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Formula Book

for
Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Fluid and Mechanical Engineering Systems

Department of Management and Engineering


Linkoping University

Revised 2008-10-27
Contents
1 Elementary Equations 1
1.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Reynolds number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Pipe flow 2
2.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Bernoullis extended equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 The flow loss, pf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 The friction factor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.5 Disturbance source factor, s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.6 Single loss factor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Orifices 6
3.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 The flow coefficient, Cq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Series connection of turbulent orifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Parallel connection of turbulent orifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Flow forces 8
4.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Spool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Rotational transmissions 9
5.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2 Efficiency models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

6 Accumulators 10
6.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2 Calculating of the accumulator volume, V0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

7 Gap theory 11
7.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.2 Plane parallel gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.3 Radial gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.4 Gap between cylindrical piston and cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.5 Axial, annular gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

8 Hydrostatic bearings 13
8.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.2 Circled block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.3 Rectangular block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

9 Hydrodynamic bearing theory 15


9.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9.2 Cartesian coordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9.3 Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

10 Non-stationary flow 17
10.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.2 Joukowskis equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.3 Retardation of cylinder with inertia load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.4 Concentrated hydraulic inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.5 Concentrated hydraulic capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.6 Concentrated hydraulic resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
10.7 Basic differential equations on flow systems with parameter distribution in space . 18
10.8 Speed of waves in pipes filled with liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

11 Pump pulsations 20
11.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
11.2 System with closed end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
11.3 Systems with low end impedance (e.g. volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

12 Hydraulic servo systems 23


12.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
12.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
12.3 The servo valves transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
12.4 Servo valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
12.5 The hydraulic systems transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
12.6 The servo stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
12.7 The servos response bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
12.8 The hydraulic systems and the servos sensitivity to loading stiffness . . . . . . . 31
12.9 The servos steady state error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
12.10Control technical resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

13 Hydraulic fluids 38
13.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

14 Pneumatic 42
14.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
14.2 Stream through nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
14.3 Series connection of pneumatic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
14.4 Parallel connected pneumatic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
14.5 Parallel- and series connected pneumatic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
14.6 Filling and emptying of volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Appendix A Symbols of Hydraulic Components 47


1 Elementary Equations
1.1 Nomenclature
Re :Reynolds number [-] v :(mean-) flow velocity [m/s]
V :volume [m3 ] e :effective bulk modulus
d :diameter [m] (reservoir and fluid) [Pa]
dh :hydraulic diameter [m] p :pressure variation, upstream
p :pressure [Pa] to downstream [Pa]
q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s] :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
qin :flow in into volume [m3 /s] :kinematic viscosity (= ) [m2 /s]
t :time [s] :density [kg/m3 ]

1.2 The continuity equation

dV dV V dp
qin
X
qin = +
dt e dt
p, V
Flow out from the volume is counted negative.

1.3 Reynolds number

vdh
Re = (dh hydraulic diameter)

4 cross section area
dh = (dh = d at cirkular crosssection)
circumference

1.4 Flow equations


For flow through fix orifices applies (see also section 3, Orifices):

Laminar flow q p

Turbulent flow q p

1
2 Pipe flow
2.1 Nomenclature
p :pressure [Pa]
Re :Reynolds number [-]
p1 :upstream pressure [Pa]
d :diameter [m]
p2 :downstream pressure [Pa]
d1 :upstream diameter [m]
r :radius [m]
d2 :downstream diameter [m]
v :(mean-) flow velocity [m/s]
h :height [m]
v1 :upstream (mean-) flow velocity [m/s]
h1 :upstream height [m]
v2 :downstream (mean-) flow velocity [m/s]
h2 :downstream height [m]
:correction factor [-]
g :gravitation [m/s2 ]
pf :pressure loss, upstream
:length [m]
to downstream [Pa]
x :distance after disturbance source [m]
:angle [ ]
s :distance after disturbance source
:friction factor [-]
when the flow profile is
:density [kg/m3 ]
completely developed [m]
:single loss factor [-]
s :disturbance source factor [-]

2.2 Bernoullis extended equation


At stationary incompressible flow

v12 v 2
p1 + + gh1 = p2 + 2 + gh2 + pf
2 2

2.3 The flow loss, pf

v 2

at a straight distance




d 2



v 2

pf = s after a disturbance source


2


2

v


at a single disturbance source

2

2.4 The friction factor,

64


Re < 2300 laminar flow
Re

=
0,316
2300 < Re < 105 turbulent flow in smooth pips


4
Re

2.5 Disturbance source factor, s


The laminar flow is completely developed at the distance s after a disturbance source.

