis came to learn his letters from it, as we 49 - THE CRUCIFIXION. MISSAL OF ANCHIN, CIRCA I200 (UOUAI,
discover from a note added to the volume at the MS. 90, F. 98 V.)

beginning of the 14th century. Thus there entered

France, through the medium of the royal family,
a style of decoration which Parisian artists were OT less restored to favour. Although a Psalter of
quick to copy and which inspired a fine series of Paris use compiled for the Queen of France, it
Psalters dating from the first half of the 13th cen- has nothing Parisian about its illumination, nor
tury. The English style was, however, modified by English either. The painter, like Ingeburga herself,
contact with the new Parisian art. came from beyond the Rhine, and until we know
There is as yet no sign of this modification in tiic more we must be content to look for parallels to
magnificent Psalter painted for the unfortunate its radiant pictures and light, fresh colours among
Ingeburga of Denmark, after her desertion by Philip the still distinguished p;)sterity of the Ottonians.
Augustus. This volume dates from the last years
if not The Psalter has rightly been compared with a Missal
of the 2th century, since Ingeburga was repudiated
1 from Anchin (Fig. 49), but that too seems to be
immediately after her marriage in 193, at least from 1 foreign and was probably imported by the Ingeburga
the first two decades of the 1 3th, when she was more painter.

47
 On the other hand a sign of the change that was
already taking place in I'^uropc -the royal workshop
in Paris, that of tiie liihle wonilisee, undertook about
1230 to decorate the Psalter of Princess Christina,

onnns qm crrdiri daughter of laakoii llaakonson. King of Norway,

who in
1

1258 married Philip, brother of Alfonso x

tpfnmnoiutttar:' of and Leon
(Pastille antl nephew of St. Louis'

fed haltar mrnni c mother. L'rom now on livirs de luxe were to come
from Paris. Several other Psalters, of which one is
rmimn. without complete proof to Blanche ot
ascribed
(Pastille, contain introductory miniatures in super-
imposed series of medallions, a device whicli the
illuminators had borrowetl from stained glass (Pis.
r
XLii, XLiv). The style of this workshop appears
'5ritf elsewhere: tor instance in a Liber lloridus prose
apmis anthology
by Lambert of Saint-Omer (PI. xlv).
By about 1250 the new style had assumed its hnal,
fmf.Cgo
even its most extreme form, h was strictly linear and
rtnu/iii Hat. It employetl wide areas of warm colour, mostly
deep red and blue, on which modelling was indicated
by over-painting in black or in another shade of the
tms.pn same colour. Faces were not coloured, and features
(to inn: and hair were indicated by simple strokes ot the pen.

ntitmn This extreme aridity, or if you prefer it this

deliberate, rather forced legibility, so completely op-
fudDar posed to the last excesses of Romanesque painting,
P20 Otll was at that time the hallmark of Paris. It is found in
the Bible from the royal workshop, in the Psalters,
m fms. in the (iospel-lectionarv of the Sainte-Chapelle
fllatm (Fig. and also in lav books fables, prose or
50),
verse romances, and histories to which this some-
what schematic form of illustration was perfectly
atitfcr
suited, i^xamples are the Roiinin de I'roie by Benoit de
qmnd Saint-More, tiie I listoire de JerusalemhyGuiW'a.nmcdc

cpafto? Tyr, the Conte de Meliac'm by Cjirard d'Amiens, and

the Ro Willi de hi Poire (PI. XLVi), all of which date
aunfn roughly from between 1250 and 1275.
fcoiics During the i uh century, the style of Paris was
diffused throughout F'rance, in step with the in-

creasing centralisation of political power. No longer

is French painting two more or less
tli\ ukd into
equal halves, as in the Romanesque period: the
North has the upper hand, and where a Southern
style iloes appear, it is a thinlv yeileil \ersion ot the
Northern or of the It. than style (or Spanish, although

50 - THE GOOD Sur.PIlKRU. GOSPEL LECTIONARY OF THE SAINTE-

(;iiAPi:i.i.i:, circa 1260-1270 (nini imiii qif. nationai.e, ms.
LAT. 17326, I-.
99)

48
 ^
Spain, or to be more precise Catalonia, was in this

respect a province of Italy). The Gothic of the Ile-

de-France dominated the whole stage, and from this
>^imo titpKmOf^
we may infer that the Ile-de-Francc possessed a
virtual monopoly of illumination, a monopoly which
we with other second- new. ate ctnmc lorn?
it shared in part, as shall see,


ary centres. .

It is probable that painters travelled about and hired

themselves out to execute commissions on the spot, .

as Fulk had done earlier at Saint- Aubin, vVngers;

but, unfortunately, we know of only one example.
In 1 3 17, Everard, a monk of the monastery of Froid- '." . :..
,

mont, near Beauvais, was superintending the com- \xxms mxsAain ofctw nroo pafWA ccoxmK

pilation of a pocket Breviarv for the use of his abbot,

and he entrusted its decoration to "master John pcnsftmovfen coitftdcmuctte nc 6icmtutwe
of Amiens, then resident at Beauvais". But for a
note in the manuscript recording this detail, we
should be entitled to believe that the Breviary was Itiftnuaitttvlcttlcatt6t&ixicimuci fiiUtfOn

not only written but decorated at Froidmont; and

yet the painter was in fact a layman (//uigister), whose
home was certainly at Amiens (his style is the style

of Picardy), and who was working at Beauvais for

the time being (tunc temporis), which plainly shows
that his residence therewas only temporary. Everard
simply took the opportunity which was offered him.
Nothing demonstrates more clearly how important
it is to dissociate the writing of a book from its

decoration. Because a text comes from a particular

abbey, it was also
does not necessarily follow that it 51 - THE trinity: sports and pastimes. PARIS CHANSONNIER,
CIRCA 1280-13 15 (mONTPELLIER, BIBLIOTHEQUE DE LA FA-
decorated there. We know nothing of the living and
CULTE DE MEDECINE, MS. 1 96, F. 87 V.)
working conditions of the painters of the period, but
it seems obvious that a painter can only have been

trained in an artistic centre, amidst other painters,

and that few such centres can have existed; the collectors, employing assistants and entering into
unity of Gothic art points to this. partnerships; but a Jean d'Amiens worked single-
There is another detail to note in the Froidmont handed or nearly so, travelling about from town to
Breviary. Like innumerable other volumes, it con- town and taking his own style and technique wher-
tains a note for the illuminator, telling him what ever he went.
subject to portray in the single historiated initial: We know of one of these employers, Maitre Honorc
"li abes qui cante se messe", the abbot singing his of the Rue Erembourg-de-Brie (Boutebrie), Paris.
Mass. This note was certainly written by Everard, He appears in a tallage roll for the year 1296. That
who commissioned the miniature, not bv the head same year the accounts of the treasury at the Louvre
of a workshop, who would more probably have mention that a Breviary belonging to Philip the
made a sketch for himself or his client to follow. We Fair was illuminated by one Honorc. That both
must not imagine the workshops as so many little documents refer to the same man, we know from a
factories scattered over the country, each with a copy of Gratian's Decrel/iw, which was purchased
head man who distributed tasks to its workmen. from the illuminator Honore, Rue Boutebrie, in
Successful illuminators might set up shop as regular 1288 and contains a miniature bv the iiand that illus-
suppliers to publishing h(juses or to the great book- trated the king's Breviary.

49
 curving inwards at the topand outwards below,
lead the eye towards the luminous figure of the young
David, who is the chief character in each scene, as
an inscription in capital letters which refers to both
cants tnr
registers informs us; the angel, in the upper register,
qiit tionaburtiioo
';. ^A- offsets the towers of Bethlehem, maintaining the
ftitoitnptonun erf
uin pfonimiionOt balance of the picture, as do the trees which suggest
nriinmritDiattfh a landscape in the lower. A which reveals
subtle art,
Inmc 11011 fcdit^T^i
its secrets only on analysis, its restraint and calm

msdii.^ iriKU^ca enhances its effect, although there are, we must

J
1113 mrritmbtntrdtc admit, a few concessions to formula in the move-
iK iiottj^^'cnr mmquntn Uonuim qttoD ments of legs and feet and in the arched brows, high
'planranurt c fmts ccatrfus aqi m v o o' fnif
bulging foreheads, tense expressions and carefully
aibtrm cnii one fitolJ^foUtlQ
ntiii ftttnu

lion ccflucrcronuim
curled hair. It contained the seeds of future develop-
^
cttif qacatmqt fiutcr
V
piofjjubuamt^^oii ficinipu uonfirfcD ments, even of the touch of mannerism which
mmqiiai.! iniluisquan |R0tarumnt9 Honore's successors did not always avoid, and which,
a (hac . i-^gpco noii irturjxmr iniptjH kept within reasonable bounds, was long to remain
tjudiao utij- ^v.tnrojcsmamftuoiitlhjr-
one of the distinguishing marks of Parisian illumi-
!<^'tf nomr toimmis tuam mfhrr-itcfr
wipj |cnbtr. nation. Of the works contemporary with Honore,
'
^^ssr
f^iirac fttimtminrgoutj 1 ppult tiic the Martyrology of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, whose
peasants have their hairnicelycurledandwearthemost
aur^i Jimans coiiuaicnmr m uiimuiii elegant rags, has been mentioned. There is also a
_aritirii. vi.kau)ttni-iaOucrii5-qTnicuu
witty Chansonnier from Paris, whose pages are en-
livened by gay marginal scenes of sports and pastimes
(F'g- 0- 5

The Chansonnierh one of the oldest examples of these

marginalia. They were soon to be all the rage. The
fashion began in quite a small way in the North of
France, perhaps in imitation of the Fnglish, and
artists from the North hand in the
certainly had a
decoration of the Chansonnier. The Trinity on f. 87 v.
is in the style of Arras, and unless the volume was
52 - DECORATKl) PACit. BRK\ lARY OI' SAINT-SEPULCRE CAMBRAI,
;
decorated in the provinces for use in Paris, which
CIRC:A 1290 (CAMBRAI, MS. I02, I. 232)
seems to be out of the question view of the im-
in
portance of Paris and the ease with which commis-
sions could be executed there, we can onlv suppose
Honore was a painter of decisive and vigorous talent, that Northern artists were already establishing
whose style, in its precise and discreet elegance, themselves in the capital, attracted by the market
resembles that of a Martyrology painted about 1270 which it provided for their work. It is natural that
for Saint-Germain-des-Pres (PI. xlvii), which is working painters, and even publishers, should have
therefore unquestionably of Parisian origin. His brought with thcni to I'aris a manner which was
art epitomizes was best in 13th-century
all that their own particular speciality.
France: movement, colour, compact but airy com- After Honore, the workshop in the Rue Boutebrie
position. Take, for instance, his frontispiece to the was controlled bv his son-in-law Richard de Verdun.
Breviary of Philip the Fair (PI. xlviii). The upper We cannot attribute anything to him with certainty,
register, the more crowded of the two, is exactly the but for want of a better hypothesis it is reasonable
same height as the lower, but the latter, as it is to suppose that he carried on the traditions of his
emptier, appears higher and so lightens the whole father-in-law. They can be detected, in a drier form
page. In both registers, the attitudes of the figures, and with backslidings into the linearity from which

50
 Honorc himself had Hbcratcd French painting, in a and in I.anguedoc, which lay on the borders of
'^ of books which crowded the Parisian market,
series Catalonia, a country steeped in Italian art. The
and were doubtless widely imitated elsewhere, until supremacy of Paris, however, admitted of nuances
13 50 and even
later (Pis. xi.ix, lii). Simple, decorative which enable us to recognize certain regional peculi-
work, it quickly becomes stereotyped. Some of the arities, although they dwindled away to nothing
books are produced en wcisse, like the many copies during the 14th century, not to reappear until the
of a work then much in demand, the lub/e historiak of second half of the 15 th century, when Paris, in the

GuiartdesMoulins,a French translation of the Histo- aftermath of Charles vi's disastrous reign, had lost her
of Petrus Comestor; others are of a
ria Scholastica lead in art as in politics. Three provincial centres in

higher qualitv, like the I "le de saint Denis by the monk particular are worthy of mention. Picardy-Artois,
\'ves, which was presented, also in i 5 1 7, to Philip the the country of the troubadours and the writers of
Tall (PL l). romances, was the home of a high-spirited school
It is interestingcompare the two volumes, both
to which shared the gaiety of the writers, and like them
same year and possibly
identical in style, dated the was not entirely free from the rather drv clarity which
from the same workshop, the one intended for the had already become a French characteristic. Model-
average buyer, the other for a great collector, the ling w^as reduced to a minimum; only bright colours
King in person (the I ie de saint Denis had been were used; and faces were left uncoloured, with their
prepared for Philip the Fair, a client of Honore). features indicated by no thicker than a hair,
lines

Allowing for differences in quality, there is a perfect drawn with the pen. Frames ran riot, surmounted
identity betw^een the two and they may well be the by tall architectural motifs picked out wnth two
work of a single painter. Nothing could be more shades of gold, or projecting into the margin in
typically Parisian than this IJje of the patron saint sprays loaded with entertaining little figures the
of Paris, decorated for the King under the super- droleries which were a feature of Artois and of Eng-
vision of a monk of Saint-Denis. Beneath the main lish decoration (PL li ; Fig. 5 2). The taste for pure
subjects of each miniature are a series of little scenes line was nowhere more pronounced. The art of
of Parisian life placed in urban settings which are
more or less true to life. They have a touching
quality; the first of the long line of Paris painters was
inspired by a friendlv and amused curiosity for the
life of the and the river, and for the tradesmen,
streets

craftsmen, hucksters, merchants and other humble

people who made their noisy and picturesque way
through the streets of what was in those days the
capital city of Christendom. Paris was the largest city
of the age and seemed like the meeting-place of the
universe, orhis in urbe, in every sphere of activity ; it

had long been the headquarters of theologv and

secular learning, and from now on it was to be the
headquarters of the arts. The Izco/e de Paris was
founded in the 14th centurv.
Wnt xtmi tna ckrm ittiiiuc >M
\X'e have noted the importance to Paris and the ni4 unie
\^ c ttjnift' filler
surrounding district of contacts with the North of
France and England. Links with Italy were soon to ^UU'JiftfjC
'
onr \t; ^jica cfmoumr
we must
]^ oioxX m cihjtle ne luit
be established. But before examining them
turn briefly to the French provinces and discover
what they derived from the Paris. The answer is
'
iX\eA6 UmW m tmr q\M\ foir nmt J
quite simple: everj'thing they possessed. From north 55 - BOETlIll s, I>l IIIOSOI'llV ; I'l.ATO AND SOCRATF.S. BOIiTHIUS,
CONSOLATION DL LA MLTZ, FIRST THIRL) OF THE
PI IILOSOPI 111:
to south Paris dominated France, her mastery
;

I4TH CKNTL'RY (mONTPKLI.IHR, BIBLIOTHEQUK DK LA FACULTE

disputed by Italy only in the Papal city of Avignon E MEDECINE, MS. 4}, F. z)

5'
 ;

Jeafi Pucelie

Forty years after Honorc, another Parisian, Jean

i Pucelle, established the first French contacts with
Italy. Some notes in a Breviary, which belonged to

[qu^ttamutnttfanA[
^
the Belleville family and dates from about 1325,
show clearly that Pucelle was head of a firm, paying
fimbnurtmo-^ eUgtr wages to his assistants, Mahiet, Ancelot and Chevrier
and a signature in the bible of Robert de Billyng,

^'amumutti quoDtnmmu
Otoit) (wnuml)mftt
q$
so called after its scribe, confirms that he was, like
his assistants, an illuminator. He was doubtless

well known, even famous; he designed the seal of

the Confraternity of Saint-Jacques-aux-Pelerins,
^(ft.i|)20 quotmnmumf Paris; and many years later a book which had be-
IfondtfltBStmur inuKiiio
'
longed to Joan of Evreux, wife of Charles iv, 1325
to 1528, was still known as the Heures de Pucelle. In
imemrlittftmtpDEpm
all probability this Hours is to be identified with a

luemaiflmutimsituij^ manuscript now in the Cloisters Museum, New

^'ork (PL Liv).
Although the Belleville Breviary (Fig. 5 5) and the Bil-
>nat-6(VUcttlmmaifjn lyng Bible are firmly linked by written evidence, we
cannot say exactly what part Pucelle himself played in
their actual decoration. However, as he was the

Hwf head of the workshop, we may

the responsibility and the credit; and
fairlv ascribe to

if the so-called
him

fenintt^ Hours of Joan of 1-i.vreux is entirely by his hand, as

^ seems probable, it is surely no coincidence that it

dominates the whole group and shows the touch of

a master. The head of workshop owed it to
the
himself to take personal charge of a volume intended
for the Queen of France; for the other manuscripts

^
pnmatnerftftsftwannoai he employed assistants. In addition to the Hours of
'(^Wl Joan of livreux, we possess six other books executed
too tglt01Dt1lfeQ22|tCgtpiO
between about 1330 and 1355 for ladies of the royal
t)UtnMbiinrfmnmaitmil family related to Joan herself: her sister-in-law,
Joan of Navarre; the latter's cousin, Joan of Savoy
54 - GOD DELIVERS TMIi LAW TO MOSES. BIBLE OI' RIIF.IMS
(d. 1344); Blanche of Burgundy, aunt of |oan of
CATHEDRAL, BEGINNING OF THE I4TH CENTURY (rHEIMS, MS.
39. F- 99) Navarre and wife of Fldward, Count of Savoy
(d. 1348; her book was destroyed by fire in the
library at Turin and Yolanda of Flanders,
in 1904);

Metz was altogether diflferent, with its broken who became Joan's mother-in-law in 1353. For Joan
colours, heavy modelling and stout, solid style, herself the workshop painted another Breviary, and
sometimes a trifle rough but always vigorous, which for the churcii of Saint-Louis, Poissy, a Missal.
spread to Trier and beyond (Fig. 55). Rheims can be Also from this workshop are an illustrated copy of
distinguished from Paris only by details which in the Trial of Robert of Artois (1336; Fig. 56) and
many ways recall the simple but majestic decoration a fine Miracles de Notre-Da/e. There still exist many
of its own architecture (Fig. 54). Elsewhere in France copies of the latter, a verse work compiled at the

there is nothing clear-cut enough to mention in this beginning of the 13th century by Gautier de Coincy,
rapid survey. Prior of Vic-sur-.\isnc. Tliis particular copv was

52

made for a member of the royal family, perhaps Joan

of Burgundy (d. 1550), the wife of Philip ofValois;
lost by John at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, it was

ransomed by Charles v. The style derives in its 010! iiiaD:n'(iibaun(u) inoi

iiamiiuliilmriuiian.

essentials from that of Honorc: subtly cadenccd nptuniniuiiiitafil.

niiirau.-oniiuaiumoiiiiuv.
composition, the features and expressions of the iinipmiiinimiiimgi
urniiiitifm moifccuftLi^
faces, excellent modelling obtained almost exclu- \ Mmi^coiiniitaiiii.igntf
|fttflHiuill!ttr:cnmioinr[Ui
sively by the use of colour, in fresh, lively tones
wjgOTfl fj 1 r rs*a"*i
which were unknown to Monore himself, and even rimiirr|urcaa^nniiio
iiim iioniir ooiiiiitiis : t (lUi

to Pucelle, who preferred a more subdued range of ina nun 0)1110 (Tdt-.*^
uomiuu ituqmnKUtnir
colours (PL Liii). iiaiirmf:oupicD:iiininiii
miJBmsBtM
The kalendar of the Belleville Breviary, which is
in truiiu
|Uiiiiinu(Tiu)na^iuilfle. ;fi
of Dominican use, enjoyed great popularity as a nminiiiiioiiiMn at ?:">
tiumlinnte ii.oiirniiirKUmM !!''''''"
model. Its most original illustrations, the subjects ,. tiiiii aioiiiK.ii'ui' 'tonniOiiiciimiiut ilC<fc

idiuiouamso"
of which are taken from the Kalendar and the [i)imiU4irro;iimaii',
\.v*xn\\ iiirtOBpuii'
Psalter, were planned to form a concordance be-
III
iVuirtniiiimatvndniiio'.j
: iMOpfr.iiiiQii imrnii av-w^
:ilLI<illuiuili.i^BKfi4B|
:

r niuiinr Cmni Ooi ro^ I

tween the Old and the New Testament. The Virgin jHuiifi^tuiiiiiiUiigiia nnwttiniiiimnniigitmiii^
"miv lojauii fcr iiiirtii ujiiu minci iiaiir iijiiuilnninHn
Marv, who opened the gates of the Heavenly uf ftiioii iimiiii

Jerusalem to mankind, stands on one of the gates of

^1 iiiuitaiiiMtiuuiiiHiir tmiOiotaaauniimcnm
liouii 4LUS ti" >' Caoiii nmo unuiiatriqviTanotini' rnr
Mil miAi aiiuaiuiOinnirinmii !&
Paradise; in her hand she holds a banner represent- tptaiiimtmnuiics (oruio

ing one of the articles of Faith upon which the

Church was founded; and St. Paul shows it to a
recipient of his Epistles. Below, one of the twelve
Apostles draws up the articles of the Creed in accord-
ance with the Prophets : though stones
it is as

were taken from the nearly ruined Synagogue to

build the Church. This scheme was imitated in the
Hours of Joan of Navarre and the Hours of ^'olanda
of Flanders, both from Pucelle's own workshop; in
55 - SAUL AND UAVID; CAIN AND ABEL; THE EUCHARIST;
the Petites Heures and the Graiides hleiires of John, CHARITY. BELLEVILLE BREVIARY, CIRCA I323-I326 (bIBLIO-
Duke of Berrv; in the Breviary of Martin of Aragon THEQUE NATIONALE, MS. LAT. IO484, 1. 24 \\)
{circa 1403); and lastlv in a Book of Hours executed

about 1425, perhaps for Charles vii and his wife Mary
of Anjou. A Breviary which belonged to Charles v tion of the Flight into Egypt. Marginal decoration is

contains a similar arrangement (PI. lv). integrated with the illustration of the book as a whole
Jean Pucelle has been credited with introducing to although for a long time yet there appear the gro-
the Paris workshops marginal decoration, or "dro- tesque but amiable monsters (Fig. 57) and the acro-
leries"; in fact they had reached Paris in the early bats inherited from the Romanesque repertoire; or
years of the century, coming from Northern France as in the Picard Psalter in the Bibliotheque Nationale
and England, by way of Picard artists in the capital, and in the Chansoiiiiier2iX Montpellier, whose links with
as the Chansonmer at Montpellier shows us. Pucelle, Picardy are obvious scenes
of country and family
however, certainly improved them, for in his work life, and pastimes of young
particularly the sports
they are related to the text and often develop or com- people, drawn from everyday life but softened and
plete some detail of the principal scene. Thus in the transformed into graceful, decorative arabesques.
/^///^j //ifrf.f the figures in the Annunciation to the Pucelle's great innovation was that he looked towards
Shepherds are scattered all over the page; the Mas- Italy. But as the heir to Honore and his formulas,
sacreof the Innocents prolongs the Adoration of the although freer in movement and composition and
Magi; the Fall of the Idols and the Pursuit of the Holy more restrained in colouring (his masterpiece is in
Family by Herod's Soldiers complete the representa- grisaille), he was too Parisian, or at least too French

53
 ''''}W3%^:-'J^

56 - rm: trial 01 robkrt of artois. 13,6 (bibi.iotmeque nationalk, ms. i r. 18437, i-. 2)

V -

ii^
and so too far from the spirit of the transalpine naturalistic portrait of John the Good. Possibly both
masters, to understand their feeling for volume, Bible and portrait are by Girard d'Orleans, the king's
unique in its day, and to succumb to its influence. official painter. This kind of art was the choice of the
His imitation was confined to superficial copying: king in person, whereas Pucelle's descendants worked
to reproducing with conscientious skill their archi- for his courtiers. The two styles existed side by side
tectural decoration, which in his own work merely independently of one another, and they represent,
ser\-ed as an embellishment. He simply followed the before the great confrontation of I European styles
fashion. of which Paris was soon to be the stage, two fun-
As Honorc's successor, Jean Pucelle perfected the damental aspects of Parisian art. On the one hand,
qualities which Honorc himself derived from the there
was the preciosity restrained and not unduly
Parisian tradition: an alert and smiling elegance refined
which makes every composition by Pu-
which could none the less express the gravity of celle and his followers both a marvel of skillfully

certain scenes. Without being an innovator in the calculated suppleness and a harmonious piece of
true sense, Pucelle was the first Parisian to attempt a decoration, unmatched in Europe at the time (but
synthesis of the kind that the Limbourg Brothers never more than that, for unlike Rcjmanesque
achieved, on a more complex scale, at the beginning of decoration it had been emptied of all spiritual con-
the 5 th century. He took from Italy little more than a
1 tent). Beside this exquisite and perfect art, which was

method of decoration and a few themes to vary the

repertoire of French imagery, but he did at least
open the way, and his still timid borrowings served
as a basis for the representation of depth, which
was gradually to transform illumination and to give
modern painting its freedom.

''

The Painters of John the Good and Charles I

Jean Pucelle was the painter of the first Valois

sovereigns. He made his appearance at about the
time that Philip iv came to the throne (1328). At
this period it was the court, and in particular the

ladies of the court, rather than the King in person,

that provided the necessary patronage for the I'lvre

de luxe. However, had John the Good (1350-1364)

not spent part of his reign in captivity
(i 3 5 6-1 560 and

1364), he would perhaps have attained the eminence

as a collector of which his fine portrait now in the
Louvre (the oldest extant French portrait) and the
illustrations of a Bible translated at his command by
Jean de Cis {circa 1355) hold out the promise. The
Bible was left unfinished, but its all too few complet-

ed paintings (Fig. 58) and its remarkable sketches

foreshadow the profound changes of the second half
of the 14th century (a later artist took up the deco-
ration of the book, but did not finish it; PI. lxv). We
lose sight of Jean Pucelle in the face of a totally differ-
ent style. Less artificial and also less elegant and
so perhaps less pleasing to the refined taste of the
57 - the entombment. hours oi paris circa i33o
court it is also more direct, more in the stvle of the (musee jacquemart-andre, ms. i, f. 187)
isf.,

55

^^
 amim
tanfs.
fCftTfl

iBjiiine: mifl ftininf.aroininf If OfWiauaDiflm

u fiiff ifl ttfrtmuc If ronraitrninir mojaiwii I nr
^:
iiacrUH.poiurrqufdifAuoitmifriMUiiiiconrf
iuif|iifnfluoifnr(i[fUirix^p;niif( oirmiiiinu
muoie
iamn

wgiicur rteacftnuc a (ai fti ftutfo^tniiu

foil

dgimoir cf ami rtuoitpiopoft-Hts oiius tPifl pM 1118 pummqiif ff nriiirni uii' nuima.
fcuf OffuitafTOttiDifbtiuanreaoitmaUstDmrr TVitrfjuaiir au5 t]Dii8 ns fiimiis our 6U/f

iia^

_r^__l FVf '

^^- ""^T-^

58 - ELEAZER AND REBECCA. BIBLE Ol- JEAN DE CIS, CIRCA I 35 5 (bIBLIOTHEQLE NATIONALE, MS. FR. 15 397, 1. 40 V.)

none the less ephemeral, lacking in vigour and, incorporated in the landscape. The fields are alive

so to speak, inbred, stood a new feeling the sense with flocks of sheep and with various kinds of small
that life in the world outside the studio lay open, game. Springs and ponds diversify the scene, and a
in all its variety, to the curiosity of the painter. road passes through it, busy with the comings and
Pucelle studied Italian forms, liut he saw in them goings of country folk (PI. lvi). They are charming
little more than another source of decoration. scenes, very Parisian in the discreet elegance which,
Girard d'Orleans, if we may use his name collectively although on another plane, thev share with Pucelle's
for thewhole group of the king's painters, seems to pictures, but in which there is already an element of
have had a better understanding of Italian painting. the storytelling which was gradually to dissociate il-
His paintings do not simply imitate its forms, they lumination from the text and eventually to destroy it.
embody its spirit. With him decoration gives way to The characteristic group of trees has caused the style
the representation of reality
a reality that was to be attributed to a "Maitre aux Boqueteaux", and
adapted to the world of painting, but then all art the name is convenient and even apt, as long as we
transposes.The pictures in the Bible of Jean de Cis realise that it covers a diverse group of artists united

and even more the astonishing tinted drawings in a by a single tendency (Fig. 59). Illumination was al-
copy of the works ofthe poet and musician Guillaume ready beginning to alter course, long before the great
de Machaut (area 1570) caused a positive revolution period of international activity of which 1 5th-century
in Paris. Here, for the first time so far as wc know, was the scene.
Paris
the characters move through a natural and inde- The humanist taste of the king's painters was in
pendent landscape, grasped in its totality and no keeping with the king's own humanism. Charles v,
longer merely suggested by summary indications. the son of John the Good, was interested in history,
Man is surrounded by nature in all her disorderly science and literature, and he formed a library at the
profusion. A meadow stretches away to the horizon Louvre which was well stocked with learned works
(raised high, as it is still subject to the flat plane), translated at his orders by Jean Ciolein, Simon de
full of flowers, of copses (boqueteaux) in which perch Hesdin, Raoul de Presles, Jean Corbichon and Denis
birds that have flown in from the margins, and of Foulechat,and decorated by Frenchmen of the
buildings imitated from Italian art but from now on Boqueteaux group (PI. Lvii). Moreover, he did

36

IfMT
r- >^
not confine his patronage to French artists. A Bible Charles vi, in a modified and enriched form, what
now at The Hague, copied for him on the instruc- 13th- and 14th-century France had given to Europe
tions of Jean de Vaudetar in 1372, contains an in- as a whole. Most of the newcomers came from the
teresting portrait of the sovereign signed by Jean region between French Hainault and (ielderland.
Bondol, otherwise known as Jean de Bruges, who Some are known to have been in the service of
mav also have executed the other illustrations in the certain great collectors. Others, grouped together in

volume. The artist'sname indicates his origin; he workshops, are known only by their anonymous
was painter to the King from at least
1371 onwards, works and we are hard put to distinguish one from
and he and his assistants also decorated a Cite de another and to detach them from their group,
Dieu for Charles v in 1376. With these works since their styles mixed and blended in a constant
Flanders made its official entry into Paris.
We now enter a period of deepening obscurity.
Artists of French origin were forced to compete with
rivals who flocked to Paris from every side, drawn
thitherby cultivated patrons who loved luxury and
responded to every new manifestation of art and
taste. All is confusion, and the only means by which
we can unravel the apparently inextricable tangle is

the study of style. A certain number of anony-

mous "masters" can be isolated without too much
difficulty, but with few exceptions their origin can-
not be established and we call them after the patron
who commissioned their best work. The history of
French illumination is now centred round the names
of certain great collectors. The principal contri-
bution from outside was from the North of France,
from the Low Countries and from the district of the
Meuse; after that from Italy and finally, as we shall
see, perhaps from Spain. The movement began when
Charles v took Jean de Bruges into his service, and
his action produced a ground swell which profoundly
disturbed Parisian and French traditions throughout
the whole reign of Charles vi.

