CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

LABORATORY EE6511

Signature

Name M.EZHILMARAN
Designation ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

1
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.NO TITLE PAGE NO

1 P, PI and PID controllers

2 Stability Analysis

3 Modelling of systems
a. Transfer function of Seperately Excited DC generator
b. Transfer function of DC motor
4. Design of Lag, Lead and Lag-Lead compensator

5. Position Control Systems

a. DC Position Control Systems
b. AC Position Control Systems
6. Synchro Transmitter/Receiver Characteristics

7. Simulation of Control Systems by Mathematical development

tools
8. Determination of transfer function of the given AC Servo
motor.
9. DC Bridges
a. Measurement of Resistance using Wheatstone
Bridge(Medium value of resistance)
b. Measurement of Resistance using Kelvins Double
Bridge.
AC Bridges
a. Andersons Bridge
b. Scherings Bridge
10. Dynamic of Sensors / Transducers
a. Temperature
b. Pressure
c. Displacement
d. Optical
e. Strain
f. Flow

11. Power and Energy Measurement

12. Signal Conditioning

a. Instrumentation Amplifier
b. Analog - Digital and Digital Analog converters
(ADC and DACs)
13. Process Simulation

14. a. Calibration of Voltmeter

b. Calibration of Ammeter

2
Ex. No P, PI and PID Controllers

AIM:

To study the characteristics of given P, PI, PD, and PID controllers.

OBJECTIVES:

To study characteristic of different types of networks from design prospective.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Apparatus Name Type/Range Quantity

1 PID Trainer kit - 1
2 Patch chords - As Required

P-Controller

3
 In the proportional control algorithm, the controller output is proportional to the error
signal, which is the difference between the set point and the process variable. In other words,
the output of a proportional controller is the multiplication product of the error signal and the
proportional gain.
A large controller gain will result in control system with:
a) Smaller steady state error, i.e. better reference following.
b) Faster dynamics, i.e. broader signal frequency band of the closed loop system and larger
sensitivity
with respect to measuring noise.
c) Smaller amplitude and phase margin.

PI- Controllers

The combination of proportional and integral terms is important to increase the speed
of the response and also to eliminate the steady state error. PI controller will eliminate forced
oscillations and steady state error resulting in operation of on-off controller and P controller
respectively. PI controllers are very often used in industry, especially when speed of the
response is not an issue. PI control is used when:
a) fast response of the system is not required
b) large disturbances & noise are present during operation of the process
c) there is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or inductive)
d) there are large transport delays in the system

PD-Controller

D mode is used when prediction of the error can improve control or when it
necessary to stabilize the system. From the frequency characteristic of D element it can be
seen that it has phase lead of 90. PD controller is often used in control of moving objects
such are flying and underwater vehicles, ships, rockets etc.

PID Controller

PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on change of the controller
input (D mode), increase in control signal to lead error towards zero (I mode) and suitable
action inside control error area to eliminate oscillations (P mode). PID controller is often used
in industry, but also in the control of mobile objects (course and trajectory following included)
when stability and precise reference following are required. Conventional autopilot is for the
most part PID type controllers

Procedure:

P-Controller:Open loop (Amplifier)

1. Make the connections as given in the figure.

2. Connect DC Voltage of 0.5V to PID -P input and connect feedback input to ground.
3. Keep I and D controllers at OFF position.

4
 4. Vary the proportional gain POT and note down the output voltage and tabulated.

P-Controller:Closed loop

1. Make the connections as given in the figure.

2. Connect DC Voltage of 0.5V to Vin .
3. Connect the first order system/Second order system feedback path.
4. Keep D and I controllers at OFF position.
5. Vary the proportional gain POT and Integral gain POT and note down Vin, Vf, Ve and
tabulated.

PI-Controller:Closed loop

1. Make the connections as given in the figure.

2. Connect DC Voltage of 0.5V to Vin .
3. Connect the first order system/Second order system feedback path.
4. Keep D controllers at OFF position.
5. Vary the proportional gain POT and Integral gain POT and note down Vin, Vf ,Ve and
tabulated.

PID-Controller:Closed loop

1. Make the connections as given in the figure.

2. Connect square wave or triangular wave to Vin .
3. Connect the first order system/Second order system feedback path.
4. Vary the Proportional gain POT , Integral gain POT and Differential gain POT .
and note down Vin, Vf ,Ve and tabulated.

P-Controller:Open loop
Sl.No. Vin Gain Vout

5
I Controller-Closed Loop

Sl. Input Gain Output Ess

No. Amplitude Frequency Amplitude Amplitude Frequency

D Controller-Closed Loop

Sl. Input Gain Output Ess

No. Amplitude Frequency Amplitude Amplitude Frequency

PID Controller-Closed Loop

Sl. Input Gain Output Ess

No. Amplitude Frequency Kp Ki Kd Amplitude Frequency

6
Error voltage is given by
Vs
Ve =
1 +G

Result:

Thus the performance of P, PI, PD and PID controllers are observed and studied.

7
Ex.No:
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS
Date:

AIM:
To analyze the stability of the linear systems using Bode / Root locus / Nyquist plot,
using MATLAB Software tool.

THEROY:

Bode Plot:

The bode plot is the frequency response plot of the transfer function of a system. A
Bode plot consists of two graphs. One is a plot of the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer
function versus log . the other is a plot of the phase angle of sinusoidal transfer function
versus log w.
The bode plot can be drawn for both open loop and closed loop transfer function.
Usually the bode plot is drawn for open loop system. The standard representation of the
logarithmic magnitude of open loop transfer function of G(j) is 20 log G ( j ) where the
base of the logarithm is 10. The unit used in this representation of the magnitude is the

8
decibel, usually abbreviated db. The curve are drawn on semi log paper, using the log scale
(abscissa) for frequency and the linear scale (ordinate) for either magnitude (in decibels) or
phase angle (in degrees).
The main advantage of the bode plot is that multiplication of magnitudes can be
converted into addition. Also a simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude
curve is available.

Determination of Phase and Gain Margin from Bode Plot

The gain margin in db is given by the negative of db magnitude of G(j) at the phase
cross-over frequency, pc. The pc is the frequency at which phase of G(j) is -180 0. if the db
magnitude of G(j) at pc is negative then gain margin is positive and vice versa.

Let gc be the phase angle of G(j) at gain cross over frequency w gc. The gc is the
frequency at which the db magnitude of G(j) is zero. Now the phase margin, is given by,
=1800+ gc . If gc is less than -1800 then phase margin is positive and vice versa.