s 1,21 s 0,06dRe (Re < 2300),

For < s applies

s = 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) x < 0,06dRe, see diagram in figure 1

x
where x =
dRe

2
s 1,30

1,00

0,50

0,00 lx / d Re
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10 10 10

0,06
x
Figur 1: The disturbance source factor s as function of .
dRe

The turbulant flow is completely developed at the distance s after a disturbance source.

s 0,09 s 40d (Re > 2300),

For < s applies r


x
s = 0,09 x < 40d
40d

2.6 Single loss factor,


Pipe connections to reservoir

tank
v The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir
1 Sharp edge
(
=
0,5 Slightly rounded edge

tank
v
Pipes in the reservoir wall
= 0,5

tank r Pipe in the reservoir wall with rounded edge

d v r/d 0,1 0,15 0,25 0,6

0,12 0,08 0,05 0,04

3
The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir
with entrance cone: For given , optimal cone angle and
tank resistance factor is stated.
d v /d 0,1 0,15 0,25 0,6 1,0

[ ] 6090 6080 6070 5060 5060


l
0,40 0,26 0,17 0,13 0,10

Pipe in reservoir wall with entrance cone: For given ,


tank optimal cone angle and resistance factor is stated.

d v /d 0,1 0,15 0,25 0,6

[ ] 5060 5060 4555 4050


l
0,18 0,14 0,12 0,10

Area variations in the pipe

d1 d2 v
Increase of area: The loss factor is found in the figure 2

0,9
= 180, dashed
0,8 = 60
0,7
40
0,6

0,5 30

0,4 20

0,3
15
0,2 10
0,1 5
0,0
1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 3,50 4,00 d2/d1

Figur 2: The loss coefficient as function of the area relationship with the angle as parameter at increase of area.

Decrease of area: The loss factor is described by =


0 , where 0 for different geometries is received from
section above about Pipe connection to reservoir.
d1 d2 v According to von Mises applies when

d2 /d1 0,90 0,80 0,70 0,50 0,30 0,10

0,19 0,37 0,51 0,76 0,91 0,99

Disturbance source factor s applies in a similar way


"  3 #
d2
s = s0 1
d1

The uncompensated disturbance source factor s0 is received from section 2.5, Disturbance source
factor, s .

4
Pipe bend


For pipe bend relates: = 90
90
where 90 is
r d d/r 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00

90 0,13 0,14 0,16 0,21 0,29

For pipe angle gives directly by

[ ] 10 20 30 40 50
0,04 0,10 0,17 0,27 0,40

[ ] 60 70 80 90

0,55 0,70 0,90 1,20

Special geometries

= 0,50
= 0,10 = 1,20

45 45 Banjo-
nipple
= 0,15 = 0,50 = 2,5 3
= 2,5 4
= 0,06

5
3 Orifices
3.1 Nomenclature
A :area [m2 ] :length [m]
A1 :upstream area [m2 ] p :pressure [Pa]
Cq :flow coefficient [-] p1 :upstream pressure [Pa]
Re :Reynolds number [-] p2 :downstream pressure [Pa]
d :diameter [m] q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
p
K :constant Cq A 2/ [m3 /s P a] :density [kg/m3 ]

p1 p2
r
2
q = Cq A (p1 p2 )
q

3.2 The flow coefficient, Cq


Hole orifice (sharp edged)

p1 p2 A
Cq = Cq (Re, )
A1
A1 A
If nothing else is stated Cq = 0,67 can be used.

Pipe orifice (sharp edged)

p1 d p2
l

Laminar flow in the orifice (Re < 2300)

1
Cq = p dar x =
1,5 + 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) + 64x dRe

The term 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) agrees with s and can be received from the diagram in
figure 1 in section Pipe flow. When x 0,06, the value 1,21 is accepted.


Turbulent flow in the orifice with 2 20
d
1



s 2300 Re 2 104

0,316
1,46 + 0,088 +


d 4
Re d



Cq =
1


2 104 Re


r




1,46 + 0,115

d

3.3 Series connection of turbulent orifices

p0 p1 p2 pi pn
q
K1 K2 Ki Kn

6
The sum of the orifices applies:
r
1 2
q = K p0 pn dar K= v Ki = Cqi Ai
u n
uX 1
t
i=1
Ki2

The pressure after the j:th orifice is given by


j
X 1
pj = p0 (p0 pn )K 2 2
i=1
K i

3.4 Parallel connection of turbulent orifices

p0 q
q1 q2 qi qn

K1 K2 Ki Kn

p1

The sum of the orifices applies:


n r
X 2
q = K p0 p1 dar K = Ki Ki = Cqi Ai
i=1

The flow through the i:th orifice is given by


Ki
qi = q
K

7
4 Flow forces
4.1 Nomenclature
Fs :flow force [N] q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
d :spool diameter [m] v :(mean-)flow velocity [m/s]
:length [m] w :area gradient [m]
p :pressure [Pa] x :spool opening [m]
p1 :upstream pressure [Pa] :jet angle [ ]
p2 :downstream pressure [Pa] :density [kg/m3 ]