Paris and International Art

The native French artists seem to have organized

themselves to newcomers, if we are to
resist the

interpret thus the statutes which the "peintres et

imagicrs" of Paris had confirmed by the provost on
12 Aug. 391. They were quickly surrounded, but
1

not submerged, by the flood, and they succeeded in

making one essential contribution, an outlook which
they were able to impose on the strangers and which
in spite of everything unified their efl'orts. Art, in
all its aspects, pursued an unbroken course and
"international Gothic" 59 - MITHRIDATES MASSACRES THK ROMANS. ST. AUGUSTINE,
was still essentially French.
CITE DE DIEU, I 376 (bIBI.IOTHKQUE NATIONALE, MS. FR. Z2C)IZ,
In fact the foreigners restored to the France of V. 94 V.)

57

T^


process of exchange and imitation. Tiic demands of gathering there is a sudden change; a new and vigo-
mass production led to the adoption of formulas, to rous team of artists has taken over, and their lively
the mechanical repetition of attitudes and the kind drawing, thegesturesandattitudes of their figures, and
of mannered overemphasis that exaggerates and yet their method of suggesting forms simply bv means
simpliiics the expression of character and emotion. of a play of light exhibit a new feeling for movement
However, their mannerism was agreeable and full and space. The same group decorated a copy of
oflife, and there is no doubt that it was necessary. Boccaccio presented to Jean dc Berry in 1404, in
The old French stock was in danger of withering which one of the painters has revealed his origin bv
away, and it required just such a graft of gesticulating the three words of Dutch which he has put into the
animation, movement and bold new
colouring, with mouth of the prophetess Cassandra (Fig. 60). His
harmonies of orange, carmine and almond. The new fellow artists, who differ in the details of their tech-
elements were imported, along with certain types nique but not in their style, also came from the Low
Countries, as did all the other members of this very
homogeneous group. Once established at Paris,
the workshop of the "Peintre de 1402" became a
^^i^^ ^ajB

p ^
^Sai^^^
Es^*^S
ix2*
<?^5t^^^
natural centre for Dutch artists. Its most celebrated
members were the Limbourg brothers from Nij-
megen, whose connection with the workshop is
n^P'
>

^^^ attested by certain traits of style; possibly it was

w P LS
there that Jean de Berry discovered
1410.
To work for this distinguished
them

and extravagant
in about

col-
ffi
^1 s / UwS^rl
lector was the summit of every artist's, merchant's

p hi f/^
and courtier's ambition. He seems to have preferred
Dutch group and to have had fewer
the artists of the

i^
I^B
^^H BbJ
ss
^^ dealings with the rival group lead by the masters
whom we call by the names of Bedford, Boucicaut
and Rohan a matter of taste on his part, and also, no
:

60 - CASSANDRA. BOCCACK), DES CLAIRES ET NOBLES FEMMES,
CIRCA 1403 (biHLIOIHEQUK NATIONALE, MS. FR. 598, F. 48 V.)
of features and of modelling, and figures of stocky,
doubt, a matter of the shrewd commercial sense of
the Dutch artists.
A Cite de Dieu, dating from about 1410, provides
another good example of the style of the workshops
in which the Limbourg brothers served their appren-

solid stature, from the Meuse and Westphalia, where ticeship (PI. Lix).
they occur in, for example, the work of Meister Among the foreign artists at Paris, the Italians

Bertram. deserve to occupy a place of honour beside the

This varied but united group has been banded to- Mosans. From the end of the 14th century onwards
gether under the name of the "Peintre de 1402", a numerous contacts were established between France
personality with as many sides to his character as the and Lombardv. The Milanese called in French
Maitre aux Boqueteaux. Two pairs of manuscripts architects to complete the building of their (>athedral;
executed in this workshop one after the other give a French romances enjoyed in Northern Italy a vogue
good idea of its style: J'ewwes celehres of Boccaccio which the many manuscripts illustrated by Italian
and liihle hisloriale of Des Moulins (PI. Lviii). One artists attest; and the notes of an Italian connoisseur

copy of the latter, which was painted in two different of painting named /Mchiero, between 1382 and 141 1,
stages, shows clearly the transition from the old collected by the Parisian registrar Jean Lebegue,
French tradition to the new style. The painter of the another connoisseur, show how important were the
frontispiece has preserved the linear modelling, the exchanges between the two countries. A painter who
unbroken colours, and even the shades of the 14th signed himself Zebo da Firenze illustrated a Book
century, as, for instance, in the hair. But in the second of Hours at Paris, in about 1410, for (Charles the

58
Noble, King of Navarre of the I'A'reux branch: its ent cycle. The theme of the concordance between
borders are adorned with Bowers and mantling of the the Old and New Testaments, which was an un-
kinds that were to inspire the Limbourg brothers a changing and always fertile subject of medieval
few years later (Fig. 6i). Other Italians, in the circle exegis, gave Beauneveu the chance to execute, in
of Christine de Pisan, who was herself of Italian painting, a magnificent series of statues which are
origin, illustrated under her direction certain of her worthy of one who was both a great sculptor and a
own writings (PI. lxi); or perhaps there was only master of the brush (PI. lxiii). The broad and simple
one painter, a Lombard certainly, the direct descend- modelling of these high reliefs and the brightness of
ant of Giovannino de' Grassi and, in a sense, the the eyes, which are the only points of cf)lour in a
distant precursor of Pisanello. Oddly enough this grisaille relieved by the faintest of washes, contrast

talented and original painter, imbued with wit and with the general softness of the paintings which
even irony, seems to have worked for nobody but Jean de Berry had inserted in a Book of Hours now
Christine. His paintings, which so far as we know
were executed about 1400- 140 5, were so advanced
in
by Parisian standards that they must have surprised
and even shocked his French colleagues, and his
influence, if any, was of a very general nature. His
impressionist manner (Fig. 62), his astonishing feel-
ing for colour and the freedom of his imagination
have left no direct traces, but they doubtless helped,
like the flowers of Zebo da Firenze and his like, and

the woodland scenes in copies of the Taciihmm Saiiita-

tis, to awaken in the Paris school an appreciation of

nature. A few French artists did attempt, not un-

successfully, to imitate these Italians (PI. lxii). I

The Painters ojJean de Berry

Of the many treasures assembled by Jean, Due dc

Berry (d. 1416), the youngest brother of Charles v,
\
we possess only part of his library and some of his
inventories. The latter appear so precise make it
as to
possible to identify with complete accuracy the
volumes which he purchased or commissioned. In
fact, while the identity of certain manuscripts appears

beyond doubt, that of others is less certain.

The Psalter of Bourges which dates from about
use,

1 380-1 385, presents no difficulty. Twenty-four min-

iatures precede the text, twelve Prophets and twelve

Apostles in grisaille, painted as we know by Andre
Beauneveu of Valenciennes. The Prophets declare the H
UTa
truths of the Faith, which the Apostles express in the

form of articles of the Creed, the appropriate verse

of which is inscribed below each Apostle. In this
volume, commissioned by him, Jean de Berry imi-
tated the magnificent 1 3th-century Psalters decorated
U ';* -: .'^i'f-rc * s--^/}

with a continuous series of full-page paintings not

61 - lli;i.l.. IKU RS OI- CHARLES Till- NOBLE, CIRCA 1410 (PRI-
directly related to the text and forming an independ- VATE COLLECTION, F. 21 l)

59
 1 0?ft fiiC. AXltUfr^^*^ nrXtfltA pieces, he never allowed his harrassed "workmen"
the time to finish their tasks. It was given away in
141 2 to Robinet d'lltampes, the keeper of the duke's
jewels, who divided two parts. y\fter manv
it into
adventures the first part has come to rest in the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. The second part
was again divided into two sections, of which the first
was lost through fire in the University Library at
Turin in 1904. This fire destroyed the magnificent
paintings added soon after the first partition of
the manuscript, in about 141 7 1420 paintings of
such beauty that some have attributed them to
]-lubcrtand Jan van Eyck. The problem of their
authorship is insoluble, since only photographs of
them remain, although a few miniatures from the
same group have survived in the third fragment of
the book, which is now in the Museo Civico at
Turin (PI. lxvi). The same artist also executed most
of what survives ot the Grandes Heures, which was
finished in 1409, and some of its little figures repro-
duce the pictures of the Tres belles heures de Notre-
Dawe (PI. Lxvii). He was an excellent painter, and
the famous grisaille painting in the Louvre known as
the Parement de Narbonne seems to be another
example of hiswork. His career, which may have
begun at the end of Charles v's reign, continued in
Jean de Berry's service until about 141 o at the
latest. On the evidence of the inventories he has
been identified as Jacquemart de Hesdin. A recent
comparison has resulted in the identification of a
6z - DAWN. CIIRISTINl: HE PISAN, l'i-PITRE d'OTHEA A Christ carrying the Cross in the Louvre as one of
HECTOR, CIRCA I4OO-I4O2 (bIBI.IOTI lEQUE NATIONALE, MS. the 45 "grandes peintures" recorded in the inventory
FR. 606, 1-. 21 V.)
of 141 3 as being executed by |acquemart for the
Grandes heures and lost since the i6th century or
earlier;and also in the attribution to Jacquemart, in
at Brussels and which, in spite of all appearances, agreement with the inventory of 1402, despite certain
have been attributed to Beauneveu. differences due perhaps to their condition or to their
At the same time as Beauneveu, Jean de Berrv had slightly earlier date, of the paintings in the Tres belles

in his service a distinguished anonymous painter to heures de Notre-Dawe now at Brussels.

whom he entrusted part of the decoration of the The Tres belles heures at Brussels bears the traces
Petites Heiires, which seems to date from 1390. It of numerous modifications. At the beginning, Jean
is in fact not certain that the volume was executed de Berry added a double-page miniature in which

for the duke himself, although the Office of St. he is shewn kneeling, between SS. John and Andrew,
John is elaborated in a significant fashion; but it is before a Virgin with a Petition. It is a beautiful piece
at any rate worthy of the great collector (PI. lxiv). of painting but one which hardly justifies the un-
A little later, perhaps about 1405-1407, the same reserved admiration which is generally accorded to it

decorated most of the Tres belles heures de Notre-

artist (Fig. 63). Its style is feeble and it is marred by shock-
Dame. Like many of Jean de Berry's books it remains ing lapses into clumsiness, which can be explained
unfinished; always impatient to possess new master- if, as seems likely, it was copied in the form of a

60
 ^A ' J*^^ ^

1:

'.

63 - VIRGIN AND CIIII.D. TRES BELLES HEURES DE NOTRE-DAME, CIRCA I4O9 (BRUSSELS, BIBLIOTIIEQl'E ROYALE, MS. II060-61, 1-. Il)
 Ha<taKifer.
na < Ki; iair*a. -.
<

Siavr^(x '

aa<i>>*jii <
~taiifa>
aaa>(v>> 1
aavrai t'A .

i^aiiaMaatk^Mi ,

KafliaaAflHi(rt/<ir;
M^aiaRxMi. I
a*<*RaxaxBKa
^.haaa'CaiatSt.
p.aMaxMaMB!<i^*< .mwaM,.
aXRXQ <S V'. axaaaa<tua7B
tXh'BX .Ma<(ajK',kii%Zi
I'.** xaiikauak.
Aa iKaMavi 'Ka:j:s"'"'"'*
fa<By ?a^-.
Ji-awi> B'k *j;;xa*axfiKx"ni
l<avfia Jtvxx>axixt ^.
xa)(ixaj<<aa<r.
*)(
^[ViltacBH
c.
.kxvxiajur-.

>

>>:. itiKa
1 1 X B r 1 l:
xa^
,
Xt
.-x -)!
X 1

't )> > a, >

X ' .
r
.BA a,K
(. ''-iX

. ".iX. j

*>

x.
a4M8<ax'

64 - VIRGIN AND CIIII.I). C0LI.IC;TI0N OF DEVOTIONAL TREATISES, I406 (bIBLIOTHEQLE NATIONALS, MS. IR. 92(1, F. 2)

diptych from another Virgin with a Petition, having then worked some Mosan workshcjp at
in
frontispiece to a collection of pious treatises presented Paris, together with other Dutch artists. From this
to Marie de Berry, the duke's daughter, by her Parisian period date two miniatures v^-hich we mav
confessor Simon de Courcy in 1406. I attribute the fairly ascribe to one of them, presumably Pol. Both

latter to Pol dc Limbourg, before he entered the miniatures possess the qualities which the brothers
household of Jean de Berry (Fig. 64). The theme of developed so wonderfully and their
in later years,
the Virgin with a Petition, new at that date, was subjects were repeated exactly in books which they
to achieve a certain success in later years; it certainly decorated for Jean de Berry soon afterwards. One,
seems to have caught the duke's fancy, for he im- a Court of Heaven, decorates a IJgende doree whose
mediately had it copied by one of his own painters. text was completed in 1404; it is reproduced detail
Jacquemart de Hesdin disappeared about 1409 at the for detail in the Ikl/es Heiires (Fig. 65). The other is

latest. To replace him the duke called in three young closely connected with Jean de Berry: the Virgin
artists,nephews of Jean Malouel, painter to Philip with a Petition of 1406, already mentioned, whicli
the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Their home was in he had copied Notre-Dawe
in tlic I'lis belles heures de

Gelderland and they had come to complete their now at Brussels. In 1406 theLimbourgs had not yet
training at Paris. On 6 March 1402 Philip had taken entered the duke's household and Jacquemart de
the two elder brothers, Pol and Jean, into his em- Hesdin may already have disappeared from view: so
ployment and acquired the exclusive right to their it was another painter, one of his "workmen" as they

services for four years; but on 24 April 1404 he

died, and everything points to the two brothers,
65 - THE COURT OF HEAVEN. LEGENDE DOREE, I404 (bIBLIO-
joined now by their youngest brother, Hermann, THEQUE NATIONALE, MS. FR. 414, F. l)

62

^- -:
 / C </
''^4^
-V' yrt
N
'^^ ^l^^ ^^^
M
rr 9^.
^^Y ^
ir;:

.r- 1-?/.-

'Sr'
-v,
<jf-.

V/"'-

TMi-
^\
r- .f.

(
?/:->
Vi Sa

't >
^:'^'^i'

c'^/ ^^^3^?

Il'N*'

'^.
^

^ ^

-r>-.'n
- v^ *^
 were called, a conscientious artist but no genius, old-
^ -> A-^J^
fashioned in spite of his talent (which is why he is .?5
dated too early), who was ordered to copy their
^ Virgin with a Petition. Such at least is the recon-
struction which a study of the work suggests.
Like many another exacting patron, Jean de Berry
brought out latent powers in the young I.inii)()urgs

and his influence perfected the tjualities which they

owed to their Mosan ancestry and their Parisian t
training. In his milieu they became familiar with the
teaching of Italy, which could be found everywhere
in the collections of their new master. In contact with
the rarest and most exquisite products of all the arts
of Europe their impetuous genius rose to superb
^
heights.
First came the Jjel/es Heures, r. 1410-13 (PI. i.x\ iii),

in
which Pol the eldest of the brothers and their ^
leader achieved a brilliant synthesis of all the various
ctia)iH flt}Kio..nif. o:ff iiiiwDilnii mbiitr.

tendencies and borrowings of the international lliimitiniiifft) ^Juip.'Oiiobisl'ius

Gothic of Paris. Restraint, a slightly cold but smiling _jli(ii6^)iinfif.i IwrTuirttlac.K'iii.'II

^^ri)i(pufffianuiiir
elegance, a discreet avoidance of excess, a kind of 'iTiiTO.Mmsiiifiuoim

peaceful charm all inherited from the best French

tradition, from the Psalter of St. Louis to Jean ' 1 !

_ - I
I'l l

,
-^

Puccllc; Mosan colouring and a taste for movement

which bordered on mannerism and in the workshop
of the "Peintre de 1402" became a mechanical device;
a feeling, derived from Italy, for volume and depth
which was to complete the conquest of sensible NICHOLAS. BELLES HEURES DE JEAN DE
66 - MIRACLE OI-- ST.
appearances, of nature, and of the humanism of BERRY, BETWEEN I4IO AND I4I3 (nEW YORK, CLOISTERS
which there are already signs in French literature and MISEUM, V. 168)

learning such are its chief characteristics. The Be//es

Heures is a major work; it marks, about 141 3, the

end of one epoch and the beginning of another, and a few years was any artist to attempt its like
later,

is the link between the two. It was a triumph for until the time of Fouquet and Jean Colombe. And
the Limbourg brothers, but also for Jean de Berry yet ten years earlier the painter of Christine de Pisan

who had brought out the best in them, and for had dared such a theme; his efforts, unprecedented in
Paris which had trained them and fed their genius on illumination and without anv immediate following,
the riches of all F^urope. The climax of medieval mav explain the sudden appearance of landscape in the
illumination, marks also its conclusion. Illumina-
it work of the I.imbourgs. Other signs connect them
tion now breaks away from the flat surface to which with Lonibartiv: the circular capital surmounted by a
it had hitherto been confined; the vertical plane is "tabernacle" with figures imitated from the pillars

tilted backwards; the horizon drops to eye-level and (before 1 390) of Milan Cathedral, the mantling derived

reveals the sky, empty space and infinity. from acanthus leaves and used to form medallions,
The Belles lleiires contains the earliest example in and manv other small but significant details, quite
French painting of an organic landscape: stormy sky apart from the general characteristics indicated above.
and raging sea (Fig. 66). Until then no painter of There is, however, no need to suppose that the
French extraction had ever attempted such a subject; Limbourgs travelled in Italy; Jean de Berry's im-
nor, except for Pol de Limbourg himself in the mense collections are in themselves a sufficient

Tres riches heures, which he painted for Jean de Berry explanation.

64

l^,v'.-^*?
67 - lilt KILL. TRES RICHES HEURbS UE JEAN UE BERRY, I416 68 - HELL. TRhS RICHES HEUREh DE JEAN Ul. HERRV, 1416
(CHANTILLY, MUSEE CONDE, MS. 65, F. 12 V.) (CHANTILLY, MUSEE CONDE, MS. 65, I08)
F.
.r

Perhaps at about the same time the three brothers unknown accident which carried them oft' in Febru-
began work on the illustration of a Bible historiee. ary or March 141 6, four months before the death of
Each completed only a single gathering, abandoning Jean de Berry. In the inventory drawn up after his
the rest to other later artists, whose work steadily death it aptlv is described as the Tres riches heures. In
deteriorates, until about 1475, and is eventually left 1855 it was acquired by the Due d'Aumale, who
unfinished (PL lxix). This interruption bears all the bequeathed it to the Institut de France as part of his
marks of Jean de Berry's nervous unrest; his plans incomparable library. It is a perfect example of what
were always being disturbed by new projects, by his can be obtained, from artists who are in any case
greedy, interfering nature; but we cannot be sure more than ordinarily gifted, by the exacting will of
that the Bible was commissioned by him. A
in fact a connoisseur. Jean de Berry's instructions certainly
mere fragment, scarcely begun, it appears in none of counted f(jr much in the execution of this justly
his inventories and contains no mark of his owner- famous volume which is not only the Limbourgs'
ship. In addition to a portrait of the duke added to greatest work but the masterpiece of medieval illu-
the Petites fleures (PL lxx), there are two other mination. The well-known scenes of the kalendar,
strangely heavy paintings by the Limbourgs in the one for each of the twelve months of the year, are
Tres belles heures de Notre-Dame, which in all honesty,
, not laid, as in other Books of Hours, in a neutral and
are t|uite unworthy of them. anonymous setting, but in the duke's own milieu: at
Their greatest masterpiece was interrupted by the his lavish and hospitable table, among the members

65

r^^
v^w

(w ^iWt ->ti|.v

iviir To

M^nStf Se 'n<tcc$tetc Ibp ^iw ?i' pru/J sfr rnfi fir

^- mom uv /b-lK- i^r pn^ '*

^mmf ftl prtV r^r4>Tmriu^ Si*

69 - AI.i;XANDER AT TABll. BIBLIL 1 I IS I OK I AI.K, CIRCA I42O 70 - TIIK NATIVITV. IICIRS C)l PARIS ISE, CIRCA I4I5 (COL-
(CHANTII.I.Y, MUSKE CONDK, MS. 28, V. 24 V.) LECTION OI- COLNT ANTOINK SIIILERN, F. 34 V.)

of his household, on his estates, at the gates of his both of minute fidelity to nature and of synthesis: the
magnificent chateaux, or in Paris, before the Cite and Fall of the rebel Angels, 1 Icll (Fig. 68), and the Coro-
the Louvre, which the duke could see from his town nation of the Virgin. We mav consider the last (PI.

house, the Hotel de Nesles. But although the tradi- Lxxi). The picture, rounded in its lower register into a
tional scenes are laid in everyday settings, which are double curve, tapers as it rises and dissolves into
exact imitations of actual places, thev belong to an golds and azures, like a cloud evaporating in the
ideal world, tull of grace, luxury and the charm of lightand warmth of heaven. Everything unites in this
pastoral poetry. Realism has given rein to the imag- ascension to glorify the exaltation of the Virgin,
ination (Fig. 67). but the idea is expressed in symbols which are in no
The Limbourgs were exact observers of landscape and way stylized or abstract.
they found mysterious correspondences between the The loss, at the height of their powers, of these
forms of nature and the landscapes of the mind. painters who seemed destined to alter the whole
Far from breaking down appearances to uncov^er the course of painting, accounts for the paucity of their
realities which they conceal, after the manner of the influence on French illumination. Nobody attempted
Romanesque painters, they looked into them and to imitate them, except tocopy a few of their themes
'found in their secret harmony the signs of a higher (Fig. 69); and it seems certain that the beautiful
order. Three superb pictures in the Tres riches heures Book of Hours now in the possession of Count
distil the essence of their genius, which was capable Antoinc Seilern, in London (Fig. 70), is by a Lim-

66
 :

buurg, perhaps the brother who painted the lirst shops which we referred to collectively as
at Paris,

gathering of the liible hisforiee, who is also the author the "Peintre de 1402"; yet none of its members
of a work in the Musee Condc (Fig. 71). The Scilern possess characteristics which are sharply enough de-
Hours is in many respects a repHca of the Belles Heiires, fined to point to a particular origin, whether in
and its borders and certain of its compositions fore- France or abroad. Grouped together, they re-

shadow the Tres riches henres at (>hantilly. It cannot be tained the individuality which they owed to their
later and it was left
than 141 6 or earlier than 141 3, different temperaments and trainings, although cer-
unfinished, to be completed later by a Flemish artist. tain common technical and decorative devices in-
It seems to be missing from the posthumous in- dicate that they made the sort of artistic exchanges
ventory, and although it was probably executed at natural among collaborators. Of the three, Bedford
the duke's court, there is nothing to show that it was the most active and the most open to new ideas
was made for him. a true painter and colourist, he never resorted to the
For the duke, who was so fond of receiving presents, pen to sharpen his contours or his modelling; his col-
was himself generous. He gave to Etienne Loypeau, ours are hazy, as if and harmonious
bathed in a soft

archbishop of Lugon, his protege, a Pontifical, and light, which enhances the roundness of features and

to the Sainte-Chapelle, Bourges, founded in 1404, faces and the suppleness ofdraperies, but he took little
a Lectionar}- and a Gospel-book all decorated interest in expressions or attitudes. To begin with
by "workmen" of liis about whom we know his compositions were traditional (Fig. 72), but he
nothing else. We are equally in the dark about the gradually introduced into his pictures realistic land-

excellent artist who began for Jean de Berry the

which was completed in about
Atitiqitites jiidaiques

1470 by Fouquet. He cannot have been in the duke's

service for long, and he seems to have been taken on Vj.^ *-i**<^
trial, some time about 1410, between the death of

Jacquemart de Hesdin and the arrival of the Lim-

bourg brothers (PI. lx).
^.^
The Bedford, Boiickaut and Rohan Masters, and
Group
their

Complete obscurity envelops the life of the painter

whom we call the Maitre de Bedford, after John
of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford, regent of France for
the King of England after the treaty of Troyes, and
the recipient of two important works painted be-
tween 1424 and 1435 for himself and his wife: a
Breviary in Paris (PI. lxxii) and a Book of Hours in

London. A prolific artist, the Maitre de Bedford

began his career about 1405 and was active until
after 1430. During this long period he collaborated

with several different artists, one of whom, the Maitre

de Boucicaut, seems to have remained in his circle to
the end, while another, the Maitre de Rohan, left
him in about 141 4 to enter the service of the house of
Anjou. The three were only loosely associated,
since each worked also on his own and with other less
talented illuminators at various stages in his career.
71 - 111
1 I'lUSl.NTATION IN Tin: TKMPLi;. lOLRS OF PARIS USE,
I

The group is quire distinct from the Mosan work- CIRCA 1410-1415 (CIIANTII.LY, MUSUE CONDE, MS. 66, F. 69)

67

'^.^
 certainty on these points. Bedford's outstanding
gifts as a colourist and his preference for many-
coloured landscapes reappear in a copy of the Lifre
de la chasse by Gaston de Foix (PI. lxxiv). The chang-
ing landscapes, the woods and the fields under
cultivation, each so different, in which large and
small animals disport themselves all observed with
the eye of an expert place the Bedford Master in
the front rank of outdoor painters. And yet his

work does not approach the landscapes of the Lim-

bourgs: no breath of air enlivens his faithful and
sensitive pictures,which are chieHv remarkable for
their dexteritv.Another example ot his dexterity is
the delightful Coetivy Hours, painted some years
later in various shades of white.

