what is sound wave?

The sound waves are mechanical waves which are created from vibrations between the
particles of the medium. When it is moved through the medium of air then the air particles
are displaced by the moving energy of sound waves and wave is travelled. But it can also be a
longitudinal wave like in vibrating tuning fork which creates waves from vibrations.

But what type of wave is sound? How it is travelled from one medium to another medium? Is
it mechanical wave or longitudinal wave or pressure wave? Here we are given a complete
explanation of these questions. Lets discuss a detailed description on the sound waves.

How are sound waves created?

Vibration of an object is what produces sound waves. The vibrating object moves in
one direction and compresses the air directly in front of it. As the vibrating object
moves in the opposite direction, the pressure on the air is lessened so that an
expansion, or rarefaction, of air molecules occurs. One compression and one
rarefaction make up one longitudinal wave. The vibrating air molecules move back
and forth parallel to the direction of motion of the wave receiving energy from
adjacent molecules nearer the source and passing the energy to adjacent molecules
farther from the source.

Pitch is determined by the frequency of the tone that the ear receives. High notes are
produced by an object that is vibrating a greater number of times per second than for a
low note. The loudness of a sound depends upon the subjective effect of intensity of
sound waves on the ear. In general, more intense sounds are louder, but the ear does
not respond similarly at all frequencies. Two tones of the same intensity but with
different pitches may then appear to have different loudness.

Interference of Waves
Boundary Behavior

Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction

Interference of Waves

The Doppler Effect

What happens when two waves meet while they travel through the same medium?
What effect will the meeting of the waves have upon the appearance of the medium?
Will the two waves bounce off each other upon meeting (much like two billiard balls
would) or will the two waves pass through each other? These questions involving the
meeting of two or more waves along the same medium pertain to the topic of wave
interference.
What is Interference?

Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while
traveling along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to
take on a shape that results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the
particles of the medium. To begin our exploration of wave interference, consider two
pulses of the same amplitude traveling in different directions along the same medium.
Let's suppose that each displaced upward 1 unit at its crest and has the shape of a sine
wave. As the sine pulses move towards each other, there will eventually be a moment
in time when they are completely overlapped. At that moment, the resulting shape of
the medium would be an upward displaced sine pulse with an amplitude of 2 units.
The diagrams below depict the before and during interference snapshots of the
medium for two such pulses. The individual sine pulses are drawn in red and blue and
the resulting displacement of the medium is drawn in green.

Constructive Interference

This type of interference is sometimes called constructive interference. Constructive

interference is a type of interference that occurs at any location along the medium
where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the same direction. In this
case, both waves have an upward displacement; consequently, the medium has an
upward displacement that is greater than the displacement of the two interfering
pulses. Constructive interference is observed at any location where the two interfering
waves are displaced upward. But it is also observed when both interfering waves are
displaced downward. This is shown in the diagram below for two downward
displaced pulses.

In this case, a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit (negative means a
downward displacement) interferes with a sine pulse with a maximum displacement
of -1 unit. These two pulses are drawn in red and blue. The resulting shape of the
medium is a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -2 units.
Destructive Interference

Destructive interference is a type of interference that occurs at any location along

the medium where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the opposite
direction. For instance, when a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of +1 unit
meets a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit, destructive interference
occurs. This is depicted in the diagram below.

In the diagram above, the interfering pulses have the same maximum displacement
but in opposite directions. The result is that the two pulses completely destroy each
other when they are completely overlapped. At the instant of complete overlap, there
is no resulting displacement of the particles of the medium. This "destruction" is not a
permanent condition. In fact, to say that the two waves destroy each other can be
partially misleading. When it is said that the two pulses destroy each other, what is
meant is that when overlapped, the effect of one of the pulses on the displacement of a
given particle of the medium is destroyed or canceled by the effect of the other pulse.
Recall from Lesson 1 that waves transport energy through a medium by means of
each individual particle pulling upon its nearest neighbor. When two pulses with
opposite displacements (i.e., one pulse displaced up and the other down) meet at a
given location, the upward pull of one pulse is balanced (canceled or destroyed) by
the downward pull of the other pulse. Once the two pulses pass through each other,
there is still an upward displaced pulse and a downward displaced pulse heading in
the same direction that they were heading before the interference. Destructive
interference leads to only a momentary condition in which the medium's displacement
is less than the displacement of the largest-amplitude wave.