4.2 Spool

Fluidelement

Fs d

For this valve, without pressure


l relief grooves, is the area gradi-
v ent:
w = d

p
p1

p2

Fs = |2Cq wx(p1 p2 ) cos()| + q

The term with absolute value is the static part of the flow force and has a closing effect.
If the spool and bushing have sharp and right angle edges and if the gap between the spool and
the bushing is small and also x d, then are:

0,62 Cq 0,67 and = 69

8
5 Rotational transmissions
5.1 Nomenclature
Cv :laminar leakage losses [-] qe :effective flow [m3 /s]
D :displacement [m3 /rev] p :pressure difference [Pa]
Min :driving torque pump [Nm] :displacement setting [-]
Mut :output torque motor [Nm] hm :hydraulic mechanical efficiency [-]
kp :Coulomb friction [-] vol :volumetric efficiency [-]
kv :viscous friction losses [-] Sub index
k :displacement coefficient [-] p pump
n :revs [rev/s] m motor

Pump

Effective flow
np, Min
p qep = p Dp np volp
Dp qep
Torque
p Dp 1
Min = p
p 2 hmp

Motor
Effective flow
nm, Mut 1
qem Dm m qem = m Dm nm
volm
Torque
m Dm
p Mout = phmm
2

5.2 Efficiency models


Pump
Volumetric efficiency Hydraulic mechanical efficiency
p 1
volp = 1 Cv hmp = np (k (1 |p |))
|p |np 1 + (kp + kv )e
p

Motor
Volumetric efficiency Hydraulic mechanical efficiency
1 nm (k (1 |m |))
volm = hmm = 1 (kp + kv )e
p p
1 + Cv
|m |nm

9
6 Accumulators
6.1 Nomenclature
V0 :accumulator volume [m3 ] p1 :minimum working pressure (absolute) [Pa]
n :polytrophic exponent [-] p2 :maximum working pressure (absolute) [Pa]
p0 :pre-charged pressure (absolute pressure, V :working volume [m3 ]
normally 90 % av p1 ) [Pa]

6.2 Calculating of the accumulator volume, V0


A. Both the charging and discharging is either adiabatic or isotherm process

p1
V (
1 isotherm process
p0
V0 = n=
 1
p1 n 1,4(1,5) adiabatic process
1
p2

B. Isotherm charging and adiabatic discharging

p2
V
p0
V0 = n = 1,4(1,5)
 1
p2 n
1
p1

10
7 Gap theory
7.1 Nomenclature
p :pressure [Pa]
Ff :friction force [N] q :leakage flow [m3 /s]
Mf :friction torque [Nm] r :radius [m]
Pf :power loss [W] r1 :inner radius [m]
b :gap width perpendicular r2 :outer radius [m]
to flow direction [m] v :relative velocity [m/s]
e :eccentricity [m] p :pressure difference through
h :gap height [m] the gap (p1 p0 ) [Pa]
h1 + h2
h0 mean gap height ( ) [m] :angle [rad]
2 :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
:length [m]
:angular speed [rad/s]

7.2 Plane parallel gap


Leakage flow relative to the fix wall

l vbh bh3 p
q = +
v 2 12
p1 h ql p0 Friction force
vb bh
Ff = p
h 2
Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)

bh3 p2 v 2 b
Pf = +
12 h

7.3 Radial gap

p0 ql
r When h r can the equations for plane parallel
gap be used with following substitution:
h
v = r
= r
p1

7.4 Gap between cylindrical piston and cylinder


Leakage flow relative to the fix gap wall
"  2 #
rh30 p e
q = vrh0 + 1 + 1,5
6 h0
r l
h1 h2
v Frictional force
e
p0 2rv
p1 ql Ff = s  2 rh0 p
e
h0 1
h0

11
Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)
"  2 #
rh30 p2 e 2rv 2
Pf = 1 + 1,5 + s
6 h0  2
e
h0 1
h0

