Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Acknowledgements
Mile Bosnjakovski Berat Buzhala Orsy Campos Rivas Luca Castelln
Aguayo Ron Cowan Isioma Daniel Lou Day Carlos De Armas Terry
FitzPatrick Ivn Garca Carmen Gmez Mont Pippa Green Sergio Gusmao
de Barque John Maxwell Hamilton Richard Hartley Susana Hayward
Rushworth Kidder Jaspreet Kindra George Krimsky Rosa Labn
Mary Beth Lennon Paulo Lyra Isan Mandujano Joe McGowan Marco
Mulcahy Erik Naki Churchill Otieno Barry Oxedine John Oywa Judith
Roales Francisco Rodrguez Ignaco Rodrguez Zarate Max Romer Pieretti
Dogan Satmis Gavin Scott Dumisane Shange Savik Shuster Preston Smith
Bob Steele Tracy Steward Gavin Stewart Harry Surjadi Eduardo Ulibarri
Mara Fernanda Villosio Faruk Zabci
Since 1984, the International Center for Journalists has worked directly with
more than 55,000 journalists from 176 countries. Aiming to raise the standards of
journalism, ICFJ offers hands-on training, workshops, seminars, fellowships and
international exchanges to reporters and media managers around the globe.
81 Final Notes
82 Additional Resources
Introduction
Journalism Ethics: The Global Challenge
In South Africa, newspaper editors grapple over whether to report that a presidential
spokesperson has died of AIDS. Does reporting the cause of death violate the mans
privacy? Should AIDS be treated differently than other diseases? Are public officials afforded
fewer privacy protections because of their jobs?
Reporters in India, working for an Internet news site, pose as businessmen representing a
fictitious company. Their goal is to document suspected corruption in the channels of military
procurement. The reporters lay the groundwork for months, bribing defense officials and
even providing them with prostitutes. Their investigation, documented on film, leads to
resignations all the way up to the minister of defense. Does the end justify their means? Do
reporters have a right to interview and cover subjects without identifying themselves as
reporters?
5
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
A war correspondent for Turkeys largest satisfaction. They also earn credibility
newspaper, determined to enter with their readers and viewers, and a
neighboring Iraq to cover the war in 2003 reputation for reliability for their news
and unable to get a journalists visa, goes as organizations. A newspaper, TV
a human shield. Human shieldscivilians station or radio station with a
who objected to the U.S.-led invasion of reputation for credibility and reliability
Iraqwere welcomed by the Iraqi has an excellent chance for
government. By acting as a human shield, commercial success. So, in addition to
the reporter said, he was able to give his moral incentives for practicing ethical
readers information that would have been journalism there are economic drivers
censored if he had been there officially as a as well. Finally, governments are less
journalist. He never lied about his identity. likely to try to impose standards on
But did his acting as a human shield media if journalists hold themselves to
compromise his independence as a high ethical standards.
reporter? Did the uncensored information
he was able to share justify his means for In many ways the need for
obtaining it? professional ethical standards has
never been greater. The advent of
larger and larger mass media
What would you do in these organizations, news cycles that have
situations? These are real dilemmas shrunk from days to hours or minutes,
faced by real journalists. They are just and a renewed awareness of the vital
three of 21 case studies profiled in this link between a free press and a free
manual; none of the case studies is
hypothetical. By sharing their stories,
working journalists helped the
International Center for Journalists
(ICFJ) develop this manual, which
aims to provide a practical framework
for making ethical decisions on
deadline.
7
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
___________________________________________________________________________________
In the United States and other countries, codes reflect more shared universal values than differences,
and these shared ethical premises form the platform for this handbook. (See Appendix B for the code of
the U.S.-based Society of Professional Journalists and Appendix C for a listing of professional codes of
ethics that are available online.)
Journalism Ethics
A Global Model for Ethical Decision Making
Dr. Rushworth Kidder of the Institute for Global Ethics participated in ICFJs four ethics
conferences in Latin America, and at each conference, Kidder gave an overview of shared
human values that form ethical frameworks. He also explained the most influential traditions
of moral philosophy, and how they would influence an ethical decision in professional
journalism today. This chapter provides a synopsis of Dr. Kidders sessions.
11
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
In his book, Shared Values for a Such conflicts are typical of the ethical
Troubled World, Kidder reported on questions facing journalists in their
his worldwide study of ethical values professional life. They are what Kidder
to test the premise that there is calls Right versus Right Dilemmas.
common ground in ethics. His
interviews with ethical leaders in 16
countries revealed a set of core
values that vary little from country to
Three Approaches to
country, or from culture to culture. The Ethical Decision Making
list includes: Kidder outlines three approaches to
ethics, based on the traditions of
moral philosophy. Each can be used
Love Solidarity in solving problems, but each has its
Truth Tolerance weaknesses and pitfalls.
