REINFORCED CEMENT chapesr CONCRETE STRUCTURES INTRODUCTION GENERAL Cement concrete isa composite material obtained by mixing its three ingredients, namely, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and cement im predetermined proportions (which depend on the strength to be possessed by the concrete) with specified amount of water. The coarse aggregate may sometimes be referred as gravel or metal and fine aggregate is sand. Initially the mixture will be a plastic mass which can be poured in suitable moulds, called forms and becomes hard progressively. This process is known as selfing. The setting time can be divided into 3 distinct Phases, The fnitial set requires 30 to 60 minutes and during this phase the concrete decreases its plasticity and develops resistance to flow. The second phase, known as final set, may vary between 5 to 6 hours after mixing. During the third phase, known as progressive hardening the concrete increases its strength. The advantage of concrete is that it can be cast to any shape and size with an appropriate form work, With proper curing it attains most of its strength by the end of one month after mixing. The strength and hardness of concrete depend on the quality and proportions of the ingredients used and the properties of concrete vary almost as widely as different kinds of stones. The concrete described above is known as plait concrete, Concrete is fairly strong in compression and weak in tension and it-can be used where the tensile stresses are absent or negligibly small. However, the concrete used in beams, slabs etc, reinforcement bars (usually mild steel bars) have to be embedded in concrete at the tensile zones, The concrete is then called the reinforced cement corerele abbreviated as RCC.Merits of R.C. (a) The coefficient of linewr expansion of concrete is almost equal to that of steel, (H) Concrete can be moulded into any shape and size and its ingredient materials are easily available. {c) Cancrete constructions are economical and their maintenance cost is almost nil (d) Concrete is durable and is not easily affected by the atmospheric agencies (ce) Conerete is fire resistant and its construction is superior to steel and timber construction (f) Monolithic construction is possible with concrete and this provides a greater flexibility in planning and design. ‘Types of Cement, There are many typesof cement such as Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Low Heat Portland Cement, Portland — pozzolona Cement (PPC), High alumina cement, natural cements and special cements like masonry cement, expansive cement ete. The type of cement must be chosen such that it is the most appropriate to the work. The specifications to be satistied by the cement can be found in the relevant IS-code. Aggregates. Aggregates used for concrete must comply with the norms laid down in IS: 383-1970. Measurement of Materials. All the three ingredient materials have tobe measured by weight. In our country cement is supplied in bags weighing 30 kg each. The volume of cement in one bag may be taken as 34.5 litres that is 0.1345 m’. Water Cement Ratio. Water cement ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of water used in making concrete to the volume of cement used. The workability and strength of concrete depend. on water cement ratio. For a given proportion of materials there is one optimum value of water cement. If the actual water cement is less than this optimum it will notonly reduce the strength but may be also insufficient to ensure complete setting of cement, Likewise, if the actual water cement ratio is more than optimum, it will increase the workability but decrease the strength. Some practical values of water cement for R-C.C, are about: 0.45 for 1:1; 2 concrete, 0.50 for 1: 1.5; 3 and 0.60 far 12:4, Durability of Concrete. The property of conerete by virtue of which it resists the disintegration and decay is called the durability. The disintegration and decay in concrete may be due to: (a) Use of unsound cement which produces changes in hardened concrete due to delayed chemical reactions. (b) Use of less durable aggregate which is acted upon by cement and atmospheric gases, (c) Excessive pores formed while making concrete, which permits harmful gases causing disintegration. (d) Freezing and thawing of water sucked through the cracks causing disintegration. (¢) Expansion and contraction occurring due to temperature changes, or alternate wetting and drying, One of the main characteristic of the concrete influencing the durability is its permenbility. Higher permeability permits rather the free flow of potentially deleterious substances like water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate and others. To ensure durability care should be takento see that proper ingredient materials are used, mixing and compaction is properly done and sufficient cover is provided for the embedded reinforcement bars. Workability of Concrete. Workability may be defined as the ease with which the concrete may be mixed, handled, transported, placed in position and compacted, The major factor influencing the workability is the amount of water present in the mix, The concrete mix proportions chosen should be such that the concrete is of adequate workability for the placing conditions of concrete and can be properly compacted. Grades of Concrete, IS 4156 : 2000 specifies 15 grades of concrete which are designated as MLO, M15, M20,.Mi25, M30,M35, M40, M45, M50,.M55, Mol, M65, M70, M75 anc M80 in which the letter M refers to the mix and the number that follows the letter M{ refers to the chanmcferisticstrengtiy in N/mm? (/.,) of 150 mm concrete