7.5 Axial, annular gap


Leakage flow

ph3
q =  
r2
6 ln
p0 ql r1
r2 Pressure as function of radius

p1 r1
 
r
ln
r1
pr = p1 (p1 p0 )  
r2
h ln
r1

Friction moment
4
Mf = (r r14 )
2 h 2
Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)

h3 p2 2 4
Pf =  + (r r14 )
6 r2 2 h 2
ln
r1

12
8 Hydrostatic bearings
8.1 Nomenclature
Ae :effective area [m2 ] kb :constant [Ns/m2 ]
B :bearing chamber length [m] k2 :constant [Nms]
F :load [N] p :pressure [Pa]
K1 :constant [Ns] pb :pressure in the bearing chamber [Pa]
K2 :constant [Nm2 s] qs :flow through the bearing [m3 /s]
L :bearing surface length [m] qsB :flow through
ae :effective area/width [m] the bearing/width [m2 /s]
f :load/width [N/m] r1 :inner radius [m]
h :gap height [m] r2 :outer radius [m]
:length [m] :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]

8.2 Circled block


h = constant
Flow
h3
p=0 qs = pb
kb
r2
Load
r1 F = Ae pb
pb
where  
6 r2
kb = ln
r1
and
r22 r12

h
Ae =  
2 r2
ln
r1
Squeeze
Pressure
K1
pb = h
p=0 h3
r2 Load
K2
r1 F = h
pb h3
where
F "  2 #
r1
. K1 = 3r22 1
h r2
h and "  4 #
3 4 r1
K2 = r 1
2 2 r2

p=0
If pb = 0
r2
Load
r1 K2
pb F = h
h3
F where
. 3 4
"
r1
 3  4 #
r1 r1
h K2 = r 1 2 + 2
h 2 2 r2 r2 r2

13
8.3 Rectangular block
h = constant

p=0 Flow
h3
L qsB = pb
kb
pb Load
f = ae p b
f
B where
kb = 6L
h and
L ae = B + L

Squeeze
Pressure
p=0 K1
pb = h
L h3
Load
pb k2
f = h
h3
f
B where
. K1 = 6L(B + L)
h
h and  
4
k2 = 6L B 2 + 2BL + L2
L 3

p=0
L
If pb = 0
pb Load
k2
f f = h
h3
B
. where
h k2 = 2L3
h
L

14
9 Hydrodynamic bearing theory
9.1 Nomenclature
q :flow/width unit in -axis [m2 /s]
U1 :velocity in x-axis surface 1 [m/s]
r :radius [m]
U2 :velocity in x-axis surface 2 [m/s]
t :time [s]
V1 :velocity in y-axis surface 1 [m/s]
u :flow velocity in x-axis [m/s]
V2 :velocity in y-axis surface 2 [m/s]
w :flow velocity in z-axis [m/s]
T :temperature [K]
:dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
c :specific heat [kJ/kg K]
x :shear stress in x-axis [N/m2 ]
h :gap height [m]
:shear stress in -axis [N/m2 ]
p :pressure [Pa]
:density [kg/m3 ]
qx :flow/width unit in x-axis [m2 /s]
1 :velocity in -axis surface 1 [rad/s]
qz :flow/width unit in z-axis [m2 /s]
2 :velocity in -axis surface 2 [rad/s]
qr :flow/width unit in r-axis [m2 /s]
:angle [rad]

9.2 Cartesian coordinate

y V2 U2

z x
V1 U1

Speeeds
1 p  y y 1 p
u= [y(y h)] + U1 1 + U2 w= [y(y h)]
2 x h h 2 z
Flows
h3 p h h3 p
qx = + (U1 + U2 ) qz =
12 x 2 12 z
Shear stresses

h p U2 U1 y
x|y=0 = + p
2 x h x|y=h
h p U2 U1 z x
x|y=h = + x|y=0
2 x h

Reynolds equation

h3 p h3 p
   

+ = 6(U1 U2 ) (h) + 12(V2 V1 )
x x z z x

Adiabatic energy equation


"   2 #
2
h3
 
T T T 2 p p
c qx + qz +h = (U1 U2 ) + +
x z t h 12 x z

9.3 Polar coordinates

y 2 V2 w u

x y r
1 V1

15
Velocities
1 p 1 p  y y
u= [y(y h)] w= [y(y h)] + r1 1 + r2
2 r 2 r h h
Flows
h3 p h3 p rh
qr = q = + (1 + 2 )
12 r 12 r 2
Shear stresses