Freedom Responsibility
Fairness Life
Utilitarianism
This approach asks us to explore the
Ethical decision making is not only the consequences of our actions and
application of these universal values decisions. If I do this, the following will
to day-to-day questions. It is most happen; if I do that, something else
challenging when two or more values will happen. The ethical decision,
come in conflict, and we must decide using the utilitarian approach, is the
which shall prevail. Among the most result of a kind of ethical calculus:
common conflicts, in Kidders view, which decision will result in the
are: greatest good? Often, particularly in
politics, good is measured in terms of
Truth versus Loyalty the benefit to the greatest number of
Individual versus Community people. A good law is one that benefits
Short term versus Long term the greatest number with the least
Justice versus Mercy expenditure of taxpayers money and
13
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Whats the Kantian going to say? you can decide which action
No. The Kantian basically is going to constitutes what Dr. Kidder calls the
say, If you do this, what youre saying highest sense of caring.
is that you want everybody in the
world to do what youre just about to In the newsroom, ethical
do. And there goes the whole sense
of civility, the whole sense of problems typically produce
politeness, the whole sense of caring,
the whole idea of lining up in queues
an impasse between those
and taking your place and being who say, Be realistic, we
orderly in a society. All of society turns
into a kind of a glorified soccer brawl if have a deadline and readers
you head down this direction. The to serve, and those who say,
Kantian says, No way. The utilitarian
says, Of course. Darn it, there is a principle
at stake here. It is at that
Another term, commonly used in Latin
American ethics courses, to describe impasse where the real
Kants approach is deontological ethical work begins.
ethics, that is, ethics based not on
consequences but on deon, the Greek
word meaning duty. To use an earlier example, the golden
rule approach would require one to
consider both the feelings of the family
The Golden Rule, or and the interests of society before
Reversibility publishing a story with the tragic
details of the relatives death. More
The principle that you should do to than simply a cost-benefit analysis,
others as you would have them do to this approach would weigh the human
you is at the center of all major value of each perspective. Even if all
religions. It is probably the ethical of society reaps entertainment
principle that more people have used benefits from publishing the story, the
more frequently in the history of the golden rule ethicist would argue that
world than any other, Kidder said. It care for the emotional impact to the
comes down to putting yourself in victims family would preclude
anothers place, reversing ones role. publishing. Only if publishing entailed
The Golden Rule is often referred to important social benefits to the
as a care-based approach. communityand one could imagine
oneself as a member of the victims
The most difficult aspect of the care- family and still appreciate the value of
based approach is defining who is the publishing would a golden rule
other, in whose place should you put ethicist then favor publishing the story.
yourself. Most ethical dilemmas
involve multiple actors. Putting The three ethical approaches do not
yourself in others shoes often constitute a little black box, into
involves seeing the problem from which you can put your dilemmas, turn
several perspectives. Once you have the crank and have a solution pop out.
explored these various perspectives, Ethical decision making, Kidder says,
15
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
This approach has the advantage of speed. It ensures that no deadlines will be
missed. The disadvantage is that it treats decisions about ethics as if they were
17
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
19
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
The stakeholders are not just the 6. Ask: What are our
innocent participants in a story. They
deserve our special consideration, alternatives?
especially if they are both innocent
Every story can be written in many
and private citizens. The not-so-
different ways. Often the ethical
innocent participants also have to be
choice is not between publishing and
taken into account in our deliberation.
not publishing. Our ethical decision
In a typical story denouncing
may be to write the story in a certain
government errors, for example, we
way to achieve both the journalistic
must list those who made the errors
effect we seek and resolve an ethical
among the stakeholders in our
dilemma.
decision.
In some cases, writing an additional
Finally, the most important
story to achieve balance and fairness
stakeholder is the public itself, not
is the solution.
only our readers, but the society at
large.
7. Make a decision.
A good practice in identifying
Ethics is not a discussion, no matter
stakeholders during a discussion is to
how rich and interesting that
assign one person as devils
discussion may be. A good discussion
advocate, the person who takes the
is not a decision. And in journalism we
point of view of those who are not
must act and be accountable for our
present. This is the person charged
decisions. What we cannot do (if we
with identifying stakeholders who
are to remain effective as journalists)
might not be obvious and with forcing
is put off making a decision. In some
those making the decision to take into
cases, the decision may be to
account even the most unpopular
postpone publication in order to make
points of view.
the story fairer, or to diminish a
harmful effectfor example,
21
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Case Studies
Freedom and Responsibility
In the past few decades, political and social changes throughout the world have
generally resulted in much more freedom for journalists and their news
organizations. This newfound journalistic freedom has been a welcome change
as well as a key goal for those who have sought to replace dictatorship with
democracy.
But the reality of new responsibilities tempers the euphoria of freedom. Often
professional obligations and duties of journalists are not entirely clear to those
who must live up to them. That is one reason why an open and vigorous
discussion of professional ethics is so important.
25
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Among the major issues in the was indeed Colonel Manuel Enrique
balance between freedom and Surez Benavidez, whose army unit
responsibility are: had been identified as a death squad
that captured and interrogated
Right to privacy, suspected leftist guerrillas during the
Limits to sensationalism, and wave of violence and civil wars that
Objectivity of the journalist. swept Honduras and other Central
American countries during the 1980s.
These issues are debated every day
in newsrooms around the world, and A court had ordered the colonels
the challenges they present require arrest a year before, but he had
some careful analysis of what is at remained free, despite being
stake and ways that the media can act frequently sighted in the streets, and
responsibly. at restaurants and sporting events.
Some suspected that the police were
In their jobs as reporters and editors, not serious about capturing him, but
journalists usually see themselves as the police denied this.
outside observersreporting on news
made by someone else. But there are So when Alvarez knew he had a story,
times when the roles are confused or he did two things: he sent a
reversedwhen the journalists cameraman to film the colonel, and he
themselves become part of the story. called the police. Alvarez identified
In the following cases, the journalists himself as a reporter, and reported the
themselves appeared in the forefront whereabouts of Colonel Surez
of the news, and faced some Benavidez. It took police investigators
intriguing questions. 30 minutes to arrive on the scene, but
the colonel had not moved, and
Alvarez had his videocamera ready to
Case Study: Honduras film the arrest.