cube at 28 days. Thus for example M20 grade refers toa concrete mix whose characteristic strength is 20 N/mm. The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the material below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. Suppose n (say BO) cubes of M20) grade concrete are tested for their compressive strength, ‘Then at the maximum 0.05 n (that is 4) cubescan have strength of less than 20) N/mm? and the remaining 0.95 n (that is 76) cubes shall have strength more than or ‘equal to 20 Ni'mm?, From the definition of characteristic strength it is implied that there is only 5% chance or a probability of 0.05 for the actual strength to be less than the characteristic strength. To put it iin other words the characteristic strength has 95% reliability. The characteristic cube compressive strength of concrete is denoted by f,- An estimate of tensile strength of concrete in flexure denoted by f,, may be obtained from the following equation: heave 41) The modulus of elasticity of concrete denoted by E_ can be assumed as follows: E,= 5000 Fy eo.) 18. 456:2000 recommends that minimum grade of concrete used in reinforced cement concrete works shall not be less than M20. Steel Reinforcement. The steel reinforcement used in concrete are generally of the following types: (a) Mild steel bars conforming to 1S 432 (part-1): 1966 and Hot rolled mild steel deformed bars conforming to IS 1139: 1966, ‘These bars have yield strength of 250 N/mm?, Hence they are referred to as Fe 250 steel. (0) Hot rolled high yield strength deformed bars conforming, to IS 1139 : 1966 and Cold worked steel high strength deformed bars conforming to 1S 1786 : 1979 (Grade Fe 415 and Fe 500) having 0.2% proof stress as 415 N/mm? and 500 N/mm? respectively, These are also known as CTD (cold twisted deformed) bars. The idealized stress-strain curve for mild steel bars, and the stress-strain curves for CTD bars are shown in Fig. 14.1.‘Strain — {a} Cold worked defamed bar (b) Stee! bar with definite yield port FIGURE 14.1 Stress-strain curves for mild steel and CTD bar. ‘The characteristic strength of steel is denoted by f, and is defined as the strength below which not more than 8% of the test results are expected to fall. Following the similar interpretation as that of concrete grades the Fe 250, Fe415 and FeS0il grade steels will have characteristic strengths of 250 N/mm?, 415 N/mm? and 500 N/'mm* respectively, Fo45 is also referred to as Tor 40 and similarly Fe500 is also known as Tor 50, When strain (x-axis) versus stress (y-axis) curve is prepared, we notice that the strain increases ata yield stress and the curve exhibits horizontal portion which is called piateasr. ‘The steel bar can be strained beyond yield plateau by twisting or stretching and then unloading, The process is known as cold working and the tor-steel bars available in India are of this type. A twisted bar has considerable increased yield stress and it has yield stress 501 to 100% more than ordinary steel bars. Thus designs using twisted bars lead to saving in steel. One can expect improved bond between concrete and steel when deformed bars are used. A deformed bar is obtained by providing lugs or ribs deformation on the surface of the bar. High yield strength deformed bars (H'YSD) are in common use. The use of HYSD bars also requires the simultaneous use of grade of concrete of M20 or higher. The modulus of elasticity of steel denated by £, is generally taken as 2x 10° N/mm’, The stress-strain relation for steel is assumed to be same both in tension and compression. DESIGN CONCEPTS ‘The reinforced cement concrete structures may be designed using any one of the following three methods: (a) The working stress method {W5M) also called the Modular Ratio Method.(b) The ultimate load method (ULM) also known as the load factor method. {e) The limit state method (LSM). Working Stress Method. It isa traditional method of design based on classical elastic theory used not only for R.C.C. structures but also for timber and steel structures. It uses a factor of safety of 3 for concrete and 1.8 for steel. It has the following demerits. It does not show the true factor of safety under failure. It leads to uneconomical design. It to distinguish between different types of loads that act simultaneously but have different uncertainties. ‘The merits in its favour are : (2) it is simple in concept and application. Structures designed by this method are large and therefore give better serviceability performance (4e., less deflection, less crack width etc,,). Knowledge of W'SM is essential since it formsa partof LSM far serviceability condition, Ultimate Load Method. In this method stress condition at the state of impending collapse of the structure is analyzed using the non-linear stress-strain curves of concrete and steel. Load factor gives factor of safety. In brief, the ultimate load method ensures safety at ultimate loads but disregards the serviceability at service loads, Limit State Method. A limit state is a state of impending failure beyond which the structure ceases to perform its intended function satisfactorily, in terms of safety or serviceability. Two types of limitstates are considered in design. They are limit state of collapse and limit state of serviceability. The limit state of collapse inclucte the limit state of collapse in flexure, in compression, in compression and uniaxial bending, in compression and biaxial bending, in shear, in bond, in torsion and in tension. The limit state of serviceability include the limit state of deflection, the limit state of cracking and the other limit states such vibration, fire resistance, durability ete. In