Nyquist stability criterion:

If the G(S) H(S) contour in the G(S) H(S) plane corresponding to Nyquist contour in
the s-plane encircles the point (-1+j0) in the anticlockwise direction as many times as the
number of half s-plan poles of G(S) H(S), then the closed loop system is stable.
In examining the stability of linear control systems using the Nyquist stability
criterion, the following three situations.
1. There is no encirclement of -1+j0 point. This implies that the system is stable if
there are no poles of G(S) H(S) in the right half s-plan. If there are poles on right
half s-plane then the system is unstable.
2. An anticlockwise encirclement or (or encirclements) of -1+j0 point. In this case the
system is stable if the number of anticlockwise encirclement is same as the number
of poles of G(S)H(S) in the right half s-plane. If the number of encirclement is not
equal to number of poles on right half s-plane then the system is unstable.
3. There is a clockwise encirclement (or encirclements) of the -1+j0 point. In this
case the system is always unstable.

Root locus:

The root locus technique is powerful tool for adjusting the location of closed loop
poles to achive the desired system performance by varing one or more system parameters.

9
 Consider the open loop transfer function of system,

k
G(S ) =
S ( S + P1)( S + P 2)

The closed loop transfer function of the system with unity feedback is given by,

C (S ) K
=
R ( S ) S ( S + P1)( S + P 2) + K

PROGRAMMES & PLOTS

EXAMPLE FOR TRANSFER FUNCTION:

% Root locus
num=[1 5];
den=[1 3 0];
sys=tf(num,den);
rlocus(sys);
%[gm, ph, wpc, wgc]=margin(sys);
grid;

% Bode plot
num=[1 5];
den=[1 3 0];
sys=tf(num,den);
bode(sys);
%[gm, ph, wpc, wgc]=margin(sys);
grid;

% Nyquist plot
num =[1 5];
den=[1 3 0];
sys=tf(num,den);
nyquist(sys);
grid;

MODEL CALCULATION:

10
 The characteristic equation is given by,
S ( S + P1)( S + P 2 ) + K = 0

The roots of characteristic equation is a function of open loop gain K. when the gain K
is varied from 0 to , the roots of characteristic equation will take different values.
The path taken by the roots of characteristic equation when open loop gain K is varied
from 0 to are called root loci.

Rules for Construction of Root Locus:

1. The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis.

2. Each branch of the root locus originates from an open loop pole corresponding to
K=0 and terminates at either on a finite open loop zero(or open loop zero at
infinity) corresponding to K= . The number of branches of the root locus te
rminating on infinity is equal to (n-m),i,e.,the number of open loop poles minus the
number of finite zeros.

11
3. Segments of the real axis having an odd number of axis open loop poles plus zeros
to their right are parts of the root locus.
4. The (n-m) root locus branches that tend to infinity , do so along straight line
asymptotes making angles with the real axis given by,

180 0 [2q + 1]
A = ; q = 0,1,2.....(n m).
nm

5. The point of intersection of the asymptotes with the real axis is at S= A where

Sum of poles Sum of zeros

=
A
nm
The breakaway and breakin points of the root locus are determined from the
roots of the equation dK/ds, if r number of branches of root locus meet at a point, then
they break away at an angle of --1800/r

6. The angle of depature from a complex open-loop pole is given by,

= 180 0 2q + 1 + ; q = 0,1,2...
p

Where is the net angle contribution at the pole by all other open loop poles and
zeros. Similarly the angle of arrival at a complex open loop zero is given by,
= 180 0 2q + 1 + ; q = 0,1,2...
p

Where is the net angle contribution at the zero by all other open loop poles and
zeros.
7. The intersection of root locus branches with the imaginary axis can be determined
by use of the Routh criterion, or letting s=j in the characteristic equation and
equating the real part and imaginary part to zero, to solve for w and K. the value of
w is the intersection point on imaginary axis and K is the value of gain at the
intersection point.
8. The open loop gain K at any point S=Sa on the root locus is given by

12
 n

S P a+ i

K = im=1
S +Z
i=1
a i

Product of vector lengths from open loop poles to the points Sa

= ______________________________________________
Product of vector lengths from open loop zeros to the points Sa

PROCEDURE:

1. Enter the command window of the MATLAB.

2. Create a new M-file by selecting FILE/NEW/M-FILE.
3. Type and save program.
4. Execute the program.
5. View the result
6. Analyze the stability of the system for various transfer functions.

13
RESULT:

14
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

15
Ex.No:
DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION OF
Date: SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

AIM:

To derive the transfer function of separately excited DC generator by conducting

suitable experiment.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Name Range Type Quantity

FORMULA USED:

1.

where is field impedance, is field resistance and is field reactance.

2.

3.

Transfer function at no load

Transfer function at load

16
TABULATION:

Table: 3.1 NO LOAD CONDITION:-

FIELD CURRENT GENERATED VOLTAGE

S.NO
If (A) (V)

17
Transfer function for relating Vt (S) & Vf(S)

THEORY:

The generated voltage is directly proportional to the field current

E g If

E g = K g If
Kg = Generator emf constant

Vf = RfIf + Lf dif/dt

Taking laplace transform

Eg(s) = Kg If(s)

Vf(s) = Rf If(s) + s Lf If(s)

Vf(s) = (Rf +s Lf) If(s)

Transfer function

Vt = Eg - IaRL

Vt (s) = Eg(s) - ILRa(s)

IL(s) = Vt (s) / RL

Vt (s) = Eg(s) VtRa(s)

RL

Vt (s) + VtRa(s) = Eg(s)

RL

18
The transfer function rotating the output Vt(s) and input Vf(s) from equation

TO FIND Rf:

Circuit Diagram to Find Rf:

TO FIND Rf:

Sl.No Field voltage Field current Field resistance

Vf (volts) If (amps) RF ohms

19
PROCEDURE:

TO FIND Kg:

(i) The connections are given as per circuit diagram.

(ii) The field rheostat of DC motor is kept constant at minimum position.
(iii) After checking the connections, the DPST switch is closed.
(iv) By adjusting the field rheostat of generator the generated voltage (Eg) and If are
noted down, until it reaches the rated voltage of the generator.
(v) From the tabulated values the graph is plotted between Eg and If .
(vi) The slope of the above graph gives the value of Kg.
TO FIND RL:

(i) The connections are given as per circuit diagram.

(ii) The generator terminals are connected to the load.
(iii) After checking the connections, the DPST switch is closed.
(iv) By adjusting the motor field rheostat, the speed of the DC motor is brought to
rated speed.
(v) By applying various loads noted down VL & IL and slope of the above graph
will gives the values of RL.