When Reporters Make News Alvarez was aware that his action had
Happen created the news event, which was a
major scoop for his station, Telenisa
Renato Alvarez, a respected reporter Channel 63. Probably if I would have
and editor with Televisora Nacional de not called, he said later, the
Ingenieros SA (Telenisa Channel 63) investigators would not have arrested
in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, had little him.
time for reflection that afternoon in late
August 1997. He got a tip from a Alvarez produced his story and had it
colleague in his own television station on the air in 45 minutes. His seven
that a fugitive Army colonel, wanted minute report included footage of the
for human rights crimes including colonel seated and reading and of his
torture and murder, was sitting in the arrest by police investigators. It had
plaza just outside the television station background on the court order for
where Alvarez was news director. Surez Benavidezs arrest and
archive footage about human rights
The man sitting watching a childrens abuses from the 1980s.
basketball game and reading a Bible
27
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
security office requested that Daniel already nonexistent, and with a weak
report to them, she decided to leave press it can only get worse.
the country. Once out of Nigeria, she
learned that Islamic leaders had Daniel is now in hiding, working on a
issued a fatwa for her death. Only book and rethinking her future. In an
then did she realize that this would not article she wrote for The Guardian
simply blow over, as many had describing her experience, she
thought. responds to one commentator who
regretted that Daniel was not hurt by
Although at first she agreed with her the violence that killed hundreds.
newspapers decision to run Daniel writes, physical pain is not the
apologies, Daniel now thinks the worst kind of painI unknowingly lit
paper should have defended freedom the match. I haven't dropped it yet; it is
of the press more strongly. She still in my hand.
wishes more people had paid
attention to the serious points she
raised in the article. Instead, she says, Questions for Discussion
all that got lost in the sentence about 1. What is the role of an opinion
Mohammed. More than anything, she piece versus a straight news
worries about the effect that the piece? Are there different ethical
reaction to her article will have on standards for each?
freedom of expression in Nigeria.
2. What responsibility does a
The violence was a blackmail on all journalist have with a potentially
journalists and so it definitely makes it volatile topic?
impossible for a journalist to
criticize or express freely a view on 3. Daniel wrote about a sensitive,
a religious figure, she says. Nigeria religious topic in a tone that was
loses because her conscience is meant to be breezy, sarcastic,
Nigerians walk past the Lagos offices of This Day newspaper, which was
the subject of the protests and riots over an article that had offended
Muslims.
29
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
A police officer stands in front of the theater in Moscow as a hostage crisis plays
out inside.
information obtained from a lip reader, live pictures. So we did not broadcast
and ultimately decided it was valuable live, but afterwards they still accused
news and worth broadcasting. us of doing so.
The accusation concerning the live They [the Kremlin] did not
footage is not as clear. Putin accused
NTV of endangering the operation and want us to broadcast live
the lives of soldiers and hostages by
airing live footage of troop movements
footage of the storming. We
as they prepared to storm the theater. had a clue that is was
NTV argues that their broadcast was
not in real time, but in fact delayed by starting...They called to tell
about 40 minutesafter the military us that if something of that
operation was finished. Many feel that
Putin purposely distorted the truth in sort happened we should not
an attempt to discredit the media and broadcast live pictures.
especially NTV for political gainhe
appealed to patriotism in criticizing - Savik Shuster
journalists for endangering the lives of
their fellow citizens. NTV anchor Savik
Shuster explained, They [the Kremlin] Another example of this continuing
did not want us to broadcast live effort to balance full disclosure and
footage of the storming. We had a protection of secure information
clue that it was starting; we had some occurred earlier in the crisis. NTV had
inside information. They called to tell taped an interview with one of the
us that if something of that sort hostage-takers. The Minister of
happened we should not broadcast Information came to their office to
31
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
watch the interview and after returning was very emotional, which created an
to the Kremlin, called to ask NTV not atmosphere of hostility toward the
to broadcast the segment. So NTV people that were advocating use of
held the tape until after the siege was force.
over. Shuster was disappointed not to
be able to air it earlier. He explained, An additional issue that concerned
it was a scoop, an exclusive Shuster before broadcasting the show
interview, but they asked us not to air is the problem of using such emotional
it, so we didnt. interview subjects. Although in the
future he might consider taping this
Finally, the Kremlin complained about sort of show, Shuster still believes that
NTV broadcasting interviews with these interviews are newsworthyit is
family members of the hostages. valuable to understand the
Shuster hosted the Friday evening talk perspective of the hostages relatives
show that included interviews with and for them to share stories and
several relatives. He explained that feelings that humanize the hostages.
part of his motivation in conducting
these interviews was based on news Overall, Shuster believes NTVs
events that occurred earlier that day. coverage of the hostage crisis was fair
Chechen forces had encouraged and balanced, despite difficult
relatives of the hostages to protest the reporting conditions. He also believes
war in Chechnya in Red Square on that the government did a reasonable
Friday. Shuster planned the evening job dealing with the press through the
show to include interviews with crisis. Although he would not
several of these relatives along with characterize the relationship as give
government officials. He expected an and take, he said, Given the
interesting debate about how a extraordinary circumstances, I cannot
government should handle hostage complain.
situations and whether they can
negotiate. After the siege was over, though, the
government multiplied efforts to curb
However, minutes before airtime the reporting on terrorism. In November,
government authorities who were both houses of parliament approved
scheduled to attend cancelled without highly restrictive laws concerning how
explanation. It later became clear that journalists can cover terrorist and
they were involved in final plans to counter-terrorist activities. Putin
storm the theater early the next vetoed the legislation; however,
morning. NTV journalists discussed shortly after, a committee of
whether they should continue with the government officials and media
show since it was no longer as executives convened to write a
balanced. They decided to proceed, voluntary convention aimed at
but Shuster acknowledges now that restricting media coverage of these
he might handle it differently if faced issues. Directors of several national
with the same scenario. He might not broadcast outlets signed the
broadcast this type of show live, or he convention, and parliament is
would explain that attendees on the currently working on new legislation to
other side of the debate had to cancel curb reporting on terrorist operations.