.'-^

r.iiiisaiociniitr.i'imi'?* '.
iii&oiniiiin.iiirnitrqiiRsfiiJi^*
)u(trin"niipro; -^-.^ ^Jiiinrp:ciTS.Titipo;lrfhimili. /
'

""
I ^loirniimrrinnr* I!^iiciirofrtliinstiii(Tos-(i' %'
M 'fii6ifitqiiOiirHiii(i)^iD;i5.ml**, i.^'
iiitrpjinnpuf lilHin ni muir.iiRfcnitofbniinlyji
bdii lUuiir- fiiuniffi'iSjlPfpirfmsnftnf*^"

72 - THE NATIVITY. BEDFORU BREVIARY, BETWEEN I424 AND

1435 (bIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, MS. I.AT. 17294, F. 56 V.)

scapes in the Italian style, peopled with lively crowds

arranged so as to suit a perspective that was only
just beginning to be tilted down towards the horizon.
His masterpieces, the Bedford Breviary and the
Bedford Hcuirs, are a mass of picturesque and varied
scenes, even in the borders, which he was the ilrst

to niakc an integral part of the illustration of the

whole page, completing the central scene.
The admirable Terence des dues in the Bibliotheque
de I'Arsenal (PI. lxmii) so called after the Dauphin
Louis of Gu\-enne and jean de Berry, to whom it

belonged was evidently decorated by three paint-

ers between and 1410.
1405 of them u^as One
doubtless the Maitre de Bedford, whose exquisite
feeling for colour may be recognised in its bold
73 - THE ANNUNCIATION TO Tl IE SI lEPIIERDS. lOURS OF THE1

harmonies, and the other two were probably members MARECIIAL DE BOIJCICAUT, CIRCA I4IO-I4I5 (mI'SEE JACQUE-
of his workshop; but it is diflicult to speak with MAKI-ANDRE, MS. 2, F. 79)

68


His closest collaborator, whom \vc call the Maitrc do

handsome Book of Hours (Fig. 73)
MrrtnionOllf.Jj k^ iaHffjwj}riiniH).tnaLira)!toao
'^Tl^
Boucicaut, after a
which he executed in al^out 1410-1415 for Jean Le
f ^vifQj cuirautoK' ^JV
Meingre, Marechal de Boucicaut, joined with him
in the decoration of two manuscripts. The first is the
celebrated Line des Merreilles (PI. lxx\ ), a collection

of the Eastern travels of Marco Polo and others in i(h}uniij:O:afl0 \r

the 13th and 14th centuries that received this name

at the beginning of the 1 5 th. The second is a rather iiiujiomisTnis
later Breviarv of Paris use, now at Chateauroux, lofosnumits
of which the summer section
bears the arms of a Dauphin who
all that survives
is possibly the
fiummftioim V
future Charles vii (Fig. 74). Boucicaut is hard to
distinguish from Bedford, except that his style is less
[rmmanimwf'
exclusivelv pictorial (PI. lxxvi). He used line to
sharpen his modelling; his work was more elegant
but also drier (Fig. 7$), less atmospheric; and he was
not afraid to use raw, even acid colours. He was
fnamtoniini
especially good at interiors and knew how to people
them with figures; he had an instinctive feeling for
linear perspective; and his pure, calm, rather cold
stvle diverged in this respect, despite the close links
which at times confound them, from that of Bedford
and to an even greater degree from that of the third 74 - THi; MARTYRDOM OP ST. DIONYSIUS. PARIS BRI.VIARY, CIRCA
member of this Parisian group, the so-called Maitrc 1420 (chateauroux, MS. 2, F. 364)

de Rohan.
Yolanda of Aragon, wife of Louis 11, Duke of Anjou
and King of Sicilv, daughter of John i and niece master takes his name but two other Books of Hours,
of Martin the Aged (both book-lovers), purchased probably intended for her second son Rene and her . <.

at the posthumous sale of Jean de Berry's library daughter Yolanda. The workshop later decorated a
one of its finest volumes, the Belles Heiires. She fourth book, of the use of Angers, which is called
suggested it to her official painter as a model and the Martin Le Roy Hours after a recent owner; we
he copied certain scenes to book intended
illustrate a cannot say whether it was made for a member of the
for one of Yolanda's sons, perhaps the future King House of Anjou.
Louis. This work, executed in about 141 8-1 42 5, is Though he came from the Bedford-Boucicaut work-
the famous Heures de Rohan, so called after the armo- shop, the Rohan master far surpasses his old associ-
rial bearings which were added later. Before entering ates. The pathos which permeates his work sets him

Yolanda's service, the painter had collaborated apart from his contemporaries. Whereas they based
with the Bedford group in the production of popular their style on by
technical innovations, intoxicated
works such as Froissart's Chronicle, the Bible the discovery of life, of natureand of man, he ignored
historiale of Guiart des Moulins, and treatises on the discovery of volume and shunned the picturesque.
hunting like the 1 Jrre Modus et de la reine Ralio
dii roi His scenes are placed against a diapered background
and C iaston de Foix, and later had specialised in Books and have a strictly vertical perspective, as if nothing
of Hours of medium qualitv (Fig. 76). Like Jean de had changed since the time of Charles v architectural ;

Berry with the Limbourg brothers, the Queen of features are either neglected or incoherent. Among
Sicily lifted the Maitre de Rohan out of his com- French illuminators his style is unique. His human
mercial rut. In her circle he was able to engage figures are stockily-built and heavy, as if oppressed
assistants and establish a workshop, from which she by a destiny which eludes their comprehension; there
commissioned not onlv the volume from which the is a look of anxictv in their veiled eves; their flesh

69

"**-.. ^
 bones scattered round it on the ground symbolize
fse-z/f
the mournful dissolution that awaits it. The man's
soul escapes with difficulty from the devil who
disputes its possession with the Archangel Raphael,
but God bends forward to receive it in a blaze of
compassion. In the kalcndar peasants perform with
patient resignation the tasks (jf which the signs of
the Zodiac, menacing and huge, mark the inexorable
return. Here is nothing to recall the lighthearted

recklessness that was everywhere the vogue, the

fever of artistic discovery, the luxury and the ele-
gance, which contrasted so strangely with the
political crisis and the military disasters that had
cast their shadow over an heroic but impetuous nobili-
ty and with it almost the whole of France. The
anguish in the painter's heart moves us as deeply
as the accents of a Villon. The latest works in which
the Maitre de Rohan took an\- part seem to date
from about 1430, and after the end of his long career
his assistants and the pupils whom he had trained
continued, in the West and in Britany, to produce
books in the same style; but their work is insipid and
retains none of the genius of their master.
The primacy of Paris came to an end in about 1420,
soon after the death of Jean de Berry, when the
Treaty of Troyes placed the North of France, along
75 - TIIK ANNUNCIATION. IIOIRS Ol PARIS US1-, CIRCA I4IO- with the capital, under the dominion of the King of
1415 (bibi.iotiieque mazarink, MS. 469, V. 13)
England. Charles vi died in 1422, leaving his throne
and a gravely disordered nation to a young man aged
only nineteen. French illumination entered a period of
is grev or an orange red. Divine personages are slight confusion in which the brilliant artists of the inter-
and pale, their expressions powx-rful and serene, and national period were followed by men of straw. A
they are painted with the utmost reverence. The artist single painter stands out from the crowd of indeci-
of Yolanda's choice may perhaps have come, like her, sive talents, the assured and witty illustrator of a
from Aragon: a Spanish lady would naturally have Book of Hours made for Margaret of Orleans, who
been interested in a painter from her own country, in 1426 married Richard, Count of 1 tampes, the
just as Christine de Pisan had been interested in the son of John v of Montfort, Duke of Britanv (PI.

Lombard painters resident in Paris; and if \vc look Lxxviii). His lively compositions, with their bright
for illuminators whose style we may compare with colours, are a little hard, but nothing can equal the
his we lind them not in Paris but in Languedoc and fantasy of his borders, which are designed with the
Catalonia (Fig. 77). utmost boldness and skill. They contain either
Whatever his origin, his contribution to Parisian hunting-scenes, cavalcades and groups of travellers
and French art was unique. An obsession with death moving through forests whose trees are gigantic
and the after-life everywhere haunts the great paint- flowers, or else a scattering of various small objects
ings of the Heures de Rohan: the Descent from the forming a simple abstract pattern. These marginal
Cross and the Dead Man face to face with his decorations and certain details of style suggest that
Judge (PI. Lxxvii). The painter dwells on the dead he was connected with the Maitre de Bedford, and
man's shrunken and bloodless corpse, its paleness the same general style recurs, down to about 1470,
emphasised by the dark cloth on which it lies; the in a Book ot Hours of Rouen use; in several

70
 N
T^'.^^?i^y^?-v?'

76 - THE ANNUNCIATION. HOURS OF TROYES USE, CIRCA I4IO- 77 - THE CRUCIFIXION. ROMAN MISSAL, SECOND HALF OF THE
141 5 (CHANTILLY, MUSEE CONDE, MS. 77, F. 29) I4TH CENTl'RY (CAMBRAI, MS. I50, F. I76)
rX

copies of the chronicle of Jean de Courcy, Seigneur jeau Fouqiiet

de Bourg-Achard, which is known as La Bouque-
and in a Valerius Maximus and a Guillaume
chardiere; At the end of a copy of the Antiqu'itesjudaiques which
de Tyr both from the P^chevinage of Rouen (Fig. 78). belonged to Louis xi's son-in-law Pierre de Beaujeu,
The evidence suggests that a group of artists was the latter's secretary, Francois Robertet, wrote: "In
formed in Normandy round John of Lancaster this book are twelve miniatures, the first three by
(d. 1435), who resided at Rouen, and that they were the illuminator of Jean, Due de Berry, the other nine
active over a period of many years. Paris was losing by the good painter and illuminator of Louis xi,
its power and official art moved away to the new [can Fouquet, a native of Tours." Without this
political centre of the kingdom. From the middle to unique piece of evidence the greatest French painter
the end of the 1 5 th century the Loire vallev and the of the 15th century would remain, like so many
new capitals at Tours and Bourges usurped the posi- others, an enigma. With the help of Robertet's note
tion of Paris. In the North, the powerful state of and the Antiquites wc are able to attribute a niinilur
Philip the Good absorbed the vital energies of paint- of works to Fouquet, both miniatures and panel-
ing and produced magnificent schools formed of both paintings, some of which are unquestionably his;
French and Flemish elements. They were not strictly the authorship of others is less certain. He was ad-
speaking French, but their brilliance was soon to mired and imitated he worked with collaborators and
;

acquire an unrivalled fascination ff)r the last gene- trained pupils; and it is far from easy, at this distance
ration of French illuminators. in time, to sort out what he painted with his own hand

71

t^->
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r^R*
&K
.r
O. ^Ji\
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-^\ .1^]
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^
\k'

ftroiinii t-OiitCf^C
fiiiiucM rvfitM'ic ntcifriTc mv
rOo^ou M fiatf/iiiiftc OvrcC^ V.
i\uoit-V>nc )
'iT-m^>iit)tiCi
?S^ t*f;

^^jefcfCc-. jf.iuotf-^i >jifH<-

k^/?

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78 - LLK OF ANJOl MARKII.S QUEEN MELISSENDA. GUILLAUME nE TYR, IIISTOIRE DE LA CONQCETE DE JERUSALEM, CIRCA
I
I 460
(bibliotheque nationale, ms. ir. 2629, v. 167)
J

in the course of a long career, what he merely dc-

sit^ned for his assistants, and what his imitators and
pupils executed on their own. We pass imperceptibly
from the certain to the doubtful without being able to
draw a sharp distinction between the two. Certainly
Fouquet developed and varied his style; hut who is
to say how much ?
He was born at Tours in about 1420 and died there
between 1477 and 1481. Between 1443 and 1447 he
visited Rome and was already well enough known
for Hugenius iv to commission his portrait from him.
We do not know what he derived from his stay in
Rome, since no earlier work has survived, but we
mav fairly attribute to Italian influence his obvious
interest in problems of perspective, which he reveals
in his fondness for processions. He usually catches
them as they turn a corner, so as to show the figures
from and he portrays buildings in
different angles;
three-quarters profile or full face without hesitating
to exaggerate the lines of the perspective, which do
not how'ever converge on a vanishing point as they
ought. More than any of his French predecessors,
not excluding the Limbourg brothers, Fouquet had
a feeling for atmosphere. His scenes are bathed in a
misty glow which softens their contours and ir-

radiates the distances, giving to his calm and balanced

compositions a unity and depth which was equal-
led onlv in the final period of the art (PI. lxxix). 79 - THE PARLIAMENT OF VENDOME. BOCCACCIO, DES CAS DES
NOBLES HOMMES ET FEMMES, I458 (MUNICH, BAVrRrSCIlR
Illumination, in fact, ends with Fouquet, at the mo- ../
STAATSBIBLIOTIIEK, COD. GALL. 6, V . 2 \ .)
ment when Gothic book-decoration had reached its

peak. It now deserted the plane surface and evolved

into a branch of panel-painting.
At the beginning of the 15 th century Jean de Berry all kinds of work, from the painting of portraits to
commissioned a two- volume Antiquites judaiques, but the preparation o royal processions. There are
his artist completed only the first three miniatures; many traces in the written records of the time of
inabout 1470 James ofyVrmagnac, Duke of Nemours, Fouquet himself, his family and his works. The
appointed Fouquet to complete the work and Volume documents provide biographical details and particu-
I subsequently fell into the hands of Pierre de Beau- lars of commissions of which no traces survive, but

jeu; it was thus that Robertet came to add his re- as far as his work is concerned they have contributed
vealing sentence at the end. The miniatures in mainly hypotheses and provisional truths, which are
Volume II may not all be by Fouquet himself, but better ignored if we are to conline oursehxs to what
they are from his own workshop. The same is true is probable.
of acopy of Boccaccio's Cas des nobles howwes el Surrounded by assistants and pupils, who doubtless
fenimes, now-atMunich, which was copied in 1458 and completed works that he had prepared and whose
decorated for Laurent Girard, the comptroller gen- exact contribution it is impossible to assess, Fouquet
eralof receipt; Fouquet himself certainlv painted the remains a nebula. So, for the same reasons, do Co-
superb frontispiece (Fig. 79). Famous in his lifetime, lombe, Bourdichon and the other successful artists of
and at an early age, and painter to the King, Fou- the period; but I'ou(.|uet's case is the most important
quet had, like other artists of the period, to undertake and the most vexing. We recognise in him the

73

"^K^^rit
I
1

4
p
ir^
f

t^^i

80 - CHRIST BI.IORI. PILATK. IIOIRS OI' I'iTIKNNn CI IIAALIER, 81 - ST. THOMAS AQUINAS TKACHING. HOIRS OF ETIENNE CIIE-
CIRCA 14^0 (ciiAN'rii.i.Y, \usi';r. coNuii) VALIIR, CIRCA 14^0 (CIIAN ITI.I.Y, Ml SKI'. CONDe)

him
V most accomplished exponent of French
moment when,
at its height, at the
illumination
through
largely
picture of the artist to place
ate his true stature.
exactly and appreci-

his influence, was merging with the autonomous art

it Fouquet is thought to have received his training at

of panel painting. We should like to draw a sharp line Paris, for although he was born and lived at Tours,
round his commanding figure, hut we must be con- the buildings and landscapes of the capital are so fre-

tent simply to dcvine his presence at the centre of a quently and faithfully portrayed in his pictures that

group, of a workshop whose outlines are all too he must have stayed there for long periods and known
vague. it verv well; but we look in vain for anv reflection
Confining ourselves to illumination, the first volume in his work of the Paris painters of Charles vi's time
of the Antiquites jtidaiques, authenticated by Robertet, or of the brilliant set of international artists. B\ the
is undoubtedly by Fouquet; the Hours of fitienne time Fouquet was born Paris, the artistic centre of
Chevalier in their entirety, most of the Grandes France since the 13th century, had lost her dominant
Cbroiiiques de I ranee (and the preparatory stage of the position, and her great artists had either vanished or
whole work), and the frontispiece of the Munich followed their patrons elsewhere the result of a

Boccaccio are almost as certainly his own work. I'rom series of events which took place round about the
this evidence wc can form an accurate enough year 1420. Jean de Berry liad died in 1416, shortly

74
J

after the I.imbourjT brothers. In 141 9 the Duke of

Burgundy, John the Fearless, was assassinated. His
son Philip deserted Dijon, Paris and France for
I.ille and then Brussels, and there grew up round his

court a Flemish school of painting which was soon

to attract the attention of all Furope. Charles vi
had long been a nonentitv and when in 1424 his
son, a minor, succeeded him it was as "King of
Bourges", in accordance with the Treaty of Troyes
in 1420. Yet Charles was still King, and Bourges, the
old capital city of ]ean de Berry, was later to see a
period of activity, with )can (x)lombe and the group
of Central French painters, which can only be ex-
plained bv the unequal patronage of the duke and
the king, or at least bv their presence in the city.
The Bedford workshop may have moved to Rouen,
and the Rohan workshop was established at Angers
at the court of ^'olanda of Aragon and her son

Rene, who was to provide a focus for a numerous

group of artists in Anjou and Provence alike.
Where then did Fouquet study up to the age of
f about twenty-five, before settling in Tours as a
married man and a householder, in 1448 at the
and painting Eugenius iv's portrait at Rome
latest,

(thePope died in February 1447)? Little time remains

82 - AN ANGEL AT PRAYER. IIOLRS Ol" DIANE DE CROY, CIRCA
for an apprenticeship at Paris, which had in anv 1465 (SHEI-EIELD, RCSKIN NUJSEUM, 1-. 12 V.)

case lost all its old importance, or elsewhere in

France; and if he had such an apprenticeship it has
left no traces in his work. The only information that marbles; gardens and paved courts flanked bv walls ,^
we possess about the young Fouquet is of Italian behind which rise cypresses or hills; and above
origin. Gifted as he was (which is what really all, besides the actual forms, a clear and spacious
matters), entirely independent and French as he ap- composition and a calm mastery of attitudes and
pears, his early work links him to Italy. Recollections faces, which rarely express strong emotion although
still fresh in his mind, abound in the famous
of Italy, they are varied enough and include a number of
Book of Hours which he painted soon after his portraits. Fouquct's Italy was the calm, serene land
return, in about 1450, for Etienne Chevalier, and of Fra Angelico and Piero dclla Francesca (Fig. 8i).

they lie nearer the surface in that volume than in Gone are the courtly, rather mannered elegance and
any other part of his work (PI. lxxx). From Italy, thewinged fantasy of the J.imbourgs and the pathos
where he had gone, as the son of a priest and a of the Maitre de Rohan, the two extremes of the
married woman, to seek a pardon for his illegi- international art of Paris. Nor should we look for
timacy, Fouquet brought back the science of Fouquct's antecedents among lesser artists like the
perspective, which he learnt from his friend Filarete. Bedford and Boucicaut Masters, unless in order to
He was the first to introduce perspective into France draw attention to the gulf that separates them from
and he studied it with obvious pleasure throughout him. With Fouquet we find ourselves in another
his career, although he was later to handle it in a world colder, nobler and more human- -and he
somewhat unorthodox fashion. He also introduced leads us out of theMiddle -Vges into the Renaissance.
into his wcjrk architectural decorations typical of Here this study might end, were it not that the Middle
the early Italian Renaissance: columns and entabla- Ages continued, openly or in concealment, until well
tures of classical inspiration, faced with coloured on into the i6th centurv.

75
 sented on a trestle stage, like the scenes in mystery
which are
plavs; the stage forms a pedestal in front of
iigures which complete or introduce the main
scene. Below the Christ before Pilate carpenters are at
work on the Cross and one of the thieves is released
from prison (Fig. 80); beneath the Christ carrying
the Ooss a blacksmith and his wife forge the spear
and the nails. The theatre reduces life to its essentials,

simplifiesit and removes, for our benefit, the impuri-

tieswhich obscure its meaning; so do Fouquet's pic-

tures
carefully planned stage settings in which the
artist first breaks down reality and then reassembles it

so as to bring out its true character.

Fouquet was the King's painter and his brilliance
a-^lrtHi^^ ftn%t rtiiaititc CTiVv tfiftt tftnt /tii
permeated not only his immediate circle but practi-
cally the whole of French painting in the second half
83 - SECRETS 1)1. I.'llISTOIRl N.\ rrRl;L!,K, CIRCA I44O I45O
(collection 01 MAD.Wir. LA BARONNE IJE t:iIARNACE) of the 15 th century. The centre of artistic activity
was from now on the valley of the Loire, between
Angers, which was King Rene's capital, and Bourges,
A taste for reality, exact representation, accurate where Jean Colombe worked, including Tours,
detail and portraiture all these are already present which was the home of Bourdichon. The accounts
in the work ot the Limbourgs, but only as the means and inventories are full of the names of artists, but
out of which to create a work of the imagination. they tell us nothing, as it is impossible to relate
-For Fouquet they arc the end; he goes no further, them to the mass of anonymous and approximately
leaving us at liberty either to remain in this natural dated works of art that have survived. An excellent
world, refined by his care, set in order, purged of assistant collaborated closely with Fouquet on the
the uglinesses which disfigure and pervert its true
it Boccaccio, but we cannot, until we know more,
nature, or to imagine at leisure what he himself does ascribe to him any other works; another had a share
not even hint at. That is why he attaches such im- in Volume n of the Antiquiles jiidaiques; and several

portance to faithful representation and to local col- Books of Hours painted between 1460 and 1470
our -orwhathetook tobc local colour. He gathers his bear indubitable signs of the master's hand. The
facts like a history painter and his scenes are laid Hours of Anne de Beaujeu, formerly in the Paul
in settings which are either real or borrowed from Durrieu collection, also contains little miniatures by
life. In the Cnnules Chroniqiies de hnince^ executed in the Francois who is believed to have been Fouquet's
about 1458, perhaps for Charles vii (PI. lxxxi), son (we shall return to him) and a remarkable bust of
Montmartre in the days of Dagobert appears against (Christ which is very close in style to the portrait in

a panorama of Paris which contains everything that enamel, now in the Louvre, of Fouquet himself.
Fouquet was himself able to see from the top of the Are the Christ and the portrait by Fouquet's own
hill; Charlemagne is crowned in St. Peter's at Rome, hand? We may reasonably wonder, if we compare
and the view of the ancient basilica's interior is one
them and the comparison is not damaging with
of the best sources we possess for the nature of the excellent portrait of Louis de i.aval by Jean Co-
the building replaced by Bramante; Philip Augustus lombe.
captures the city of Tours, which is dominated by a Another painter who is, it seems, to be distinguished
minutely faithful representation of the abbev church from Fouquet is the author of the Hours of Diane de
of Saint-Martin; and it has justly been remarked that Ooy, in the Ruskin Museum, Sheffield (Fig. 82), and
Fouquet's series of panoramas and detailed views of ot other small volumes; but a detailed analysis of his
Paris are a valuable source of information on the to- work remains to be made, and its results will in any
pography of the capital between 1450 and 1470. Cer- case be no more than approximately conclusive. The
tain scenes in the I lours of Etienne Chevalier are pre- best criterion, difficult though it is to apply, is the

76
J

j<ii nc tela) n/ifcf5in0nciir5ii JinTC)Hr \r%

Ic^twl mwi' xvdiic ciiy&insnc c< Ic niAnlArf

'ca:
nvrlAhMvlcK^efmynutf-fc
-zt

V%fJ% */*!
'
k^ oil /cdlc<*/wvnr cunt
84 - THE TOWER OF BABEL. ST. AUGUSTINE, CITE DE DIHU, CIRCA I473 (bIBLIOTIIEQUE NATIONALK, MS. IR. I9, 1-. 8I \ .)

inriucncc of Flanders, which is more apparent in some district towards the middle of the century. He de-
pseudo-Fouquets than in others, while in the real serves to be rescued from the neglect which has so
Fouquet it appears rarely or not at all. far been his lot. He has long suflfercd from being
confused with Foucjuet, the young Fouc]uet of the
7 he .\fmtre de Jonrenel des (
^rsins years before his Italian travels, who has so far been
sought in vain and who mav nev^er have existed. But
Among the pseudo-Fouquets there is one artist in all the evidence is against this fusion of two such
whom the Flemish strain is so prominent as to sug- diflferent temperaments, and the dates in any case dis-

gest that he was a Fleming who settled in the Loire allow it. For want of a better name I have called

77

'^',
this artist the "Maitrc de Jouvcncl des Ursins",
after his most striking work, a copy of the Aler des

histoires of (iiovanni (.olonna, painted in 1448-1449

for (jiiillaumc |ouvcncl (1401-1472), (chancellor of
France. Of his other works the best are perhaps to
be found in a Secrets de rhisloire ini/zirelle in the
Charnace collection (Fig. 83); in a little Book of
Hours of Roman use in the Rothschild collection
(PI. Lwxii); and in a collection of the Ordommnces of
Charles \ 11 tlie end of the year 1457. (Colours
dated to
are bathed in a dominant and characteristic golden
glow; the faces, which arc modelled on the surface
by means of flat planes and not, as with Foucjuet, in
volume, have certain Flemish affinities which we
find also in the portrait of the Man with a Glass of
Wine in the J.ouvre: heavy eyes, fleshy nose, fat
ears. For my part I have no hesitation in attributing

the Man with a Glass of Wine to the Maitre de

Jouvenel.
Close to this painter, and in the Tours-Angers-
Nantes region, secondary were at work who
artists

form a link with the circle of Rene of Anjou. Un-

fortunately we know nothing about them, and apart
from Rene himself, whom the recent researches of
Otto Pacht tend to reveal as a painter in his own
right, as contemporary sources suggest, the circle

has not received the attention it deserves. Broadly

speaking, the second half anci the end of the 15 th
century, with which this study ends, are divided
between Rene of Anjou and the direct heirs of Fou-
quet, Jean Colombe and Jean Bourdichon, followed
by the so-called "Rouen" school, in which the
pupils of the latter united to achieve a kind of final
85 -- THE WOMhN OF ISRAEL ACCLAIM DA\ II). HOI RS OF LOl'IS
triumph.
Ol- SAVOY, BETWEEN I44O AND I465 (bIBLIOTHEQUE NATIO-
NAI. E, MS. LAT. 9473, F. 76 V.)

Minor Painters oj the find of the 1 jth Century

Younger than the Maitre de Jouvenel, and much Anne of Britanv. As skilful in the handling of large
further from Fouquet in style, although there is crowds as in the minutest details, he was a decorator
evidence to suggest that he was Fouquet's son, is pure and simple, knowing nothing about at-
Maitre Francois. He has left an important series of mosphere and the problems it presented to his con-
works and deserves credit for his high professional temporaries. In the company of Fouquet and Rene of
standards. But Francois Fouquet (supposing that is Anjou he deserves no more than a mention.
his name) inherited nothing from his father. His work Outside the Tours region two groups stand out
is hard, rather vulgar, and monotonous, although his among a mass of provincial work which varied from
technical dexterity and consistency won himacf)nsid- district to district according to the different influ-
erablc reputation. Besides a Cite de Dieii painted for ences and environment. In the South I-last the painters
the King's counsellor Charles de Gaucourt (Fig. 84), of the court of Savoy were attracted by Italy and in
he supplied books to Charles vm, Louis xii and particular, as in the time of Christine de Pisan, by

78

^'>


Lombardv, with which the court was linked by

and family ties. The art of Savoy was, how-
political

ever, fundamentally French, like the airs attached to

the Italian (and French) songs in the Chansonnier
of lean de Montchenu, the apostolic protonotary,
who belonged to the household of |ean-I,ouis of
Sav^oy, Bishop of Geneva, and who later became
Bishop of Viviers (PI. lxxxiii): the Chansonnier may
have been decorated by the painter of the Hours of
Louis of Savoy, jean-Louis's brother (Fig. 85). In
the North, near Lille, in the territories of Jean de
W'avrin, who was counsellor to Philip the Good,
one artist in particular deserves to be singled out.
A Flemish artist, he does not strictly speaking belong
in this studv, but as he illustrated a copy of the
Champion d?s Dames by Martin Lefranc, provost of
Lausanne and secretary to the Antipope Felix v
(Amadeus viii of Savoy), and as three out of his
six surviving manuscripts are in the South East, it

is probable that he worked for a while in the region

of the Alps. enough here simply to mention
It is

this witty, elegant and lively artist whose tinted

drawings possess a clearness of line which points the
way forward to the high achievements soon to be
recorded by the art of engraving (p. 93).
^^

Rem oj A.njou

Rene is a lonely figure. Although he retained some-

thing of the uneasiness of the Maitre de Rohan
(he knew him in his youth at the court of his
mother Yolanda), which led him to meditate on
86 - LOVE HANDS RENt, Ol ANJOu's HEART TO Ui;SlRE. RENE
death and the after-life and the mystery of the human OF ANJOU, LIVRE DU CCFUR d'aMOUR EPRIS (vIENNA, OESTER-
estate, of which our world is the symbol, yet he RIICHISCHE NATIONALBIBMOTHEK, MS. 2597, F. 2)
expressed it in an entirely different way, by means
that were pictorial in the strict sense. The experiments
of the Flemish painters interested him and he had at French painter had mastered the infinite varietv of
his court several artists from the Low Countries, light, nor dared to express, not so much b\' colour as
among them possibly the Maitre de Jouvenel bv the language of light and shade, the inmost secrets
supposing that he was a Fleming, which is open to and emotions of the heart. Two pages that are famous

doubt who collaborated with him on a TIjeseide now for this quality establish him as a great artist, among
in Vienna. Hence Rene's intense curiosity about the the most sensitive and inspired painters of all time
problems of chiaroscuro, which in his work is not (Figs. 86-87).
so much a mere technical preoccupation as the ex- In the Ijvre des tonrnois Rene appears in a very differ-
pression of an attitude of mind, of the deepest ent light (PI. Lxxxiv): as a brilliant lover of spectacles,
chords of his soul. The nature of his sensibihty is who handles his compositions with the authority of a
Caur d' amour epris,
revealed by the text of his Livre du professional decorator, the assured line of a heraldic
which to us may appear insipid, but which is redeemed painter and a rare feeling for mass and volume. The
bv the beautv of the illustrations. Before Rene no latter quality he owed partly to direct observation, but

79

^;^
 neither pupils nor a workshop. That is why, so far as

we know, he had no followers and no imitators.