general, the structure shal! be designed based on the most critical limit state and it shall be checked for other limit states. Characteristic Strength and Partial Safety Factors. Suppose the tests conducted on nm samples have given strengths fy, fy... f,. Then the mean strength f_ is given by Ie A fy Fone + LV = aie ef 4.3) Similarly the standard deviation of the strength / is given by Dill wf 44) Now, if we assume that the strength follows normal probability distribution, the characteristic strengths f, can be obtained from the relation Apa fyw 45 ef 145) because the area of the normal curve between — => and — 1.645 is 0,05, The design strength of the material f, is given by fra hln A146) where y,, is the partial safety factor appropriate to the material and the limit state being considered, For concrete y,, = 1.5 and for steely, = 1.15Thus for steel the design stress is givenas f,.=f,/ 1.15 =(.87f,. The [5456 : 2000 code suggests that for design purpose the compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be assumed to be (1.67 times the characteristic strength of concrete in cube and in addition the partial safety factor of 1.15 shall be applied. Thus the design stress in concrete f, is given by f,. = 40.67 f,)/1.5=045/,. This is reflected in stress-strain curves Characteristic Loads, A characteristic load is defined as that value of load which has a 95 per cent probability of notheing exceeded during the life of structure. If F,, is the mean load, F, is the standard deviation of the load, then the characteristic load F, is given by F,=F, + L.6d5 F, A147) Equation (14.7) is again based on the assumption that the load F is a random variable follmwing normal probability distribution and the normal curve has 95% of its area between — and + 1.645, However, since adequate data is not available, 15 456 ; 2000 supgests that the dead loads (DL) given in IS 875 (part-) the imposed loads (IL) or the live loads (LL) given in 15 875 (part-IT) the wind loads (WL) given in [S 875 (part-II1) the snow loads (SL) given in IS 875 (part-IV) the seismic or earthquake loads (EL) given in 15 1893 shall be assumed as the characteristic loads The design load is given by Fy= ¥Fe 14.8) where 7, is the partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and the limit state being considered. The design load F, given by eqn. (14.8) is also known as finctoned fowl. Partial safety factors for loads may be taken from Table 18 of the code 15 456 : 2000. ‘Stress-Strain curves for concrete and steel. The most important characteristic of the materials in R-C.C. (that is concrete and steel) required in the design is the stress-strain curve. o.o02 0.0035 Straiq > FIGURE 14.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete.A typical stress strain curve for concrete is shown in Fig, 14.2. It may be noted that each curve is parabolic in the initial portion up tea strain of 0.002, Ata strain of (1,002 (at 0.2% strain) the stress remains constant with increasing load until a strain of 0.35% is reached, when the concrete is said to have failed. ‘The stress-strain curve for steel is shown in Fig, 14.1. It may be observed from this figure that for mild steel the stress is proportional to strain up to yield point and thereafter the strain increases at constant stress. For the stress-strain curves of Fe 415 and Fe 500, there is no definite yield point. Hence yield stress in taken as 0.2 per cent proof stress, The stress-strain curves for these two types of steel are linear up toa stress of 0.8 f) and strains are elastic. Thereafter, they are not linear. The salient points on the stress-strain curves of Fe 415 and Fe 500 in the non linear portion are given in Table 14.1 Table 14.1. Salient Points on the Design Stress-Strain Curve for Cold Worked Bars Stress devel Fedl:f, = 415 Niwa? FeS00: f, = 500 Nyaa? Strain ‘Streas Nye? Strain Stress N/mm? af, 0.00144 2587 OKT HTB TBS fy 0.00163 w6.? 0.00895 I6%6 Of o.00192 324.8 0.00226 391.3 0.55 fy 0.00241 La 0.00277 410 0.975 f,, 0.00276 3518 0.00812 49 Lh 0.00380) 360.9 OOM? Aue UMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE IN FLEXURE (SINGLE REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTIONS) Design for the limit state of collapse in flexure is based on the following assumptions: (#) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending, (i) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fiber is taken as 00,0035, (iif) The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain in concrete may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of the test. An acceptable stress-strain curve is given in Fig, 14.3, For design purpose the compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be assumed tu be 0.67 times the characteristic strength, The partial safety factor oF y,,= 1.5 shall be applied in addition (io) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored (v) The stresses in the steel reinforcement are derived from the representative stress-strain curve for the type of steel used. For design purpose, the partial safety factor for stee! y,, © 1.15 shall be applied.