The two interfering waves do not need to have equal amplitudes in opposite directions
for destructive interference to occur. For example, a pulse with a maximum
displacement of +1 unit could meet a pulse with a maximum displacement of -2 units.
The resulting displacement of the medium during complete overlap is -1 unit.

This is still destructive interference since the two interfering pulses have opposite
displacements. In this case, the destructive nature of the interference does not lead to
complete cancellation.

Interestingly, the meeting of two waves along a medium does not alter the individual
waves or even deviate them from their path. This only becomes an astounding
behavior when it is compared to what happens when two billiard balls meet or two
football players meet. Billiard balls might crash and bounce off each other and
football players might crash and come to a stop. Yet two waves will meet, produce a
net resulting shape of the medium, and then continue on doing what they were doing
before the interference.

The Principle of Superposition

The task of determining the shape of the resultant demands that the principle of
superposition is applied. The principle of superposition is sometimes stated as
follows:

When two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any
location is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at
that same location.

In the cases above, the summing the individual displacements for locations of
complete overlap was made out to be an easy task - as easy as simple arithmetic:

Displacement of Pulse 1 Displacement of Pulse 2 = Resulting Displacement

+1 +1 = +2
-1 -1 = -2
+1 -1 = 0
+1 -2 = -1

In actuality, the task of determining the complete shape of the entire medium during
interference demands that the principle of superposition be applied for every point (or
nearly every point) along the medium. As an example of the complexity of this task,
consider the two interfering waves at the right. A snapshot of the shape of each
individual wave at a particular instant in time is shown. To determine the precise
shape of the medium at this given instant in time, the principle of superposition must
be applied to several locations along the medium. A short cut involves measuring the
displacement from equilibrium at a few strategic locations. Thus, approximately 20
locations have been picked and labeled as A, B, C, D, etc. The actual displacement of
each individual wave can be counted by measuring from the equilibrium position up
to the particular wave. At position A, there is no displacement for either individual
wave; thus, the resulting displacement of the medium at position will be 0 units. At
position B, the smaller wave has a displacement of approximately 1.4 units (indicated
by the red dot); the larger wave has a
displacement of approximately 2 units (indicated
by the blue dot). Thus, the resulting displacement
of the medium will be approximately 3.4 units.
At position C, the smaller wave has a
displacement of approximately 2 units; the larger
wave has a displacement of approximately 4
units; thus, the resulting displacement of the
medium will be approximately 6 units. At
position D, the smaller wave has a displacement
of approximately 1.4 units; the larger wave has a
displacement of approximately 2 units; thus, the
resulting displacement of the medium will be
approximately 3.4 units. This process can be repeated for every position. When
finished, a dot (done in green below) can be marked on the graph to note the
displacement of the medium at each given location. The actual shape of the medium
can then be sketched by estimating the position between the various marked points
and sketching the wave. This is shown as the green line in the diagram below.

Wave Propagation

Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materials,

which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of
atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions.
Many different patterns of vibrational motion exist at the atomic level, however, most
are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that
contain many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a
material is not stressed in tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its
individual particles perform elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are
displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces
arise. It is these elastic restoring forces between particles, combined with inertia of the
particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the medium.

In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the
way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves,
surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are
the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing. The particle
movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is
illustrated below.

In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the

direction of wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces are
active in these waves, they are also called pressure or compressional waves. They are
also sometimes called density waves because their particle density fluctuates as they
move. Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as well as solids because the
energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of compressions and expansion
(rarefaction) movements.

In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse
to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material
for effective propagation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials
such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to
longitudinal waves. In fact, shear waves are usually generated in materials using some
of the energy from longitudinal waves.

Wave Propagation.URL

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/wave-interference

http://www.cabrillo.edu/~jmccullough/Applets/Applets_by_Topic/Superposition_Interferenc
e.html

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/u11l1c.cfm

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-1/Sound-is-a-Mechanical-Wave

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-1/Sound-as-a-Longitudinal-Wave
Stereo Speaker Interference Experiment
Note: Java Applet should start in a pop-up window. If you get a message "need java2
for this applet" then download the Java plug-in if you are using Windows. This applet
only works on java 2.

This java applet demonstrates interference between two sources of sound waves. You
need two speakers (or one speaker and a reflecting wall) and a sound card (preferably
stereo).