TO FIND Zf:

(i) The connections are given as per circuit diagram.

(ii) Close the DPST switch.
(iii) By varying single phase auto transformer take different values of Vf and If.
(iv) By using the formula Zf = Vf / If, the average or mean value of Zf is calculated.

TO FIND Ra:

20
 Circuit Diagram to Find Ra:

TO FIND Ra:

21
S.NO Armature voltage Armature current Armature resistance
Va(volts) Ia(amps) Ra ohms

TO FIND RF :

(i) The connections are given as per circuit diagram

(ii) Close the DPST switch
(iii) By varying the field rheostat from its maximum position, take different
readings of Vf & If , until it reaches the rated voltage(60%, 80% and 100% of
the rated voltage)
(iv) The value of Rf is calculated by using the formula Rf = Vf / If
(v) Find the average value of Rf

TO FIND Ra :

(i) The connections are given as per circuit diagram

(ii) Close the DPST switch
(iii) By varying the loading unit, take different values of Va and Ia , until it reaches
the rated current of the generator.
(iv) Find Ra using the formula Ra = Va / Ia . the average value of Ra is calculated

22
TO FIND Zf:

Circuit Diagram to Find Zf:

TO FIND Zf:

23
S.NO Field voltage Field current Field impedance
Vf (volts) If(amps) Zf ohms

MODEL CALCULATION:

24
Result:

Thus the transfer function of separately excited DC generator is determined.

25
 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

AIM

To determine the transfer function of DC motor by armature control method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Name of the
Sl.no Type Range quantity
apparatus

(0 10A),
MC (0 2A) 1

1. Ammeter MI (0 10A) 1
MC (0 300V) 1
2. Voltmeter MI (0 150V) 1
3. Autotransformer Single phase (0 230 V) 1
4. Rheostat Wire Wound 700 ohm, 5 A 2

FORMULA:

The transfer function of armature controlled DC motor is

q (s) Kt
=
V 0 (s ) s[( R a + sL a )(B + sJ ) + K tK b ]

26
 To find B:

m
B = 2
2p

60

Where m is the slope of EbIa Vs N2.

Kt = Kb

To find J:

B
N ( t1 t 2 )
1
= e J
N 2

PRECAUTIONS:

At the time of switching ON the supply,

1. The field rheostat should be at minimum resistance position.

2. The armature rheostat should be at maximum resistance position.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Close the DPST switch.
3. Set the field current at constant value.
4. Note down the speed of motor for various armature voltage by varying the
armature rheostat.
5. EbIa Vs N2. And Eb Vs graph are plotted.

RETARDATION TEST:

1. Motor is brought to the rated speed.

2. Motor supply is switched OFF by opening the DPST switch.
3. As speed reduces, time is noted down for different speeds.
4. Speed Vs time graph is plotted.

MEASUREMENT OF ARMATURE INDUCTANCE, La

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Auto transformer is varied in steps and corresponding voltmeter and ammeter
readings are noted down.
3. Average armature impedance is calculated.
4. Armature resistance is measured using multimeter.

27
 5. Armature inductance can be calculated using formula

Xa = [ Za - Ra]1/2 ,

La = Xa / 2f

TABULATION:

If =_________ A, Ra = _________

Sl. No. Va (V) I a (A) Eb = Va IaRa N N2 Eb I a

Retardation Test:

Sl. No. Speed (RPM) Time(Seconds)

28
Measurement of Inductance (La)

Sl. No. Voltage (V) Current(A) Za ()

MODEL GRAPH:

Retardation Graph:

29
 N1

N2

t1 t2

To find m:

Eb Ia

N2

30
To find kt:

Eb

RESULT:

Thus the transfer function of armature controlled DC motor is obtained and is found
to be

31
32
33
 TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

AIM:
To obtain the transfer function of field controlled DC motor.

APPARTUS REQUIRED:
Name of the
Sl.no Type Range quantity
apparatus

1. Ammeter MC (0 20A), 1
(0 2A)

2. Voltmeter MC (0 300V) 1
700 , 5 A 1
4. Rheostat Wire Wound 50 / 5A

FORMULA:

The transfer function of field controlled DC motor is

K tf
T .F =
S ( R f + S L f )(B + S J )

Where, kt is the slope of T Vs If plot.

To find B:
m
B = 2
2p

60

Where m is the slope of EbIa Vs N2.

To find J:

B
N ( t1 t 2 )
1
= e J
N 2
PRECAUTIONS:

At the time of switching ON the supply,

34
 1. The field rheostat should be at minimum resistance position.
2. The armature rheostat should be at maximum resistance position.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Close the DPST switch, increase the armature current ot 2 A by varying the
load.
3. Now vary the field rheostat to vary the field current and note down the
readings.
4. Varying the field current will vary the armature current, which should be
brought to 2 A by varying the load.
5. Note down the corresponding S1, S2, N, If
6. Calculate torque
7. T Vs If graph is plotted.

RETARDATION TEST:

1. Motor is brought to the rated speed.

2. Motor supply is switched OFF by opening the DPST switch.
3. As speed reduces, time is noted down for different speeds.
4. Speed Vs time graph is plotted.

MEASUREMENT OF ARMATURE INDUCTANCE, Lf

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Auto transformer is varied in steps and corresponding voltmeter and ammeter
readings are noted down.
3. Average armature impedance is calculated.
Armature resistance is measured using multimeter.
4. Armature inductance can be calculated using formula

Xf = [ Zf Rf]1/2 ,

Lf = Xf / 2f

35
TABULATION:

Transfer function of Field controlled DC motor

IL = __________ A, Ra = ________ , Rf = __________

IL If Ia S1 S2 S N T N^2 T Eb EbIa

Measurement of field Inductance (Lf)

Sl. No. Voltage (V) Current(A) Zf () Xf () Lf (mH)

36
Retardation Test:

Sl. No. Speed (RPM) Time(Seconds)

MODEL GRAPH:

Retardation Graph:

N1

N2

t1 t2

37
To find m:

Eb Ia

38
MODEL CALCULTAION:

RESULT:

Thus the transfer function of field controlled DC motor is determined to be

39
Ex. No. DESIGN OF LAG, LEAD AND LAG LEAD COMPENSATOR

AIM:
To find the characteristics of given lead, lag and lead lag networks

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPRATUS NAME RANGE/ QUANTITY

TYPE
1 Lead lag compensation kit - 1

2 Patch chords - Required

THEORY:

I. PHASE LEAD COMPENSATOR

A lead compensator in frequency response form is given by the following.