h p r(2 1 ) y
|y=0 = + p
2 r h |y=h

h p r(2 1 )
|y=h = + |y=0
2 r h

Reynolds equation

h3 r p
   3 
h p
+ = 6r(1 2 ) (h) + 12r(V2 V1 )
r r r

Adiabatic energy equation


"  #
2  2
r2 h3
 
T T T 2 p 1 p p p
c qr + q +h = (1 2 ) + + 2 +
r t h 12 r r r r

16
10 Non-stationary flow
10.1 Nomenclature
p :pressure [Pa]
A :line sectional area [m2 ]
p :pressure in point of operation [Pa]
B :constant (L0 a) [kg/s m40 ]
p :upstream pressure [Pa]
CH :conc. hydr. capacitance [m5 /N] 1
p :downstream pressure [Pa]
C0 :conc. hydr. capacitance/l.enh. [m4 /N] 2
ps :supply pressure [Pa]
F :force [N]
q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
LH :conc. hydr. inductance [kg/m4 ]
q :flow in point of operation [m3 /s]
L0 :conc. hydr. inductance/l.enh. [kg/m ]0
5
s :Laplace operator (i) [1/s]
P :pressure (frequency dependent) [Pa]
t :time [s]
Q :flow (volume flow) (frequency dependent) [m3 /s]
t :valve closing time [s]
RH :conc. hydr. resistance (lam.) [Ns/m5 v]
v :flow velocity [m/s]
RHt :conc. hydr. resistance (turb.) [Ns/m5 ]0
:velocity of cylinder [m/s]
R0 :conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (lam.) [Ns/m6 ]
:dimensionless area [-]
R0t :conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (turb.) [Ns/m6 ]
3 e :effective bulk modulus [Pa]
V1 :volume [m ]
3 p :change in pressure due to pressure peek [Pa]
V2 :volume [m ]
:dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
Z0 :impedance [Ns/m5 ]
:friction coefficient [-]
a :speed of sound [m/s]
:parameter [1/m]
d :diameter [m]
:density [kg/m3 ]
:length [m]
:single resistant loss [-]
m :mass [kg]

10.2 Joukowskis equation

p = av0

Reduction due to valve closing time.


2 2
pred = p for tv >
atv a

10.3 Retardation of cylinder with inertia load

v0
V2 V1 FL
m Pressure difference for retardation (v0 0)
p2 p1
r
2e m
p1max p2min = v0
V1
ps = const pT = 0

10.4 Concentrated hydraulic inductance

dq
p1 p2 = L H were LH =
dt A

10.5 Concentrated hydraulic capacitance

dp A
q1 q2 = CH were CH =
dt e

17
10.6 Concentrated hydraulic resistance

128


RH = For laminar flow
d4




p1 p2 = RH q were RH = For turbulent flow,
q0
RHt = d A2 with linearization around the working



point with the flow q0

10.7 Basic differential equations on flow systems with parameter dis-


tribution in space

p q q p
+ L0 + R0 q|q|m = 0 + C0 =0
x t x t
Parameter values (per length unit)
independent of flow regime
A
C0 = L0 =
e A
with laminar flow
128
R0 = m=0
d4
with turbulent flow
0,1582 0,25 0,75
R0t = m = 0,75
d1,25 A1,75

10.8 Speed of waves in pipes filled with liquid


s
1 e
a= =
L0 C0

Graphical solution

F-wave f-wave

F f

p = Bq p = Bq
were B = L0 a

18
Boundary conditions:
At a valve
q p
r
=
q0 p0
were = dimensionless area and p0 , q0 is stationary state.
At a pressure source with concentrated friction loss

q 2
 
p = p0 +
d 2A2

Solution with impedance method


Transfer matrices
    
P (s, ) cosh() Z0 sinh() P (s, 0)
=
Q(s, ) Z10 sinh() cosh() Q(s, 0)
    
P (s, 0) cosh() Z0 sinh() P (s, )
= 1
Q(s, 0) Z0 sinh() cosh() Q(s, )
    
P (s, x) cosh(x) Z0 sinh(x) P (s, 0)
=
Q(s, x) Z10 sinh(x) cosh(x) Q(s, 0)
    
P (s, x) cosh(( x)) Z0 sinh(( x)) P (s, )
= 1
Q(s, x) Z0 sinh(( x)) cosh(( x)) Q(s, )

r
p L0 s + R0
were = (L0 s + R0 )C0 s Z0 =
C0 s

19
11 Pump pulsations
11.1 Nomenclature
A :the pipes cross-sectional area [m2 ] ps :static pressure level [Pa]
T :wave propagation time [s] z :the pumps piston number [-]
D :pump displacement [m3 /varv] :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
L :pipe length [m] p :dim.free cylinder volume [-]
P :pulsation amplitude [N/m2 ] :bulk modulus [Pa]
V :volume [m3 ] :the pumps displacement [-]
a :wave propagation speed [m/s] :dim.free dead volume [-]
d :pipe diameter [m] :density [kg/m3 ]
fp :dim. free flow spectrum [-] :dim.free charging time [-]
n :pump speed [rev/s] :angular frequency [rad/s]

11.2 System with closed end


Resonances in a pipe system with closed end are obtained at following frequency/-ies:
k
= k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
T
where s
L
T = a=
a

Figur 3: Amplitude for the resonances k = 1, 2, 3 and 4 in a system with closed end.