Measure or estimate the distance between your speakers and set the Speaker
Separation slider accordingly. (Uncheck the Metric Units checkbox if you want.)
Then turn on the Sound checkbox. The applet will play a sine wave out of both
speakers, which should create an interference pattern similar to the one shown. The
speakers are shown as blue dots. Plug one ear with a finger / earplug, and move your
head around the room (at speaker level) to see if you can pick up the variations in
sound intensity. They should roughly match the interference pattern, although there
may be many differences due to reflections from walls and other objects; also this
applet uses a simplistic point source model for the speakers, which will not match
reality very well at higher frequencies.

If you have a stereo sound card, then check the Stereo checkbox. You can use the
Balance slider to verify that the stereo mix is working. With 'stereo' turned on, you
can adjust the relative phase of the two speakers. By default, the speakers are 180
degrees out of phase, so the sound intensity will be low half-way between them.

Note that if you have a subwoofer, then low frequencies will be coming out of the
subwoofer rather than the main speakers, so the interference pattern won't match your
experience. You might like to unplug the subwoofer for the duration of this
experiment.

You can measure distances on the view by clicking the mouse and dragging.

You can also view the interference pattern between one speaker and a reflecting wall
by setting the Speaker Separation to twice the distance between the speaker and the
wall. Uncheck the Stereo checkbox or set the Phase Difference to zero. Imagine the
wall being drawn vertically down the middle of the screen.

It is also interesting to move the speakers right next to each other and then set the
phase difference to 180 degrees.

Java by Falstad

https://www.physics.rutgers.edu/ugrad/276/sound.pdf
 INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES
PURPOSE: To measure the wavelength, frequency, and propagation speed of ultrasonic
sound waves and to observe interference phenomena with ultrasonic sound waves.

APPARATUS: Oscilloscope, function generator, transducers, meter stick, angle board.

INTRODUCTION: In this experiment we deal with sound waves, produced by and
detected with ultrasonic transducers. Sinusoidal waves can be characterized by the
following parameters:
Wavelength:......................................
Frequency:........................................f
Period: ..............................................T = 1/f
Wave propagation speed: ................c = f = /T .
[The speed of sound through air (at 20 C) is 344 m/s.]
Ultrasonic transducers: A transducer is a device that transforms one form of energy into
another, for example, a microphone (sound to electric) or loudspeaker (electric to sound).
In this experiment the transducer is a "piezoelectric" crystal which converts electrical
oscillations into mechanical vibrations that make sound. The piezoelectric material
contracts (or expands) a small amount when a voltage is applied across the crystal. The
crystal has a natural resonance frequency, like a bell, at which it will vibrate when struck.
If the frequency of the voltage applied to the piezoelectric crystal is the same as its natural
frequency, the crystal will settle into steady large amplitude oscillations that produce high
intensity sound waves. The oscillating frequency of the transducers you will use is near
40 kHz which is beyond what can be heard by the human ear (about 20 kHz).

Oscilloscope: The oscilloscope is an electronic device that acts as a voltmeter that can
respond very rapidly to changes in the applied voltage. It is used here to display a graph
of the instantaneous voltage applied to the crystal as a function of time.
Interference of Waves: Figure 1, on the next page, is a drawing of the basic concept of
interference of coherent waves from two point sources. S1 and S2 are wave sources
oscillating in phase (because the two transducers are driven by the same voltage signal
generator) and separated by distance d. P is the place where we place a detector. At point
P the path difference to S1 and to S2, is the distance S2P - S1P. When this path difference
is an integral multiple of the wavelength , waves arriving at P from S1 and S2 will be in
phase and will interfere constructively.
S2P - S1P = n . (1)

where n = 0, 1, 2,-- is referred to as the order of the particular maximum. Note that
constructive interference gives maximum intensity:

If we can assume that S1P and S2P >> d and , Eq. (1) then we see from Fig. 1 that S10-
Sound-Interference - 2 - Page 2 of 8
 figure 1

PROCEDURE:
1. Measuring frequency: The setup is shown in Fig. 2: a variable frequency signal
generator drives one ultrasonic transducer; its output is also applied to channel B of the
oscilloscope. (Later in the experiment two transmitting transducers will be connected to
channel B.) The output of a second receiving ultrasonic generator is applied to channel A
of the scope. Channel Bs trace (pattern of the oscilloscope) shows the sinusoidal voltage
applied to the transmitting generator; channel A's trace shows the sinusoidal voltage
coming out of the receiving ultrasonic crystal.
Set the signal generator to a frequency of 40 kHz. Adjust the scope controls (trigger, beam
intensity, vertical amplification and horizontal sweep rate) so that trace A shows several,
steady cycles of the sine waves. Place the transmitting transducer facing the receiver at a
distance of a few centimeters. If you think the transducers are not functioning (nothing on
trace A), it is most likely that the function generator is not at the exact resonance
frequency. Vary the frequency around 38 to 42 kHz. You should tune to resonance when
the signal getting through to the receiving transducer (trace A) reaches a maximum.