Note that this is equivalent to the root locus form repeated below

With p =1 / T, z = 1 / aT, and Kc = a. In frequency response design, the phase-lead

compensator adds positive phase to the system over the frequency range 1 / aT to 1 / T. A
Bode plot of a phase-lead compensator C(s) has the following form as shown in model graph.
The two corner frequencies are at 1 / aT and 1 / T; note the positive phase that is added to the
system between these two frequencies. Depending on the value of a, the maximum added
phase can be up to 90 degrees. The maximum amount of phase is added at the center
frequency, which is calculated according to the following equation.

The equation which determines the maximum phase is given below.

Additional positive phase increases the phase margin and thus increases the stability of the
system. This type of compensator is designed by determining a from the amount of phase

TABULATION:

40
 LEAD NETWORK

Input amplitude(Vi) =1Vp-p

Input frequency (Hz) Output voltage (Vo) Gain in dB= 20 Log(Vo/Vi)
20
50
100
200
500
700
1k
2k
5k
7k
10k
12k
15k
20k

LAG NETWORK

Input amplitude(Vi) =1Vp-p

Input frequency (Hz) Output voltage (Vo) Gain in dB= 20 Log(Vo/Vi)
20
50
100
200
500
700
1k
2k
5k
7k
10k
12k
15k
20k

41
Needed to satisfy the phase margin requirements, and determing T to place the added phase at
the new gain-crossover frequency. Another effect of the lead compensator can be seen in the
magnitude plot. The lead compensator increases the gain of the system at high frequencies
(the amount of this gain is equal to a). This can increase the crossover frequency, which will
help to decrease the rise time and settling time of the system (but may amplify high frequency
noise).

II. LAG COMPENSATOR

A lag compensator in frequency response form is given by the following.

The phase-lag compensator looks similar to phase-lead compensator, except that a is now
less than 1. The main difference is that the lag compensator adds negative phase to the system
over the specified frequency range, while a lead compensator adds positive phase over the
specified frequency. A Bode plot of a phase-lag compensator has the following form as shown
in model graph.
The two corner frequencies are at 1 / T and 1 / aT. The main effect of the lag compensator is
shown in the magnitude plot. The lag compensator adds gain at low frequencies; the
magnitude of this gain is equal to a. The effect of this gain is to cause the steady-state error of
the closed-loop system to be decreased by a factor of a. Because the gain of the lag
compensator is unity at middle and high frequencies, the transient response and stability are
generally not impacted much.
The side effect of the lag compensator is the negative phase that is added to the system
between the two corner frequencies. Depending on the value a, up to -90 degrees of phase can
be added. Care must be taken that the phase margin of the system with lag compensation is
still satisfactory. This is generally achieved by placing the frequency of maximum phase lag,
wm as calculated below, well below the new gain crossover frequency.

III. LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR

A lead-lag compensator combines the effects of a lead compensator with those of a lag
compensator. The result is a system with improved transient response, stability, and steady-
state error. To implement a lead-lag compensator, first design the lead compensator to achieve
the desired transient response and stability, and then design a lag compensator to improve the
steady-state response of the lead-compensated system.

FORMULAE:

1. Gain in dB= 20 Log(Vo/Vi)

42
 LEAD-LAG NETWORK

Input amplitude(Vi) =1Vp-p

Input frequency (Hz) Output voltage (Vo) Gain in dB= 20 Log(Vo/Vi)
20
50
100
200
500
700
1k
2k
5k
7k
10k
12k
15k
20k

MODEL CALCULATION:

43
PROCEDURE:

1. Connection the unit to power supplies.

2. Connect wire between COM and 200 Hz (or) 20 KHz terminal of the signal source.
3. Connect the output of signal source to DSO and adjust the amplitude potentiometer
and set the amplitude to 1 Vp-p.
4. Connect the output of signal source to lead/lag/lead-lag network and check the output
at output terminal of lead network.
5. Vary the frequency and note the output voltage magnitudes.
6. Calculate the gain and plot Gain Vs. Frequency plot.

44
MODEL GRAPH

Lead network

Lag network

Lead lag network

Result:

Thus the characteristics of lag, lead and lead-lag network was determined and plotted
in a semilog graph sheet.
Ex. No. POSITION CONTROL SYSTEMS
a. DC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEMS

45
AIM:

To calibrate the DC position control servo motor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. LABTECH DC / AC position servo motor trainer.

PROCEDURE:

1. Check the SET position knob in the front panel is in zero position otherwise adjusts it.
2. Connect the system with the single-phase AC mains through the three-pin power card,
which is supplied with the instrument.
3. Switch ON the ON / OFF switch, which is placed in the front panel.
4. Verify the selector switch position, if its in manual, adjust the SET position as our
requirement then press the motor ON (push to ON ) switch then only we get the
corresponding motor variations in the current positioning start as soon as the SET
position is defined.
5. Corresponding SET position and current position voltages are displayed in the
seperate two digital panel meters (DPM), which is fixed in the front panel.
6. SET position can be adjusted to forward position (0 - 345 degree) and the reverse
position (345 - 0 degree). Set your required and selected direction of the set position
knob and verify the corresponding changes in the current position.

TABULATION:

46
 SL. No. Set position Current Set postion Current Error
angle Position voltage position Voltage
(Deg) angle (V) voltage (V)
(Deg) (V)

Result :

Thus the DC position servo motor was calibrated.

b. AC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEMS

47
AIM:

To calibrate the AC position control servo motor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

2. LABTECH DC / AC position servo motor trainer.

PROCEDURE:

1. Check the SET position knob in the front panel is in zero position otherwise adjusts it.
2. Connect the system with the single-phase AC mains through the three-pin power card,
which is supplied with the instrument.
3. Switch ON the ON / OFF switch, which is placed in the front panel.
4. Verify the selector switch position, if its in manual, adjust the SET position as our
requirement then press the motor ON (push to ON ) switch then only we get the
corresponding motor variations in the current positioning start as soon as the SET
position is defined.
5. Corresponding SET position and current position voltages are displayed in the
separate two digital panel meters (DPM), which is fixed in the front panel.
6. SET position can be adjusted to forward position (0 - 345 degree) and the reverse
position (345 - 0 degree). Set your required and selected direction of the set position
knob and verify the corresponding changes in the current position.

TABULATION:

48
 SL. No. Set position Current Set postion Current Error
angle Position voltage position Voltage
(Deg) angle (V) voltage (V)
(Deg) (V)

Result :

Thus the AC position servo motor was calibrated.

Ex. No. SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER RECEIVER AND

CHARACTERISTICS

49
AIM

a. To measure the Stator output voltage with respect to rotor position and plot the
graph.

b. To study the rotor position of Synchro transmitter and receiver.