at the last minute. As he explained, It
33
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
35
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
The Mail & Guardian was one of the toes. Its important to inform
papers that reported the AIDS
speculation when Mankahlana died, the public.
citing a senior source within the
African National Congress (ANC). -Erik Naki
Before political editor Howard Barrell
wrote the piece, though, he consulted As Barrells piece argued on October
with all the political writers at the 27, 2000, Mankahlanas vocal
paper. dissident stance had made the cause
of Mankahlanas death a public
Jaspreet Kindra recalled, He told us domain issue.
he was going to report that Parks had
died of AIDS and asked if any of us The same debate raged when ANC
had a problem with it. Parks had made Member of Parliament Peter Mokaba
some leading remarks indicative of his died in June 2002. As a Mail &
AIDS dissident statuslike the one to Guardian editorial declared after his
the international magazine Science death, There are other ANC [AIDS]
that South Africa could not afford to dissidents, but none who have
supply drugs to HIV-positive pregnant propagated their views with such
women because this would result in a evangelical intensity.Mokaba was
national rash of healthy orphans that an able persuader and mobiliser
the state would then have to support. some would say rabble-rouserwho
So there was a lot of anger with in some way may have imagined he
Parks stance. His death came at a could negate illness by rallying the
time when many of us were angry with masses against what dissidents call
Thabo Mbeki's questioning stance, so the HIV=AIDS=Death paradigm.
I supported Barrells decision to write True leaders do more than win and
the piece. exercise powerthey show us how to
live. If Mokaba was in denial because
he could not accept his mortality, he
Although any illness is a failed this test.
private matter, when it Over a year after Mankahlanas death
affects a public official it and only months before Mokabas
death, the ANC released a document
should be reported. co-authored by Mokaba elaborating its
Especially with HIV, because AIDS policy. Kindra wrote in the Mail &
Guardian on March 22, 2002, that it
it affects so many people in portrays AIDS as a conspiracy theory
South Africa. I dont think the pushed by an omnipotent apparatus
posing as friends of Africa with the
choice of the weekend aim of dehumanizing Africans. It also
papers is a bad one--they portrays Mankahlana as a martyr in
the cause of his president and claims
keep the government on its he died vanquished by the anti-
retroviral drugs he was wrongly
persuaded to consume. Thus the
37
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
ANC finally admitted that Mankahlana you usually cover these stories, or
had indeed died of AIDS, in a are they off-limits?
document still supporting his dissident
stance. 2. A story that deals with the health
of an official may be difficult to
For many reporters in South Africa, confirm. Doctors are not supposed
the questions of stigma and privacy to disclose this information, and
are superceded by the political death certificates are often closed
dimension the issue takes when a to the public. What kind of
public official, especially in Mbekis sourcing is acceptablefor a
government, dies of AIDS. journalists ethics and for
accuracy? Is one source,
As Ranjeni Munusamy wrote in The especially an anonymous source,
Sunday Times on October 29, 2000, enough to run a story like this?
Mankahlanas battle with his illness What if the story is corroborated
became mixed up with the battle he by multiple anonymous sources?
was fighting on Mbekis behalf. And he What if health documents come
lost both. from an opposition party member?
Even Erik Naki, whose paper did not 3. Do most cultures have the same
choose to report the cause of approach to death and how it is
Mankahlanas death, argued, discussed? Should all journalists
Although any illness is a private have one approach, regardless of
matter, when it affects a public official, culture or social mores?
it should be reported. Especially with
HIV, because it affects so many 4. Do you think the South African
people in South Africa. I dont think the press handled the death of
choice of the weekend papers is a bad Mankahlana differently than other
onethey keep the government on its officials, because he was the press
toes. Its important to inform the public spokesman, and therefore
this thing is affecting even the personally known by many in the
spokesman of the President. I think press? Should they?
they were right, but they need to be
cautious dealing with rumors. But if 5. Did Mankahlanas stance on HIV/
they have good, solid information, AIDS legitimately open him to
they should report it, if it affects a questions about his own health? If
public figure. Parks was speaking for he had never been a part of the
the president. He was a public figure, AIDS debate, nor taken an
in the presidents office. So the media unpopular stance on it, would the
has a right to report these issues. questions surrounding his death
have been reported differently, and
should they have been?
Questions for Discussion
6. Do you think that journalists in
1. Does your media organization
South Africa hope to de-stigmatize
have a policy about reporting on
AIDS in reporting this issue
the health of public officials? Do
openly? Is this fair for the media
to make this choice?
39
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
41
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
rings lure young women from their help other young women avoid their
hometowns with the promise of a fate.
good job in a more developed country.
Their passports and all their money One of the women told him that she
are taken, and they are forced to work wanted his help in getting out of her
as prostitutes in a strange country, situation. The other said she, too,
kept in miserable conditions and wanted help, Smith said, but he
threatened with violence if they try to noticed that she was acting strange.
escape or tell anyone about their
situation. Smith interviewed the women and
stayed with them long enough that
In order to report on the sensitive those outside would believe they had
subject, Smith needs to talk to the had sex. He left the room and spoke
victims themselves. He also contends to the men outside as if he had just
that he needs to misrepresent himself had a great experience. A middleman
to the women and their handlers; at (the one who arranged for Smith to
least initially, he must pretend to be a meet the prostitutes) drove him and
client. the two women back to the bar where
they had all met.