(vi) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be loss than [(f,/115 E.) + 11.002), P Seq = 0085 MET, #— p ——* oe a -————— c 0416 x, By 5, = 0.98 fb Ty = O87 ty a) ) ‘e) FIGURE 14.3 Stressestrain distribution across the depth of rectangular section. ‘The stress and strain distribution across the depth of a rectangular section is shown in Fig. 14.3, The notation is self explanatory. If x, is the depth to Neutral Axis (NA}, then from the similarity of triangles in the strain diagram, we have 0.0085 040095 + (L002 + O87 f, /E.) i a where d is the effective depth, The effective depth d of the section is the vertical distance between the tension reinforcement and the maximum compression fiber excluding the thickness of the finishing material not placed monolithically with the member, Thus we have d = (D-—1p/2 — clear cover) Where D is the gross or overall depth and @ is the diameter of the reinforcement bars, the reinforcement being provided in only one layer. The simplification of the above expression replacing E, by 2x 10 N/mm gives ___700 d 11004 O87 f, The value of x, given by eqn. (14.9) is the max because both concrete and steel are taken to fail simultaneously. Therefore we can write 49) «0 d 11004087 f, It may be noted here that x, ,,,, i5 dependent on the grade of steel only, Substituting appropriate value of f,, we obtain that, for Fe 2504, = 0.53, for Fed it is 0.48 and for Fe 500 tis 0.46. (1410) uyIn a balanced section the steel reinforcement reaches its yield stress at the same instant when the ultimate strain is reached in concrete, The limiting moment of resistance M,, yj, can be determined by taking the moment of compressive force about the centre of tensile reinforcement. Now, force in concrete C, = 0.36 f,,.4, 8 lever arm = (d- 0.416 x,) and therefore M,, = 0.36 f, x, b (d-0.416 x,). The limiting moment is obtained if x, is replaced by 1, ,...- Therefore My tin = 0-36 f.5 %y, any 8 (= 0-416 ¥, ,) oA ALD My, tn = 9-38 fig _[14.114a)] The ultimate resistance factor in limit state design R,,,,,, 5 defined by My tin Rian SS A141) ‘Therefore R,,.,, for a balanced section is given by Ry im = 0.36 fy ; [: - 0416 | w( 14,13) i Taking the values of(* re | from eqn. (14.10) and substituting them ineqn, (14.13), we get for Fe 250, My jj) = 01489 f phd? and Ry, 5, = OT4B9 fy for Fedl5 M, iq =O3810/ hi and R, 5, =03810/, far Fe 500M, jjq = 01330 jb? and R, iq = 01330 f If A, is the area of reinforcement steel provided, then the reinforcement ratio p, is given by A asst wo 1D) The reinforcement required for a balanced section can be obtained by equating the forces of compression and tension, that is forces in steel and concrete Ay, (087 f,) = 0.36 fig Bx imac som = 0. (14. Pag = HE = 414 (14.15) The actual design may not always adopt a balanced section, When the strain in extreme compression member reaches 01,0035, the actual strain, ¢, in steel can have the fallowing values: (i) e, = failure strain, corresponding to balanced section (ii) €, > failure strain, corresponding to under-reinforeed section (iii) e, < failure strain, corresponding to over reinforced section We know that the failure strain in steel e, =Over-reinforced section, In.an over reinforced section 7), > Pg ANALY, > 7, ug SINCE CONC fails first, the failure will be sudden and therefore is not desirable, The code recommends that if (|. is found to be greater than { ca | Under-reinforced section. In an under reinforced section the steel provided p, < p,),,, and hence depth to NA will be less than x, .,,.. Thatisx, <2, The variation of strain acruss the depth is shown in Fig, 14.4 both for under reinforced and over reinforced sections. Ae eee a tag aaah: ante Aye Ay ee AoA Pat i "om Mien a (a) Balanced sectian fb) Undar-reiniorced section {c) Qver-rainforoed section FIGURE 14.4 Strecs variation in balanced, under and over reinforced sections. In the under reinforced section, the strain in steel at the limit state of collapse will be more as7 f, ) than {a + | and the stress in steel will fully reach to its masimuc value 0.87 f,. The 5 actual value of (] can be determined by equating the compressive and tensile forces, that is C,=T,, which gives 14.16) ‘The moment of resistance of an under reinforced section can be obtained by multiplying the tensile force by the lever arm M, = 0.87 f, A, l= 0.416 1,) = 0.87 f, Ay u [1-016 Using eqn. (14.16) for (+ and then simplifying the above expression, we getfe ta} M, Fyre or + = 087 1-2 3 Ae ( he ms ‘The balanced design gives smallest concrete area and maximum reinforcement area. Since the cost of steel is quite high compared to concrete the balanced section need not necessarily be economical, Under reinforced design is always desirable, ‘The limit state of collapse in flexure in the case of slabs may be treated similar to singly reinforced rectangular section by considering ene metre width af slab. That is b = 1000 mm. General Design requirements for Beams. Effective span: The effective span of a simply supported beam shall be taken as clear span plus effective depth of the beam or centre to centre distance between the supports whichever is less Limiting stiffness: The stiffness of beams is governed by the ratio of the span to depth. As per clause 23.2 of IS 456 ; 21001 for spans not exceeding 1) m, the ratio of span to effective depth shall not exceed 7 for cantilever, 2) for simply supported and 26 for continuous beams. However, for spans exceeding 10 m, the above limits may be multi is span in m. Minimum Reinforcement. The minimum area of tension reinforcement should not be less than that given by the following expression, Aye ‘O85bd wf 14,19) & This work out to only 0.2% for Fe 415 steel and 0.34% for Fe250 steel. Maximum Reinforcement. The maximum area of tension reinforcement should not exceed 4% of the gross cross-sectional area. That is, A_, < 0.04 OD, where D is the gross depth of beam. Spacing of Bars: The horizontal distance between two parallel main reinforcing bars shall usually be not less than the greatest of the following. (a) Diameter of the bar if the diameters are equal {b) diameter of the largest bar if the bars are unequal M,= 0874, Aya{ 1 d by (10/0), where 1 {c) 5mm more than the