APPRATUS REQUIRED

1. Synchro Transmitter / Receiver (PEC 03) Trainer kit.

2. Patch chords

PROCEDURE

a. To measure the stator output voltage with respect to rotor

position.

1. Connect Digital Voltmeter across the any two stator output of Synchro transmitter.
2. Connect Synchro transmitter stator outputs to corresponding stator terminals of synchro
receiver.
3. Power 'ON' the all ON / OFF swithces.
4. Verify the stator output voltage of 0 V at 0 degree, if it is not, make 0 V at 0 degree to
adjust the pointer of both Transmitter and Receiver.
5. Adjust the transmitter rotor position Step by Step.
6. Now note down the output voltage for various rotor position in the table.
7. Repeat the same procedure for other pair of Synchro transmitter.

50
TABULATION

Sl. No. SYNCHRO Transmitter

Rotor Position (Degree) Stator Output (Degree)

PROCEDURE

b. To study the rotor position of Synchro transmitter and

Receiver.

3. Connect Digital voltmeter across to the any two stator output of

synchro transmitter.
4. Connect Synchro transmitter stator outputs to corresponding stator
terminals of Synchro receiver.
5. Power ON the all On / OFF switches.
6. Verify the Stator output voltage 0 V at 0 degree, if it is not make 0 V
at 0 degree to adjust the pointer of both transmitter and receiver .
7. Adjust the transmitter rotor position step by step using knob.
8. Now note down the rotor position of transmitter and receiver in the
table.

51
TABULATION

Sl. No. Synchro Transmitter Synchro Receiver Error = Rotor position

Rotor Position Rotor Position (Transmitter - Receiver)
(Degree) (Degree)

RESULT

52
 Thus the synchro tansmitter Stator Output Voltage with respect to rotor position was
studied and the rotor position of Synchro transmitter and receiver was studied.

Ex. No. SIMULATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

DIGITAL SIMULATION OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS

AIM:
To simulate the step and impulse response of first order system with unity
feedback using MATLAB.

THEORY:

To obtain the step response we must first find the transfer function with
decreasing powers of S in numerator and in the denominator before using it in MAT
Lab.

Consider the series R-L-C circuit,

di (t )
VO (t ) = L -----------------
dt
(1)
di (t )
Vi (t ) = Ri (t ) + L ------------------
dt
(2)

Take laplace transform

Vo ( s ) = SL.I ( S )
------------------ (3)

Vi ( s ) = I ( S )[ R + SL] -----------------
(4)

From (3)
Vo ( S )
I (S ) =
R

Sub (3) in (4) we have

Vo ( S )
Vi ( S ) = [ R + SL]
R

Vo ( s ) R
R
= = R
Vi ( s ) [ R + SL] L( S + )
L

C (S ) 1
=
R ( S ) 1 + 10S

53
 Vo ( s ) R
=
Vi ( s ) SL
R 1 +
R

Substitute the given R = 150 , L = 15mH in the above equation.

R 150
= = 10
L 15 1

Hence the transfer function

Vo ( s ) 1
=
Vi ( s ) 10 S + 1

The transfer function is now in the standard form. Now let us make the program and obtain its
output

PROCEDURE:

1. Write a program for the given time constants.

2. Simulate it using MATLAB software.
3. Observe the waveforms.

54
 ` DIGITAL SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

AIM:
To simulate the step and impulse response of second order system with unity feedback
using MATLAB.

THEORY:

To obtain the step response we must first find the transfer function with decreasing
powers of S in numerator and in the denominator before using it in MAT Lab.
Consider the series R-L-C circuit,

1
VO (t ) =
C i(t )dt ----------------- (1)
di (t ) 1
Vi (t ) = Ri (t ) + L + i (t )dt ------------------ (2)
dt C

Take laplace transform

1
Vo ( s ) = I ( S ). ----------------- (3)
CS

1
Vi ( s ) = I ( S )[ R + SL + ] ------------------ (4)
CS

From (3)
Vo ( S )
I (S ) =
1
I ( S ) = Vo ( S ).CS CS
-------------------- (5)
Sub (5) in (4) we have
1
Vi ( S ) = Vo ( S )CS [ R + SL +
CS
C (S ) 1 1010
= 2
R ( S ) S + 40000S + 1 1010

55
MATLAB CODING FOR STEP RESPONSE

Num = [0 0 10e10];
Den = [1 40000 10e10];
Step (num, den);
Grid;

MATLAB CODING FOR IMPULSE RESPONSE

Num = [0 0 10e10];
Den = [1 40000 10e10];
Impulse(num, den);
Grid;

Vo ( s ) 1
=
Vi ( s ) CS [ R + SL + 1 ]
CS

Vo ( s ) 1
=
Vi ( s ) RCS + LCS 2 + 1

Vo ( s ) 1
=
Vi ( s ) LCS + RCS + 1
2

Vo ( S ) 1
= 1
Vi ( S ) LC (S 2 + (R / L S + )
LC
1 / LC
= 1
S 2 + ( R / L) S +
LC

1
= 1 1010
LC
R
= 40000
L
Vo ( S ) 1 1010
=
Vi ( S ) S 2 + 40000S + 1 1010

Hence the transfer function P(S) =

C (S ) 1 1010 num( S )
R( S )
= = den( S )
S 2 + 40000S + 1 1010

56
 The transfer function is now in the standard form. Now let us make the
program and obtain its output.

The numerator and the denominator is given in descending power of S using format
long e. The step command plots the step response of the corresponding transfer function. The
grid lines are added using grid command.

PROCEDURE:

1.Write a program for the given transfer functions.

2.Simulate it using MATLAB software.
3.Observe the waveforms.

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

57
RESULT:

Thus the simulation of the step and impulse response of second order system with
unity feedback using MATLAB is done.

Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF TRANSFER FUCNTION OF AC SERVO MOTOR

58
AIM:

To determine the transfer function of the given AC servo motor trained kit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. 2 Phase AC servomotor with load setup.
2. VPET 302 module.
3. Patch chords.
4. Loads
5. 9 pin D connector.

FORMULA:

K
T .F = m

S (t m s + 1 )

Where, Motor gain constant,

K1
K m =
B + K 2

Motor time constant,

J
tm =
B + K 2

PROCEDURE:

Determination of Motor constant K2.