In many cases, merely talking to the
victims as a reporter puts their lives in Preston Smith is still
danger, as well as his own. Smith has
learned several lessons, some at the haunted by the case of the
expense of women who have talked to
him.
young Romanian woman who
likely paid a price he will
He remembers one case in particular.
He was working on a report, posing as never know for giving him
a client in an effort to interview victims. her story.
He found himself alone in a dingy
brothel room with two Romanian
women, while a bouncer sat just On the way, the second woman told
outside the door, listening. The the middleman that Smith was a
women started to kiss him, believing reporter. Smith, who understands
him to be a Westerner looking for sex. many Eastern European languages,
All three disrobed, Smith believing that understood what she said. He heard
if the bouncer outside looked in and the middleman talking on a cell phone
saw the three clothed, he would get to others, and realized that he was in
suspicious. great danger. At the first opportunity,
he jumped out of the car.
Smith told the women (both of whom
spoke English) that he had a secret to Smith managed to find another
tell them, but that they must not tell reporter he was working with, and the
anyone. He told them that he was a two spent the night hiding in a rented
reporter and that he wanted to tell room. They got out of town the next
their stories, without identifying them. day.
Telling their stories, he said, might
But Smith has no idea what happened by name, and he would never publish
to the two women. He fears that they a photo of a victim in which she could
might have been punished, especially be identified. Like any journalist, he
the one who didnt tell her captors he prefers to identify his sources clearly,
was a reporter. but this is one situation in which
anonymity is justified, he said.
As someone who had lived in Central
Europe for many years, knew One of the most difficult questions
languages fluently and was very Smith has faced is whether to help a
familiar with this problem, I believed woman get out of her situation if she
that I was prepared for this story, asks for help. Doing so is tempting, he
Smith said. I was wrong and now I said, but extremely risky both to the
have to live with the fact that a girl reporter and to the victim. When a
was at least beaten, thanks to me. woman asks him for help, Smith
promises to tell trustworthy authorities
Smith said he learned several lessons (usually an international organization,
from the experience and from others not local police) her name, location
he has had covering the issue. First, and predicament.
he would never again attempt to
interview two women at once. He now In general, I believe rescue efforts
knows that one of them might well should be left to police, but I now
inform on the other one. He said its know of two cases in Poland and one
important to act as much like a real case in Macedonia where Johns
client as possible. That means pulled out women by using their wits,
working quickly, not hanging around Smith said. This is very, very risky,
asking a lot of questions before however, and you have absolutely
attempting to be alone with a victim. crossed the line where journalism
stops, and you have become too close
You need to be a John, Smith said, to the story.
using the English term for a client of
prostitutes. Act like a John. Smith admits that any attempt to
interview victims while doing a story
Does that mean going so far as to about trafficking is risky. But he
sleep with the women he is believes that his readers need to know
interviewing? No, Smith said. First, he about the scourge of trafficking, and
believes its not necessary to actually the only way to make them care
have sex to convince the people enough to do something about it is to
outside the door that hes an ordinary tell the stories of the victims. He
client. And second, he believes its intends to continue covering the issue
wrong. and talking to victimsbut more
carefully than he did in the case
You cannot have sex with her, he described above.
said. That violates everything you are
trying to do. You become part of the
problem. Questions for Discussion
1. Was Smith wrong to try to
Smith is adamant that victims of interview victims of trafficking while
trafficking should never be identified posing as a client? Was there any
43
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
45
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Case Studies
Accuracy and Fairness
Journalists first duty is to seek truth and report it completely and fairly. This is a
rigorous journalistic standard: the journalist must decide honestly and ethically
whether the facts he or she has gathered amount to a fair and accurate picture of
reality or, to the contrary, will mislead, distort and perhaps unfairly malign those
about whom he or she reports.
These are sometimes the toughest judgments journalists must make. The values
of accuracy and fairness define the precise intersection where journalistic ethics
meets the professional standards that guide a reporters day-to-day work. The
range of issues includes judging the reliability of sources, confirming facts, use of
deceptive methods, and decisions on deadline.
49
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
51
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
53
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
But the correction did not help the Id rather to give up my job than to
woman who was unjustly accused. confess whom our journalists find
Her lover beat her to death shortly investigative information from, she
after the correction ran, believing that had said after her first court
she had infected him with the AIDS appearance. If we begin confessing
virus. He either had not read the our sources, who will trust us? Who
correction or didnt believe it. will dare to reveal wrongdoings to the
public if there is no trust in
Id rather to give up my job journalists?
Judges were anxious to punish 2. If it had been true that the border
Handdolgor without considering many guard was infected with the AIDS
facts related to the case, said virus, would the newspaper have
Ganbaatar, the owner of the been justified in publishing the
newspaper. They satisfied all the story? Did the border guard have a
complaints 100 percent without right to privacy concerning intimate
considering that Ug published an details about her life, or was there
apology and Handdolgor behaved sufficient public interest in the case
well. to justify violating her right to
privacy?
The judges also might have been
especially harsh with Handdolgor 3. Should the newspaper have taken
more steps to ensure that the
55
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
This photo of an Army soldier at a polling place was digitally altered to make the soldier
appear to be a guerilla. His hat was changed, his watch removed and a patch was
added to his shoulder.
These two unrelated photos were combined digitally to make it appear that guerillas were guarding the
ballot box. Note the shadows added behind them.