Jea)i Colombe

Jean Colombe was born at Bourges about the middle

of the 15th century and lived there until he entered
the service of Duke Charles of Savoy. In about 1485
he completed for the Duke the 'ires riches heures

which the Limbourg brothers had long ago begun

for Jean de Berry. His family included the great
sculptor Michel, who may have been his brother,
and Francois, another painter, who was doubtless
his son. All three were famous artists and they took
part in such great enterprises as the church at Brou
and the cathedral at Nantes. Jean himself was,
it appears, very active. Overwhelmed bv commis-
sions, he employed assistants and pupils to finish
jobs for which he himself had made only the rough
sketch and his work, which is a mixture of the very
good and the very bad, gives a general impression
of haste and negligence. At his best he ranks among
the finest French painters of the late 15 th century.
From Fouquet, who was possibly his master and in
any case hismodel, he learned the importance of the
setting, and although he doesnot achieve the luminous
and spacious unity or the balance which distinguish
the Tours master, he delights like him in tricks
of perspective and carries to extremes the latter's
researches into colour. He studied the eflPect of light
87 - CCEL'R READS THE INSCRIPTION ON THE ENCHANTED coming from behind the object, of penumbras, the
FOUNTAIN. RENE OF ANJOU, LIVRE UV C;CEMR d'aMOUR EPRIS
(VIENNA, OESTERREICHISCHi; NATIONAI.BIBLIOTH I K, MS. 2597,
dancing reflections of flames, stormy and snow
skies,

F. 15) (Fig. 88); and he used with profusion the gold which
Fouquet had handled so discreetly. Everything in his
work is exaggerated, and his painting reflects a perso-
nality whose impetuosity is revealed by the notes
also as certain details of costume and landscape, which he scattered, in the guise of inscriptions, over
especially in the Ca/ir ^Fawour epris, prove to his the hems of garments and the cornices of buildings.
familiarity with the French romances of chivalry il- Beside the motto of his workshop

"Omnis spiritus
lustrated in Italv in the late 14th and early 15th laudet Dominum", taken from Psalm 150 we find
centuries. furious exclamations like "Time wasted for Colombe",
North and South tluis meet in the work of this or "I'm wasting mv time working for you". He was
great connoisseur, and it seems all the harder to indeed wasting the time which artists of his class

dissociate tiic painter from the patron because de- sometimes have to devote to rough preliminary work
tailed study shows that unlike any of his contem- that will be completed for them by others.
poraries, beginning with Fouquet, he can never be His figures are hard, with closed faces, hea\'A' eyes
confused with anyone else. Rene gathered round him and low foreheads; they are dressed in long, thick
a circle of advisers and painters, such as the author of robcsor weighed down with armour; they gesticulate,
a remarkable Livre fie hi chasse (p. 84), but he had are pompous and grandiloquent, or else crowd to-

80
gethcr in compact, monolithic groups. His archi-
tectural settings arc generally very bare, bordering
on streets whose haunted emptiness recalls a land-

scape by Chirico, or disappearing under tier upon

tier of arcades, figured bas-reliefs and fantastic

inlays inspired by the most elaborate Roman survi-

vals. Berrichon that he was, Colombe lost sight
of the calm and smiling elegance, with its restraint
and unfailing concern for sound composition and
perfect execution, which had been the hallmark of
French Gothic painting from the Psalter of St.
Louis to Fouquet which the Mosan, Polde Limbourg,
;

had mastered; and which even the Maitre de Rohan

had remembered whenever he consented to abandon
the decorative hotch-potch of colours by which he
imitated the discoveries in perspective and volume
that so engrossed his contemporaries. Colombe thus
passed from one extreme to the other: the effect of
^ C!3 |t>;c.l.rfk-^<otiitiut>if
his uncontrollable temperament, but also of the l<tr)rr j^Ytn<aHrliJrrrffp:^(T
'uiir Ot 111 ft\v%i^ l\i\inlinHi
beginnings of a passion which in the i6th century was *ti>vi<. ^iifiif atc<t>rl/'il; .

<.>iilc.^Yiiili(fi^ ; ^\i|ii^ti
to trouble French literature and religion, beneath the riiiiii(-.t i iitMraif<i>iH<tii fn.tstux^tl, ft tttixltvKiit *< tul
AIir-#nitT-lalM.lO*IC|IMKOcn
calm and brilliant surface of the art of the court.
Colombe is a precursor of the school of Fontainebleau,
in so far as it escaped the total domination of Italy, and
after it of Antoine Caron. He is at the root of the
mannerism which was to persist in France until well
on in the 17th century. It is to this, rather than to his
hurried and unequal ceuvre, that he owes his impor-
tance. He none the less achieved several successes.
The magnificent sketches in a copy of the Guerre de 88 - HANNIBAL CROSSKS THE ALPS. ROBLRTO ULLLA PORTA.

Troie decorated for Aymar de Poitiers in about 1500 RONU'LEON, CIRCA I49O (bIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, MS. 1-R,
565, F. 19 V.)
(PI. Lxxxv) show what he could have done had he
been a patient man, kept his head under pressure
of work, taken more pride in and had his talent, Painstaking, calm and pleasing as he was, he seems
fewer worries about money. Another of his works to have worked largely on his own, or at least to

is the Laval Hours, certain pages of which have have exercised a strict supervision over the work of

been attributed to Fouquet the robust figures of his assistants, and unlike Colombe he is the perfect
the Sibyls and the very living portrait of Louis de representative of official art, with its discipline, its

Laval (PI. Lxxxvi), to mention only the best minia- and its comfortable refusal to disturb. Nothing
flattery

tures in this sumptuous volume. Pictures like these could be duller or more insipid than the famous
place Colombe among the masters of French illu- Gnvides Heiires which he painted fcjr Anne of Britany,
mination, far behind Fouquet, it is true, but far ahead in spite of its praiseworthy technical mastery (PI.

who concludes
of the illuminator the scries and to Lxxxvii). But he is open to criticism even there:
whom we must now turn. his borders strewn with naturalistic flowers, plants
and insects are copied from illuminations of the
Jean Bourdichon Ghent-Bruges school but come nowhere near the
prodigious virtuosity of their models. From Fouquet
Jean Bourdichon has been greatly overpraised; and he learned to use gold to impart a sparkle to his
in his own day he enjoyed an unprecedented notoriety. draperies, but like ("olonihe he misused it and in his

81
 89 -THE VIRGIN MARY. HOURS Ol CHARLES VIII, CIRCA I485 90 THE TRIUMPH OF LOVE. PETRARCH, TRIOMPHES, CIRCA
(bIBMOTHKQI'E NATIONAI.E, MS. LAX. I37O, V. 36) 1500 (bibliotheque nationale, MS. i"R. 594, F. 348 V.)

hands the spuriousness of the formula is obvious. His The ''liomr School
night effects, which some reason or other have
for
been so greatly admired, are not as good as Colom- The "Rouen" school is so called because its centre
be's or, in an earlier period, the beautiful Golgotha was Cardinal Georges d'Amboise, Archbishop of
in the Tres riches hemes; they are unintelligently done, Rouen and a minister of Louis xii, who commissioned
mere tracts of unrelieved blackness. And yet Bour- the splendid mass of buildings, now destroyed,
dichon was not without solid merits, even though he which formed the Chateau dc Gaillon; but its associ-
lacked originality of temperament. So far as it can ation with Rouen is purely accidental and contributed
be dated, his youthful work has freshness and taste, nothing to the character of its painting, which was the
not to mention the conscientiousness that he was offspring both of Colombe and of Bourdichon. The
never to lose, and we must take care not to accuse him "Rouen" artists wildly exaggerated Colombe's defects
of having been spoiled by success. The Hours of and accepted them as formulas. On the eve of the
^'1
Charles which was painted in
viii, in tinted grisaille, Italian invasion which marks the beginning of the

about 1485 (Fig. 89), and the Hours of Francis of
Vendome, which may be a little earlier and seems
to be his first known work, display a sobriety which
he inherited from Fouquet and a feeling for
which he owed to Colombe, already accompanied by
16th century and the end of our study, we should
spare a thought for their pompous rhetoric, which
was so much in keeping vvnth the times of Jean Le-
colour maire de Beiges. Empty though it is, it is of interest
as the expression of an aspect of contemporary taste,

the innate coldness which was to lead him into acad- that of the rhetoricians. The "Rouen" school liked
emism. easy, tawdry effects; a profusion of gold and bright

82
colours; large, full-page compositions packed with engravings. Nor did easel-painting immediately sup-
superblv-drcssed figures. They cared for nothing but plant illumination.The illuminators of the period
opulence and brilliance (Fig. 90). Their chief weakness are, however, isolated figures of widely different
lay in the fact that they included in their number no character. There were the mysterious Maitre dc
painter of real talent; they were mere decorators, Moulins, who may or may not be identical with
but thev kept ahve, however unintelligently, a Jean Perreal and the so-called Painter of
(p. 89),
tradition of French design which was filtered and Charles viii, whose which are really ano-
portraits,
purified bv the Italians who came to work on nymous, are concealed between the leaves of an imi-
Francis I's and which combined with the
palace, tation Book of Hours which shows that the tradition
:

Italian contribution to form the so-called school of which connected painting, and even portrait-painting
Fontainebleau that was to prove so fruitful and (Pi. Lxxxviii), with the book was still extremely
so full of promise for the future. The mere existence powerful in France. Another was the painter of
of the "Rouen" artists, and the kind of passive Charles of Angouleme (PI. lxxxix), a discerning
resistance that they opposed to their Italian col- colourist whose work is so strangely dry that one
leagues, are important in themselves ; that is why they senses in it the influence of the copper-engravings
are mentioned here, although it was their fault that which he was not ashamed to insert into the Book of
French illumination ended in emptiness and noise. Hours executed for Francis I's father. Last of all comes
Even so, we have not quite finished. At the begin- a court painter (PI. xc) whose cold and laboured
ning of the 1 6th century, in spite of the invention pictures, harmonious but lifeless as they are, no longer
of printing, the very finest books were still written have anything in common with the art of illumination
and decorated by hand, and the best printed books and bring us down to the years round 1530, when
were on parchment and contained hand-coloured French printing was already in its heyday.

,'

^i.
GASTON piirBfs oriiiKs HIS WORK K) TH1-. HUNTSMEN. Gaston Phebus, Le Livre de la chasse, ciicA 1450
(Bihliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 1291, f. 5)

1 ..
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL COMMENTARY

No general account of French illumination exists,

from the chapters devoted to it in Andre
apart
AT >
Paris, 1906
siecle,

;
Paris, 1923; L^es Aliniaturistes francais,
A. Blum and Ph. Lauer, La Aliniature aux
Michel's Histoire depart, where A. Haseloff dealt with A'l > X\ Le Paris, 1930. Millard Meiss's

M
et siecles,

Romanesque and the beginning of Gothic (vol. i, pt. important study of painting in the time of Jean de
2, p. 77, and vol. ii, pt. i, 1906, p. 298), and P. Berry is nearing completion.
Durrieu with later Gothic (vol. iii, pt. i, 1907, p. The following deal with the illuminated MSS. in
loi, and vol. iv, pt. 2, 191 1, p. 701). particular collections: Ph. Lauer, Les Lnluniinures
Two recent works on illumination in general are: romanes des manuscrifs de la Bihliotheqiie nationale, Paris, H'r
1.. Reau, Histoire de la peinture an Moyen age, la 1927; H. Martin, Les Joyaiix de P Enluminure a la Bi-
miniatttre, Melun, 1946; D. Di ringer. The IIlluminated bliotheque nationale, Paris, 1928; A. Boinet, Les Ma-
Book, London, 1958. niiscrits d peintures de la Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve,
Western illumination is the subject of A. Boeckler's Paris, 1921 ; H. Martin and Ph. Lauer, Les Principaux
Ahendldndische Miniaturen his znm Ausgang der roma- niannscrits a peintures de la Bibliotheque de B Arsenal,
nischen Zeit, Berlin, 1930, and of the chapters by C. Paris, 1929 ; C. Oursel, Les Aianuscrits a peintures de la
Nordenfalk in A. Grabar and C. Nordenfalk, Early Bibliotheque de Dijon, Paris, 1923; L. Morel-Payen,
Medieval Painting, Skira, 1957, and Romanes qiiePainting, Les plus beaux manuscrits d peintures ... de la BibliotlKque
Skira, 1958. See also A. Boeckler and A. Schmid in de Troyes, Troves, 1935. Similar works have been
Milkau, Handbuch, 1952, i, pp. 249^7. published on the great libraries outside France, and
\. Dupont has given a general account of Gothic they include many French MSS. : see Liste des recueils
illumination and painting in Gothic Painting, Skira, de Facsimiles de la Bibliotheque nationale, 1935 (new
1954 (with C. Gnudi); for French painting in the edition in preparation). Further information will be
14th and 15th centuries, see Ch. Jacques (Sterling), found m the catalogues of exhibitions, including:
Les Peintres dii Aloyen age, Paris, 1941, and P. A. for French illumination in general, Bibliotheque natio-
Lemoisne, La Peinture franfaise a Pepoque gothique, nale, Les manuscrits a peintures en France du l^IIe au Xlle
Paris, 1931; for the 15th century, see G. Ring, A siecle, 1954;... du XIlie au X\ Fe siecle, 1955 ; for
Century of French Painting, London, 1949. Special- French illumination in particular regions, Limoges,
ised studies of French Gothic illumination are: G. 1950; Arras, 195 1; Troyes, 195 1; Bourges, 195 1;
Graf Vitzthum, Die Pariser Aiiniaturmalerei von der Toulouse, 1954; for illumination in gener&l, Ahend-
Zeit des hi. Ludwig bis zu Philipp von Valois und ihr Vienna, 1952; Gjllene Backer,
ldndische Buch>?jalerei,

Yerhdltnis zur Malerei in Nordwesteuropa, Leipzig, Stockholm-Copenhagen, 1952; Mostra storica nazio-
1907; H. Martin, Lm Miniature jrancaise du Xllle au nale della miniatura, Rome, 1953. To these we may

85

xy;^
 .

now add P. Vaillant's 12 colour plates, with intro- graphy and (iothic. Romanesque images are based
duction, of JZtihiwiniires car/nsieiiiies, Roissard of (Jre- on the conception of the world as a "forest of sym-
noble, 1959, and C Oursel's Miniature a C/teaux, bols" man is surrounded by appearances and human
;

Protat of Macon, 1959. life is entirely subordinated to the after-life, to the

The following catalogues by V. Lcroquais deal with heavenly realities towards which it aspires. It follows
the liturgical MSS., most of which are illuminated, in that these appearances are in themselves of no im-
French libraries: IJvres d'heures, 1927; Sacraiiieiilaires portance and are of interest only as references to the
et missels, 1924; Breviaires, 1934; Pontificanx, 1957; universal. The consequences of this view have been
Psaii tiers, 1 940-4 1 recorded abovx (p. 1). The Gothic
1 5th century, on
1

The illustrations to mv own book are almost entirelv the other hand, witnessed the development along
derived from MSS. in public collections in France, with experimental sciences such as medicine, and not
and in particular from MSS. in the Bibliotheque without opposition of a theology which took
Nationale. The reason for this is not onlv one of account of man and his nature, of his acts and their
convenience: the Parisian and provincial libraries of motives, and of his surroundings in this world,
France contain the essential material for the subject which were seen as the reflection, and no longer as
and include quite enough examples for the purpose of the veil or symbol, of eternal realities. In the Roman-
a general survey such as this. My survey makes not esque period men were brought up on Plato, in the
the slightest claim to be exhaustive: the MSS. I have Gothic period they discovered Aristotle. Hence the
referred to simply mark the major stages in a develop- importance given to moral values, for which the
ment which, for many reasons, could not possibly be Dominican St. Thomas Aquinas reserved an impor-
followed in detail. I have supplemented it bv the tant place in his Snwwa, and to nature. The contents
explanatory and bibliographical notes which follow: of books were profoundly modified in consequence.
though reduced to bare essentials, they will enable y\ work like the Hih/e woralisee is Gothic not only in
the reader to find other books and articles on the form but in spirit, and it is as typically Dominican as
subjects in question. St. Thomas's Sniinna. The subject could be pursued

These notes refer to the pages of mv essav. Thev further, and it would be possible to demonstrate the
include the pressmarks of the manuscripts mentioned formation of an iconography, religious and secular
but not reproduced in the text, which are also listed alike, intended for the layman. It will suffice, in this

intheindex. The index alsoincludesallthemanuscripts context to state that the evolution of plastic forms
reproduced in the book, in colour and in black and which occurred in the Gothic period was matched by
white. Pressmarks which arc not preceded bv the a comparable evolution of iconography but there is ;

name of a town or of a library belong to MSS. in the no doubt that the changes in form and iconography
Bibliotheque Nationale. are simply the two complementary aspects of a single
The illustrations are drawn not only from French ma- historical process.
nuscripts but from a variety of otherworks of art, both
paintings and sculptures, to which rightly or Page 11

wrongly I have thought it useful to compare them.
On the origins of medieval perspective, see A.
French medieval art cannot be isolated from the art of
Grabar, in Cal)iers archeologiques, 1945, p. 15.
neighbouring countries and the number of these
comparisons could usefully have been increased.
The study of iconography has no place in these pages, Page 12

which are concerned only with questions of form. Terence from Angers Leyden, Voss. : 38. Missal from
Iconography is in itself of considerable interest and Saint-Maur: Lat. 12054. Lives and miracles of St.
may on occasion prove helpful in the study of forms, Maurus: and Troves, MS. 2273. Lives of SS.
Lat. 3778
but it is not invariably so and may sometimes actually Valerius and Philibertus: Boulogne, MS. 106. Life of
obscure the solution of formal problems. It is in any St. Quintinus: Saint-Qucntin, Basilica.
case a separate subject, which could not be discussed See also F. Wormald, "Some Illustrated Lives of the
here in detail. And yet Ifeel bound to say a few words Saints", Bulletin of tlje John Ry lands Library, 1952,
about the distinction between Romanesque icono- pp. 248 ff.

86

^>
 1

Pack 13 a peintuies du I lie au Xlle siecle, Nos. 196-203. O.

Pacht has given a convincing demonstation of their
Ciospcl-book ot Ciaudiosus: Angers, MS. 24. (lospcl-
126 (see C. Nordenfalk,
on English illumination in his study of two
influence
lectionan- of Nivardus: l.at. 1

MSS. signed by a painter named Hugo ("Hugo

"A Travelling Milanese Artist in France", in Arfe del
Pictor", 77;!? Bodleia)2 Library Record, iii, 1950, p. 96).
prinio tuillenn'io, 1955, pp. 374 ff-)- l-cctionary from
Montmajour: Lat. 889.
The relationship between MSS. from Lower Nor-
mandy and from England has recently received very
Pages 14-15 full treatment in C. R. Dodwell's Tlje Canterbury
Sc/jool of n/uwinatio)!, 1954, pp. 6 ff.
Lectionary from Saint- Martial: see J.
Porchcr, in
Spatantike imd Byzanz, 195 1, p. 189. Missal from Pages 20-21
Saint-Denis Friiulein
: S. Schultcn has demonstrated its
For William of Saint-Calais and Durham, see H.
connection with Saint-Vaast in an unpublished thesis,
Swarzenski, in Form undlnhalt: Festschrift O. Schmift,
Die Bnchmakrei im Kloster Saint- ^aast d'' Arras im XI.
\

p. 89. St. jctome'?, Letters, from Citeaux: Dijon, MS.

Jahrl)., 1954, and in M/iiiclnier Jaljrb., vii, 1956, p. 49.
289. St. Gregory's Moralia: Dijon, MSS. 168-170.

Pages 15-16
For illumination at Citeaux, see C. Oursel, La minia-
ture du Xlle siecle a I'abbaye de Citeaux, Dijon, 1926
Lectionarv from Saint-Germain-des-Prcs: Lat. 1 175 (new edition in preparation).
(for the whole group of MSS. from this abbey, see Y.
Deslandres, in Scriptorium, 1955, pp- 3, 55)- Page 22

English Psalter, of unknown origin, imitated bv the

Pages 17-18
Vendome MS. : British Museum, Cotton MS. Tiberius
St. Gregory's Aloralia: Cambrai, MS. 215. Gospel- C. vi, f. 14. Gospel-book from Senones: Lat. 9392.
books of Odbert: New York, Pierpont Morgan
Library, MS. 333; Saint-Omer, and 56 MSS. 342 bis Pages 22-24
(the latter, which contains the Christ copied from Gospel-lectionary from Lorraine: Lat. 9453. Gospel-
Boulogne MS. 11, comes from the Cathedral chapter books from Saint-Vanne: Verdun, MSS. 52 (second
and is probably not bv Odbert's own hand, although half of the i ith century), 43 (first half of the 12th cen-
under his direct influence). Aratus's Pljaenowena: tury). Lectionaries: Verdun, MSS. i, 119 (circa 1 100).
Boulogne, MS. 188 Leyden, Voss. lat. 8" 79. Lives of
;
Lectionary from Cluny: Nouv. acq. lat. 2246 (C.
SS. Bertinus, Folquinus and others: Boulogne, MS. Nordenfalk has discovered a remarkable MS. from
107. Cluny at Parma; Romanesque Painting, pp. 188-90).

Pages 19-20 Page 26

Miracles of St. Vedastus: Arras, MS. 686. It is seldom Of the decoration of the Albi Psalter Mme M. M.
possible, in this early period, to watch an atelier at Gauthier observes that it is not of the kind ordinarily
work, and thisis whyl felt bound to linger over it. If, found in Romanesque MSS. from the Midi ("Les
as is probable, the painters were also the scribes, it decors vermicules", in Cahiers de Civilisation medievale,
follows that they were monks and belonged to the i, 1958, p. 358). Although we know of no further
abbey. But we can hardly speak of them as a "school" instance of this decoration, there does exist other
since their period of activity obviously lasted only a evidence of the same kind which confirms my inter-
few years. pretation (sec pp. 28-9).
For the Bayeux Tapestry and its origin, see F. Wor-
mald, in The Bayeux Tapestry, London, 1957. Pagi-. 27

Gospel-book from Mortain: Saint-L6, Archives, The Bible from Saint-Martial, Limoges (Fig. 25), is

MS. I. Works of SS. Augustine, Ambrose and Je- of uncertain date. I attribute it to the loth century, as
rome: Avranches, MSS. 72, 7$, 76, 90; Lat. 2079 and its decoration seems to require; but Professor B.
2639. Characteristic MSS. from Lower Normandy Bischoff attributes it to the 9th on the
centurv,
were brought together in the exhibition oiManuscrits grounds of the handwriting. We must remember that

87

S'
the writing of BMcs is sometimes archaizing (sec p. Saint-Bertin seems to have extended in another direc-
30, on the Hihic from Saint- Aubin). tion, down to the 13th centurv. A well-known
drawing in Rheims, MS. 672, i.iv (reproduced, for
Page 29 example, in P. Neveux and E. Dacier, f.es liJchesses des
1
Many examples of the angel with the bent head occur hihliothiqiies provinciales de 'ranee, ii, 1932, pi. xxvi), is

in Byzantine painting, from the 7th century specimen not necessarily from Rheims or even from Saint-
in Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome, to the St. Michael of Bertin (although the latter seems probable); but the
our Fig. 24, which dates from circa 1078 and so is interesting illustrations in a Speculum virginuw from
contemporary with the Josephus from Toulouse, to Clair\^aux (Troyes, MS. 252) are certainly descended
which it was first compared in the exhibition, Hjzance from Saint-Bertin (reproduced by C. Nordenfalk,
et la I -ranee wedievale, held at the Bibliotheque Na- Romanesque Painting, p. 162). Bible from Saint-Bertin:
tionale in 1958. The comparison was not very well Lat. 1 6743-1 6746.
received, but it seems to me to be corroborated by the
several parallel cases cited here, which show that forms
Page 36

from the Eastern Mediterranean were entering Life of St. Rictrude (first half of the nth century):
Languedoc from the end of the nth century on- Douai, MS. 849.
wards. It is interesting to see how all these forms, and
particularly the angel, were transmuted on entering
Pages 36-37
the Romanesque world. Savalo and the Saint-Amand MSS. in general have
been closely examined by A. Boutemy in a series of
Page 30
articles in Revue beige d^archeologie et d^histoire de Fart,

The frescoes at Vic have often been reproduced, most (1939, pp. 299 ff. 1942, pp. 131 ff., 299 ff.). St. Hilary's
;

recently by Mme !,. Brion-Cjuerry, Fresques roianes Works: Lat. 1699. Peter Lombard's Sentences: Valen-
de France, 1958, figs. 49-54. ciennes, MS. 186.
The Ascension window at Le Mans is reproduced in For the Anchin MSS., see A. Boutemv, in Scriptorium,

Le '{^itrail fraiica/s, 1958, pi. ix, p. 82. ix, 1957, p. 234.

For the paintings at Saint-Aubin, Angers, see Anjou
rowan, 1959, pp. 179-219.
Page 38

If we conclude that Middle Eastern forms were trans-

Page 32
mitted by ivories rather than by MSS., it is because it

Sacramentarv from l.iege: Lat. 819. is hard to see how the latter could have been known
in the West: those we have, like the MSS. of the
Pages 33-34 Macedonian Renaissance referred to here, reached
The relationship between the sculpture of Northern France at a much later period. Typical of the ivories
Italy and that of France has recently been examined that mav have served this purpose is the Joel in the
by R. Salvini, in Kunstgeschichtlicbe Studien j'iir H. Claudius Cote Collection at Lyon (Volbach, Elfen-
Kaujwann, 1956, pp. 67 flF., and in Wiligelwo e le origini heinarheiten, 1952, fig. 245 ; nth century). W. Koehler
della scultura rowanica, Milan, 1956. On the date of the has demonstrated the importance of Byzantine art in
pulpit in Sant'Ambrogio, see R. [ullian, in Revue the Romanesque West, especially at Saint-Amand:
archeolog/qne, 1958, p. 189. "Byzantine Art in the West", Dumbarton Oaks Papers,
Bible from Saint-Benigne: Dijon, MS. 2. i, 1940, pp. 62-87.
7\bbot Jarento's contacts with Spain are specially
mentioned in the Necrology of Saint-Benigne (Dijon,
Page 40
MS. 634, under 20 Sept.). Bible from Saint-Sulpice: Bourges, MS. 3. Greek
Psalter in Paris: (ir. 139.
Pages 34-35
The "Mosan" manner reached as far as the Rhineland, Page 41

and mav even have originated there. ( )n the other Bible of Manerius: Sainte-Genevieve, MSS. 8-10.
hand, the influence of the excellent draughtsmen of Bible from Sens: Sens, MS. i. Bible from Saint-

88

^f .V^
CHARLES VIII AND THE KNIGHTS oi' ST. MICHAEL. Statutes of the Orckf oj St. AliciMc/, 1493 (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. fr. 14363, f. 3)

Germain-des-Prcs: Lat. 11535. The most recent dis- logue of Carvings, i, 1927, fig. 26); but it must be
cussion of these Bibles is by C. R. Dodwell, The admitted that the coinparison is not very convincing.
Canterbury School of Illumination, pp. 81 ff., where they Examples from Sicily are of no assistance here. The
are definitively attributed to France. A Gratian in the acanthus often occurs beside the multiple concentric
Dyson Perrins Collection (ist sale-catalogue, Decem- scrolls, inhabited by little white lions, which prob-
ber 1958, lot 4) is closelv related to the Bible from ably come from Monte Cassino; and its Mediter-
Saint- Andre-au-Bois, which has been studied by A. ranean origin is confirmed by the iconography (see
Boutemy in Scriptorium, 195 1, p. 222. This group of pp. 39-40).
MSS., which is of capital importance for the origin of On the (temporary) influence exercised by St.

Gothic art, is still inadequately known. Bernard, see a note in the catalogue of an exhibition.
The origin of the acanthus is in fact something of a Saint Bernard et I'art dcs Cisterciens, held at Dijon in
mysten'. It may be compared to the decoration of 1953, pp. 19-21 ; for the same tendency in architecture
certain ivories, among them a 2th-century Byzantine
1 see Hanno Hahn, Die frtihe Bauktmst der Zistercienser,
(or Islamic) box in the Victoria and y\lbert Museum 1957, and M. Aubert, in Cahiers de civilisation medievale,

(5471/1859, reproduced by M. 11.Longhurst, Cata- i, 1958, p. 153.