Warning: Do not exchange your transducers with those from other tables;
your three transducers are a matched set. S10-Sound-Interference - 3 - Page 3 of
8
Measure the period of oscillation directly from the oscilloscope's screen, using the sweep
rate (microseconds per centimeter) marked on oscilloscope's sweep control. To make the
period measurement as accurate as possible, measure the time interval corresponding to
several complete oscillations. What is the relation between T and f? Compare the
frequency fo determined with the oscilloscope with the frequency fsg of the signal
generator.
2. Measuring wavelength: The transmitting and receiving transducer stands fit over, and
can slide along, a meter stick. With both transducers fixed in position, the two sinusoidal
traces on the scope are steady. What happens to the scope trace from the receiving
transducer when you move the receiving transducer away from the transmitting
transducer?
A. Measure the wavelength by slowly shifting the receiving transducer a known distance
away from the transmitter while noting on the oscilloscope screen by how many complete
cycles the wave pattern shifts. Don't choose just one cycle, but as many cycles as can
conveniently be measured along the meter stick.
B. Use the measured period of ultrasonic oscillations from Part 1 and the wavelength
from Part 2 to compute the speed of sound through air. The oscillation period measured
with the scope sweep calibration is more accurate than the frequency readings on the
signal generator. Compare your computed value with the standard value of 344 m/s for
dry air at 20 C temperature. S10-Sound-Interference - 4 - Page 4 of 8
3. Double Source Interference:
A. The setup will be similar to Fig. 2, but another transmitting transducer will be added.
The pair of transmitters are placed side-by-side and driven in phase by a signal generator;
a third receiving transducer is at an angle which can be varied. See Fig. 3, which
duplicates the arrangement shown in Fig. 1.
We are interested in observing the amplitude of the resultant ultrasonic wave reaching the
receiving transducer. When you move the detector you are receiving the combined
intensity of the two interfering waves. Sometimes you will see a strong signal while other
times little or none. Move the receiving transducer along a circular arc, maintaining a
constant distance from the two transmitting transducers. Record the transmitter separation
d which should be kept as small as possible, and the angular positions max for
interference maxima. Suggestion: rather than plotting max readings directly from the
protractor, try taking corresponding left-side and right-side values and average them
eliminating any error in judging where the center line is.
Figure 3

Confirm the constructive interference relation, n = d sin max, by plotting sin max as a
function of the integer n. (Take values for n and max on the right side as positive and
those on the left as negative so your plot is a straight line (sin = -sin) rather than a
"V"). The slope of your best straight line will enable you to calculate (d/ ), and then the
separation d in terms of the theoretical wavelength = c/f.
B. Now we will use a setup with a different geometry where Eq. (2) does not apply. Set
up the two transmitters, separated a distance d as shown in Fig. 4, and the receiver at P a
distance z from S1. Keeping S1 and P fixed vary the separation d and record the values of
d for which maxima and minima in intensity are observed at the receiver. Use Eq. (1) to
calculate the expected values and compare with your data.
See Fig. 5A which is a view of the setup from above. Both a single transmitting and a
receiving transducer are fixed in position about 30cm apart. A flat object, such as the side
of book, that can act as a "mirror" for ultrasonic waves is oriented parallel to the line
joining the transducers, and is moved towards and away from the meter stick. Observe on
the scope the resulting wave signal at the receiving transducer. What do you see? How do
you account for the effect? What happens when you block the direct path with paper?
(Keep your body away to avoid reflection effects.) You may also keep the "mirror" fixed
in position and vary transmitter-receiver separation, starting at about
25 cm. What do you observe?
See Figure 5B. Remove the "mirror". With the transmitting transducer 4 cm away facing
the receiver, slowly change the separation. Note that amplitude variations are observed as
the separation changes (two per wavelength shift of separation-why?). The maxima
correspond to sound antinodes at the ends of the space when linear boundary conditions
are satisfied, as with strings or sound tubes excited at a fixed frequency. Count several
amplitude variations and record the corresponding separation shift. Calculate the
wavelength from your amplitude observations and compare with your previous
determination from phase variations. S10-Sound-Interference - 6 - Page 6 of 8
History of sound wave