For example, she knows of cases in reader is informed that the photo
which a photographer or TV was changed? If so, how should
cameraman arrived at the scene of a the reader be informed?
battle or civilian massacre after the
bodies had already been removed. 4. During the 2003 war in Iraq, a
The photographers told living people photographer for the Los Angeles
to lie down where the bodies were, Times took several photos of a
covered them up with sheets and took British soldier guarding a group of
pictures, she said. Readers or viewers Iraqis. One photo showed the
were given no indication that the soldier dramatically holding out his
bodies were not the actual victims. hand to the crowd in a gesture of
The media justified the images by control. Another photo showed a
saying that the fake bodies were man in the crowd rising up, holding
placed exactly where the real ones a baby. The photographer
were, so no false information was combined the two shots into one
given to the readers or viewers. aesthetically pleasing photo. When
editors found out that they had
In other cases, Ruiz said, published an altered photo (after
photographers and video crews ask being shown that some people in
newsmakers to re-enact events for the the background were repeated in
the photo), they fired the
photographer. Was that proper?
Questions for Discussion
1. Was Cambio justified in 5. Is it acceptable to stage or
manipulating the photos? Does it recreate a camera or video shot?
matter that the manipulation was Is the answer different if what is
used to illustrate a story that shown in the staged image never
included reliable sources saying actually happened or if it really did
that what was shown in the happen, but not while the
manipulated photos really was photographer was present?
happening? Should readers or viewers be
informed that the image is a
2. The magazine indicated that one recreation?
of the manipulated photos was a
photo montage. Does that justify 6. Imagine that you are a
using the photo? Do most readers photographer taking pictures at a
understand what a photo montage festival where two opposing
is? Could the magazine have done candidates are campaigning.
anything else to inform readers Although they dislike each other
what it did? vehemently, the two candidates
reluctantly shake hands when they
3. Is it ever right to manipulate see each other at the festival. But
photos digitally? Does it matter you missed the shot. Would you
what kind of stories they are ask the candidates to shake hands
illustrating? (For example, is it again for your camera?
acceptable to do things in feature
stories that are not acceptable in 7. What effect does altering or
news stories?) Does it matter if the staging images have on the
57
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
TIT reporters Aniruddha Bahal and The story brought immediate results.
Matthew Samuel portrayed The Defense Minister and several
themselves as representatives of a high officials of the ruling political
fictitious arms-manufacturing party resigned. The military was
company, West End International. tainted at its highest echelons. For a
They wanted to sell equally while, the story was the talk of India.
59
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
would be ethical at all, since But he did include other quotes from
i would be abusing my guards and prisoners, none of whom
knew they were talking to a journalist.
internship...however, there The quotes from guards included their
complaints about a lack of authority
would be no other way I with the prisoners, who did not seem
would have been able to to fear the guards. His story vividly
described prison life and compared it
write about the prison.
The lawyers group had no choice but 5. Is it ever right for a journalist to
to sue me, Buzhala said. My editors conduct an interview without the
subject knowing that he or she is
talking to a journalist? Is there a
Questions for Discussion difference between not identifying
yourself a journalist (which is what
1. Should Buzhala have written the Buzhala did) and actually
story given that he never identified pretending to be someone other
himself as a journalist? Do you than a journalist in order to get
agree or disagree with his access or information?
argument that this was the only
way to get the story, and that 6. Imagine that you are trying to get
providing the story was important an interview with a riot victim in the
enough to overcome the ethical hospital. Would you pretend to be
problems in the way that he got it? a family member in order to get
into the victims room? Would you
2. If you were Buzhala, would you pretend to be a hospital worker?
have told the prison director that
you were a journalist? Would your 7. What effect do deceptive tactics
answer be the same if you knew have on sources willingness to
the prison director would not have trust journalists? What effect do
let you in if he had known you they have on the medias
were a journalist? If you were credibility with the public?
Buzhala, would you have told the 8.
guards and inmates that you
interviewed that you were a
journalist? Would your answer be
the same if you knew they
wouldnt have talked to you as
honestly if they had known you
were a journalist?
61
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Case Studies
Independence
Journalism makes uncompromising demands on its practitioners. It asks us, as a
professional skill, to put aside our own opinions and interests and instead to
pursue the truth on behalf of readers and society; it asks us to abandon any
personal agenda and to write based on facts and reporting; and it asks us to
report on the basis of facts: something that runs counter to our own favorite
causes.
63
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
65
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
67
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
declined a lift from a politician. small cash gifts from sources to feed
Knowing his bully behavior, I opted to their families. In some cases, media
travel by bus to the function, only to owners feel justified in paying their
arrive after the speeches. I nearly lost journalists low salaries because they
my job. know that all the reporters are
supplementing their incomes with
Another time, Oywa did accept a ride bribes.
to an event from a politician who was
to be one of the speakers. Halfway to Other forms of influence are more
the event, the politician was told by subtle. Many politicians or businesses
one of his aides that Oywa was provide sumptuous meals to
friendly with the politicians opponent journalists who attend events, and a
and would not write a positive story. journalist who has just eaten the best
Oywa was ordered out of the car in meal hes had in months is unlikely to
the middle of the bush and had to write something that might upset his
walk five kilometers to a nearby hosts. Many countries have an annual
market center to board a bus. Journalists Day when government
officials, political parties and
Free rides are not the only ways that businesses ply journalists with free
politicians and businesses manage to gifts, from cheap trinkets to expensive
put journalists in their debt in Kenya. watches or vacation trips.
Oywa said that politicians often
provide their offices, computers and One way that many hotels, resorts
phones to help journalists in remote and airlines ensure free advertising in
areas file their stories. Its difficult to the media is to offer journalists all-
send a story the politician wont like expenses-paid trips to vacation
when you are using his equipment getaways in exchange for a story. The
and his aides are peering over your journalists write glowing reviews of the
shoulder, Oywa said. But sometimes tourist facilities, and the reader or
reporters have no choice. viewer never knows that the hotel or
resort paid for the reporters tripor
Across the world, politicians have that average people might not get
numerous strategies to try to such perfect accommodations and
guarantee positive coverage. service when they visit the resort.