89

Hr<^*f
Pages 44-45 PAGES 48-49
The connection between tlic "Life of Christ" and the Roman de Troie: Fr. 1610. Histoire de Jerusalem: r.
windows at Chartres was pointed out by C. R. Morey, 9081. Conte de Meliacin: Fr. 1635. Breviary from
in The Pierpout Morgu/i Library, lixhihifion of Illriwi- Froidmont: Paris, Fxole des Beaux- Arts, donation
nated Manuscripts, '93 3. P- >^'v. Masson, No. 349 (see BibUotl}eque de V licole des chartes,
Suger's treatise has recently been published, with an 1943, p. 258).
English translation and a long introduction, by E.
Pages 49-50
Panofsk\-, Abbot Stiger. On the Abbey Churcl) of Saint-
Denis, Princeton, 1946. Gratian's Deere tum: Tours, MS. 558. The latest

Bible moralisee: second part of a copy now di\idcd account of everything to do with Honore is in E. G.
between the Bodleian Library (Auct. B. iv, 6) and the Millar's facsimile edition of one of his finest MSS.
British Museum (Harley 15 26- 15 27). Other copies {An Illuminated Manuscript of La Somme le Roy, Ox-

arc in the Chapter Library at Toledo (with part in the ford, 1953). Paris Chansonnier: reproduced by Y.

Pierpont Morgan Library) and in the National- Rokseth, Polyphonies du XIHe Steele, 193 5-1939-
bibliothek at Vienna (A. de Laborde, La Bible mora-
Page 51
Usee conservee a Oxford, Paris et Londres, 191 1
-1927).
Psalter of St. Louis: Lat. 10525 (Leroquais, /'j"^//>rj',
Bible historiale: Many copies, including Lat. 8; ,\rse-

vol.
nal,MS. 5059 (copied by the Parisian scribe Jean de
ii, p. loi).
Papeleu in 13 17); Troyes, MS. 59; Sainte-Genevieve,
Page 46 MSS. 20-21. I 'ie de saint Denis: Fr. 2090-2092
Gospel-lectionary from the Sainte-Chapelle Lat. 8892 :
(reproduced by H. Martin Another copy of
in 1908).

and 17326. the Latin text, drawn but not painted and doubtless

Guillaume le C^lcrc, Ikstiaire: Fr. 14970. later, more complete: Lat. 5286. The well-known

Roman de Fauvel (Fr. 146) belongs to the same

Pages 47-48 family.
Psalter of St. Louis: Leyden, University Library. The centre at Avignon, like the centre in Languedoc,
Ingeburga's Psalter: H. Swarzenski, following G. is mentioned here only in passing. If there ever was
Haseloff (^Psalterill/istration iw XIH. Jaljrij., 1938, p. an Avienon school, it can scarcely be distintruished
14), compared it with the Anchin Missal {Monuments from the Paris school and seems to have derived
of Romanesque yirt, 1954, figs. 541-542). On the con- nothing whatsoever from Italy; French and Italian
nection between the windows Laon and others in
at painters worked side by side in the papal city without
the same region, see L. Grodecki, in Le I itrail developing a common style. It was the same in
franfais, 1958, p. 118, referring to researches by Languedoc; beside MSS. of the Italian type, but
Deuchler. Whatever the importance of this connec- without any contact with them, the work of a painter
tion, which seems to be obvious, it is only right to (or workshop) of purely Northern formation can be
observ^e that the "Anchin" pictorial style occurs distinguished at Toulouse, circa 13 50-1 370. Its style

nowhere else in the North of France and seems to be is a specifically local variant but derives directly from
isolated and imported, at least where illumination is the paintings referred to on the preceding page. The
concerned. The treatment of folds in drapery is com- group includes a Missal made for the Friars Hermits
parable to that of the Rhenish illuminators (Cologne, of Saint-Augustin (Toulouse, MS. 91; dated 1362),
Speyer), and the expressions of the faces and the and portraits oicapitouls in the Annales capitulaires for
colours are strikingly similar to those, for example, of 1 369-1 370 (Toulouse, Musee des Augustins); see
the famous Virgin in the Liber matutinalis from also a Bartholomaeus Anglicus in the Bibliotheque
Scheyern (Boeckler, Deutsche Malerei vorgotischer Zeit, Sainte-Genevieve (MS. 1029) and a Breviari d'Amor
1953, fig. 62). For the latest discussion, see O. Hom- finished at Toulouse in 1354, now MS. 2563 in the

burger, in Formositas Romanica, Frauenfeld, 1958, Nationalbibliothek at Vienna (Fr. I'nterkircher,

P- 35- Inventar derilltttnin. Handschriften, 1957, p. 74). For the

Psalter of Christina: Copenhagen, Royal Library, Gl. Avignon miniaturists, see H. Labande, in Gazette des
kgl. Samml. 1606, 4". Beaux-Arts, i, 1907, pp. 213, 289. For relations with

90

^'A
Bohemia, sec A. Kutul, "L'Art du Moycn age en on Jean Lebegue with bibliography by J. Porcher in
Boheme et en Moravie", in L'Arf anc'ien en Tchecoslo- Melanges Franz Calot, 1959; for (Christine dc Pisan's
vaquie, exhibition, Paris, 1957, with bibUography, painter, see Alanuscrits d peintures en France du XIlie

especially under No. 112. For Languedoc, see Dix au X\ Le sii'cle, p. 69 and Nos. 149 151.
siec/esd'eii/Kwinure et de sculpture en Languedoc, exh i bi ton,
Page 59
Toulouse, 1954-1955, pp. 6-8 and pis. ix x.

The bibliography of Jean de Berry and the press-

P.\GE 52 marks of all the MSS. referred to here are given in Les
Bible of Robert de Billyng: Lat. 11955. Manuscrits a peintures, as above, Nos. 180-196. The
The latest bibliographies of publications about Pu- Tres belles heures de Notre-Danie is now in the Biblio-

celle are given b\' K. Panofsky, Harly Netherlandish theque Nationale, to which it was presented in 1957

Painting, 1955, pp. 32-35 and notes, and in Les Ma- by the Baron Maurice de Rothschild: Nouv. acq.
late

nuscrits a peintures du Xllle an X\ 'le siecle, Nos. 106 lat. 3093. For the Grandes Heures, Jacquemart de

fr. Hesdin and the Christ carrying the Cross in the

Louvre, see (). Pacht, in Revue des Arts, vi, 1956, p.
Page 53
149. Coetivy Hours: Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.
For the kalendar of the Belleville Breviary, see S. C.
Cockerell, The Book of Hours of Yohvida of Flanders,
Page 67

London, 1905. The works of the Maitre de Boucicaut have been

Alme Morand has just completed an important study analysed in detail by E. Panofskv, Early Netherlan-
of Pucelle, as yet unpublished, which will appear in dish Painting, pp. 54 ff. Bedford Hours: British Mu-
England, and which will renew and at many points seum, Add. MS. 18850.
supplement our knowledge of the master. P. Durrieu once proposed to identify the Maitre de
Bedford with the Fleming Jacques Coene, who lived
Pages 56-57 at Paris and worked on Milan Cathedral, but he did

For the Maitre aux Boqueteaux, see H. Martin, La not afterwards insist on the suggestion, which cannot
Miniature franfaise du XIlie au X\ > siecle, pp. 35 ff. at present be verified (Les Arts anciens de Flandre,
For Charles V, see L. Delisle, Rechercljes sur la librairie 1906, pp. 5 ff.).

de Charles f ',
1907.
The question of Jean Bondol has been studied in
Page 68

detail by E. Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting, Terence des dues: published bv H. Martin, 1907. Tres
pp. 38-40. riches heures : reproduced by P. Durrieu, Paris, 1904.
Cite de Dieu: Fr. 2291 2-2291 3.
Page 69
Pages 57-58 For the Maitre de Rohan, see Porcher, The Rohan
J.

Copy of the statutes of the "peintres et imagiers" of Book of Hours, London, 1959.
1391 in Fr. 221 19, f. 2, taken from the "Livre vert
ancien" of the Chambre des Comptes, now lost.
Pages 70-71

The character of the "peintre de 1402" has been very Hours of Rouen use: Arsenal 1 562. Jean de Courcy's
accurately delineated by Bella Martens, Ma'/.r/i?/- Franke, Chronicle: Fr. 20124 and 6183 1 5459. Guillaume de
1929, but the author of this excellent study was mis- Tyr: Fr. 2629.
taken in believing that the painter, or rather the K. Perls has reproduced all Fouquet's works, certain
group of painters, was Parisian; in fact the stream and uncertain, with a short introduction, in a work
runs in the opposite direction. published in 1940. An excellent account of our
Boccaccio's Fewmes celebres:Fr. 598 and 12420. knowledge of him has been given by Ch. Sterling, in
Bible historiale;Vt. 159 and Arsenal, MSS. 5057-5058. Art Bulletin, xxviii, 1946, pp. 125 ff. The Manesse
Verlag, of Zurich, is preparing a complete facsimile,
Pages 58-59 in colours, of Fouquet's paintings, with introduction
Zebo da Firenze was identified bv Otto Pacht. Note by J. Porcher.

91

*>
 :

Page 73 thing but certain, if only in view of the gulf fixed

between Jean and Francois; and yet Anne de Beau-
Boccaccio at Munich: reproduced h\ P. Durricu,
jeu's Book of Hours in the Charnace Collection
1909.
contains miniatures by both artists, which proves that
;? Page 74 Frangois worked with Jean and gives us food for
The Hours painted for I^tienne Chevalier was dis- thought. Besides, he supplied books to the royal
membered during the i8th century in circumstances family ( Xllle au X\
Alamiscrits a peintures du le

unknown. I'ortv-seven miniatures survive: they are sikle,Nos. 271-275).

divided between the Musee Conde, Chantilly (40), CAansonnier of jean de Montchenu: see J. Porcher, in

the Louvre (2), the Bibliotheque Nationale, the Tresors des bibliotheques de France, 1946- 1947. The
British Museum, Viscount Bcarsted (London), M. shape of this volume (a double heart, whence it has

Cj. Wildcnstein and Mr. R. Lehmann (New York). sometimes been described as "cordiform") may
See Bulletin de la Societe de rhistoire de Part franfa/s, perhaps be derived from the "two hearts miraculous-

1947-1948. ly conjoined" which "divers ambassadors" present to

the altar of the chapel of Love in Martin Lefranc's
Page 77
Cban/piou des dames, of which the best surviving copy,
The Maitre dc Jouvcncl whose character
dcs L'rsins, reproduced here, is at Grenoble (MS. 875).
has not yet been completeh' defined, was one of the
most important painters in 15th-century France, not
Page 79

so much for his own sake as for the position which he The space devoted to Rene of Anjou in this study in
holds between France and the Flemish illuminators, no way corresponds to the probable importance of
and for the role which he played in the entourage of this royal artist in French and even European art; but
Rene of Anjou: that he was associated with Rene is although we know something of his own work,
beyond question, bur the precise nature of the asso- thanks to the researches of P. Wescher [Fouquet und
ciation has not so far been investigated. The King of seine Zeit, 1945) and of O. Smital and E. Winkler
Sicily was the centre of a numerous circle of artists, (facsimile of the A/VvY du Caur d'awours epris, 1927),
some of them Flemish, to whom we should un- the work of his entourage is entirely unexplored and
questionably attribute such MSS. as the prayer-book for a proper understanding of them, as of Rene

of Jeanne dc Laval, Rene's second wife (Poitiers, himself, we shall have to wait for the results of Otto
MS. 41); an ylrbre des batailles by Honore Bovet Pacht's researches. Rene's painters appear to be
(Arsenal 2695); a Grandes chroniqiies ((^hatcauroux, familiars, perhaps advisers, not at all like the assistants
MS. 5) ; and a Livre des echecs at Albi (MS. Rochcgude of Fouquet or Colombe: which strengthens the view
104). A Roman du Graal sx Dijon (MS. 527) was ex- that Rene himself was a painter. See O. Pacht, "Rene
hibited among the MSS. of this group at the Biblio- d'Anjou ct les Van Eyck", in Cahiers de I' Association

theque Nationale in 1954 (No. 286) and as a Flemish internationale des etudes francaises, viii, 1956, p. 42.
MS. at Brussels in 1959 (No. 53): the double attribu-

tion is perfectly legitimate. The Maitre dc Jouvenel is

Page 80
also known as the Maitre du Boccace de Geneve, For Colombe, see P. Wescher's Fouquet und seine Zeit
after one of his MSS. (quoted above). For his family in general and his
famous brother, the sculptor, see P. Pradcl, Micljel
Pages 78-79 Colombe, 1953.
Merdeshistoires: Lat. 49 1
5 . Ordonnances of Charles vii
Lat.1577A. See Revue Jranfa /se, July, 1955. Page 81

The Cite de /)/>// illuminated for Charles de Gaucourt
has been attributed by Thuasne, on the basis of a
letter of Gaguin, to "maitre Fran9ois" (see Laborde,
Cite de Dieu, pp. 184, 397), and he has furthermore
identified this Francois with
who bore the same name. The identification
From the time of the French Revolution the Guerre de
Troie illuminated for Aymar de Poitiers belonged to
the Hermitage Library, to which it had been sold by
Peter Duhrowski along with some 200 other MSS.
one of Fouquet's sons from Saint-Germain-des-Pres. Francois Colombe,
is any- who was probably Jean's son, signed one of the small

92
MARTIN LEFRAKC WRITING. Martin Lcfranc, Le Champion des Dames, circa 1460 (Grenoble, Ms. 875, f. 21)

k'';J'^Vi
S-f-
'nv
 .

miniatures and mav well have exccutcti all of them in (1954); the latter is undoubtedly too complete, but its

person. It' so, his style was exactly like his father's. reproductions are all the more useful for that reason.
The Hours of Louis de Laval (141 1-1489), governor Bourdichon, was clearly the
as a celebrated artist,

of Champagne and Grand Master of the woods and head of a large workshop, which means that like
forests of Trance, contains certain details which raise Fouquet's his own personality is not easy to define.
the diti^iciilt question of the relation between Fouquet LIscful and accurate information will be found in a

and (x)iomhe. The Bourges master was no match for thesis by Mile luilletd'lstriaon Perreal
1 (in the press):

the Tours master, hut that is no excuse for depriving it is badly needed. The iinal period of French illumi-
him of his best work, as has sometimes been done, in nation is extremelv confused and rigorous classifica-

order to attribute it to the latter. Colombe's circle tion of MSS. will be needed (it has not yet progressed
included the minor artists of the Central French very far) before the subject can attract serious atten-
school, among them the Jean de Montlucon who tion. Everything points to the fact that Bourdichon
signed a Book of Hours now in the Arsenal (MS. 438). deliberately imitated the Flemish illuminators of the
Ghent-Bruges school, which serves to distinguish
Packs 81-82 him all the more clearly from Colombe.
For Bourdichon, see P. NX'escher ioiiquet mid seiiie For the "Rouen" school, see G. Ritter and J. Lafond,
Zei/, and the very complete study by R. Limousin Alanuscrits a peintures de Vecoie de Rouen, Rouen, 9 1 3 1
COLORPLATES

-><
mhi

I - ST. THOMAS. Lectionary of Saint- Martial, Limoges, end of the loth century (Bibliothfeque Nationale, Ms. lat. 5 50 1 , f. 279 v.)
 DIS

i*^:
n - CHRIST IN MAJESTY. Missal of Sajtit-Dems, middle of the i ith century (Bibliotheque Nadonale, Ms. lat. 9436, f. 1 5 v.)
 ,'
r
Ill - THE CRUCIFIXION. Psalter-hymnaryofSaitit-Germain-des-Pris, second half of the nth century
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 11350, f. 6)

' ^
 ':
^: X
-J
IV - THE ASCENSION. LecHonarj of Saint-Andri, Le Cateau, end of the nth century (Cambrai, Ms. 5 28, f. 3
8 v.)

t V
y

^>S1
V - THE NATIVITY THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE SHEPHERDS. Gospel Book of Saitit-Bertin, end of the i oth century
:

(Boulogne, Ms. ii f. 12)

,

^ 1
 -r
J^>
Vr

VI - ST. BERTiNUS AND HIS COMPANIONS. Vie dcs saitits Berlin, Folquin, Silvin et Winnoc; Saint-Bcrtin, circa looo
(Boulogne, Ms. 107, f. 6 v.)
.*k
VII -ST. DiONYSius A>fD HIS COMPANIONS: MARTYRDOM OF ST. DiONYSius. Gospels and Colkcts; Saint-Bcrtin, circa looo
(Saint-Omer, Ms. 342 his, f. 63 v.)

>-i
 Augustinc, Confcssions; Saint-Vaast,
VIII - ST.AUGUSTINE AND CHRIST: ALARDUS PRESENTS HIS BOOK TO ST. VEDASTUS. St.

Arras, first half of the i ith century (Arras, Ms. 348, f. i v.)
M

IX - THE SCRIBE PRESENTS HIS BOOK TO ST. MICHAEL. St. Clement, Rscognit'tones; Mont-Saint-Michel, beginning of the
nth century (Avranches, Ms. 50, f. i)
 .: . T

"^f^-^ i -
.,.
X - ST. AUGUSTINE DISPUTES AGAINST FELiciANUs. Oeuvfcs diverses des saints Jerome, August in et Ambroise; Mont-Saint-
Michel, second half of the nth century (Avranches, Ms. 72, f. 97)
 J^^:

'->
f .

v,-.j ''-'^. .J' ^

XI -SOLOMON AND THE QUEEN OF SHEBA. St. Ambrosc, Dc Fide; Saint-:fivroult, end of the nth century
(Alen9on, Ms. ii, f. i v.)

-* t "^
 "

-r^

GPATlH^tlT^ra)

r^-'

[cnunAt5-
-^^v

^/l
A
:..'ru

H^'
- V;(
?{::<
ii.>'

'

SA

etiuTIl
tv
..A]-

nt Ttiiiiil\cmn1V'it\4 craul
UVdto a-vri
CTM
iAucsTtfhi>- Fide

'

I^Tofriufh faiitj.'.ffrmi.'lniiiqiii \\

~nir
,;>irifiin<:1i nr-L- ic^oc^ tititKi i^'i^iu;

>-
>-i'
XII - DECORATED INITIAL. St. Gregory, Moralia in Job; Citeaux, beginning of the izth century (Dijon, Ms. i68, f. 4 v.)
> X
XIII - ABBOT RICHER WRITES TO THE DICTATION OF suLPicius SEVERus. RecucH de textes suK Saint Martin; Saint-Martin, Metz,
first half of the 12th century (fipinal, Ms. 73, f. i)
xrv - THE ASCENSION. Sucramentarj of Samt-^tknnc, Limoges, circa iioo (Biblioth^que Nationale, Ms. lat. 9438, f. 84 V.)
I--.
.''
-'V

XV - DECORATED INITIAL. Gradual oj Saint- MiM, Gaillac, nth century (Biblioth^que Nationale, Ms. lat. 776, f. 5)
eeNPMANIKlKlglM
 / '

..-1 . .

.'' <

.<'

'
I'

/I r

xvi-DANCER. 7>o/)r-Projer;theAuch region, middle of the 1 1 th century (Bibliotlieque Nationale, Ms. lat. iii8,f. 114)
 D.r<Uiib')>

*YTV.^rv3o<?^-^7-r>.:^^>^^^^

1- f IT
I
.'^ f
'

f
.' -t

r
'

-v
R

INITIAL. Glosscd Psclter and Apocalypse; Albi, second half of the ith century (Albi, Ms. 43, f. 20)
XVII -
i
DECORATED
;^^t|

xviii - LOCUSTS. Apocalypse of Saint-Sever, middle of the nth century (BibHotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 8878, f. 145)
r^v

XIX -THE HISTORIAN josEPHUS. Flavius Josephus, De Bdlo Judaico; Toulouse, end of the nth century
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 5058, f.
3)
 VATf S B EILVAV CR.EV1T hjOtf B<- F bV JLLVAV
^V(C>^

CC>1^1T^ iWVtTl^-WBBoyiCrRtffRC'VVtTlS

^%l^

UXXII

\'i'
^ ''\
A

XX - ST. ALBiNus BLESSES THE BREAD AND WINE. Vk de Saint Aiibin; Angers, end of the nth century
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. nouv. acq. lat. 1390, f. 2)
.r

* -
s*-

XXI - A SCENE FROM THE LIFE OF ST. AUDOMARUS. l^k dc saitit Omcr, end of the nth century (Saint-Omer, Ms. 698, f. 34)
XXII - ST. MARK. Gospel Book; Corbie, end of the i ith century (Amiens, Ms. 24, f. 5 3)

:* J
-^>
XXIII - THE MASTER AND HIS SERVANT. Lectionarj of Rheims Cathedral, end of the nth century (Rheims, Ms. 294, f. 191)
duohuf dominif fyruirx-;

emo u-

X
duob;
dotntni

ytmultmnii _
XDna
&/rer'
tf ^
xxrv - DANIEL IN THE LiONs' DEN. St. Jcrome, Explanatio in Prophetas; Citeaux, first half of tlie 12th century
(Dijon, Ms. 132, f. 2)
 '

'*-'

rx^
J.
XXV - THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. St. Jcromc, Explanatio in Isa'iam; Citeaux, first half of the 1 2th century (Dijon, Ms. 1 29, f.
4)

kV
XXVI - GOD CALLS JUDAS TO SUCCEED JOSHUA. Bibk of Saint- Martial, Limoges, end of the nth century
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 8, Vol. i, f. 91)

I)
 p 05T0f7OKTeo7

ICIGRVNT FILIJ

*r
XXVII - THE SOUL OF LAMBERT, ABBOT OF sAiNT-BERTiN, ASCENDS TO GOD. Saint-Bertin, circa 1 125 (Boulogne, Ms. 46, f. l)
\^J
.^r^
is
.yt:

xxviiT - BISHOP freculf: rabanus maurus with his pupils. Rabanus Maurus, Commentary on Exodus; Anchin,
second half of the 12th century (Douai, Ms. 339, f. 2 v.)
V
c
s

\1

n
V
d
fl

mr^t
^J
M

XXIX - ST. MATTHEW. Gospel Book of Hinln-LUtard; Saint-Bertin, middle of the 12th century
(Boulogne, Ms. 14, Vol. i, f. 22 v.)
"* M
 rrn*i* i.t.T*t.^

XXX - HERBERT DURSENS OFFERS HIS BOOK TO ss. PETER AND PAUL. Gilbert dc k Porrec, Commetitaire des Psaumes; Corbie,
second half of the izth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 12004, f. i v.)

.^^ N
 em^N'r cxj't^

'^r^fr^>->/<-' 1

XXXI - DECORATED INITIAL. Zacharias of Besan9on, Concordances; Anchin, second half of the 12th century
(Douai, Ms. 42, f. 10 1)
XXXII - A SCENE FROM THE LIFE OF ST. AMANDUS. Vie de saitit Amatid; Saint- Amand, second half of the 12th century
(Valenciennes, Ms. 500, f. 61)
 ik3r*

^*:^m..

^ -

^^75*
XXXIII - ST. GREGORY. Lettres de saint Gregoire; Saint- Amand, second half of the 1 2th century
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 2287, f. i v.)
^t^ ^i- J' * ', T-A
XXXIV- ST. JOHN. Gospel Book; Licssies, second quarter of the 12th century (Avesncs, Socicte Archdologique)
 ,o

t>^ -^
XXXV - ST. AMAJiDUS AND BAUDEMtWDUS. Vie de Saint Amand, second half of the 1 2th century (Valenciennes, Ms. 5 o i , f. 5 8 v.)

:- .V
 w^

i'^ii
 o\muiis-OwiiJn<iiiix\iim noni am

XXXVI - THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. Bibk, sccond half of the 12th century (Lyons, Ms. 410, f. 207 v.)
 ^"-
6c cumair neptbaUm qufctnlu^imlbu^

XXXVII - THE DEPARTURE OF TOBIAS. Bible, sccond half of the 1 2th century (Clermont-Ferrand, Ms. i, f. 203)

ifflff-
XXXVIII - THE ANNUNCIATION TO ZACHARiAs. Bible, sccond half of the 1 2th century
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 16746, f. 42)
 <

voiMQyiOEWijyiaxr i ^

conmx funr a2dinart nattafuoncm

que'in nobis complotfutn: ttmm.
.41

XXXIX - ESTHER AND AHASUERUS. Bible, sccond half of the 12th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1 16, f. 65)
 |oc^tetuncum; J5wxir mundautcofab omrubj
lunigotif/ot'conftuxa mcbncf factrdoaun
loc^luu2uix.unuc(iiap mmtniitenoftio. oc'

I
m obUaonc Ugno^. in wvovbj confhamC

lUJj

y<

-.^i^.'r *

0. ]-,

((( U

iHiU^Pf^qjms^omt^
ibrutn

^1
uartis
wi^ ^vr V.

confte dfe uicuaim /< cgodrarcht X

XL - SCENES FROM THE BIBLE. BtbU moralisic, circa 1250 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1 1 560, f. 128)
 J-:

^ofla-aratmefejriaViJAStAetvrA't^
 5
LA* .

I*

XLi - THE entombment: the three MARYS AT THE SEPULCHRE. The Ittgcburga Psalter, circa 1200- 120
(Chantilly, Musee Conde, Ms. 1695, f. 28 v.)
'Urirn' trj
XLii-THE nativity: THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE SHEPHERDS. Paris Psalkr, circa 1230
(Bibliotheque de I'Arsenal, Ms. 11 86, f. 17)
XLiii - ABRAHAM AND ELiEZER: REBECCA GIVES DRINK TO ELiEZER. Psalter oj St. Louts, between 1 25 3 and 1270
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 10525, f. 12)
 7Atf i

,H
r "

XLIV - THE STORY OF ADAM AND EVE. ParJs Psa/Ur, circa 1250 (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. lat. 10434, f. 10)
Ml

Floridus, circa 260

XLV - SCEOTS FROM THE APOCALYPSE. Lambert de Saint-Omer, Liber
1

(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 8865, f.

39)
Vi^^
7I:i

xLvi- TRISTAN AND ISOLDE SURPRISED BY KING MARK. Roman (U la Poirt, ciica 1275
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 2186, f.
5)
 PJ bird * -C<5m^^
vt

mamcac
0^

^iwfV

mcuutatcuei
t ^ ilt Aur.

XLVii - THRESHING CORN. Maftyrologe de Saint-Germain-des-Prls, circa 1 270 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1 2 834, f. 64V.)
XLVTii - THE A>fNorNTiNG OF DAVID DAVID AND GOLIATH. Breviary of Philip the
:
Fair, end of the 1 3th century
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1025, f. i v.)
XLix - KING LOT LEAVES QUEEN guinivere's CASTLE! BATTLE AGAINST THE SAXONS. Robert dc Borroii, Histoirc du Gfoal,
circa 1280 (Biblioth^que Nationale, Ms. fr. 95, f. 292 v.)
pxi(oni- loit

erii

luuidioir*
riuimftdtio

UAaOtitrUi
ptl itrKtifii
lie ttfi Miitn
U(aiaio;at
 7

I*

urn timaili^iic nine iifljiuertola fpitiur

iS.Ttnncq:riiciu xfiCfloiriiatin ;KSiW>S3SS3TS-

L- ST. DiONYSius PREACHING THE CONVERSION OF LiSBius. Yvcs, Vie

: dc Saint Dcfiis, I 3 1
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 2091, f.
99)
 \mmtt uitmici^:i'

iPnm ttieMhm
^02W|Hmcrfi
>(fjinmiii5.

jtqjT) fw0iil4iw tmiromtu

I
mme 006 cuipw fijlutos mitwr

tineftamimmttEritt'"

LI - THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. Arros PsaIter and Hours, drca 1300 (Biblioth^que Nationale, Ms. lat. 1328, f. 28)
LII - THE STORY OF THE EMPEROR HERACLIUS: PETER THE HERMIT. Romatl de Godtjroi de BouHlotJ, I
3 37
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 22495, f. 9)
ra^xAfl
 tui Kii uui u tvm^uuwux).

(airfaiioir

lifagRlimts
Dtfmioir
r
(Cuciap:airlc
:J.
icitrommma
.JJ^ *.. r^..

Liii - THE EMPRESS OF ROME. Gautict dc Coincy, Miracles de la Vierge, circa 1330
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. nouv. acq. fr. 24541, f. 119)
 ^>'

X-IV - THH AK.UNCr.ON. //....

,./,,,,, ,.^,,,,,^ ^,,, ^^^^
^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^.^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^
LV - THE DEATH OF ABSALOM: A KING DETHRONED, THE SACRAMENT OF ORDINATION, THE GIFT OF INTELLIGENCE.
Breviary of Charles V, second half of the 14th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1052, f. 232)
 '

{JKCiurwt.-Outsmoircr [ .