The understanding that sound is the result of waves created in air was first developed by
Leonardo da Vinci arounf 1500 A.D. This concept was then developed by other people.
Around 1600 Galileo demonstrated that pitch of sound depends on its frequency. However
even then the nature of sound as form of waves was not established beyond doubt. This
realization came slowly with contribution of many different scientists. For example, around
1640 Marin Mersenne, a French mathematician, measured speed of sound in air. Around 20
years later Robert Boyle established that sound cannot travel without a medium, which is an
essential characteristics of any kind of wave. Later Sir Issac Newton established the correct
relationship between speed of sound in a medium and the density and compressibility of the
medium. Thus we can say that many people contributed to developing the understanding
the nature of sound as waves.

Leonardo DaVinci in (1500) discovered that sound travels in waves. Galileo, an

Italian astronomer and physicist, was the greatest contributor to our understanding of
sound. He demonstrated that the frequency of sound waves determined the pitch.

Marin Mersenne was the first to measure the speed of sound in air (1640). Robert
Boyle discovered that sound waves must travel in a medium (1660) and this lead to
the concept that sound is a pressure change. Newton was the first to formulate a
relationship between the speed of sound in gases by relating the density and
compressibility in a medium.

History of superposition

the principle of superposition was first stated by Daniel Bernoulli in 1753: "The general
motion of a vibrating system is given by a superposition of its proper vibrations." The
principle was rejected by Leonhard Euler and then by Joseph Lagrange. Later it became
accepted, largely through the work of Joseph Fourier.

Sound Waves Interference

When two waves meet at the same point in the space at the same time it
occurs the phenomena called interference. The resulting displacement is
the sum of the individual displacements of each wave.
Sound Waves Interference, Example.- Assume you have two
loudspeakers separated 1 meter excited by the same oscillator emitting a
1150 Hz sound frequency. You are 4 m from one of the loudspeakers. At
what distance from you should be the second loudspeaker to produce
destructive interference? Assume the air velocity is 343 m/s.

Solution:
The wavelength of this sound is = v/f = (343 m/s)/(1150 Hz) = 0.3 m.
To produce destructive interference, you should be half wavelength or
0.15 cm apart from one loudspeaker than the other. So, you should be at
4.15 or at 3.85 m from the second loudspeaker.
 5. Optional.

A. In the discussion in the introduction we noted that when there is a maximum in the
intensity of the sound, constructive interference occurs. Intensity is the sound power per
unit area. On the other hand, sound is a pressure wave. That is, as the sound wave passes
the average air pressure oscillates about its average value. The two quantities are related
in that the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the pressure
oscillation. Which quantity does the ultrasonic transducer measure -- intensity or pressure
amplitude? Explain specifically what it is about your data that motivates your answer.
B. In Fig. 1 we make an implicit assumption about the angular variation of the intensity of
the sound waves emitted by S1 or S2. What is this assumption? Set up the apparatus as
shown in Fig. 6 and record the signal as a function of angle. (Up to now you have only
looked for maxima and minima.) Plot the signal versus angle. On your plot show the
predicted angular dependence implicitly assumed in Fig. 1. Discuss why the actual
transmitter signal has a different angular dependence from the expected value.
dsinmax=n. (2)

Figure 1

PROCEDURE:
1. Measuring frequency: The setup is shown in Fig. 2: a variable frequency signal
generator drives one ultrasonic transducer; its output is also applied to channel B of the
oscilloscope. (Later in the experiment two transmitting transducers will be connected to
channel B.) The output of a second receiving ultrasonic generator is applied to channel A
of the scope. Channel Bs trace (pattern of the oscilloscope) shows the sinusoidal voltage
applied to the transmitting generator; channel A's trace shows the sinusoidal voltage
coming out of the receiving ultrasonic crystal.
Set the signal generator to a frequency of 40 kHz. Adjust the scope controls (trigger, beam
intensity, vertical amplification and horizontal sweep rate) so that trace A shows several,
steady cycles of the sine waves. Place the transmitting transducer facing the receiver at a
distance of a few centimeters. If you think the transducers are not functioning (nothing on
trace A), it is most likely that the function generator is not at the exact resonance
frequency. Vary the frequency around 38 to 42 kHz. You should tune to resonance when
the signal getting through to the receiving transducer (trace A) reaches a maximum.
Warning: Do