Sometimes journalists have to accept
the offers in order to write a story. It is not simply the reporters who are
Other times, the temptation to accept responsible for these conflicts of
favors or gifts is just too great. In interest. Employers who dont pay
many parts of the world, envelope their journalists a living wage or
journalism is common. Journalists provide such basics as the means to
attending a news conference routinely get to a political event without relying
receive an envelope stuffed with a on the politician for a ride also bear
small amount of cash along with the responsibility.
press release.
Politicians and journalists have
Journalists usually know that its learned to co-exist even as questions
ethically wrong to accept such bribes, are being raised over such
but they are poorly paid and count on relationships, Oywa said. Until the
69
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Journalists in wealthy countries are in his paper and in most other papers
proud to point out that there is an in the country.
absolute division in their newspapers
and TV stations between the news Police discovered that the company
and the business departments. had given people at a public meeting
Decisions about what goes into the drinks whose expiration date had
newspaper or on the broadcast, they passed. To publish or not?
say, are never determined by who
pays the advertising bills. But in It wasnt huge, nobody died, it was
poorer countries without a long history just that those products were expired,
of advertising, the wall between Petreanu said. I think about 30 days
business and news isnt very strong or something like this.
or isnt there at all.
Petreanus first instinct was to put the
Dimitar Shumnaliev, editor of the story on the front page. But he
newspaper Nosten Trud in Bulgaria, realized that the papers biggest ad
talked about one recent example. A contract was with the same company.
woman called the paper to complain The companys public relations people
that a local store was selling spoiled got wind of the story and called
meat. The store was one of the Petreanu to say that it was a simple
papers largest advertisers. Publishing mistake that wouldnt happen again.
the story would surely cause the store
to pull its ads. So, if you are a true journalist you
should serve only the community and
We have to be loyal to both the firm say, I dont give a damn about you.
and the reader, Shumnaliev said. You have a lot of money, you tried to
Often, ethical values are in poison guys. You know its obvious
competition. I didnt publish any that those products werent good
information about the spoiled meat, enough. So, OK, lets print it! But then
because we needed the money. But I you have to think, But this newspaper
also called the director of the store costs every day lots and lots of
and told him about the spoiled meat. money and maybe it was just an
An hour later, no spoiled meat was on accident. So you see, these are the
sale. I was loyal to the reader as well kinds of dealings that every journalist
because I did something as an editor- in Romania has to deal with every day
in-chief. only because the economy works so
bad.
In neighboring Romania, Jornalul
National editor Vlad Petreanu has Another ethical problem for editors is
faced similar questions. He and other advertorials. These are stories that
editors know its not right to let a major are paid for by advertisers that are
advertiser determine news content designed to look like regular articles in
but he noted that losing a big contract the newspaper. They are purely
when advertising money is scarce can positive stories about a company, and
mean the difference between survival the company that pays for them hopes
and failure. He described the case of that readers will assume they are
a major national soft drink objective newspaper articles rather
manufacturer that advertises regularly than paid ads. Sometimes the
71
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
pushed for proved that the material a journalist second. He worked for
was contaminated, he said.) publications aligned with the Zapatista
indigenous rights movement in his
During his time at Kompas, Surjadi native Chiapas region of Mexico. His
was accused of being a member of goal was not so much to inform the
environmental advocacy groups. He public as to advance the rebels
said that was not true, but he did work cause.
with those groups to investigate
cases. And sometimes when quoting By 2001, Mandujano had changed. He
representatives of those groups, he had gone to work for the independent
helped them state their case better. Chiapas magazine Sur Proceso,
though in his heart, he still strongly
When I feel this is not a proper quote, supported the Zapatistas. That year,
I say, Not these words. I help to his new commitment to objective
formulate the words. The message is journalism made him an enemy of his
the same, and they agree. former allies.
Some journalists say that Surjadi is One of the hooded, anonymous rebel
more of an activist than a journalist. leaders had captured the publics
He doesnt think thats true, but he attention that year during a highly
doesnt hesitate to say that journalism publicized march to the capital. She
to him is a tool. was known as Comandante Esther.
The Mexican governments espionage
The first dilemma I faced machine sought to pull the hood off
Comandante Esther, discover her
was how to investigate identity and somehow discredit her.
Once the police knew who she was, it
someone from the Zapatista was only a matter of time before the
Movement for whom I felt a information was leaked to the press:
name, hometown, profession. At Sur
certain sympathy, he said. Proceso, Mandujano was charged
To do this story was to with finding and interviewing
Comandante Esther.
collaborate more with the
police. Somewhat reluctantly, Mandujano
went into the mountains and found the
-Isan Mandujano community where the rebel
commander led her other life as a
bilingual schoolteacher. He wasnt
I have to work professionally, but also able to interview her, but he profiled
I have to make the Indonesian the world she lived in and interviewed
environment better. That is my major people who knew her.
interest.
The first dilemma I faced was how to
Mandujano might have agreed with investigate someone from the
that approach early in his career. Zapatista Movement for whom I felt a
When he first became a journalist in certain sympathy, he said. To do this
the mid-1990s, he was a militant first,
73
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
story was to collaborate more with the (revolutionary movement) had divided
police. itself.
75
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
without interference that other Zabci said that his readers were able
journalists did not have. to get information that readers of other
publications did not.