(mi faUuaiiumci- ami <ui I f^*-

'
icoi$Aiccwuraoitmn)^ ^'1 J^
aismaomuicdio fl-^
iaiuaaiuuf(af:fui^
umuimaiuoimi)Hl@is
CGiuomanoiian inniin
aunmi^^nnirucriu amnu /'
ImrnUipiQisiH
Qipinaiii (Uiaii nidirtar 5
iiuir*U)uidum iiir: <toiin> J
[duu i<U)iujiuiia (]i(ranmuaiui]i!iniiiimiiir
\imo aiut imium mi(\nmti criionp^'oiDUmiuucniui.i
jiirtloiufiiadriDmim. frn)iUirmim iiumi^''(^^ird
zmsaoHuiariiwrtrtoiii- Y-^
-^ucs houuiuuii ; at \im< uor fliaqjtDi co-aiumc uKSfip. ;

.,trmaminuiun::.nia$:nii
O'lnnrs rmumumuuuuii
..laaifsmoiuuirriioiintq'
nuuKiDimiiiJ! nnluiq^rto
? nnumcr|2^juu"laau onis
imo^nuiuuriiat^uinuciii:
^ui itKO.umc*) nun iitmin
^
Hnunn:amwin<)ciU08,?
^^oTiuimnr (aaiftrnto uDi
xFajfmtrto! noinioDiicom
UDiuijnfll.Qiionuura*
onun momflnoncnipiu'ii
inrraaijn inuiurosjufofcy^'
^' ^T^'-
-
iusmm;>.p8iiuuo

'!i.'--;nnfiTtrr:nin .iwiuornftTipctms
f^
ionaiuumjiumtnui
z'
imdfrcraiU)iiiic^J_
mms ftim m vcminnHmnn
LVI - NATURE PRESENTS TO GUILLAUME DE MACHAUT HER CHILDREN: SENSE, RHETORIC AND MUSIC.
Oeuvres de Guillaume de Machaut, circa 1370 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 1584, f. E)
 !>''

%^
qiiccmqucswc^ itudciMfttirc cfrnucia^ ;j|H'|i?Uw-j.4. i\(av\s 'ihrt^xdmmci
lc6l>icnsih)micui*sqiuCimtcnatii(mi^ plp'mf^^P ^' '"''" ^niiU qmiomihr
Anciit a OmXlc ^m arfiouCi^t h ozttnrit cip
^^^' nfa |iit usiu* hinc ]:;u mv fcuUHtr
f^iAiwrtfnmf fill' (fn mill MilflMftAltlOU S^O miiidTiiv/hift rtJiimitpyii* ufiMfuv.'

-a X

'^X
S 'J

Lvii - THE CORONATION OF CHARLES vi. Grandes Chrotiiqucs de France, circa 1 375-1 379
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 2813, f. 3 v.)
rx'tr'-'' t
i.viiT - SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF SOLOMON. Guiart des MouUns, Bible historiale, circa 1400-1402
(BibliotWque Nationale, Ms. fr. 159, f. 289 V.)
 H**iitn^t*a
> t <. im.-*A .-..

-^t
,w ''i
LIX - ST. AUGUSTINE OFFERS HIS BOOK TO THE LORD: THE SACK OF ROME BY THE GOTHS. St. AugUStinC, C'lti dc Dku,
circa 14x0 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 25, f. 5)
I
^'
^^
LX-THE HEBREWS IN THE DESERT. Fkvius Josephus, Antiqu'tUs juddiques, circa 1410
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 247, f. 49)
'4^*
<\

LXi - ULYSSES BLINDSTHE CYCLOPS. Christine de Pisan, pitre d'Othia h Hector, circa 1400-1402
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms, fr. 606, f. 11)
4
LXii - THE TROJAN HORSE. Histoire d'Orose, circa 1390-1410 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 301, f. 147)
 >'. <

c^
kJ''
LXiii - THE PROPHET ISAIAH. PSalter of Jeati de Berry, circa 1380-138 5
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 13091, f. 11 v.)
 ->*

f3-'t
Lxrv - THE NATIVITY. PttUes Heures de Jean de Berry, circa 1390 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 18014, f- 38)
 i

l'^-
LXV - ABRAHAM AND HIS WIFE DEPART FROM EGYPT. Bibk ofjcatt de CJS, ciica 1 39O
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 1 5 397, f. 14)
indifaic.ctDitlfmdiOirqdwani
.vpacnsam'rnctuiuf.iamDUoiiur ^
^^ iioiricCaipnurqucnonuurauaui:
mamav6.umcqiuCoutDunciuar.
(

t
h I
J

it (

t
6 i
frt.

^^asBatESSsm^ii^ )"*imi

cnioirago dOiaiufcnmomtitc
cjiptruuctraftuimt^
""
uaiirattp cta)utc$i(8ctofc8qU
t*tM*l?^tf'jtl%ft lSi\i%iSfi

If^
>S^J^
Lxvi-THE NATIVITY. Trh Bclks HsuTts de Jeott de Berry, circa 1400-1407
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. nouv. acq. lat. 3093, f. 42)
 t-'S-

^sm^
Lxvir-THE MARRIAGE AT CANA: DISTRIBUTION TO THE POOR. Grandcs Heures de Jean de Berry, 1409
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 919, f. 41)
loimmrniBOr ^vi^^imimms

,1. Vl'

-^5*^f
x:^

iM

Lxviii - THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. Bcl/es Heures de Jeatj de Berry, circa 1410-1413
(New York, Cloisters Museum, f. 48 v.)
LXIX-THE BIRTH OF MOSES: THE NATIVITY: MOSES SLAYS AN EGYPTIAN: THE DEVIL VANQUISHED. Bible historiie,
cdrca 1410-141 5
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 166, f. 19)
 Ca\mm nu(nnrmo) ((^ rorf

jjniminirirtirrQi

fini qui ixitoit-liw^nufi / mo'

'rfri'pnnr/iffiu'ff

iptuii?pnninniscl),'nim
Miftmtfrinonmiijraimi:

;mn(iir.f DiniuUnn fuoimn un'

IttOpfioifnTJiffifiniKmii)

mni6il)iifr(ftftamrpnio)[rirf I
 5

Lxx - JEAN DE BERRY SETS OUT ON A JOURNEY. Pet'ites Hcures de Jean de Berry, drca 141
(Biblioth^ue Nationale, Ms. lat. 1 8 01 4, f. 288)
"ir
Lxxi - THE CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN. Trh Riches Heures de Jean de Berry, circa 1414-1416 (Chantilly, Musee Cond^)
 I

.^ilrAiiattuamm

m$inaDiuto
nmn matin
Lxxii - THE LEGEND OF ST. GEORGE. Bedford Breviarj, circa 1424-143 5
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 17294. f- 447 "^O

..
 '

!i' >S'::i: jy^

jl^ nommcunntiB.t^rtiutii&gr ^A
unoimlifti ui] 10 Wcruur.ir rii
vi^^ Jlh
^
^h: Imu; ^ UmugtoigiiB niuuii ^ --(^r^l^S^ uioia tuo auDlUni
,

-; T va $mfnr miiifmts piir mrr ^ ST

t {Ixunifi piigiiifi ttfpjuoir, D) ^
^;^^ fommmmt |^iB.4^rgi uro ^ mmo UtOitpiflt) friiUro mini Crt
unit omnui fmiloi^nion a}H)i' ^V . ; ^ ,.^.
 ! I

i I iwi^aip

Lxxiii-a, b. SCENES FROM THE "eunuchus" AND "hecyra". T^Kcnce des Dues, circa 1405-1410
(Bibliotheque de 1' Arsenal, Ms. 664, flF.
47, 75 v.)
 '^\AAkkkkkkkkkkkk^k.
/wwgwcwwwciaafa ^

..{-
VNI

^1 ^ii ^ ^.(0\ 1 /W^-i^-^^^ ^-^.iJi

Lxxiii - c, d. SCENES FROM THE "eunuchus" AND "hecyra". Tircnce des Dues, circa 1405-1410
(Bibliotheque de I'Arsenal, Ms. 664, ff. 85 v., 209 v.)

-
i
U-
iJ

Lxxrv - GASTON DE Foix ISSUES ORDERS TO HIS HUNTSMEN. Gaston Phebus, Livre de la chasse, circa 1405-1410
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 616, f. 13)
tf^r%''t'^*%%t%\t^%rr% 1^ *<\T<4>irt*<* A ^r fi^ Id ''.'
-^mr* tti-it^ rv*-n<i%iei
LXXV - JOHN THE FEARLESS, DUKE OF BURGUNDY, RECEIVES A PRESENTATION COPY OF HAYTON'S TRAVELS. Livre des merveilks,
circa 1410 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 2810, f. 226)
>r- ..*,-
Lxxvi - THE ANNUNCIATION. Hcures de Paris, circa 1410 (Bibliotheque Natiooale, Ms. lat. 1161, f. 31)
-,^
-r,^^^'
 -^

LXXVTI - A DEAD MAN FACE TO FACE WITH HIS JUDGE. HcUfeS dt Rohait, cifCa 1418-1425
(Biblioth^ue Nationale, Ms. lat. 9471, f. 159)
Lxxviii - CHRIST BEFORE PILATE. Heures de Marguerite d'OrUans, circa 1426-1430
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1156B, f. 135)

*'
" . I
L-V'. - .-Vi,
Lxxix - PTOLEAiY SOTER ENTERS JERUSALEM. Flavius Joscphus, Atitiquitis Judaiques, circa 1470
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 247, f. 248)

V ,
1^^^^^5fn^M.-.Jit)rtri.y:*-^-^ .r^rtnnmiiM(Vh>Tniiv.-^t^^
Lxxx - THE BIRTH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST. Heures d' Btiemc Chevdkr, circa 1450 (ChantiUy,
Musee Condi)
1?'
'* >.
 <.

yntcnaov

LXXXI - a. KING GONTRAN SURRENDERS THE KINGDOM TO HIS NEPHEW CHILDEBERT BEFORE ORLEANS. GrandcS ChroniqtUS
de France, circa1460 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 6465, f. 45 v.)
 4i* %%*,*t*ttt*t* r4*\%%% **-* or%n*- it* * *<X*>rf.

OF ENGLAND DOES HOMAGE TO PHILIP THE FAIR FOR AQUiTAiNE. Gratidcs Chrotitques dc France,
Lxxxi - b. EDWARD II

circa 1460 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 6465, f. 501 v.)

-%-*-. i^>.''

.'?-. '/>>
Lxxxii - THE VISITATION. Heures de Rome, circa 1450 (Biblioth^ue Nationale,
Ms. Rothschnd 2530, f. 45)

.'fe
 1 "^

.^,. ' t.
-J^".
Lxxxiii - LOVEAND FORTUNE. Chattsonftier de Jean de Montchenu, circa 1 460-1 476
(Biblioth^ue Nationale, Ms. Rothschild 2973, f. i)
Lxxxrv - THE KING OF ARMS PRESENTS EIGHT COATS TO THE DUKE OF BOURBON, Rene of Aiijou,
Le Livre dts Tournois,
circa 1460-1465 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr.
2695, f. 11)

^
Lxxxv-THE RAPE OF HELEN. Histoire de la Destruction de Troie, circa 1500
(Bibliotheque Nationalc, Ms. nouv. acq. fr. 24920, f. 12)
 rr

> ^-
Lxxxvi - LOUTS DE LAVAL AT HIS VRAYEKS. Heutes de Louis di Laval, circa 1480-1489
(Biblioth^que Nationale, Ms. lat. 9420, f.
51)

%.
^iii /v>(i ttnfdicm^ux "Sei ^xw fhfuan .
^^
inmm(mm'?]mh

'c"^^

".. ''*,
LXXXVII - THE VIRGIN OF PITY. Heures d' Anne de Bretagne, circa 500-1 508 (BibHotheque Nationale, Ms.
1 lat. 9474, f. 3)

*>
'^^-
"t.*
i

Lxxxviii - MARGARET OF austria(?). End of the ijth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1 190)

\ *
s:*
Lxxxix - THE AUTHOR TAKES DESiRfe INTO THE ORCHARD. Les Bcbccs amoureux, circa 500
1
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 145, f. 198 v.)
 K r^'-

y.
 5

xc - LOUISA OF SAVOY AND ^TiENNE LEBLANC. fiticnnc Lcblanc.Z^j Gestes de Blanche de Castille, circa 1 5 24 1 5 2
(Bibliotheque Nadonale, Ms. fr. 5715, f. A v.)

^
\Mf-A'
1 - 'i
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Colour illustrations in text

ST. AUGUSTINE AND THE PATRON SAINTS OF THE ABBEY OF MARCHiENNES. St. Augustinc, EnarratioTies, middle of the
1 2th century (Douai, Ms. 250, f. 2) Frontispiece

GASTON PHEBUS OFFERS HIS WORK TO THE HUNTSMEN. Gaston Phcbus, Le Livre de la chasse, circa 1450 (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. fr. 1291, f. 5) 84

CHARLES viii AND THE KNIGHTS OF ST. MICHAEL. Statutes of the Order of St. Michael, 1493 (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. fr. 14363, f. 5) 89
MARTIN LEFRANC WRITING. Martin Lefranc, Le Champion des Dames, circa 1460 (Grenoble, Ms. 875, f. 21) 93

Fig. Black-and-ivhite illustrations Page

1 MEROviMGiAN zooMORPHic INITIAL. Sacramentarj of Gellone, second half of the 8th century (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. lat. 12048, f. iii v.) 10

2 INITIAL WITH FIGURES. Corhie Psalter, beginning of the 9th century (Amiens, Ms. 18, f. 67 v.) 10

3 MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENTS. Autun Troper, 996-1024 (Bibliotheque de I'Arsenal, Ms. 1 169, f. 1 5) II

4 SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. ALBiNus. Lives of the Blshops of Angers, first half of the i ith century (Vatican, Ms.
regin. lat. 465, f- 74 v.) 12

5 SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. MAURUS. Life and Miracks of St. Maurus, second half of the nth century (Troyes,
Ms. 2273, f. 77) 12

6 FOUNDATION OF sAiNT-MARTiN-DES-CHAMPS. Historj of Saint- Marttn-des-Champs, circa 1067-1079 (British

Museum, Add. Ms. 11 662, f. 4) 13

7 SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. WANDREGisiL. Life of St. Wandregisil, loth century (Saint-Omer, Ms. 764, f.
9) 13

8 ST. LUKE. Gospel Book, second half of the nth century (Aix-en- Provence, Ms. 7, f. 169) 14

9 ST. PETER. Ivory. Cover of the Gradual of Henry II, circa 1000 (Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, Ms. lit. 7) 14

10 COMMUNION OF ST. DiONYSius. Missal of Saint-Denis, middle of the nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. lat. 9436, f. 106 V.) 15

11 ST. MARK. Gospel Book of Saint-Vanne, first half of the 12th century (Verdun, Ms. 45, f. 28 v.) 15

12 CHRIST BETWEEN ss. BENEDICT AND GREGORY. HomiUes on Ezechiel, loth century (Orleans, Ms. 175, p. 150) 16

13 NATIVITY AND ANNUNCIATION TO THE SHEPHERDS. PSalter of Odbert, circa looo (Boulogne, Ms. 20, f. 58 v.) 17

14 DAVID AND THE SHULAMITE: APPEARANCE OF THE LORD TO SOLOMON. Bible of Soint-Vaast, first half of the I Ith
century (Arras, Ms. 435, Vol. i, f. 128 v.) 18

263

:v\..-
^-. '^ '?-*^,

%
15 ST. AUGUSTINE. St. Augustinc, De Civitate Dei, end of the nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat.

2058, f. i) 19

16 DECORATED INITIAL. St. Gregory, Moralia in Job, beginning of the 12th century (Dijon, Ms. 170, f. 59) 20

17 NEBUCHADNEZOR AND THE JEWS IN THE FURNACE. Bible of Stephen Harding, beginning of the 12th century
(Dijon, Ms. 14, f. 64) 20

18 THE CREATION. Commentaries on the Bible; Vendome, first half of the 12th century (Vendome, Ms. 117, f. i) 21

19 MIRACLES OF ST. MARTIN. Colkctanea on St. Martin, first half of the 12th century (fipinal, Ms. 73, f. 5 v.) 22

20 PENTECOST. Lectionary from CItinj, end of the nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. nouv. acq. lat. 2246,
f. 79 V.) 23

21 THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST; THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. Sacramentarj of Saint-iitienne; Limoges, circa 1 100
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 9458, f. 24) 23

22 BISHOP leander; aquitainian INITIAL. St. Gregory, Moralia in Job, end of the nth century (Bordeaux,
Ms. 24, f. i) 24

23 DECORATED INITIAL. Bibk of the Grande-Chartreust, beginning of the 12th century (Grenoble, Ms. 17, f. 175) 25

24 ST. MICHAEL. St. John Chrysostom, Homilies, circa 1078 (BibUotheque Nationale, Ms. coisl. 79, f. 2 v.) 25

25 CANON TABLES. Bible of Saint- Martial; Limoges, second half of the loth century (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. lat. 5, Vol. II, f. 131) 26
26 CANON TABLES. Gospcl Book, end of the nth century (Perpignan, Ms. i, f. 13 v.) 26

27 FIGHTING ANIMALS. Marble, Greece, nth century (Paris, Musee du Louvre) 27

28 APOSTLE. Marble, Toulouse, end of the nth century (Toulouse, figlise Saint-Sernin) 28

29 HEAD OF AN ANGEL, Fresco, Sant'Angclo in Formis, end of the nth century 29

30 BUSTS OF SAINTS. Life of Saints, end of the nth century (Le Mans, Ms. 214, f. 33 v.) 29

31 ss. RADEGUND AND MEDARDUS. Life of St. Radegund, end of the i ith century (Poitiers, Ms. 250, f. 27 v.) 31

32 DAVID. Psalter of Angers, end of the nth century (Amiens, Ms. l.escalopier 2, f. n^ v.) 32

33 ATLASES. Bible of Saint- Martial; Limoges, end of the nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 8,

Vol. II, f. 170 V.) 33

54 THE VIRGIN HOLDING A MEDALLION OF JOB. St. Gregory, Moralia in Job, end of the 1 2th century (Saint-Omer,
Ms. 12, Vol. II, f. 84 V.) 34

3 5 SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. AMANDUS. Life of St. Amandus, sccond half of the nth century (Valenciennes,
Ms. 502, f. 29) 35

36 CARPET PAGE. Bible of Saint- Amand, second half of the 12th century (Valenciennes, Ms. 5, f. 16 v.) 35

37 PETER LOMBARD. Sentences, second half of the 12th century (Valenciennes, Ms. 186, f. 2 v.) 36

38 SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. AMANDUS. Life of St. Amandus, second half of the 1 2th century (Valenciennes,
Ms. 500, f. 54) 37

39 THE CRUCIFIXION. Sacramentarj of Saint-Amand, second half of the 12th century (Valenciennes, Ms. 108,
f. 58 v.) 38

40 DECORATED INITIAL. St. Augustine, Works, first half of the 12th century (Cambrai, Ms. 559, f. 40 v.) 38

41 UNTRUTHFULNESS. St. Augustine, Works, first half of the 12th century (Cambrai, Ms. 5 59, f. 73 v.) 39
42 SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF DAVID. Souvignj Bibk, sccond half of the 1 2th century (Moulins, Ms. i , f.
93) 40

43 CANON TABLES. Pontignj Bible, second half of the 1 2th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 8 8 2 3 , f. 4 v.) 40

44 DECORATED INITIAL. Bible of Saint- Andre-au-Bois, second half of the 12th century (Boulogne, Ms. 2, f. 46) 41

45 ACANTHUS LEAF. Letters of St. Gregory, second half of the 12th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat.

2287, f. 2) 42
46 CHRIST AND MARY MAGDALENE. Scenes from the Life of Christ, second half of the 1 2th century (New York, Pierpont
Morgan Library, Ms. 44, f. 12) 44
47 THE MACCABEES. La nobk chevalerie de Judas Macchabee, 1285 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 1 5 1 04, f. 26 v.) 45

264
 ,

48 THE WHEEL OF FORTUNE. SketMook of VUlard de Honnecourt, middle of the 13th century (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. fr. 19093, f. 21 v.) 46

49 THE CRUCIFIXION. Alissal of Atichitt, circa 1200 (Douai, Ms. 90, f. 98 v.) 47
50 THE GOOD SHEPHERD. Gospel Lectiorury of the Sainte-Chapelle, circa 1260-1270 (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. lat. 17326, f. 99) 48

51 THE trinity: sports and pastimes. Paris Chansonnier, circa 1280-1315 (Montpellier, Bibliotheque de la
Faculte de Medecine, Ms. 196, f. 87 v.) 49
52 decorated page. Breviary of Saint-Sepulcre; Cambrai, circa 1290 (Cambrai, Ms. 102, f. 232) 50

55 BOETHius, philosophy; PLATO AND SOCRATES. Boethius, Cotisolation de la Philosophic; Metz, first third of the
14th century (Montpellier, Bibliotheque de la Faculte de Medecine, Ms. 43, f. 2) 51

54 GOD DELIVERS THE LAW TO MOSES. Bihk of Rheims Cathedral, beginning of the 14th century (Rheims,
Ms. 39, f.
99) 52

55 SAUL AND david; CAIN .\ND ABEL; THE EUCHARIST; CHARITY. Belkviik Breviarj, circa 1323-1326 (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. lat. 10484, f. 24 v.) 5 3

56 THE TRIAL OF ROBERT OF ARTOis. 1 3 36 (Bibliothcque Nationalc, Ms. fr. 18437, f. 2) 54

57 THE ENTOMBMENT. Hotirs of Paris Use, circa 1330 (Musee Jacquemart- Andre, Ms. i, f. 187) 55

58 ELEAZER AND REBECCA. Bibk ofJean de Cis, circa 1355 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 15397, f. 40 v.) 56

59 MiTHRiDATES MASSACRES THE ROMANS. St. Augustinc, Cite de Dieu, 1376 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr.

22912, f. 94 V.) 57

60 CASSANDRA. Boccaccio, Des claires et nobles femmes, circa 1403 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 598, f. 48 v.) 58

61 HELL. Hours of Charles the Noble, circa 1410 (Private collection, f. 211) 59
62 DAWN. Christine de Pisan, UBpitre d'Othea a Hector, circa 1400-1402 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr.

606, f. 21 V.) 60

63 VIRGIN AND CHILD. Trl's Belks Hcures de Notre-Dame, circa 1409 (Brussels, Bibliotheque Royale, Ms. 1 1060-61
f. 11) 61

64 VIRGIN AND CHILD. Collection of Devotional Treatises, 1406 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 926, f. 2) 62

63 THE COURT OF HEAVEN. Ugende doree, 1404 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 414, f. 1) 63

66 MIRACLE OF ST. NICHOLAS. Belks Heures de Jean de Berry, between 1410 and 141 3 (New York, Cloisters
Museum, f. 168). 64
^j
. '
67 THE KILL. Tres Riches Heures de Jean de Berry, 1416 (Chantilly, Musee Conde, Ms. 65, f. 12 v.) 65

68 HELL. Tris Riches Heures de Jean de Berry, 1416 (Chantilly, Musee Conde, Ms. 65, f. 108) 65

69 ALEXANDER AT TABLE. Bibk historiak, circa 1420 (Chantilly, Musee Conde, Ms. 28, f. 24 v.) 66

70 THE NATIVITY. Hours of Paris Use, circa 1415 (Collection of Count Antoine Seilern, f. 34 v.) dd

71 THE PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. Hours of Paris Use, circa 1410-141 5 (Chantilly, Musee Conde, Ms. 66, f. 69) 67

72 THE NATIVITY. Bedford Breviary, between 1424 and 1435 (Bibhotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 17294, f. 56 v.) 68

73 THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE SHEPHERDS. Hours of ths Marechal de Boucicaut, circa 1410-141 5 (Musee
Jacquemart-Andre, Ms. 2, f.
79) 68

74 THE MARTYRDOM OF ST. DiONYSius. Paris Breviary, circa 1420 (Chateauroux, Ms. 2, f. 364) 69

75 THE ANNUNCIATION. Hours of Paris Use, circa 1410-1415 (Bibliotheque Mazarine, Ms. 469, f. 13) 70
76 THE ANNUNCIATION. Hours of Troyes Use, circa 1410-141 5
(Chantilly, Musee Conde, Ms. 77, f. 29) 71

77 THE CRUCIFIXION. Roman Missal, second half of the 14th century (Cambrai, Ms. 150, f. 176) 71

78 FULK OF ANjou MARRIES QUEEN MELISSENDA. Guilkume de Tyr, Histoire de la Conquete de Jirusalem, circa 1460
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 2629, f. 167) 72

79 THE PARLIAMENT OF VENDOME. Boccaccio, Des cas cks noblcs hortimes et femmes, 1458 (Munich, Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek, Cod. gall. 6, f. 2 v.) 73
80 CHRIST BEFORE PILATE. Hours of Iztienne Chevalier, circa 1450 (Chantilly, Musee Conde) 74

265

'--'
8i ST. THOMAS AQUINAS TEACHING. Hours of Btienne Chevalier, circa 1450 (Chantilly, Musee Condc) 74
82 AN ANGEL AT PRAYER. Houfs of D'tatK de Croj, circa 1465 (Sheffield, Ruskin Museum, f. 1 2 v.) yj

83 Secrets de rbistoire nafurelle, circa 1440-1450 (Collection of Madame la Baronne de Charnace) 76

84 THE TOWER OF BABEL. St. Augustific, C'tti de Dicu, circa 1475 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 19, f. 81 v.) 77
85 THE WOMEN OF ISRAEL ACCLAIM DAVID. Hours oj Louts of Sovoj, between 1440 and 1465 (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. lat. 9473, f. 76 v.) 78
86 LOVE HANDS RENE OF ANjou's HEART TO DESIRE. Rene of Anjou, Livre du Caur d^ amour ipris (Vienna,
Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Ms. 2597, f. 2) 79
87 CCEUR READS THE INSCRIPTION ON THE ENCHANTED FOUNTAIN. Rene of Anjou, Livre du Caur d'amour epris
(Vienna, Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Ms. 2597, f. 15) 80

88 HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS. Roberto della Porta, Romuleon, circa 1490 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 365,
f. 19 V.) 81

89 THE VIRGIN MARY. Hours of Charks VIII, circa 1485 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1370, f. 36) 82

90 THE TRIUMPH OF LOVE. Petrarch, Triomphes, circa 1500 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 594, f. 348 v.) 82

Plate Colour illustrations

I ST. THOMAS. Lectionarj of Saint- Martial, Limoges, end of the loth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 5 301,
f. 279 V.)
II CHRIST IN MAJESTY. Misiol of Saitit-Dettis, middle of the nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 9456,
f. 15V.)

III THE CRUCIFIXION. Psalter-hymnory of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, second half of the nth century (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. lat. 11550, f. 6)

rv THE ASCENSION. Lectionory of Saint- Andre, Le Cateau, end of the nth century (Cambrai, Ms. 528, f 38 v.)

V THE nativity: the ANNUNCIATION TO THE SHEPHERDS. Cospel Book of Saint-Bertin, end of the loth century
(Boulogne, Ms. 11, f. 12)

VI ST. BERTINUS AND HIS COMPANIONS. Vie dcs Saint s Bcrtin, Folquin, Silvin et Winnoc; Saint-Bertin, circa 1000
(Boulogne, Ms. 107, f. 6 v.)

VII ST. DiONYSius AND HIS COMPANIONS: MARTYRDOM OF ST. DiONYSius. Gospels and Colkcts; Saint-Bertin, circa 1000
(Saint-Omer, Ms. 342 bis, f. 63 v.)

VIII ST. AUGUSTINE AND CHRIST: ALARDUS PRESENTS HIS BOOK TOST. VEDASTUS. St. AugUStlne, Co/"^J//0X; Saint-VaaSt,
Arras, first half of the nth century (Arras, Ms. 548, f. 1 v.)

IX THE SCRIBE PRESENTS HIS BOOK TO ST. MICHAEL. St. Clement, Recognittones; Mont-Saint-Michel, beginning of
the nth century (Avranches, Ms. 50, f. i)

ST.AUGUSTINE DISPUTES AGAINST FELiciANus. Oeuvres divcrscs des saints fSrome, Augustin et Ambroise; Mont-Saint-
Michel, second half of the nth century (Avranches, Ms. 72, f. 97)

XI SOLOMON AND THE QUEEN OF SHEBA. St. Ambrose, De Fide; Saint-fivroult, end of the nth century (Alengon,
Ms. 11, f. 1 V.)