nominal maximum size of the aggregate When there are two or more rows of bars, the bars shall be vertically in line and the minimum vertical distance between the bars shall be 15 mm or two thirds of nominal maximum size of aggregate, or the maximum size of the bar whichever is greater FIGURE 14,5. Reinforcement particulars for a 2 layer case.Cover to Reinforcement, The reinforcement in concrete shall have cover of thickness as given below. (2) Ateach end of reinforcement bar not less than 25mm nor less than twice the diameter of the bar (8) For longitudinal reinforcing bar in beam not less than 25 mm nor less than the diameter of such bar. Side Face Reinforcement, Where the depth of the beam exceeds 750 mm, side face reinforcement shall be provided equally along the two faces with the area of such reinforcement being nol less than 0.1% of the beam area at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or width of the beam whichever is less. ‘The ISI special publication $P 16 titled “Designaids for Reinforced concrete to 18 456" contains a number of charts and tables which will be highly useful in determining the area of steel required. i Tables 1 to-4 give the percentage steel required for various values of (4 and f,and for concrete grades of f, = 15, 20, 25 and 30 N/'mm?. Charts 1 to 18 give the moment of resistance per metre width for different depths {ranging from 5 to8i)cm) and varying percentage of steel and for various values of f, = 15 and 200 using steel of grades f, = 250, 415 andl 500, DOUBLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTIONS ‘The case of M, > M, iq, can be addressed in two ways: Either by increasing the depth of the section till M, = M, ,,.. orby providing compression reinforcement. It may nat be possible toincrease the depth due to architectural and other considerations. Then the only alternative available would be to provide the reinforcement in the compression zone, that is making the section doubly reinforced. ‘The doubly reinforced sections are adopted under the following situations: (2) When the depth is restricted due to architectural and other considerations (ii) At supports of continuous beams where the bending moment changes its sign (iii) In precast members which may be subjected to reversal of bending moment during handling. (iv) In bracing members of a frame due to changes in the direction of wind loads. (c) When it is required to reduce the long term deflection or to increase the stiffness of the beam. (of) When the ductility of the beam is to be improved. In earthquake zones, structures. Figure 14.6 shows a doubly reinforced section which is provided with compression reinforcement at a depth d' (effective cover for compression reinforcement} below the outermost compression fiber, Figure 14.6 (b) shows the strain diagram while Fig. 14.6 (c) shows the stress block. From the strain diagram, the strain in compression reinforcement cis given by = 0.0035 (- =) af 14.20) ;T,=<0.87 ue cm ie hae (ay {oh te) FIGURE 14.6 Variation of steers and strain in a doubly reinforced sections. Iff,, is the stress developed in compression steel which depends on ¢, and which can be read ff from the stress-strain curve of the steel used in the structure or from Table 14.1, the compressive orce in compression steel C, can be written as Cha, (14.21) vhere 4. is thearea of compression steel, Similarly the compression force in concrete C, is written as 0. =036f, bx, lH) ‘Therefore the total compressive force C, is given by Cy=C.+C. =f. A, +036, 2, (14.23) The total tensile force in the tension reinforcement T, is obtained from T,=087 f, 54, fT) vhere A, is the total tension reinforcement. The location of WA can be computed by equating C,, nd T,. That is 036 fbn, +h Ag = O87 LNA, on( 4.25) ‘Solving for x, from eqn. (14.25) required an interactive procedure since f. depends one, vhich in turn depends on 1. [Fthe loss of compression area occupied by compression steel is taken nto account eqn. (14.25) is modified as O86 6, 1, b+ (f, -OAM6 LA, = 087 fb Ay wf 4.26) However, the term 0.446 f,, A,, will be very small and hence can be neglected. Generally, qn. (14,25) only is used to find x, The limiting value of =!!! can be abtained using the expression 4 Xun 700 oe i aie = op Se Slit. then the moment of resistance M, is given by a saa ov ane ‘iM, 90.36 fox, 0(d-O4162,) +4, f, =a) M,=0:36 6 ~ 041622] bP + Af Ad=e) (14.27) its = = ful then it corresponds to a balanoed section. The resisting moment reaches its limiting value and is given by = 0.366, x elim Md 0416-2, PALS (da) (14.28) In which fis the stress in compression steel found from stress steain curve corresponding toe, given by eqn. (14.20) in which x, |, is substituted forx, anes i, Jin wy a, then itisa case af over-reinfonced section and the code recommends that the section be redesigned. ee cs he i SEA | be Fn DAB ee O87 ty Bay (a) Doubly (0) Singly ralnforoad 46) Adttional Feinorted section balanced section feiniorcemnent FIGURE 14.7 Splic up of moments of resistance in doubly reinforced bearn, Design of doubly reinforced section to resist the applied moment M, : From Fig, 14.7, the moment taken care of by the balanced single reinforced section is M, |, afd (Mf, ,—M,, ),,.) denoted by M,. has to be taken care of by the additional tension reinforcement A,,, and the compression reinforcement A... Therefore, a doubly reinforced section can be taken as equivalent to a singly reinforced balanced section and a section with additional tension and compression reinforcement. Thus wehave /,, the total tension reinforcement to consist of A.,, the tension reinforcement needed for the balanced section and A, the