I was the first one of any journalist to
get pictures of the bombing, Zabci My conscience was very clear, he
said. The first bombs went to the said. I filed a story practically every
place where we were, not the power day without any censor. They were
plant but 300 or 400 meters from us, a maybe censoring other journalists, but
bridge. We were all outside watching not us. The pictures I took were of
the bombing. I had my digital camera. areas that were not allowed, but
They didnt mind. I was shooting nobody stopped me. I wrote
pictures. Everyone was free to take sometimes military information about
pictures, no problem. the bridge, about the traffic that would
have been censored had he been
At the same time, most other there on a journalists visa.
journalists were holed up in hotels,
Zabci said. He also got access to Other journalists took the opposite
hospitals and other bombed sites that course in getting into the country
he said other journalists did not see. and faced a different ethical dilemma.
And he said the stories sent by Most journalists in Iraq before the war
journalists with official permission to started were there on journalists
be in Iraq were read and censored by visas. They did not pretend to be
Iraqi officials, while his stories were something other than a journalist to
not touched. The Iraqi government get into the country, but once they
even gave him and other human were there, they were subject to
shields satellite phones, so it was censorship and other concerns that
easy to file his stories. He finally left limited what they were able to tell their
on April 6, before Baghdad was readers or viewers.
seized, because the officials took
away his satellite phone and he had Embedded journalists were
no way to file stories.
often dependent on the
Zabci said he never lied about who he
was. The officials in charge of human
soldiers they accompanied
shields knew he was a journalist, for their very lives, and some
though the fact that no one tried to
control what he saw or wrote probably said they began to feel a
means that the Ministry of Information strong bond with the troops
did not know. The officials who
organized the human shields said it they covered at such close
was fine with them if he was a range.
journalist, as long as he fulfilled the
duties of a human shield, Zabci said.
He did so, staying with the group at After the fall of Saddam Hussein,
the power plant and traveling to other Eason Jordan, CNNs chief news
places with the others in his group. executive, wrote in a column in The
New York Times that the network
withheld information about how
77
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
79
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Those are the things we can change ourselves, whatever the pressures from the
outside.
During the ethics conferences in Latin America, there was a growing realization
that good ethical practices actually enhance the power of a journalist and of a
news organization. A journalist who rigorously follows the highest standards is a
journalist with power, who cannot only do his duty to inform the public but also
can withstand the external factors that attempt to control the press or erode its
freedom.
Our ethics and our standards are the steel-hard infrastructure around which a
journalist and a news organization build public credibility, their greatestand
some say onlyasset. Credibility is nothing more than public confidence that we
are telling the truth to the best of our reporting abilities.
Its about building trust, said ICFJ president David Anable. The audience
learns to trust you over time. There is no short cut to trust, but it can all be
destroyed in a very short time, with a few bad ethical decisions.
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
83
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel Admit mistakes and correct them
and special treatment, and shun promptly.
secondary employment, political
involvement, public office and Expose unethical practices of
service in community organizations journalists and the news media.
if they compromise journalistic
integrity. Abide by the same high standards
to which they hold others.
Disclose unavoidable conflicts.
85
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Appendix B
Additional Ethics Resources in Print
Christians, Clifford G., et al. Media Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning, 6th ed.
New York: Longman, 2001.
Kidder, Rushworth. Shared Values for a Troubled World. San Francisco: Josey-
Bass, 1994.
Kidder, Rushworth M. How Good People Make Tough Choices: Resolving the
Dilemmas of Ethical Living. New York: William Morrow, 1995.
Merrill, John. Legacy of Wisdom: Great Thinkers and Journalism. Ames, Iowa:
Iowa State University Press, 2000.
Patterson, Philip and Lee Wilkins, Media Ethics: Issues and Cases, 4th ed.
Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Ruggiero, Vincent. Thinking Critically About Ethical Issues, 5th ed. Mountain, CA:
Mayfieldl, 2001.
Smith, Ron F. Groping for Ethics in Journalism, 4th ed. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State
University Press, 1999.
Appendix C www.uta.fi/laitokset/tiedotus/ethicnet/
index.html
Ethics Resources Online
Journalism Ethics
The following media centers, University of Illinois at Urbana-
organizations, and institutions have a Champaign
special interest in journalism ethics. www.research.uiuc.edu/ethics/
These addresses were current when journalism.asp
this manual went to press. However,
Web addresses change frequently.
So, if the address does not work, try
searching for the site through a Web Media Organizations and
search engine. Associations
American Society of Newspaper
Universities Editors
Program for Media Ethics Studies www.asne.org
Brigham Young University
www.newsnet.byu.edu/ Associated Press Managing Editors
communications/ethics/default.html (APME)
www.apme.com
Ethics on the World Wide Web
College of Communication at Committee of Concerned
California State University Journalists
Fullerton http://www.journalism.org/resources/
http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/lester/ tools/ethics/codes/default.asp
ethics/ethics_list.html
Institute for Global Ethics
Web Resources for Studying www.globalethics.org
Journalism Ethics
School of Communications, International Center for Journalists
Department of Journalism, (ICFJ)
University of Hawaii at Mnoa www.icfj.org
www2.hawaii.edu/~tbrislin/ethics
International Federation of
W. Maurice Young Centre for Journalists (IFJ)
Applied Ethics www.uta.fi/laitokset/tiedotus/ethicnet/
University of British Columbia ifjindex.html
www.ethics.ubc.ca/resources/media/
International Journalists Network:
Markkula Center for Applied Ethics Codes of Ethics Section
Santa Clara University www.ijnet.org
www.scu.edu/ethics
Josephson Institute of Ethics
Data bank for European Codes of www.josephsoninstitute.org
Journalism Ethics
EthicNet
87
Journalism Ethics: The Global Debate
Press Councils
Minnesota News Council
www.mtn.org/newscouncil