Flow disturbance from the pump rises at following frequencies:


= 2nzj j = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Under condition that the pumps flow disturbance frequencies coincide with the pipe systems
resonances, can the resulting pressure amplitude at this frequency be calculated with following
equation:
P 2fp p D n
r

ps = 3
max dL zj
where
2 1+
fp = p = +
1 + ( j)3 2
The dimensionless charging time is the relationship between the time you, due to the oils
compressibility, receive a back flow into a cylinder, and the total time period, i.e. the time
between two volumes in succession are charged. This parameter is very difficult to decide, a
typical value of is between 0,05 till 0,3. The higher values are referred to pumps designed for
low flow pulsations for example pumps with pressure relief grooves.
The dead volume has often the magnitude of 0,2, that is 20% of the effective cylinder volume.
Anti-resonances are received in a pipe system with closed end at following frequencies:
(k + 21 )
= k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
T
Under condition that the pump flow disturbance frequencies coincide with the pipe systems
anti-resonances, can the resulting maximum pressure amplitude at this frequency be calculated
with following equation:
P 4fp p Dn
=
ps
max d2 a

20
Example: The above equations are used for following example. A constant pressure pump
presumed work against a closed valve. Following data is obtained:
d = 38 103 [m] = 0,2
n = 25 [rev/s] =0
z=9 = 0,02 [Ns/m2 ]
D = 220 106 [m3 /rev] = 900 [kg/m3 ]
e = 1,5 109 [Pa] = 0,25

Four different pipe lengths between pump and valve is analysed:


L = 1,45 m Gives resonances for j = 2, 4, 6, . . . anti-resonances for j = 1, 3, 5, . . .
L = 1,91 m Gives resonance for j = 3, 6, . . . no anti-resonance
L = 2,15 m Gives resonance for j = 4, . . . anti-resonances for j = 2, 6, . . .
L = 2,90 m Gives resonance for j = 1, 2, 3, . . . no anti-resonance

In the table below shows the obtained relationship between pulsations pressure amplitude and the
systems pressure level for respective disturbance harmonic. Note, for L = 1,91 m and L = 2,15 m
can some disturbance harmonics not be analysed with the equations above, since they dont
coincide with any of the pipes resonances or anti-resonances. However, the amplitudes at these
frequencies are relative small because they dont coincide with any of the pipes resonances. In
the table below, these values are in parenthesis.

Relative pulsation amplitude |P/ps |

j f [Hz] L = 1,45 m L = 1,91 m L = 2,15 m L = 2,90 m

1 225 0,01 (0,01) (0,01) 0,35

2 450 0,45 (0,01) 0,00 0,22

3 675 0,00 0,22 (0,01) 0,14

4 900 0,18 (0,00) 0,12 0,09

5 1125 0,00 (0,00) (0,01) 0,05

6 1350 0,07 0,05 0,00 0,03

11.3 Systems with low end impedance (e.g. volume)


Resonances in a pipe system with low end impedance is obtained at following frequencies:

(k + 21 )
= k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
T

Figur 4: Amplitude for the resonances k = 0, 1, 2 and 3 for a system with low end impedance.

Anti-resonances in a pipe system with low end impedance is obtained at following frequencies:
k
= k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
T
The same equations as in previous section can be used here for calculation of maximum pressure
amplitude for the pulsations.

21
If a volume, which size is not infinite, is connected to the pipe system is a dislocation of the
lines resonances from the values in above equations obtained. This dislocation can be calculated
according to following equation
  
1 V
= arctan
T 2 Aa

I.e. if a finite volume is used the resonance frequency is increased.


As example on this section, a high pressure filter is placed before the valve in the example with
the constant pressure pump. The valve is closed in this example too. The volume of the filter is
2 liters; other parameters are the same as the previous example except for the length of the line.
The following line lengths are analysed:
L = 1,47 m Gives resonance for j = 3, 5, . . . anti-resonance for j = 2, 4, 6, . . .
L = 1,87 m Gives resonance for j = 1, 4, . . . anti-resonance for j = 3, 6, . . .
L = 3,00 m Gives no resonance anti-resonance for j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .

Note, the volume is relative small and therefore the dislocation equation has to be used. When
the new resonance frequency is calculated, passningsrakning has to be used. The method is
shown bellow for L = 1,47 m and k = 1.
= 430 rad/s = 1810 rad/s
= 340 rad/s = 1720 rad/s
k + 21

= = 1350rad/s = 350 rad/s = 1730 rad/s
T
The size of the pulsation amplitude in relation to the static system pressure is shown in the table
below. The values in parenthesis show, as in previous example, a more correct analyze of the
disturbance harmonic which can not be calculated with the equation given in this handbook.