additional tension reinforcement. That is A,, = Ay, + Ays Ales = Py tin fads where pi, y,, 55 given by eqn. (14.15) M,—M,, Ay fhe A m_, Aehe of14.29) oar i, (d= a) ORFS,The compression reinforcement A, can be obtained from Me ia M; An Edad) dF) — oe A, can also be obtained from A141) Abo, +1432) where p, is the per cent compression reinforcement Tables 45 to 56in SP 16 give the percentage tension and compression reinforcements, that is, p,and p_ for different combinations of 4 {in the range 0.05 to 0.20), grades uf concrete (f,, = 15, 20, 25, and 30 N/'mm?), grades of steel (f, = 250,415, and 500 N/mm?) and the moment of resistance M, factor me (in the range 2.24 to 8.3) which provide quick solution ta the design prablems. Steel Beam Theory. If the amount of compression reinforcement required equals or exceeds the amount of total tension reinforcement in the above analysis the beam section may be designed using the steel beam theory. In this theory the compressive resistance provided by the comcrete is wholly ignored. Equal areas of compression and tension reinforcement are provided. That is «Ay =M,/ 10.87 /, d-2)] Lintels. Lintel is an ordinary beam provided over an opening in the wall such as door ar window. Load coming on to the lintel depends on (i) height of the masonry above the lintel (77) length of the supporting walls at the ends of the lintel (iff) positions of the openings in the wall above the lintel and (i) load transmitted by the roof slab on to the wall. Once the moment to be carried by the lintel is arrived at the lintel can be designed as a singly reinforced section. The width of the lintel beam is taken equal to the width of the walls. BP J A T-BEAMS AND L-BEAMS When slabs are cunning over more than one adjacent spans, subjecting the beams on which they are resting to uniformly distributed load, since beam and slab are cast monolithically, the slab acts as a flange to the beam and Participates in taking compressive forces, In such situations o S the beam is designed as either T-beam (when the slab is on both sides of the beam) or L-beam (when the slab is only on feat I one side of the beam). Figure 14.8 shows the location of T and | | | || Ubeams, where [K and MN are beams and PIKQ, JMNK and MIRSN are the slabs. Coakne Teer FIGURE 14.8 T-Beams and L-Beams.In Fig. 14.9 which shows the cross-section of a typical T-beam, b, = breadth of the rib, b, = breadth of the flange, d,, = depth of the rib, d = effective depth and D,= thickness of the flange —— 5 ——4# + , FIGURE 14.9 Cross-section of a T-Beam. ‘The effective width b, of the flange is taken as the least of the following: (ay b= and (8) = b,, + 2 (sum of the clear distances to the adjacent beams on either side) However, for isolated beams, the effective flange width shall be obtrined as given below but in no case greater than the actual width. *6D, +b,, where i, is the distance between points of zero moment in the beam =z to +B a, (14.33) a) For continuous beams and frames /, may be taken as 0,7 times the effective span, For L-beams ia 4 +b, +3D, (14.34) For an isolated L-beam a= Ing by, af 14.34 (a)] tn re but in no case greater than actual width Assuming that the N.A. falls within the flange we can shaw that fe Sa If, given by eqn. (14. S is less than D, it will be treated as rectangular section of width h, ‘As already given earlier, the depth of critical NA is given by eqn. [14.34(a)]. The T beam with x, ; x, Thus there are total 3 cases in all.Case (ik D,>.x, that is N.A. is entirely within the flange, the moment of resistance is given by M,=087/, A, afr-£ (14.36 an 14.36) when D)=,, then M, «087, A,@{ 1-406 PL 14.37) O87 f, Aad | 1-0. > as or M, = 0.36 fb Dy 0.416 D) wf 14,37(a)] Case link Dee a, that is N.A. falls in the web and the flange lies completely within the rectangular portion of the stress block. Then M, is given by M, = 0.26 af 0416 2 Be) aba P+ 0446 f, y~b,) Dyld-05 DY 14.38) when D)= 3 xy then M, is given by 7 M, = 0.36, b,. & Dy } [a 0.416 Dy ) + Ths fy, (by b,) Dy 0.6 DA wf 14.39) 3 Case (iff: D.> > x,. In this case also NA falls in the web, but the distribution of compression stress in the flange will not be totally rectangular. Then M, for this case is given by M, = 03365 (1 ~ Otte 4 fy bat? oe OMG fy =O) yp = 05 9) A140) where vis the depth of equivalent rectangular black given by 4)= 0.15 x, + 0.65 D-(but not greater than D,) (1441) In most of the cases where T-beams are designed for practical situations, the neutral axis falls within the flange amd the area of steel to be provided can be obtained using Table 1 to 4 in ‘SP:16 as in the design of rectangular beam, Design Tables 57 to 59 are useful to compute the limiting moment of resistance factar — baal FF, le DB, for singly reinforced T-sections. These table cover different grades of steel (250, 415 and 500) a 4, ratio varying from 0.06 to 0.45 and a ratio varying from 1 to 10. ieWhen My ., M, then the longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided on the flexural compression face such that the beam can also withstand an equivalent moment M., given by M,=M,-M, AT4.58) where M,, is taken to act in direction apposite to M,. When the depth of beam exceeds 450 mm, the side face reinforcement shall be provided along the two faces. The total area of such reinforcement shall not be less than 0.1 percent of the web area and shall be distributed equally on two faces at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web thickness whichever is less.LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY IN DEFLECTION AND CRACKING ‘Various considerations that come under the purview of serviceability are : (j) deflection (ii) cracking (##i) vibrations (iv) slenderness (x) impermeability (vv) acoustic and (vif) thermal insulation. ‘The most important are deflection and cracking. It should be noted that the safety requirements against flexure, shear, bond etc. need not automatically satisty the serviceability requirements. ‘The two most important serviceability conditions are : (1) the member should not undergo excessive deformation and (2) the crack width at the surface of the R.C.C, member should not be more than that specified by the code. As per [5.456 : 2000, the combinations of loads for serviceability conditions should be the largest of the following: (1.0 DL + .0.LE (i) 1.0 DL + 1.0 WE (ii) 1.0 DL + 0.80 LL + 0.8 WE for EL) where DL = Dead load, LL = Live load, WL = Wind load and EL = Earthquake load. SLABS Slabs are simple plane structural members whose thickness is smaller compared to its length and breadth, They are mast commonly used as roof coverings and floors. They can be in various shapes like square, rectangle, circle, triangle etc. Slabs support transverse loads and transfer them to the supparts by bending action in one or more directions, They are generally supported by beams or walls. When supported on all fouredges, the slabs are classified into one ay slab or tzo0 \ tmiy slab depending, on the ratio of longer span i, to shorter span J,. When (# | is greater than 2 MA, they are called one way slabs. Bending in one way slab occurs only in one direction that is along shorter span. Minimum reinforcement is to be provided along the longer span to distribute the load uniformly and also to resist the temperature and shrinkage stresses, In slabs supported on all t the four edges if >* <2 the bending takes place both along i, and J, anct hence the reinforcement has to be provided in both the directions. Obviously, when the slab is supported only on bwo opposite edges it behaves like one way slab. Aslab supported directly on the columns without any intermediate beams is called a flat slab. ircular slabs are used to provide (i) reof to a room circular in plan (11) floor for a circular tank (ii) roof of a pump house constructed over circular well and ¢ir) roof of a traffic control post etc, Whena circular slab simply supported at the edge is loaded with wd.l, it bends in the form of a saucer due to which the stresses develop in both the radial and circumferential directions. Reinforcement needs to be provided in these two directions, which is mot practical as this leads to congestion near the centre of the slab. Alternative method is to provide reinforcement in the form of mesh of bars. Basic Rules for Design of slabs. In the case of simply supported slabs the effective span is taken as the clear distance between the supports plus the effective depth of theslab or the distance between centre to centre of supports whichever is less. The value of ratio of span to effective depth for spans upto 10m are as follows: cantilever -— 7, simply supported - 20, continuous — 26.The minimum reinforcement, in the case of mild steel, shall not be Jess than 0.15% of the total cross-sectional area. In the case of high strength deformed bars or welded wire fabric, however, this limit can be reduced to 0.12% The maximum diameter of the reinforcing bars shall not exceed 1/8 of the total thickness of the slab. The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars shall not be more than 3 times the effective depth of a solid slab or 300 mm whichever is less. The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bar provided against shrinkage and temperature shall be more than 5 times the effective depth of the slab or 450 mm whichever is less. The horizontal distance between two parallel main reinforcing bars shall not be less than the largest of the following: (i) the diameter of the bar if the diameters are equal (ii) the dia of the largest bar if the diameters are unequal, and (if) 5 mm more than the nominal size of the coarse aggregate. Ateach end of reinforcement bar the cover shall not be less than 25 mm or twice the diameter of such bar whichever is more. The bottom cover for reinforcement shall not be less than 20 mm or the diameter of the bar whichever is mare. One way Slab. The analysis and design of one way slab is same as that of a beam of width one metre. Suitable depth for the slab is assumed from stiffness consideration taking an appropriate value for the ratio (span/effective depth), Loads acting on the slab are computed per one metre width of slab, The factored moment and shear force are then computed. In the case of a simply supported slab M, = P and V,= SA whores the shorter span, The minimum depth required is computed using the expression My = My sg =H gbae A459) where b = 1000 mm, k = 0.138 for Fe 415, The assumed depth shall be more than this. Otherwise, increase the assumed depth. Compute the area of steel per metre width of the slab from the expression. fA ibd M,=O87/, A, (1-4 } (14.60) Spacing is then given by S = “Lx L000, where a, is the area of bar used, and A, total area F of steel required, Spacing should not be more than 3d or 300. mm whichever is less, Distribution stee!] is provided at 0.15% of gross area if it is for H'YSD bars. Spacing of distributing steel should not be more than Sd or 450 mm whichever is less. The nominal shear stress t, computed for the critical section shall be less than kt, where +, is obtained from eqn. (14.49) or Table 19.0n page 73 of 1S; 456-2000 and Iris taken from Table 18 on page 72 of [S:456-20100, Slabs are normally found to be safe in shear and do not require any special shear reinforcement.The development length provided must be