1. Initially keep VARIAC in minimum position.
2. Connect connectors, Pout, to Pin and Nout to Nin
3. Connect 9 pin

EX. NO. DC BRIDGES

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

AIM:
To measure the given medium resistance using Wheatstone bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

NAME OF THE RANGE TYPE QTY

59
 SL.NO APPRATUS
1 Bread Board
2 Unknown resistance
3 Regulated power supply 0-30 v
4 Multimeter
5 Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fixed Fixed
Resistor Resistor

Unknown VariableRes
Resistor istor

(0-30) V
RPS

FORMULAE USED:
Unknown Resistance, Rx = (P/Q) S in ohms
Where P, Q = Ratio Arms.
S = Variable resistance,
Rx = Unknown resistance.

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the necessary connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. The resistance to be measured is connected between A - D points in the bridge circuit.
3.The P/Q ratio (multiplier) is selected to a convenient value say 1 K.
4. The S arm (X 1000) is adjusted and two positions are identified for which the
deflection of the galvanometer is on either side of the null point and kept at the lowest
value of S. Then the x100, x10, x1 knobs of S are adjusted to get null deflection.
5. The value of unknown resistance is read. (S value)
6. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated for some other P/Q ratio. The mean value is taken.
7. The experiment is repeated with other samples provided.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO P VALUE Q VALUE S VALUE UNKNOWN

() () () RESISTANCE
RX ()

60
CALCULATION:

RESULT:

Thus the unknown value of resistance was measured using Wheatstone Bridge.

EX. NO. MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING KELVINS

DOUBLE BRIDGE

AIM:
To measure the given low resistance using Kelvins double bridge method.

OBJECTIVE:
To study the working of bridge under balanced and unbalanced condition and to study
the sensitivity of bridge.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

61
 NAME OF THE RANGE TYPE QTY
SL.NO APPRATUS
1 Kelvin Double bridge kit
2 Unknown resistance
3 Multimeter
4 Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fixed
Fixed
Resistors
Resistor
G
or

UnknownRes Variable
istor Resistor

FORMULA USED:

Rx = (P/Q) S ohms
Where
P, Q first set of ratio arms.
p, q Second set of ratio arms.
S Standard resistance,
Rx unknown resistance.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the patching points as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the unknown resistance at Rx.
3. Switch on the power supply and select the range selection switch at the point where the
meter reads least possible values of voltage.
4. Vary the potentiometer to obtain null deflection in the galvanometer.
5. Switch off the unit and find out the resistance using multimeter
6. Calculate the value of unknown resistance using formula.
7. Repeat for different values of unknown resistances.

TABULAR COLUMN:

62
 P VALUE Q VALUE S VALUE UNKNOWN
S.NO () () () RESISTANCE
Rx ()

.
CALCULATION:

RESULT:

Thus the unknown value of resistance was measured using Kelvins Double
Bridge.

EX. NO. AC BRIDGES

MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE USING
ANDERSONS BRIDGE

AIM:
To find the unknown inductance using Andersons bridge

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

NAME OF THE RANGE TYPE QTY

63
 SL.NO APPRATUS
1 Andersons Bridge kit
Unknown Inductance
2 Multimeter
3 Connecting Wires
4 CRO
5 Bridge oscillator
6 1 kHZ

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORMULAE USED:

2. Unknown Inductance, Lx= C R3(r (R4+R2) + R4 R2)/R4

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the unknown inductance at Lx point
3. Keep r1 and r potentiometer in minimum position.
4. Connect CRO across the output points.
5. Switch on the kit
6. Vary the potentiometer r1 and r such that the output will decrease at one point and
then increase again, stop tuning at that point .
7. Switch off the unit and remove the patch cords and measure the value of r1 and r
8. Calculate the unknown inductance using the formula.
9. Repeat the steps 1to 8 for different unknown values.

TABULAR COLUMN:

64
S.NO SAMPLE R4() C4 (F) UNKNOWN
INDUCTANCE
(H)

CALCULATION:

RESULT:

Thus the unknown value of inductance is measured using Andersons Bridge.

EX. NO. AC BRIDGES

65
 MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE USING
SCHERING BRIDGE

AIM:
To measure the unknown capacitance using Schering bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

NAME OF THE RANGE TYPE QTY

SL.NO APPRATUS
1 Schering Bridge kit
2 Unknown capacitance
3 Multimeter
4 Connecting Wires
5 CRO

FORMULA USED:

1. Unknown capacitance, Cx = (R4/R3) C2,

Where C2 is known capacitance in F
R4 is Non-Inductive Variable Resistor
R3 is fixed resistor

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:

66
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the unknown capacitance at Cx point
3. Keep R4 in minimum position.
4. Connect CRO across the output points.
5. Switch on the kit and vary the potentiometer R3 to some point (above 2k).
6. Choose C2 such that maximum variation of output can be obtained.
7. Vary the potentiometer R4 such that the output will decrease at one point and
then increase again, stop tuning at that point .
8. Switch off the unit and remove the patch cards and measure the value of R3 and
R4.
9. Calculate the unknown capacitance using the formula.
10 Repeat the steps 1to 9 for different unknown values.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO C2 (F) R3 () R4 () UNKNOWN

CAPACITANCE
Cx (F)

CALCULATION:

RESULT:

Thus the unknown value of capacitance is measured using Schering Bridge.

67
68
Circuit Diagram for Calculation of Power and Energy
Ex. No: MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND ENERGY
Date:

AIM:
To measure the power and energy using single phase wattmeter and energy meter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the apparatus Range Type Quantity

1. Voltmeter (0 300) V MI 01
2. Ammeter (0 10) A MI 01
3. Wattmeter (300 V / 10 A) UPF 01
4. 1 Energy meter - - 01
5. 1 Resistive Load - - 01
6. Connecting wires - - Few

FORMULA USED:

Actual Power (P) = wattmeter readings (W) in watts

PxT
Actual Energy (Ea) = KWhr
1000x60
Where
P Actual Power in Watts
T Time taken in min.
No.of Re volutions
Measured Energy (Em) = Energymetercons tan t KWhr

TABULATION

69
 Cos = 1 (For Resistive load)
Energy Meter Constant = rev / KWhr
Line Line Actual No. of Rev. Actual Measured
S.No. Voltage Current power for Energy Energy
(VL) Volts (IL) Amps (P) Watts 1 min (Ea) KWhr (Em) KWhr

MODEL GRAPH:

Fig. 10.2 Load Current (IL) Vs Energy (EA & EM)

THEORY:

70
 An energy meter is used to measure the energy consumed by the circuit. It is basically
called as induction type energy meter. Voltmeter, wattmeter, ammeter were known for the
quantity measured with the half of pointer movement where as energy meter is the integrating
type of instrument.
Energy meter constant is normally printed in the energy meter itself for e.g. 1200
revolutions for 1KWhr. The energy meter has four terminals namely M1, M2, L1 and L2.
The driving system of the energy meter consists of two electromagnets, shunt and
series magnets. The shunt magnet is excited by the pressure coil which carries current
proportional to the supply voltage. The series magnet is provided with the current coil excited
by the load current. Short circuit copper bands are provided on the lower part of the central
limb of the shunt magnet. These loops are called as power factor compensators.
The moving system consists of a thin aluminum disc mounted on the spindle. The disc
is placed in the air gap between the shunt and series magnets. The torque developed on the
disc makes it rotating due to the eddy current produced in the disc. The torque developed and
speed of rotation is proportional to the real power taken by the load.
The braking system consists of a permanent magnet called as brake magnet. It is
placed near the edge of the aluminum disc. The brake magnet provides eddy current damping
to the moving system. The amount of braking depends on damping torque can be adjusted by
adjusting the position of the magnet.
The registering system has the spindle connected through the gears to accounting
mechanism. This mechanism keeps on register, the number of revolutions of the disc
calibrated in KWhr energy consumption.

PROCEDURE:
1) The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2) The circuit is switched ON by closing the DPST switch.
3) By varying the resistive load gradually, note down time taken for 10 revolutions using
stop clock and the ammeter, voltmeter reading in the appropriate tabular column.
4) Actual energy is calculated using the formula and tabulated in the tabular column.
5) The graph is drawn between the load current and energy consumed by the load.

MODEL CALCULATION:

71
Result:

EXPT. NO. INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER.

72
AIM:
To study the working of instrumentation amplifier and to draw the frequency
response characteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPRATUS RANGE TYPE QTY

1 Instrumentation Amplifier Kit
2 Dual RPS
3 Multi meter
4 Connecting Wires

PIN DIAGRAM IC 741:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

73
 R1 = R2 = R

THEORY:

An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is a type of differential

amplifier that has been outfitted with input buffers, which eliminate the need for input
impedance matching and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement
and test equipment. Additional characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low
noise, very high open-loop gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input
impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the
circuit both short- and long-term are required.

Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically identical to a standard

op-amp, the electronic instrumentation amp is almost always internally composed of 3 op-
amps. These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to buffer each input (+,), and one to
produce the desired output with adequate impedance matching for the function.

The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the figure. The gain of
the circuit is

The rightmost amplifier, along with the resistors labelled R2 and R3 is just the standard
differential amplifier circuit, with gain = R3 / R2 and differential input resistance = 2R2.

74
 The two amplifiers on the left are the buffers. With Rgain removed (open circuited), they
are simple unity gain buffers; the circuit will work in that state, with gain simply equal to
R3 / R2 and high input impedance because of the buffers. The buffer gain could be
increased by putting resistors between the buffer inverting inputs and ground to shunt
away some of the negative feedback; however, the single resistor Rgain between the two
inverting inputs is a much more elegant method: it increases the differential-mode gain of
the buffer pair while leaving the common-mode gain equal to 1. This increases the
common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the circuit and also enables the buffers to
handle much larger common-mode signals without clipping than would be the case if they
were separate and had the same gain. Another benefit of the method is that it boosts the
gain using a single resistor rather than a pair, thus avoiding a resistor-matching problem
(although the two R1s need to be matched), and very conveniently allowing the gain of the
circuit to be changed by changing the value of a single resistor. A set of switch-selectable
resistors or even a potentiometer can be used for Rgain, providing easy changes to the gain
of the circuit, without the complexity of having to switch matched pairs of resistors.

The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In the circuit

shown, common-mode gain is caused by mismatches in the values of the equally-
numbered resistors and by the mis-match in common mode gains of the two input op-
amps. Obtaining very closely matched resistors is a significant difficulty in fabricating
these circuits, as is optimizing the common mode performance of the input op-amps.

FORMULAE USED:
Gain A in dB = 20 log (V0/Vi)
Where
V0 = output voltage in volts
Vi= input voltage in volts

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect a dual RPS to the input terminals V1 and V2 of either channel 1 or channel 2
of instrumentation amplifier module.
2. Adjust the RPS for different voltages for V1 and V2 (not more than 10 V).
3. Measure the output voltage using a multi meter for every set of V1 and V2.

TABULAR COLUMN: Input voltage, Vi = 1V(peak to peak)

Frequency, Output Gain in dB

Hz Voltage, V

75
CALCULATION:

RESULT:

EX. NO : A/D CONVERTER(Flash Type A / D Converter)

AIM

76
 To study the working of Flash type Analog to Digital converter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 IC741 3
2 Resistor 1k 4
470 3
3 RPS 1
4 Multimeter 1
5 Connecting Wires As Reqd
6 LED 3

THEORY:

An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D, or A to D) is a device that converts

continuous signals to discrete digital numbers. The reverse operation is performed by a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts a voltage to a binary digital number.
However, some non-electronic devices, such as shaft encoders, can be considered as ADCs.

Resolution

The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce. It is
usually expressed in bits. For example, an ADC that encodes an analog input to one of 256
discrete values has a resolution of eight bits, since

28 = 256.

Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The voltage resolution of
an ADC is equal to its overall voltage measurement range divided by the number of discrete
values. Some examples may help:

Example 1
o Full scale measurement range = 0 to 10 volts
o ADC resolution is 12 bits: 212 = 4096 quantization levels
o ADC voltage resolution is: (10-0)/4096 = 0.00244 volts = 2.44 mV

Example 2
o Full scale measurement range = -10 to +10 volts
o ADC resolution is 14 bits: 214 = 16384 quantization levels
o ADC voltage resolution is: (10-(-10))/16384 = 20/16384 = 0.00122 volts =
1.22 mV

In practice, the resolution of the converter is limited by the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal
in question. If there is too much noise present in the analog input, it will be impossible to
accurately resolve beyond a certain number of bits of resolution, the "effective number of bits"
(ENOB). While the ADC will produce a result, the result is not accurate, since its lower bits

77
are simply measuring noise. The S/N ratio should be around 6 dB per bit of resolution
required.

PIN DIAGRAM:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC741

Vref = 5v
LM324
1k
2
3/4 Vref 2.2k
1
3
+ 2.2k
1k LED
6
1/2 Vref 2.2k 330
7
5
+ 2.2k
LED
IC7404
1k
9 1 330
CIRCUIT
1/4 Vref DIAGRAM: 2.2k
1
3
3
8 2
2
IC 7408 IC7432
10 + 2.2k

1k
78

Vin(0-10v)
2.2k
5v

TABULAR COLUMN:

Analog input voltage Digital output

Values D2 D1 D0
0-1.25 0 0 0
1.25-2.5 0 0 1
2.5-3.75 0 1 1
3.75-5 1 1 1

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The variable analog input is applied to the input terminals.
3. The digital output is obtained as the lighting of LEDs based on the input comparison.
4. The output is noted down..