Relative pulsation amplitude |P/ps |

j f [Hz] L = 1,47 m L = 1,87 m L = 3,00 m

1 225 (0,01) (0,54) 0,01

2 450 0,00 (0,01) 0,00

3 675 0,28 0,00 0,00

4 900 0,00 0,14 0,00

5 1125 0,11 (0,00) 0,00

6 1350 0,00 0,00 0,00

22
12 Hydraulic servo systems
12.1 Nomenclature
Vh :control volume (3-port valve) [m3 ]
Vt :total volume [m3 ]
A :piston area [m2 ]
e :control error
Ah :control piston area (3-port valve) [m2 ]
kp :displacement gradient (pump) [m3 /rad2 ]
Am :amplitude margin [dB]
p :pressure [Pa]
Ar :piston area, rod side
pc :control pressure (3-port valve) [Pa]
(3-port valve) [m2 ]
ps :supply pressure [Pa]
Au :the open systems transfer function
q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
Bm :viscous friction coeff. (motor) [Nms/rad]
qc :centre flow [m3 /s]
Bp :viscous friction coeff. (cylinder) [Ns/m]
s :Laplace operator (i) [rad/s]
Ce :external leakage flow coeff.
t :time [s]
(cylinder/motor/pump) [m5 /Ns]
xv :position (servo valve) [m]
Ci :internal leakage flow coeff.
xp :position (cylinder piston) [m]
(cylinder/motor/pump) [m5 /Ns]
5 w :area gradient [m]
Ct :total leakage flow coeff. [m /Ns]
e :effective bulk modulus [Pa]
Cq :leakage flow coeff. [-]
h :hydraulic damping [-]
D :displacement (motor/pump) [m3 /rad]
0 :control error (stationary)
FL :external (load-) force on cylinder [N]
:density [kg/m3 ]
Gc :the closed systems transfer function
m :angular position (motor) [rad]
Go :the open systems transfer function
p :displacement angle (pump) [rad]
Greg :controller transfer function
m :phase margin [ ]
Jt :total moment of inertia
2 :angular frequency [rad/s]
(motor and load) [kg m ]
5 b :bandwidth [rad/s]
Kc :flowpressure coeff. (servo valve) [m /Ns]
c :crossing-out frequency [rad/s]
Kp :pressure gain (servo valve) [Pa/m]
h :hydraulic eigen frequency [rad/s]
Kq :flow gain (servo valve) [m2 /s]
Re :real part
Kreg :control gain
Im :imaginary part
Kv :loop gain
Mt :total mass (cylinder piston
and load) [kg]
Tillaggsindex
0 :working point
Np :pump speed [rad/s]
e :effective
S :stiffness
m :motor
TL :external (load-)moment on motor [Nm]
p :cylinder (piston), pump
U :under lap [m]
v :valve
V :volume [m3 ]
t :total
L :load

23
12.2 Introduction
The servo technical section discusses following system:
valve controlled cylinder
valve controlled motor
pump controlled cylinder
pump controlled motor
As example in this section will a position servo of the type valve controlled cylinder in a constant
pressure system be used. In this example is the servo valve a 4-port valve with negligible dynamic
and the cylinder is symmetric. See figure 5.

xp
V1 A1 A2 V2 FL
Mt
p1 p2
Bp

- xv
+ Greg
xp ref
pT = 0
ps = constant
Figur 5: Lagesservo: ventilstyrd cylinder i konstanttryckssystem.

A position servo looks, in general, out as follow:

FL (TL)

Xp ref (m ref) +
E X v (p) Xp (m)
Controller Hydraulic system
-

The special case when the hydraulic system consists of a valve controlled cylinder becomes the
block diagram as:

FL

(
Kce Vt Hydraulic
A2p
1+
4eKce
s ) system

Xp ref + E X v Kq - 1 Xp

(
Controller
s2
- Ap +
s
h2
+ 2h s + 1
h )
12.3 The servo valves transfer function
All the transfer functions in this section are applied when the load spring constant K is negligible
and its viscous friction Bp and Bm respectively is small (can often be set to 0). The direction

24
dependent friction coefficient Cf is neglected also in the motor case.