XII DECORATED INITIAL. St. Gregory, Mora//a//o^;Citeaux, beginning of the 12th century (Dijon, Ms. 168, f. 4 V.)
XIII ABBOT RICHER WRITES TO THE DICTATION OF suLPicius SEVERUS. Recueil de textes sur saint Martin; Saint- Martin,
Metz, first half of the 12th century (Epinal, Ms. 73, f. i)
xrv THE ASCENSION. Sacramentarj of Saint-I^tienne, Limoges, circa iioo (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 9438,
f. 84 V.)
XV DECORATED INITIAL. Gradual of Saint- Michel, Gaillac, nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 776, f.
5)

XVI DANCER. Troper-Proser; the Auch region, middle of the nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1118,
f. 114)

XVII DECORATED INITIAL. Glossed Psalter and Apocaljpse; Albi, second half of the nth century (Albi, Ms. 45, f. 20)

XVIII LOCUSTS. Apocalypse of Saint-Sever, middle of the nth century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 8878, f 145)

266
 %;:

XIX THE HISTORIAN josEPHiis. Flavius Joscphus, Dc Btllo Juda'ico; Toulouse, end of the nth century (Biblioth^que
Nationale, Ms. lat. 5058, f.
3)

XX ST.ALBiNus BLESSES THE BREAD AND WINE. Vie dt Saint Aubin; Angers, end of the nth century (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. nouv. acq. lat. 1590, f. 2)

XXI A SCENE FROM THE LIFE OF ST. AUDOMARUS. Vie de saitit Omer, end of the nth century (Saint-Omer, Ms. 698,
f-34)

XXII ST. MARK. Gospel Book; Corbie, end of the nth century (Amiens, Ms. 24, f. 53)

XXIII THE MASTER AND HIS SERVANT. Lectiotiary of Rheittis Cathedral, end of the nth century (Rheims, Ms. 294, f. 191)

XXIV DANIEL IN THE LiONs' DEN. St. Jcrome, Explatiatio in Prophetas; Citeaux, first half of the 12th century (Dijon,
Ms. 132, f. 2)
XXV THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. St. Jctome, Explanatio in Isaiam; Citeaux, first half of the 12th century (Dijon,
Ms. 129, f. 4)
XXVI GOD CALLS JUDAS TO SUCCEED JOSHUA. Bible oj Saint- Martial, Limoges, end of the nth century (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. lat. 8, Vol. i, f. 91)

XXVII THE SOUL OF LAMBERT, ABBOT OF sAiNT-BERTiN, ASCENDS TO GOD. Saint-Bcttin, circa II 25 (Boulogne, Ms.
46, f. I)

xxviir BISHOP freculf: rab.^nus maurus with his PUPILS. Rsihznus MzuTus, Commentary on Exodus; Anchin, secon
half of the 12th century (Douai, Ms. 339, f. 2 v.)

XXIX ST. MATTHEW. Gospel Book oj Henin-LHtard; Saint-Bertin, middle of the 12th century (Boulogne, Ms. 14, Vol. i,
f. 22 V.)

XXX HERBERT DURSENS OFFERS HIS BOOK TO PETER AND PAUL. Gilbert de la Porrec, Commentaire
ss. des Psaumes;

Corbie, second half of the 12th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 12004, f- i v.)

XXXI DECORATED INITIAL. Zachatias of Besangon, Concordances; Anchin, second half of the 12th century (Douai,
Ms. 42, f. loi)

XXXII A SCENE from THE LIFE OF ST. AMANDUS. Vie de Saint Amand; Saint- Amand, second half of the 12th century
(Valenciennes, Ms. 500, f. 61)

XXXIII ST. GREGORY. Lettres de saint Gregoire; Saint-Amand, second half of the 12th century (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. lat. 2287, f. I V.) 'V >;-
XXXIV ST. JOHN. Gospel Book; Liessies, second quarter of the 12th century (Avesnes, Societe Archeologique)

XXXV ST. AMANDUS AND BAUDEMUNDUS. Vie de soint Amand, second half of the 12th century (Valenciennes, Ms. 501,
f. 58 V.)

XXXVI the VIRGIN and child. Bible, second half of the 12th century (Lyons, Ms. 410, f. 207 v.)

XXXVII the DEPARTURE OF TOBIAS. Bible, sccond half of the 12th century (Clermont-Ferrand, Ms. i, f. 203)

XXXVIII the ANNUNCIATION TO ZACHARiAS. Bible, sccond half of the 1 2th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat.

16746, f. 42)

XXXIX ESTHER A^rD AHASUERUS. Bible, second half of the 12th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 116, f. 65)

XL SCENES FROM THE BIBLE. Bible motalisee, circa 1250 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. n 560, f. 128)

XLI THE entombment: THE THREE MARYS AT THE SEPULCHRE. The Ingeburga Psalter, circa 1 200-1 205 (Chantilly,
Musee Conde, Ms. 1695, f. 28 v.)
XLII THE nativity: the ANNUNCIATION TO THE SHEPHERDS. Paris Psalter, circa 1230 (Bibliotheque de I'Arsenal,
Ms. 1186, f. 17)

XLIII ABRAHAM AND eliezer: REBECCA GIVES DRINK TO ELIEZER. Psalter oJ St. Louis, between 1253 and 1270 (Biblio-
theque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1052^, f 12)

XLIV THE STORY OF ADAM AND EVE. Paris Psalter, circa 1250 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 10434, f. 10)

XLV SCENES FROM THE APOCALYPSE. Lambert de Saint-Omer, Liber Floridus, circa 1 260 (Bibhotheque Nationale,
Ms. lat. 8865, f. 39)
XLVI TRISTAN AND ISOLDE SURPRISED BY KING MARK. Roman de la Poire, circa 1275 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms.
fr. 2186, f. 5)

267

'y,.r 'U >

XLVII THRESHING CORN. Martjrologe de Saint-Germain-des-Pris, circa 1270 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 12834,
f. 64 V.)

XLVIII THE ANOINTING OF DAVID: DAVID AND GOLIATH. Brevtorj of Philip the Fair, end of the 15th century (Biblio-
theque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1023, f. i v.)

XLIX KING LOT LEAVES QLTEEN guinivere's CASTLE: BATTLE AGAINST THE SAXONS. Robert de Borron, I Hsloire du
Graal, circa 1280 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 95, f. 292 v.)

ST. DiONYSius preaching: the CONVERSION OF LiSBius. Yves, Vie de saint Denis, 13 17 (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. fr. 2091, f.
99)
LI THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. Arras PSalter and Hoiirs, circa 1300 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1328, f. 28)

LII the story OF THE EMPEROR HERACLius: PETER THE HERMIT. Roman de Godefroi de Bouillon, 1337 (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. fr. 22495, f.
9)

LIII THE EMPRESS OF ROME. Gauticr de Coincy, Miracles de la Vierge, circa 1330 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. nouv.
acq. fr. 24541, f. 119)
LIV THE ANNUNCIATION. Heures de Jeanne d'&reux, circa 1325 (New York, Cloisters Museum, f. 1
6)

LV THE DEATH OF ABSALOM: A KING DETHRONED, THE SACRAMENT OF ORDINATION, THE GIFT OF INTELLIGENCE.
Breviary of Charles V, second half of the 14th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1052, f. 232)
LVI NATURE PRESENTS TO GUILLAUME DE MACHAUT HER CHILDREN: SENSE, RHETORIC AND MUSIC. OeUVVeS de GuHlaume
de Machaut, circa 1370 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 1584, f. E)
LVII THE CORONATION OF CHARLES VI. Grandes Chroniques de France, circa 137 5-1 379 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms.
fr. 2813, f. 3 V.)

LVIII SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF SOLOMON. Guiart des Moulins, Bible historiale, circa 1400- 1402 (Bibliotheque Natio-
nale, Ms. fr. 159, f. 289 V.)

LIX ST. AUGUSTINE OFFERS HIS BOOK TO THE LORD: THE SACK OF ROME BY THE GOTHS. St. AugUStine, Cite de DieU,
circa 1410 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 25, f. 5)
LX THE HEBREWS IN THE DESERT. Flavius Joscphus, Antiquites judafques, circa 1410 (BibUotheque Nationale, Ms.
fr. 247, f.
49)
LXI ULYSSES BLINDS THE CYCLOPS. Christine de Pisan, Fpitre d'Othia a Hector, circa 1400-1402 (Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. fr. 606, f. 11)

LXII THE TROJAN HORSE. Histoire d'Orose, circa 1390-1410 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 301, f. 147)
LXIII THE PROPHET ISAIAH. Psalter ofJean de Berry, circa 1 3 80-1 3 8 5 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 1 3 09 1 , f. 11 v.)

LXIV THE NATIVITY. Petites Heures de Jean de Berry, circa 1390 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 18014, f. 58)

IXV ABRAHAM AND HIS WIFE DEPART FROM EGYPT. Bible of Jean de Cis, circa 1390 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms.
fr. 15397, f- 14)

LXVI THE NATIVITY. Tres Belks Heures de Jean de Berry, circa 1400-1407 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. nouv. acq.
lat. 3093, f. 42)
LXVII THE MARRIAGE AT CANA: DISTRIBUTION TO THE POOR. Grandes Heures de Jean de Berry, 1409 (BibUotheque
Nationale, Ms. lat. 919, f. 41)
LXVIII THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. Belks Heures de Jean de Berry, circa 1410-1415 (New York, Cloisters Museum,
f. 48 V.)
LXIX THE BIRTH OF MOSES: THE NATIVITY: MOSES SLAYS AN EGYPTIAN: THE DEVIL VANQUISHED. Bible historiie, citca
1410-1415 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 166, f. 19)
LXX JEAN DE BERRY SETS OUT ON A JOURNEY. Petites Heures de Jean de Berry, circa 141 5
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms.
lat. 18014, f. 288)

LXXI THE CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN. Tres Rjches Hcures de Jean de Berry, circa 1414-1416 (Chantilly, Musee Conde)
LXXII THE LEGEND OF ST. GEORGE. Bedjord Breviary,citc2i 1424-143 5 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 17294, f. 447 v.)

LXXIII a, b. SCENES FROM THE "eunuchus" AND "hecyra". Terence des Dues, circa 1405-1410 (Bibliotheque de
r Arsenal, Ms. 664, fF. 47, 75 v.)
c, d. SCENES FROM THE "eunuchus" AND "hecyra". Tirence des Dues, circa 1405-1410 (Bibliotheque de
I'Arsenal, Ms. 664, fF. 85 v., 209 v.)

268
LXXIV GASTON DE FOix ISSUES ORDERS TO HIS HUNTSMEN. Gaston Phcbus, IJvre di la chasse, circa 1 405-1 410 (Biblio-
theque Nationalc, Ms. fr. 616, f. 13)

LXXV JOHN THE FEARLESS, DUKE OF BURGUNDY, RECEIVES A PRESENTATION COPY OF HAYTON's TRAVELS. Livre deS
merveilles, circa 1410 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 2810, f. 226)

LXXVI THE ANNUNCIATION. Hcures de Paris, circa 1410 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1161, f. 51)

LXXVII A DEAD MAN FACE TO FACE WITH HIS JUDGE. Hcures dc Rohott, clrca 14x8-1425 (Bibliothequc Nationale, Ms.
lat. 9471, f. 159)

LXXVIII CHRIST BEFORE PILATE. Heures dt Marguerite d^ Orleans, circa 1426-1430 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1156B,
f-i35)

LXXIX PTOLEMY SOTER ENTERS JERUSALEM. Flavlus Josephus, Antiquitis juddiques, circa 1470 (Bibliotheque Nationale,
Ms. fr. 247, f. 248)
LXXX THE BIRTH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST. Heures d' Bdetim Chevalier, circa 1450 (Chantilly, Musee Conde)
LXXXI a. KING GONTRAN SURRENDERS THE KINGDOM TO HIS NEPHEW CHILDEBERT BEFORE ORLEANS. GrandeS ChroniqueS
de France, circa 1460 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 6465, f. 45 v.)
b. EDWARD II OF ENGLAND DOES HOMAGE TO PHILIP THE FAIR FOR AQuiTAiNE. Grandes Chroniques de Fronce, circa
1460 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 6465, f. 301 v.)
LXXXII THE VISITATION. Heures de Rome, circa 1450 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. Rothschild 2530, f. 45)
LXXXIII LOVE AND FORTUNE. Chansounier de Jean de Montchenu, circa 1 460-1476 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. Roth-
schild 2973, f. i)

Lxxxrv THE KING OF ARMS PRESENTS EIGHT COATS TO THE DUKE OF BOURBON. Rcnc of Anjou, Le Livre des Toumois,
circa 1460-1465 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 2695, f. 11)

LXXXV THE RAPE OF HELEN. Histoire de la Destruction de Troie, circa 1500 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. nouv. acq.
fr. 24920, f. 12)

LXXXVI LOUIS DE LAVAL AT HIS PRAYERS. Heurcs de Louis de Laval, circa 1480-1489 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat.

9420, f. 5 1)

LXXXVII THE VIRGIN OF PITY. Heures d'Anne de Bretagne, circa 1 500-1 508 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 9474, f.
3)

LXXX VIII MARGARET OF austria(?). End of the 15 th century (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. lat. 1190)

LXXXIX THE author takes DESIRE INTO THE ORCHARD. Les Bchecs amoureux, circa 1500 (Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms.
fr. 143, f. 198 V.)

xc LOUISA OF savoy AND ETiENNE LEBLANC. fitieime Leblanc, Les Gestes de Blanche de Castille, circa 15 24-1 5
25
(Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. fr. 5715, f. A v.)

Photographs

All the colour photographs were taken specially for this book, except Pis. liv and lxviii, which are from the Cloisters
Museum, New York.
All the black-and-white photographs are from the Bibliotheque Nationale, except the following:
Archives Photographiques (Fig. 27); Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (Fig. 4); Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek (Fig. 9);
London, British Museum (Fig. 6); Giraudon (Figs. 67, 68, 79, 80, 81); Anderson (Fig. 29); Saint -Germain, Hurault
(Fig. 28); Sheffield, Ruskin Museum (Fig. 82).

269
 ; 2 :

INDEX
Italic numbers refer to pages

Abbo, Abbot of Fleury: ly Arras, Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 435 : Bernard, Saint: 41, 89
Adclard, Abbot of Saint-Germain-des- 18, fig. 14; Ms. 548: 191, pi. viii; Berry, John, Duke of. Sec John of
Pres: // Ms. 686: 19, 87 France, Duke of Berry
Aix-en-Provence, Bibliotheque munici- Artois: // Bertram, Meister, painter: j8
palc, Ms. 7: ij, 14, fig. 8 Aubert, M.: 89 Bible of Clermont-Ferrand: 40, pi. xxxvii
Alardus, scribe: /j Auch: 28 of the Grande-Chartreuse: fig. 23
Albcrtus, scribe: 19 Augustine, Saint, Works: }8, fig. 40, }9, of Jean de Cis: //, j6, fig. 58, pi. lxv
Albi: 26, }} fig. 41, pi. x; Cite de Dieu: 20, J7, 91, of Lyon: 40, pi. xxxvi
Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 45 : z6^ 92, figs. 15, 19, 84, pi. Lix; Confessions of Manerius: 41, 88
pi. XVII Ms. Rochcgude 104: ^2
; 19, pi. viii; Enarrationes: frontispiece of Moulins. See Bible of Souvigny
Albigeois: 26 Averbode, Abbey of: }4 of Pontigny 41, fig. 43
:

Albinus, Saint: }0 Avesnes, Societe archeologique: )8, of Rheims Cathedral: J2, fig. 54
Alchiero: j8 pi. XXXIV of Robert de Billyng: J2, 91
Alcuin: 14, 27 Avignon, illuminators of: //, ^0 of Saint-Amand: )6, fig. 36
Alengon, Bibliotheque municipale, Avranches, Bibliotheque municipale, of Saint-Andre-au-Bois: 41, 89, fig. 44
Ms. 11: 20, pi. XI Ms. 50: 20, pi. ix; Ms. 72: 20, 87, of Saint-Aubin: fo, 88
Ambrose, Saint, De Fide: pi. xi pi.x; Ms. 75 20, 87; Ms. 76: 20, 87;
:
of Saint-Benigne: jj, 88
Amedeus viii, Duke of Savoy (Felix v, Ms. 90: 20, 87 of Saint-Bertin ^4, 88, pi. xxix
:

Antipope): y^ Aymar de Poitiers: 81, 92 of Saint-Colombe, Sens: 41, 88

Amiens, Bibliotheque municipale, of Saint-Denis: .;/, pi. xxxix
Ms. 18: 10, fig. 2 Ms. 24 j2, pi. xxii
; : Baldwin, Count of Boulogne and of Saint-Germain-des-Pres: 41, 89
Ms. Lescalopier 2: }o, }2, fig. 32 Guincs: }2 of Saint-Martial, Limoges (first): 26,
Ancelot, illuminator: }2 Bamberg, Gospel-lectionary of the 87, Rg. 25
Anchin, Abbey of: // Cathedral: 2/ of Saint-Martial, Limoges (second):
Missal of: }8, 88, 90 Staatsbibliotheek, Ms. Lit. 7: 14, XXVI
fig- 33, Pl-

Andre Beauneveu, sculptor and fig- 9

ii,
of Saint-Sulpice, Bourgcs: 40, 88
illuminator: /^ Bayeux: 19 of Saint-Vaast, Arras: 18, 19, fig. 14
Andres, Abbey of: i2 Tapestry: 19, 87 of Souvigny: ^9, 42 fig.

Angers: y6. See Saint- Aubin Bearsted, The Viscount: 92 of Stephen Harding: 21, 22, fig. 17
Abbey of Saint-Aubin: }o Beatus of Liebana, Commentary on the Bible historiale: 66, fig. 69, 90,91
Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 24: Apocalypse : 27, pi. xviii Bible historiee: 6j, pi. xlix
12, 87 Beauneveu, Andre. See Andre Beauneveu Bible moralisee: 4J, 46, 48, 86, 90, pi. XL
Anjou: 20, }0 Bec-Hclluin, Abbey of: 20, 21 Bibles of the late 12th century: }6, }9Jf.
Anne of Britany, Queen of France: 78, 81 Bedford, John, Duke of. See John of Bischoff, B. 87
:

Anne of France, Dame de Bcaujeu: 76, 92 Lancaster, Duke of Bedford Blachernae, Church of. See Virgin of
Antiquitis judalques. See Jean Fouquet Bedford, Maitrc dc. See Maitre de Bedford Blachernae
Apocalypse of Albi: 26, pi. xvii Belles Heures of Jean de Berry. See John Blanche of Burgundy, Queen of France:
Aquitaine: 14, }2, ^4 of France, Duke of Berry /?
Aragon: 29, 70 Belleville, Family of: f Blanche of Castille, Queen of France: 48
Aratus, Phaenomena: 17, 87 Bencdictional of St. Aethelwold: 18 Blum, A.: 8j
Aristotle: 86 Benoit de Saint-More, Roman de Troie: 48 Boccaccio: j8, 73, 76, fig. 79, 91, 92

iyi

..'A
n '^V-'r-^'i-l
 ;

Boccace de Gen6vc, Maitre du. Sec Charles v. King of France: //, jjjf., 91 250: frontispiece; Ms. 339: ^6,
Maitrc du Bdccacc de Geneve Charles vi. King of FrJfhcc: ji, J7, 70, pl.xxviii; Ms. 849: ^6, 88
Boccklcr, A.: <?/, 90 74, pi. LVII Dover Bible: ^8
Bocthius: //, fig. 53 Charles vii. King of France: //, 78, 92 Droleries: jj
Bohemia: 91 Charles viii, King of France: 78, 82, 8} Dublin, Chester Beatty Library: 91
Boinet, A. Sj : Charles the Noble, King of Navarre: j8 Dubrowski, Peter: 92
Bondol, Jean. Sec Jean Bondol Charles of Orleans, Count of Dupont, J.: 8j
Books of Hours. Sec Hours Angouleme: 8} Durham: 20
Boqueteaux. See Maitrc aux Boqueteaux Charles, Duke of Savoy: 80 Durrieu, P.: 76, 8j, 91, 92
Bordeaux, Bibliothcque municipalc, Charnace Collection: 78, fig. 83, 92 Dyson Perrins Collection: 89
Ms. 24: 24, fig. 22 Charroux, Abbey of: }2
Bosham. See Herbert of Bosham Chartres Cathedral, stained glass in: Ebbo, Archbishop of Rhcims: 7/
Boucicaut, Jean Ic Mcingrc, Marcchal 44, 90
Gospels of : }2
Echecs amouretix, Les: pl. lxxxix
de: 69 Chateau-Gonticr, frescoes at: _jo
Echtcrnach, Abbey of: 22
Boucicaut, Maitre de. Sec Maitre de Chslteauroux, Bibliothcque municipalc,
Boucicaut Ms. 2 69, fig. 74 Ms. y. 92
: ;
Edward, Count of Savoy: /2
Chester Beatty Library. See Dublin Egbert, Archbischop of Trier: 2/
Boulogne, Bibliothcque municipalc,
Ms. 2: 41, fig. 44; Ms. 11; //, 87, Chevalier, fitienne. See fitienne
Enamel of Limoges: 2/
pi. v; Ms. 14: ^4, pi. XXIX ; Ms. 20: Chevalier
Ottonian: 2/
Epinal, Bibliothcque municipalc, Ms. 73:
77, fig. 13; Ms. 46: }4, pi. XXVII Chevrier, illuminator: J2
22, fig. 19, pl. XIII
Ms. 106: 12, 86; Ms. 107: 8j, pi. vi; Christina of Norway, Psalter of: 48, 90
Ms. 188: 77, 87 Christine de Pisan: J9, fig. 62, 70, 78, 91,
fiticnne Chevalier, Hours of. Sec Hours
of fitienne Chevalier
Bouquechardiere Chronicle: 77 pi. LXI
fitienne Leblanc: pl. xc
Bourdichon, Jean. See Jean Bourdichon Citeaux, Abbey of: 21, )4, }7, 41
Bourges: 7/, 76 Clairvaux, Abbey of: 41 fitienne Loypeau, Bishop of Lugon 67:

Bibliothcque municipalc, Ms. 3 40, 88 : Clement, Saint, Recognitiones: 20, pi. ix Eugenius Pope: 7/
iv.

Sainte-Chapclle: 67 Clermont-Ferrand, Bibliothcque Everard, Monk of Froidmont: 49

Boutcmy, A.: 88, 89 municipalc, Ms. i 40, pi. xxxvii :

Fauvel. Sec Roman de Faitvcl
Breviary of the Duke of Bedford: 67, 68, Cluny, Abbey of: 9, 2}, fig. 20, 24, )), 87 Felix, illuminator: }6
69, fig. 72, pi. LXXII Cockerell, Sir S. 91 C: Felix V, Antipope. See Amedcus viii
of Belleville:
J2, jj, 91, fig. 53 Coene, Jacques. See Jacques Coene FenoUar, Saint-Martin: 29
of Charles v: jj, lv pi. Coetivy, Prigent de. Admiral of France: Filarete: 7/
of Froidmont: 90 49, 68, 91 Flavius Josephus: 28, ^0, 88, pis. xix, lx
of Joan of fivreux j2 : Cologne: 18, go Flemish illuminators at Paris: 77
of Paris use: 69, fig. Colombe. See Francois, Jean, Michel
of Philip the Fair: 74 49, jo, pi. xlviii Colombe
Flcury,
Floreffe,
Abbey of: 72, 7/,
Abbey of: }4
77, 19

Brinay: }o Constantinople, Hagia Sophia: 26 Fontainebleau, School of: 81, 8)

Brion-Guerry, L. : 88 Copenhagen, Royal Library, Gl. kgl. Fouquet, Jean. See Jean Fouquet
Brou: 80 Samml. 1606, 4": 90 Fra Angelico: 7/
Brussels, Bibliothcque royalc, Ms. 1 1060- Corbie, Abbey of: }0, // Francis, Count of Vendome: 82
61 : 60, 61, fig. 63 Croy, Diane de. See Diane, Duchess of Francis i. King of France: 8}
Croy Franco-Saxon School: 77
Cambrai, Bibliothcque municipalc, Francois Maitre. See Maitre Francois
Ms. 102: fo, fig. 52; Ms. 150: 70, 71, Dacier, E.: 88 Frangois Colombe, illuminator: 80, 92
fig. 77; Ms. 215 77, 87; Ms. 528::
77, Dagobcrt, King of France: 76 Frangois Robertet: 77, 7}, 74
pi. iv; Ms. 559: j8, figs. 40, 41 Dan: 24 Froidmont, Abbey of: 48, 49
Abbey of Saint-Sepulcre: }8 Daniel: 21 Froissart, Jean. Sec Jean Froissart
Canossa: 24 David: 21 Fulk, painter: )0, 49
Canterbury: 21 Delislc, L.: 9T
Caron, Antoinc: 81 Denis Foulechat: j6 Gaguin, Robert. See Robert Gaguin
Cassandra: /(f, fig. 60 Desiderius, Abbot of Monte Cassino Gaillon, Chateau de: 82
Catalonia: 29, ji, 70 (Pope Victor iii): 2p Gaston iii, Count of Foix, Livre de la
Central France, School of: 94 Dcslandres, Y. 87 : chasse: 68, pl. lxxiv, 69, 84
Chansonnier (heart-shaped): 92, Deuchler: po Gaston Phebus. See Gaston iii, Count
pi.LXXXIII Diane, Duchess of Croy, Hours of. Sec of Foix
of Montpellicr: jo, fig. 51,// Hours of Diane de Croy Gaucourt, Charles de. See Charles de
of Paris: jo, 90 Dijon, Bibliothcque municipalc, Ms. 2: Gaucourt
Chantilly, Musee Condd, Ms. 28: 66, ;?/, 88; Ms. 14: 20, fig. 17; Ms. 129: Gaudiosus: i}, 87
fig.69; Ms. 65: 66, figs. 67, 68; ;?/, pl. xxv Ms. 1 3 2 _^/, pi. xxiv Ms.
; : ; Gauthier, M. M.: 87
Ms. 66: (f7, fig. 7i;Ms. 77:<?9,fig. 76; 168-170: 27, fig. 16, 87; Ms. 289: 27, Gautier, Bishop of Autun: 72
Ms. 1695 47, pi. xLi; Hours of
: 87; Ms. 527: 92; Ms. 634: 88 Gautier de Coincy, Miracles de Notre-
fitienne Chevalier: 7/, figs. 80, 81, Diringer, D.: 8j Dame: J2, pl. xiii
pi. LXXX Dodwell, C. R. 87, 89 : Gauzelin, Abbot of Flcury: i}, 17
Charles the Bold: 7/, 18 Douai, Bibliothcque municipalc, Ms. 42: Georges d'Amboise, Archbishop of
Charles de Gaucourt: 92 J 6, pl. XXXI Ms. 90: 47, fig. 49; Ms.
; Rouen: 82

zjl
 2 3 :
:

Gerard, Abbot of Saint- Aubin: )0 Herbert Durscns, scribe: pi. xxx Jean Corbichon: }6
Gerard, Bishop of Therouannc: ^2 Hermann dc Limbourg. See Limbourg Jean dc Courcy, Chronicle: 71, 91
Gilbert de la Porree: }y, pi. xxx Brothers Jean Fouquet, painter: 64, 7 iff-. Si, 82,
Giovanni Colonna, Mer des histoires: j8 Hilary of Poitiers, Saint, IV^orks: 36 91, 92, 94; Antiquites judaiques : 67, 71,
Giovannino dc'Grassi, painter: J9 History of the foundation of Saint- 7h 74> 7^y P'- Lxxix; Boccaccio at
Girard d' Amiens, Conte de Meliacin: 48,90 Martin-des-Champs: 12, fig. 6 Munich: 73, 76, 92; Grandes chroni-
Girard d'Orleans, painter: //, j6 Homburger, O. 90 : qiies: 74, 76, pi. Lxxxi; Hours of