79
RESULT:
Thus the working of instrumentation amplifier was verified and the frequency
response characteristics is drawn.

EX. NO. DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

AIM
To study the working of a 4 bit weighted resistor type Digital to Analog converter.

80
APPRATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPRATUS RANGE QTY TYPE

1 IC741 1
2 Resistor 1k 1
2.2k 7
3 RPS
4 Multimeter
5 Connecting Wires As Reqd

THEORY:

A digital-to-analog converter, or simply DAC, is a semiconductor device that is used

to convert a digital code into an analog signal. Digital-to-analog conversion is the primary
means by which digital equipment such as computer-based systems are able to translate
digital data into real-world signals that are more understandable to or useable by humans,
such as music, speech, pictures, video, and the like. It also allows digital control of machines,
equipment, household appliances, and the like.

A typical digital-to-analog converter outputs an analog signal, which is usually voltage

or current that is proportional to the value of the digital code provided to its inputs. Most
DAC's have several digital input pins to receive all the bits of its input digital code in parallel
(at the same time). Some DAC's, however, are designed to receive the input digital data in
serial form (one bit at a time), so these only have a single digital input pin.

FORMULAE USED:

PIN DIAGRAM:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC741

81
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The binary input is applied by closing the appropriate switches.
3. The analog output across the output terminal is measured by using multi meter.
4. The procedure is repeated for various binary input values.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. No. Digital Input Analog output

82
 D3(MSB) D2 D1 D0(LSB) Theoretical Practical
1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 1
3 0 0 1 0
4 0 0 1 1
5 0 1 0 0
6 0 1 0 1
7 0 1 1 0
8 0 1 1 1
9 1 0 0 0
10 1 0 0 1
11 1 0 1 0
12 1 0 1 1
13 1 1 0 0
14 1 1 0 1
15 1 1 1 0
16 1 1 1 1

CALCULATION:

RESULT:
Thus the the working of a 4 bit weighted resistor type Digital to Analog converter is
studied.

Ex. No. DYNAMICS OF SENSORS AND TRASNDUCERS

a. TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS

83
Aim:
To obtain the static characteristic of thermistor.

Apparatus Required:

Thermistor, Thermometer, Trainer Kit, Multimeter.

Procedure:

9. Thermistor is kept in water bath and connected to trainer kit.

10. The voltage at the room temperature noted down.

11. The water bath is connected to power supply and water is heated.

12. Using a thermometer, measure the temperature. The corresponding

thermistor resistance is measured using Multimeter.

13. Above steps are repeated for different temperature of water bath.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

84
TABULATION:

85
 Sl no Temperature(C) Voltage(V ) volts Resistance(R) ohms

Model Graph:

Result:
Thus the static characteristic of thermistor is plotted.

b. STUDY OF PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

AIM

86
 To obtain the transfer characteristics of pressure transducer.

APPRATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPRATUS RANGE TYPE QTY

1 Pressure Transducer Kit
2 Multimeter
3 Different Weights

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the pressure transducer to the display meter.

2. Set zero setting in the display meter.
3. Place the different weights given on the slot.
4. Rotate the handle till the flag is seen.
5. Stop the rotation and note down the voltage readings from the multimeter and weights
placed on the pressure transducer.
6. Calculate the error.

TABULATION:

Sl. No. OBSERVED ACTUAL WEIGHT, kg VOLTAGE, V ERROR

READING, READING.
kg kg

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

87
CALCULATION:

RESULT:

c. STUDY OF DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER - LVDT

AIM
To study the operation of LVDT- Linear Variable Differential Transformer

88
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPRATUS RANGE TYPE QTY

1 LVDT kit
2 Multimeter
3 Connecting Wires
4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.1

Fig.2

FORMULA USED:

2. Pitch = Distance moved on the pitch scale/ Number of rotations on the

head scale.
3. Least Count = Pitch / Number of head scale division.
4. Total reading = PSR + (HSR + ZC)LC

Where, PSR = Pitch Scale Reading

HSR = Head Scale Reading
ZC = Zero Correction
LC = Least Count

PROCEDURE:

1. The LVDT is connected to the kit through connector provided in the circuit.
2. The displacement of LVDT is kept at one end by using screw gauge.

89
 3. The trainer is switched on and the output DC voltage is measured using multimeter by
connecting it across DC output + and respectively.
4. The displacement is varied with the help of screw gauge and the corresponding output
voltages are noted down.
5. The screw gauge is adjusted for displacement on either side of the core and the
corresponding output voltages are noted.
6. A graph between displacement and output voltage is drawn.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. PSR HSC %Error Voltage

No. DISPLACEMENT IN mm (V)
(a-b)%
Total Actual Observed
Reading Reading, Reading ,
a b

MODEL GRAPH:

90
CALCULATION:

RESULT:

91
EX. NO. CALIBRATION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

AIM
To study the working of current transformer

APPRATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPRATUS RANGE TYPE QTY

1 Current Transformer
2 Voltmeter
3 Ammeter
4 Resistive Load

FORMULAE USED:
% Ratio Error = (N R) x 100
R

Where, Ip = Primary winding current, A

Is = Secondary winding current, A
N = Nominal Ratio = rated primary winding current of C.T.
rated secondary winding current of C.T.
R = Actual Ratio = Ip / Is

PRECAUTIONS:

1. DPST should be at open position.

2. Autotransformer should be at minimum position.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. DPST is closed on the primary side and no load voltage and current are noted.
3. By varying the load at different conditions primary and secondary current of the C.T.
are noted.
4. The % error due to load are calculated.
5. A graph is drawn between primary current and secondary current is drawn.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Primary Secondary Ratio
Line voltage
SL. current current Error
No.
V
A A %

92
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

93
MODEL GRAPH:

CALCULATION:

RESULT:

94
Ex. No. CALIBRATION OF VOLTMETER

AIM:
To calibrate the voltmeter with the standard voltmeter and find error in percentage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connection are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Adjust the autotransformer for different voltages .
3. Note down the values of voltages in both voltmeter
4. Find the error using the formula given

TABULATION:
S.no Voltmeter reading Voltmeter reading V2 Error %
V1(volts) (a) (volts) ( b) (a-b) %

RESULT:

95