more than that given by eqn. (14.52). Normally the slabs satisfy the development length also. ‘Two way slabs. When slabs are supported on all four edges and the ratio of longer span to Ly shorter span (#} is less than or equal to 2, the slabs are likely to bend along the two spans and such slabs are called two way slabs. The load is transferred in both the directions to the four supporting edges and hence the main reinforcement is to be provided in both the directions ta resist the lwo way bending. In the case of two way slabs the bending moment and deflectivns are less. compared to one way slabs for similar loading and hence the thickness required will be less. Two way slabs may have thelr comers held down of free to lift. When the slabs simply supported on all the four sides and are subjected to transverse loads, the bending of the slab in both the directions causes the corners to lift, Therefore torsion reinforcement is required in order that the corners are held down. Depending on support conditions the two way labs are divided inte the following three categories: (i) slabs simply supported onall the four edges and the corners are Free to lift (i) restrained alabs; that is slabs with fixed ar continuous edges and (iii) the slabs simply supported on all the four edges with corners held down. Simply supported two way slabs with comers not held down, The maximum bending moments per unit width along the bwo directions are calculated as M wi? (14.61) M, =a, wh? (TH.62) where wis the uniformly distributed load on the slab, a, and c., are the moment coefficients given in Table 27 of IS : 456-2000. At least 50% of the tension reinforcement provided al the mid span should be extended up to the supports. The remaining 50% should extend to within 0.1 f, or @.1 f, of the support as appropriate. Restrained two way slabs. Slabs with their comers prevented from lifting are termed as the restrained slabs. At the discontinuous edges torsion reinforcement needs to be provided at the comers if the corners are to be held down. Moments developed in restrained two way slabs (either 4, continuous or discontinuous) depend on z Tatioand the edge conditions. For uniformly distributed a loads maximum positive moment will be developed at mid span and maximum negative moment will be developed al the supports. The design moments for restrained slabs are calculated using the eqn. (14.61) and eqn. (14.62) again but with the moment coefficients taken from Table 26 of TS: 456-2000 for the appropriate edge conditions, The depth of the slab is determined from stiffness consideration. For two way slabs with I,¢3.5 mand LL=3kN/m' the allowable fe ratio is as given below: Fe 250 Fe dis Simply supported slabs 35 28 Fixed continuous slabs Al 32 If/, > 3.5 mand LL > SKN /an the muy be taken to be same as in the case of one way slabs,For the design moments the area of steel at the mid span in both the directions is obtained from eqn. (14.59). As the short span bars are provided in the bottom layers and the long span bars are provided above them, effective depth d for short span d = D ~ > whereas for the longer span the effective depth d, = D9. DESIGN OF STAIR CASES Stair cases are essential and important component of buildings which enable the vertical movement between different floors. They may be broadly classified as given below. 1. Straight stair 2. Quarter tum stair 3. Half turn stair 4, Dog legged stair 5, Open newel stair with quarter space landing 6, Geometrical stairs such as circular stair, spiral stair ete., ‘The width of stair is determined by the purpose of the stair and may generally vary between 1 m for residential buildings to 2m in public buildings. ‘The flight of the stair is the length of the stair between two landings and the number of steps ina flight may vary between 3 and 12. ‘The rise and tread should be so proportional to provide comfortable access. Generally the sum of the tread and twice the rise is about 500 mm and the product of rise the thread is in the range 40000 to 42000. In residential buildings rise may be 130 — 180 mm and the thread may be 200 - 210 mm. While in public buildings the rise is 120 to 150 mm and the tread is between 200 to 300 mm. When overcrowding is notexpected, the live load may be taken as 3 kN /m*. If overcrowding is likely then it is taken as 5 KN/mé@, When the stair slab (waist lab) is supported by side walls.ar a stringer beam on both the sides the stair is said to be spanning horizontally, Each step would then be structurally equivalent to an individual beam. When the inclined stair slab together with the landing is supported at the top and bottom of the flight and without support on the sides, then the stair is said to span longitudinally. Dog legged, open well and quarter turn stairs belong, to this category. FIGURE 14.10 Tread and rise in a stair,Design of Stairs spanning longitudinally. The depth of the section shall be taken as the minimum thickness perpendicular to the soffit of the stair as shown in Fig. 14.10. Effective span L is taken, for different cases as shown in Fig. 14.11. Dead load Di is taken as the sum of w,, w, and (0.5 to 1 kN/m?} towards finishing) where the weight of waist slab per unit horizontal area w, is given by w= PART 52 25041+(8) (14.63) and weight of steps per unit horizontal area w, is given by wy = R wef 14.64) Rbeing the rise in metres, The design is similar to w rectangular beam, + —— (a) Baams at top and battom nsers (b) Landing slab spanning in tha sama cirecton as stairs [* [FT Spon in [eve[cim) oresy | [Exe[=imp orxrt | [erm[ere[ eey=r | Po KX eG —_# 9) e tl FIGURE 14.11 Effective span for stairs spanning longitudinally,