Glasgow Psalter: )S Honore, illuminator: 49, jo, J2, //, 90 fitienne Chevalier: 74, 7J, figs. 80, 81,
Gnudi, C. Sj : Honorc Bovet, Arbre des batailles: 92 pi. LXXX, 92
Gospel-book of Corbie: )0, pi. xxii Hours of Anne de Beaujeu: 76, 92 Portrait of: 76
of Hcnin-Lietard: xxix pi. of Anne of Britany: 81, pi. lxxxvii Jean Froissart, Chronicle: 69
of Liessies: }j, xxxiv pi. of the Duke of Bedford: 91 67, 68, Jean Golein: /if
of Lorsch: 18 of Blanche of Burgundy: j Jean Lebcguc: J 8, 91
of Mortain 8j :
of the Marechal de Boucicaut: 69, Jean Lemaire dc Beiges: 82
of Saint-Bertin: v //, pi. fig-
73 Jean Malouel, painter: 62
of Saint-Medard, Soissons: iS, fig. 11 Chantilly:
at 71 67, fig. Jean de Montchenu, Bishop of Viviers:
of Saint-Vanne: 87 2}, of Charles viii 89 : 82, fig. 79, 92
of the Sainte-Chapelle, Bourges: 6j of Charles of Angouleme: 83 Jean dc Montlugon, illuminator: 94
of Senones: 8y 22, of Charles the Noble: 61 j8, fig. Jean de Papclcu, scribe: 90
Gospel-lectionary from Lorraine: 87 22, of Diane de Croy:
- 82 76, fig. Jean Pcrreal, painter: 83, 94
of the Saintc-Chapelle, Paris: 48 46, of fitienne Chevalier: 74, 7/, figs. 80, Jean Pucelle, illuminator: J2jf., 64, 91
90
fig. 50, Lxxx, 92
81, pi. Jean de Vaudetar: j6
of Salzburg: 2/ 24, of Francis of Vendome: 82 Jean-Louis of Savoy, Bishop of Geneva
Gothic, International: //, jj of Jean Pucelle: nv j 2, pi. 79
Grabar, A.: <?/, 86 of Joan of fivreux. See Hours of Jean Jeanne de Laval, wife of Rene of Anjou
Gradual of Gaillac: 26, pi. xv Pucelle 92
of Priim: 24 of Joan of Navarre: // J2, Jeannequin de Limbourg. See Limbourg
Grande-Chartreuse, Abbey of the: 26 of Joan of Savoy: J2 Brothers
Grandes chroniqiies de France. See Jean of Louis de Laval: lxxxvi, 94 81, pi. Jerome, Saint, Letters: 20, 87; Commen-
Fouquet of Louis of Savoy: 85 79, fig. tary on Isaiah: pi. xxv; Commentary on
Grandes heures of Jean de Berry. See John of Margaret of Orleans: lxxviii 70, pi. the Prophets: pi. xxiv
of France, Duke of Berry owned by Martin Le Roy: 69 Joan, Queen of Navarre: /2, f
Gratian, Deere turn: 49, 90 of Rohan: lxxvii
69, 70, pi. Joan of Burgundy: /2
Gregory, Saint, Homilies on Ezechiel: // of Rouen use: 91 70, Joan of fivreux. Queen of France: J2
Moralia: //, 21, fig. 16, 24, fig. 22, }}, owned by Count Seilern: 70 66, fig. Joan of Savoy: J2
34, 3 J, pi. XII, 87 of Yolanda of Flanders: 91 /2, //, John I, King of Aragon: 69
Ponrait of: //, 38, pi. xxiii Hugh, Abbot of Cluny: 24 John Chrysostom, Saint: 26; Homilies:
Gregory vii, Pope: 24, 29 Hugo, illuminator: 87 2j, fig. 24
Gregory Muntaner, Abbot of Saint- Hugues dc Saint-Cher, Postillae in John of France, Duke of Berry :
J9ff., 69,
Sever: 27 Bib Ham: 4; 8 J, 91; Antiquites judaiques: 71, pi. Lx;
Grenoble, Bibliotheque municipale, Huillet d'Istria, Mile: 94 Belles heures: 64, 69, fig. 66, pi. lxviii;
Ms. 17: 2^, fig. 23;Ms. 875:7?, 5>2, ?i Bible historiee: 6j, pi. lxix; Boccaccio:
Grodecki, L. 90 : Ingeburga of Denmark, Queen of France, ;8,9i ; Grandes heures: j 3, 60, pi. lxvii,
Guerande: 30 Psalter of: 47, pi. xli, 90 91; Petites heures: /_?, pis. lxiv, lxx;
Guiart des Moulins, Bible historiale: ji, Ingelard, illuminator: // Psalter: J9, pi. lxiii; Tres belles heures
jS, 69, pi. LVIII Initials, Romanesque: 10 (Paris) 60, pi. lxvi ; Trh belles heures
:

Guido Colonna, Destruction de Troie: 81, Italian illuminators at Paris: /<f (Brussels): 60, fig. 63; Tres riches
pi. LXXXV Italy, Influence of: 32, j 3, j 4, j8 heures: 6j, 80, figs. 67, 68, pi. i.xxi, 91
Guillaume le Clerc, Bestiaire: 46, 90 John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford 67 :

Guillaume Jouvenel, Chancellor of Jacquemart de Hesdin, illuminator: 60, Breviary of. See Breviary of the Duke
France: 78 62, 67, 91 of Bedford
Guillaume de Machaut: ^6 Jacques Coene: 91 Hours See Hours of the Duke of
of.
Guillaume de Tyr, Histoire de la conquete James of Armagnac, Duke of Nemours: Bedford
de Jerusalem: 48, 71, fig. 78, 90, 91 75 John V of Montfort, Duke of Britany: 70
Jarento, Abbot of Saint-B6nigne 34, 88 : John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy 7/ :

Hagia Sophia, Constantinople: 26
Hahn, H.: 89
Hainault: //
Harding, Stephen. See Stephen Harding
Haseloff, A. : (f/
Haseloff, G.: 90
Hautvillers,Abbey of: //
Henin-Lietard, Abbey of: 34
Henry iv. Emperor of Germany: 24
Herbert of Bosham 41
Jean d' Amiens, illuminator: 49 John the Good, King of France: 33,
Jean de Berry. Sec John of France, Duke //, J<^
of Berry Jor: 24
Jean Bondol, illuminator: J7, 91 Jourdan: 24
Jean Bourdichon painter: 76, 78, 81, Jouvenel, Guillaume. See Guillaume
82, 94 Jouvenel
Jean de Bruges. See Jean Bondol Jouvenel des Ursins, Maitre de. See
Jean de Cis. See Bible of Jean de Cis Maitre dc Jouvenel des Ursins
Jean Colombe, illuminator: 64, 7J, 76, Jullian, R.: 88
: Soff., 92, 94 Justinian, Emperor of the East: 26

273

^ -I
 ) :
:

Kalcndar of the Belleville Breviary: J2, Harley Ms. 15 26-1 5 27: po of Saint-Denis: //, 87, fig. 10, pi. u
Jh 91 Lambeth Palace, Bible: )8 ;;/,
of Saint-Louis, Poissy: J2
Kochlcr, W.: S8 Victoria and Albert Museum, 54?'/ of Saint-Maur: 86 12,
Kutal, A.: fi 1859: 8p Moissac, Abbey of Saint-Pierre: 27
Longhurst, M. H.: 8p Montchenu, Jean de. See Jean de
Labandc, H.: po Lorsch, Abbey of: 18 Montchcnu
Labordc, A. de: po, 92 Louis, Duke of Guyenne: 68 Monte Cassino, Abbey of: 26, 27, 2p, 8p
La Couture, Abbey of: }0 Louis, Duke of Savoy: pi. xc Montmajour, Abbey of: ij, 87
La Croix-Saint-Leufroi, Abbey of: 20 Louis II of Anjou, King of Sicily: 6p Montmartre: 76
La Fcrtc-sur-Grosne, Abbey of: j) Louis IX, King of France: 4j, 48 Montpellier, Bibliotheque de la Facultc
Lafond, ].: 94 Louis XI, King of France: 71 de Midicine, Ms. 43: //, fig. 53;
Lambert, Abbot of Saint-Bcrtin pi. xxvii : Louis XII, King of France: 78 Ms. 196: /o, fig. 51
Lambert de Saint-Omcr, Liber floridtis: Louis de Laval: 76, 81, pi. lxxxvi Mont-Saint-Michel, Abbey of: ip
48, pi. XLV Louis the Pious: // Morand, Mmc: pi
Langucdoc: 2/, //, 70, 90, pr Louisa of Savoy: pi. xc Morel-Payen, L. : 8j
Laucr, Ph.: <?/ Low Countries: // Morey, C. R.: po
Laurent Girard: /j Loypeau, fitienne. See fitienne Loypeau Mortain, Collegiate church of: ip
Lectionary of Citeaux jf : Lyon, Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 410: Moulins, Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. i

of Cluny : 2j, fig. 20, if/ 40, pi. XXXVI 40, 41, fig. 42
of Limoges :
14, pi. i Claudius Cote Collection: 88 Maitre de. See Maitre de Moulins
of Montmajour: //, Lyre, Abbey of: 20
(f/ Mozarabic art: 27, ))
of Rheims Cathedral: /2, xxiii pi. Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,
of Saint- Andre, Le Cateau: iv Mahiet, illuminator: j2
//, pi. Cod. gall. 6: 71, 72, fig. 79; Cod. lat.
of Saint-Germain-des-Pres: Maitre de Bedford: j8, 67
//, (?7 7/, pi 70, 1 740 1 (Liber matutinalis) : po
of Saint-Martial: S/ du Boccacc dc Geneve: See also ff.,
p2.
of Saint-Vanne: 2j Maitre de Jouvenel des Ursins New York, Pierpont Morgan Library,
of the Sainte-Chapellc, Bourges: 6^ aux Boquctcaux: j6, j8, pi Ms. 44: 44, fig. 46; Ms. 333: 87
Lefranc, Martin. See Martin Lefranc de Boucicaut: f8, 67, 6p, pi The Cloisters Museum, Hours of Jean
Lehmann, R.: p2 de Christine dc Pisan: j8, 62 fig. Pucelle: J2, pi. liv; Belles heures of
Le Mans, Abbey of La Couture: ^0 Frangois: p2 78, Jean de Berry: 62, fig. 66, pi. lxviii
Biblioth^quc municipale, Ms. 214: de Jouvenel des Ursins: p2 77ff., Neveux, P. 88 :

JO, 30
fig. de Moulins: 8j Niccphorus Botaniates, Emperor of the
Stained glass window of the Ascen- de Rohan: f8, 7P, pi 67, 6pff., East: 26
sion: JO, 88 Man with a Glass of Wine (Musec du Nivardus: i), 17, 87
Lemoisne, P. A.: 8j Louvre): 78 Noble chevalerie de fudas Macchabee, La: 46,
Leningrad, Hermitage Library: 92 Manasses, Provost of Rheims: }2 fig- 47
Leroquais, V.: 86, po Manerius, scribe: 41, 88 Nordenfalk, C: 8j, 87, 88
Leyden, University Library, Ms. Voss. Marchiennes, Abbey of: )j, }7 Normandy, Lower: ip, 87
38: 12, 86; Ms. Voss. lat. 8" 79: 17, 87 Margaret of Austria: pi. lxxxviii
Liber niatntinalis from Scheyern: po Margaret of Orleans, Countess of Odbert, Abbot of Saint-Bertin: 17, 18,
Liessics, Abbey of: jj iStampes: 70 19, S7
Life of Christ (New York): 44, fig. 46, po Hours of. See Hours of Margaret of Odilo, Saint, Abbot of Cluny: p
Life of St. Albinus: jo, pi. xx Orleans Odo, Bishop of Bayeux: ip
Life of St. Amandus (first): j6, fig. 35 Marmoutiers, Abbey of: 12 Oliver, illuminator: )6
(second): )6, jj, fig. 38, pi. xxxii Martens, Bella: pi Orleans, Bibliotheque municipale, Ms.
(third):
}8, xxx pi. Martin, H.: 8j, po, pi 175: 16, fig. 12
Life of St. Audomarus : )o, pi. xxi Martin the Aged, King of Aragon: 68 Orosius: pi. lxii
Life and Miracles of St. M
aunts: 12, fig. 5
Martin Lefranc: 77, p2, p} Oursel, C. 8j, 86, 87
:

Life of St. Qiiiniinus: 12 Martyrology of Saint-Germain-des-Pres: Oxford, Bodleian Library, Ms. Auct.
Life of St. Radegiind: jo, ji, fig. 31 /<9, pi. XLVII B. IV, 6: po
Life of St. Wandregisil: 12, fig. 7 Mary of Anjou, Queen of France: j
Limbourg Brothers, illuminators: //, j8, Mary, daughter of Jean de Berry: 62, Pacht, Otto: 78, 87, pi, p2
64jf., 68, 69, 7j, 76, 81 64
fig. Panofsky, E.: po, pi
Limoges. See Saint-tienne, Saint- Master of the Registrum Gregorii: 2} Parement de Narbonne (Musee du
Martial Matilda, Countess of Tuscany: 24 Louvre): 60
Limousin, R.: p4 Meiss, Millard: 8f Paris, Bibliotheque dc 1' Arsenal, Ms. 438
Lives ofSS. Bertinus, Folquinus and Winnoc: Metz, Abbey of Saint-Martin: 2} P4; Ms. 664 68, pi. lxxiii Ms. 1169:
: ;

18, pi. VI Michel, Andre: 8j //, fig. 3; Ms. II 86: 48, p). XLii;
Lives of SS. Valerius and Philibertus: 12 Michel Colombe, sculptor: 7p, p2 Ms. 1562: pi; Ms. 2695: p2; Ms.
Lives of the Bishops of Angers: 12, jo, fig. 4 Milan, Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, 5057-58: pi; Ms. 5059: 510
Livre des nierveilles: 6p, pi. lxxv pulpit:
}} Bibliotheque Mazarine, Ms. 469: 6p,
Lombardy: 7p Cathedral: 64, pi fig-
75
London, British Museum, Add. Ms. Milkau, Fr.: 8j Bibliotheque nationale, Mss. Coisl.79:
11662: I J, fig. 6; Add. Ms. 18850: pi; Millar, E. G.: po 2}, 26, fig. 24; Fr. 19: 78, fig. 84; Fr.
Cotton Ms. Tiberius C. vi: 22, 87; Missal of Anchin: 47, fig. 49, po 25: /<f, pi. Lix; Fr. 95: //, pi. xLix;

^74
 :;; ) 1

Fr. 145: 8), pi. Lxxxix; Fr. 146: 90; Bibliothcque Saintc-Gencvi6ve, Ms. Rabanus Maurus: pi. xxviii
Fr. 159: jS, 91, pi. Lviii; Fr. 166: 6j, 8-10: 41, 88; Ms. 20-21: po; Ms. Ramsey Abbey: 17
pi. Lxix; Fr. 247: 67, 7/, pis. lx, 1029: po Raoul de Presles: }6
lxxxix; Fr. joi fp, pi. lxii; Fr. 365
:
Fcolc dcs Beaux-Arts, donation Ratisbon: 2/
So, fig. 88; Fr. 414: 6j, fig. 65 ; Fr. 594: Masson, No. 349: po Ravenna: 26, 27
90; Fr. 598: fS, 91, fig. 60; Fr.
g), fig. Musee Jacqucmart-Andr^, Ms. j i :
), Raymond, Count of Galicia: ^4
606: jp, 60, fig. 62, pi. Lxi; Fr. 616: 57; Ms.
fig. 6p, 73 2: fig. Raymond iv. Count of Saint-Gilles: 2p
6S, pi. Lxxiv; Fr. 926: 6z, fig. 64; Fr. Musde du Louvre, Portrait of Jean Rdau, L. 8j :

1291: 84; Fr. 1584: j6, pi. Lvi; Fr. Fouquct: 76; Parcment dc Narbonnc: Regino of Priim: ip
1610: po; Fr. 1633: po; Fr. 2090-92: 60; Christ carrying the Cross: 60, pi; Regislnim Gregorii, Master of the. Sec
po; Fr. 2186: ./(f, pi. xLvi; Fr. 2629: Stele: 27, fig. 27 Master of the Registrum Gregorii
71, pj.dg.iS; Fr. 2695 7?, pi. lxxxiv : ;
Pcintrc dc 1402: j8, 62, 67, pi Reichcnau, Abbey of: 2/
Fr. 2810: 6p, pi. Lxxv; Fr. 2813: j6, Perls, K.: pi Ren6 of Anjou, King of Sicily: 6p, 7/,
pi. Lvii;Fr. 5715 <f_j, pi. xc; Fr. 6183
: : Perpignan, Bibliothcque, Ms. 1 : 26, 27, 76, 79 ff., 92; Livre du caur d' amour
pi; Fr. 6465 /6, pi. lxxxi; Fr. 9081
: fig. 26 epris: 79, 80, figs. 86, 87; Livre des

po; Fr. 12420: j8, pi; Fr. 13091: /?, Perreal, Jean. Sec Jean Perreal tournois: 79, pi. lxxxiv
pi. Lxiii; Fr. 14363: 8p;Fr. 14970: ^0/ Perspective,Romanesque: // Rheims: )2, /2
Fr. 15104: 47, 48, fig. 47; Fr. 15397: Peter Lombard, Liber sentenciarum : }6, }7, Bibliothcque municipale, Ms. 39: /2,
//, /<^, fig- 58, pl-Lxv;Fr. 15459= 9'! fig- 37, 88 fig. 54; Ms. 294: }2, pi. xxiii;

Fr. 18437: /./, fig. 56; Fr. 19093: 46, Petites heures of Jean de Berry. See John Ms. 672: 88
fig. 48; Fr. 20124: pi; Fr. 22119: pi; of France, Duke of Berry Cathedral, Visitation: )2; Bible: /2,*
Fr. 22495: //, pi. Lii; Fr. 22912: f6, Petrarch, Triomphes: fig. 90 Lectionary: }2, J2
/7, 9/, fig. 59; Fr. 22913: ?/,' Nouv. Petrus Comestor, Hisioria scholastica : j i Richard, Count of fitampes: 70
acq. fr. 24920: 81, pi. lxxxv; Nouv. Philip Augustus, King of France: 76 Richard de Saint-Vanne: p, 2}
acq. fr. 24541 : pi. liii; Gr. 139 (Paris Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy: 62 Richard de Verdun, illuminator: jo
Psalter): 40, 88; Lat. 26, 27, fig. 25 5 : Philip the Fair, King of France: 4p, // Richer, Abbot of Saint-Martin, Metz:
Lat. 8: }), po, fig. 33, pi. xxiv; Lat. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy: 71 pi. xiii

116: ^/, pl.xxxix; Lat. 776: 2<J^, pl.xv; Philip the Tall, King of France: // Ring, G.: 8f
Lat. 819: )2, 88; Lat. 889: i}; Lat. Piero della Francesca, painter: 7/ Ritter, G.: p4

919: 60, pi. Lxvii; Lat. 1023: jo, pi. Pierre de Bourbon, Sire de Beaujeu: Robert, Count of Artois: /2, fig. 56
XLViii; Lat. 1052: j), pi. lv; Lat. 71, 7i Robert, Count of Mortain: 19
H18: 2/, 26, pi. XVI ; Lat. 11 26: i), Pierre de Montreuil, architect: 46 Robert i. King of France: 12
87; Lat. 1156B: 70, pi. Lxxviii; Lat. Pisanello (Antonio Pisano, called), Robert dc Billyng, scribe: J2
I i6i 6p, pi. Lxxvi; Lat. 1 190: 8^, pi.
: painter: jp Robert de Borron: //, pi. xlix
Lxxxviii; Lat. 1328: //, fig. 52, pi. li; Plato: 86 Robert Gaguin: p2
Lat. 1370: 82, fig. 89; Lat. 1577A: 92; Poissy, Church of Saint-Louis: /2 Robertet, Francois. See Frangois Robertet
Lat. 1699: )6, }7, 88; Lat. 2058: ip, Poitiers, Aymar de. See Aymar de Roberto della Porta, Romuleon: 81, fig. 88
fig. 15; Lat. 2079: ip, 87; Lat. 2287: Poitiers Robinet d'fitampes: 60
42, fig. 45, pi. xxxiii; Lat. 2639: ip, Poitiers, Bibliothcque municipale, Rohan, Maitre de. See Maitrc de Rohan
87; Lat. 3778: 12, 86; Lat. 4915: p2; Ms. 41 p2; Ms. 250 )0, )i, fig. 3
: : Rokseth, Y. : po
Lat. 5058: 28, pi. XIX Lat. 5286: po; ; Pol de Limbourg. See Limbourg Brothers Roman de Fauvel: 90
Lat. 5301: 14, pi. i; Lat. 8823: 40, Pontifical of fitienne Loypeau: 6y Roman de Godejroi de Bouillon: //, pi. LH
fig.43; Lat. 8865: 48, pi. XLv; Lat. Pontigny, Abbey of: 41 Roman de la Poire: 48, pi. xlvi
8878 27, pi. xviii Lat. 8892 po; Lat.
: ; : Porcher, J.: 87, pi, p2 Roman de Troie: 48, po
9392:22, 87; Lat. 9420 81, pi. Lxxxvi : Pradel, P.: 5)2 Rome: 88
Lat. 9436: //, fig. 10, pi. 11; Lat. 9438: Preaulx, Abbey of: 20 Rothschild, Baron Henri de, Collection
24, 2 J, fig. 21, pi. XIV Lat. 9453: 22, ; Prudentius: 12 of. See Paris, Bibliothcque nationale

2), 87; Lat. 9471 70, pi. Lxxvii; Lat.

: Priim, Abbey of: 24 Rothschild, Baron Maurice dc: pi
9473: 79, fig- 85; Lat. 9474: 81, pi. Psalter: 47 Rouen: 71
Lxxxvii Lat. 10434: 48, pi. xliv; Lat.
; of Albi: 87 26, School of: 82, 8 J, P4
10484: /2, fig.55; Lat. 10525: 46, po, of Blanche of xlii
Castille: 48, pi. Roussillon: 27, 2p
pi. XLiii; Lat. 1 1 535: 41, 8p; Lat. of Charles v: j Royaumont, Abbey of: 4}
11550: //, pi. Ill; Lat. 11560: 4J, pi. of Christina of Norway: 48, po
xl; Lac. 11751: //, 87; Lat. 11935: of Ingeburga of Denmark 47, Sacramentary of Liege: _J2, 88

:

pi; Lat. 12004: }f, }6, pi. xxx; Lat. pi.xLi, po of Saint-Amand: }7
12048: 10, fig. I ; Lat. 12054: 12; Lat. of Jean de Berry: jp, pi. lxiii of Saint-fiticnne, Limoges: 24, }0,
12834: /o, pi. XLVii; Lat. 16743: ofOdbert: 13 /7, fig. fig. 21, pi. XIV

88; Lat. 16746: 41, 88, pi. xxxviii; from Picardy (Lat. 1328): //, //, Saint-Amand, Abbey of: }j
Lat. 17294: 67, fig. 72, pi. Lxxii; Lat. pi. LI Saint-Andre, Le Cateau, Abbey of: //
17326: 48, po, fig. 50; Lat. 18014: 60, of Saint-Aubin: }0, }2, 32 fig. Saint-Andre-au-Bois, Abbey of: 41
6 J, pis. Lxiv, Lxx; Nouv. acq. lat. of Saint-Germain-des-Pres: // Saint-Aubin, Angers, Abbey of:
2246: 24, 87, fig. 20; Nouv. acq. lat. of LouisSt. po,
(Paris):
4}, 64, 81, 12, )o, 88
3093: 60, pi, pi. Lxvi; Rothschild pi.XLIII (Leyden):
;
po 47, Saint-Bcnigne, Dijon, Abbey of: 20
2530: 78, pi. Lxxxii; Rothschild 2973: Utrecht: //
at Saint-Bertin, Abbey of: 17, ip, )4
7P, pi. LXXXIII Pucellc, Jean. See Jean Pucelle Saint-Denis, Abbey of: //, 41, 44

*75
 ; :

Saint-fibrulf, Mortain, Collegiate Church Sens, Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 1 Urraca, Queen of Castille: j4
of: 19 41, 88
Saint-fiticnne, Limoges, Cathedral of: }0 Sainte-Colombe. See Sainte-Colombe, Vaillant, P. : 86
Valenciennes, Bibliotheque municipale,
Saint-fivroult, Abbey of: 20 Sens
Ruskin Museum, Hours of Ms. 5: /(f, fig. 36: Ms. 108: /7, fig 39;
Saint-Gall, Abbey of:
2} Sheffield,
Ms. 186: }j, 88, fig. 37; Ms. 500: }7,
Saint-Germain-dcs-Prcs, Abbey of: Diane de Croy: y6, fig. 82
fig. 38, pi. xxxii; Ms. 501: )9, pi.
//, 4iy JO Sherborne Abbey: 21
XXXV Ms. 502: }6, fig. 33
;
Saint-L6, Archives, Ms. i : 19, 8y Siger, painter: )6
Saint-Loup, Troyes: 41 Simon de Courcy: 62 Valerius Maximus: 77
Saint-Martial, Limoges, Abbey of: Simon de Hesdin: j6 Van Eyck, Hubert and Jan: 60
Smital, O. 92 : Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostolica, Ms.
Saint-Martin, Metz, Abbey of: 2^ Souvigny, Abbey of: 40 Regin. lat. 465 12, fig. 4:

Saint-Martin, Tournai, Abbey of: /7 Spain: 27. See also Catalonia Vendome: 22
Saint-Martin, Tours, Collegiate Church Speyer: 90 Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 117: 22,
of: 7 2, // Stained glass. Influence of: 44Jf. fig. 18
Saint-Martin-des-Champs, Abbey of: Stephen Garcia, painter: 27 Verdun, Abbey of Saint-Vanne. See
12, 1} Stephen Harding, Abbot of Citeaux: 21, Saint-\'anne, Verdun, Abbey of
Saint-Maur, Glanfeuil, Abbey of: 12 Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. i 24, :

Saint-Maur-des-Fosses, Abbey of: 12, Sterling, Ch. J.: 8j, 91 87; Ms. 43 //, fig. II .S"/,- Ms. 5 2 87;
: , :

ih fig- 6 Suger, Abbot of Saint-Denis: 44, 90 Ms. 119: 87

Saint-Medard, Soissons, Abbey of: iS Suppo, Abbot of Mont-Saint-Michel: 20 Verona: })
Saint-Omer: 12 Suthard, Abbot of Senones: 22 Vespasian, Roman Emperor: 28, 29
Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 12: )4, Swarzenski, H.: 8j, 90 Vic: }o, 88
i/, fig. 34; Ms. 56: 77, 87; Ms. i\2.bis: Victor III, Pope. See Desiderius, Abbot
Tactiinum sanitatis: /^
18, 8 J, pi. VII Ms. 698 }i, )2, pi. xxi
; : of Monte Cassino
Terence: 12, }0, 86
Ms. 764: 13, fig. 7. Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, Ms. 2517:
Terence des dues: 68, pi. lxxiii, 91
Saint-Pierre, Senones, Abbey of: 22 79, figs. 86, 87; Ms. 2563: 90
Therouanne: }2
Saint-Quentin, Basilica of. Life of Villard de Honnecourt, Drawings by: 46,
Thomas Aquinas, Saint: }2, 86
St. Qimtinus: 12, 86 fig. 48
Thomas Becket, Saint: 41
Saint-Savin, Abbey of: }0 Vincent de Beauvais: 4}, 4J
Thuasne, L. : 92
Saint-Sepulcre, Cambrai, Abbey of: Virgin of Blachernae: jj, fig. 34
Titus, Roman Emperor: 28, 29
Virgin with a Petition: 60 ff., figs. 63, 64
Toulouse: 29, )o, 88, 90
Abbey
Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, of: 29,
Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 91: 90 Vitzthum, G. Graf: 8j
fig. 28
Saint-Sever-sur-Adour, Abbey of: 27,
Church of Saint-Sernin, marble figure Volbach, Fr. W.: 88

of an Apostle: 28, fig. 28 Wescher, P.: 92, 94

Tournai, Saint-Martin: }7 Westphalia: j8
Saint-Sulpice, Bourges, Bible of. See
Tours: 27, y6 Wildenstein, G.: 92
Bible of Saint-Sulpice
Abbey of: 18, 19, 87
Saint-Vaast, Arras,
Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 558: 49, William, Count of Toulouse: 29
90 William, Duke of Burgundy: }4
Saint-Vannc, Verdun, Abbey of: 77, 2}
Tres belles heiires of Jean de Berry William of Saint-Calais, Bishop of
Sainte-Chapelle, Bourges: 6j
Paris, Gospel-lectionary of. See
(Brussels). See
of Berry
John of France, Duke Durham: 20, 87
William of Volpiano: 20
Gospel-lectionary of the Sainte-
Tres belles heures of Jean de Berry (Paris, William the Conqueror, Duke of
Chapelle, Paris
Turin). See John of France, Duke of Normandy: 19
Sainte-Colombe, Sens, Abbey of: 41
Salvini, R.: .^^
Berry Winchcombe Abbey: 77
Tris riches heures of Jean de Berry Winchester, School of: 18, }8
San Vitalc, Ravenna, Church of: 26
Sanchez Ramiro, King of Aragon: 29
(Chantilly). See John of France, Duke Winkler, E.: 92
of Berry Wormald, F. : 86, 87
Sant'Angclo in Formis, Frescoes at: 29,
Trier: J2
fig. 29 Yolanda of Anjou, daughter of Yolanda
Savalo, illuminator: )6, ij, }8, 88
Trinitd, Vendome, Abbey of La: 22
Troper of Auch: 28, pi. xvi
of Aragon: 69
Savoy: y8
Schmid, A.: 8j
of Autun: 72, fig. 3
Yolanda of Aragon, Queen of Sicily: 69,
Troyes: 41 70, 7Jy 79
Schultcn, 87 S. :

Seilern, Count Antoine, Hours of. See

Bibliotheque municipale, Ms. 59: 90;
Yolanda of Flanders: J2, j}
Ms. 252: 88; Ms. 2273: 12, fig. 5, 86 Yves, Vie de saint Denis: Ji, 90
Hours owned by Count Seilern
Senones, Abbey of. See Saint-Pierre, Unterkircher, Fr. : 90 Zacharias of Besangon: pi. xxxi
Senones Urban 11, Pope: 24 Zebo da Firenze, illuminator: j8, j9, 91

CORRECTIONS
Plate XLiii, caption /or ELiEZER ra// ELEAZER. Plate xlix, caption: /or
:
guinivere read guinevere
Plate Lxxv, caption: /or hayton's travels read haiton's history
Plate Lxxxix, caption: for the author takes ofesiRi into the orchard read the author taken into the orchard
 /'

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