Valve controlled systems


The dynamic of the servo valve in the valve controlled systems is assumed to be negligible compared
to the system. Following is valid for the servo valve (see also section 12.4):

4-ports servo valve 3-ports servo valve


qL qL
Kq = Kq = the servo valves flow gain
xv xv
qL qL
Kc = Kc = the servo valves flowpressure coefficient
pL pc
Kq pL Kq pc
Kp = = Kp = = the servo valves pressure gain
Kc xv Kc xv

The load flow and load pressure through a 4-port valve controlled symmetric cylinder/motor is
defined according to following expression:

qL = (qL1 + qL2 )/2 pL = p1 p2

Pump controlled systems

The dynamic of the pump in the pump controlled systems is assumed to be negligible compared
to the system. The pumps ideal flow is:

qp ideal = p Dp Np = kp p Np

Linearised and Laplace transformed equations which describes the dynamic of the following hy-
draulic systems are presented in section 12.5.

25
xp
xp
V1 A1 A2 V2 FL
Mt Vh Ah Ar FL
p1 p2 Mt
pc
q1 q2 Bp Bp
xv
xv

ps = const pT = 0 ps = const pT = 0
a. Valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve) b. Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve)
TL Bm
TL B m

Jt
Jt
m xp
m
Dm V1 A1 A2 FL
p1 p2 Mt Dm
p1
V1 V2 Bp p1 p2 =
q1 q2 const
p2 = const V1

xv

ps = const pT = 0 M M
c. Valve controlled motor d. Pump controlled cylinder e. pump controlled motor (transmission)

Figur 6: Different types of servo systems.

12.4 Servo valve


4-port zero lapped valve
s  
1 xv
Load flow: qL = Cq wxv ps pL
|xv |

Centre flow: qc = 0 ideal


ps
r
Zero coefficients: Kq0 = Cq w Kc0 = 0 ideal Kp0 = ideal

qL0 = 0 pL0 = 0 xv0 = 0

26
4-port under lapped valve
 r r 
ps pL ps + pL
Load flow: qL = Cq w (U + xv ) (U xv ) for |xv | U

ps
r
Centre flow: qc = 2Cq wU

r
ps 1 2ps
r
Zero coefficients: Kq0 = 2Cq w Kc0 = Cq wU Kp0 =
ps U
qL0 = 0 pL0 = 0 xv0 = 0

3-port zero-lapped valve


r
2
C wx (ps pc ) da xv 0

q v





Load flow: qL = r
2


Cq wxv pc da xv 0



Centre flow: qc = 0 ideal
ps
r
Zero coefficients: Kq0 = Cq w Kc0 = 0 ideal Kp0 = ideal

ps
qL0 = 0 pc0 = xv0 = 0
2

3-port under lapped valve


 r r 
2(ps pc ) 2pc
Load flow: qL = Cq w (U + xv ) (U xv ) for |xv | U

ps
r
Centre flow: qc = Cq wU

r
ps 1 ps
r
Zero coefficients: Kq0 = 2Cq w Kc0 = 2Cq wU Kp0 =
ps U
ps
qL0 = 0 pL0 = xv0 = 0
2

12.5 The hydraulic systems transfer function


Valve controlled symmetric cylinder with mass load (4-port valve)

 
Kq Kce Vt
Xv 2 1 + s FL
Ap A 4e Kce
Xp =  2p 
s s
s + 2h +1
h2 h
s
4e A2p
if V1 V2




Vt Mt Kce
r
e M t Bp
r
Vt
where h = s h = +

e A2p 1

1
 Ap Vt 4Ap e M t

+ if V1 6= V2
Mt V1 V2


Cep
Kce = Kc + Cip + Vt = V1 + V2 Ap = A1 = A2
2

27
Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder with mass load (3-port valve)
 
Kq Kce Vh
Xv 2 1 + s FL
Ah A e Kce
Xp =  2h 
s s
s + 2 h + 1
h2 h
s
e A2h
r r
Kce e Mt Bp Vh
where h = h = + Kce = Kc + Cip
Vh Mt 2Ah Vh 2Ah e Mt

Valve controlled motor with moment of inertia


 
Kq Kce Vt
Xv 2 1 + s TL
Dm D 4e Kce
m =  2m 
s s
s + 2 h + 1
h2 h
s
2
r r
4e Dm Kce e Jt Bm Vt
where h = h = +
Vt Jt Dm Vt 4Dm e Jt
Cem
Kce = Kc + Cim + Vt = V1 + V2 , V1 = V2
2

Pump controlled cylinder with mass load


 
kp Np Ct V0
p 2 1 + s FL
Ap A e Ct
Xp =  2 p 
s s
s 2 + 2h +1
h h
s
e A2p
r r
Ct e M t Bp V0
where h = h = +
V0 Mt 2Ap V0 2Ap e Mt
V0 = V1 Ap = A1 = A2
Ct = Cit + Cet = Cip(iston) + Cip(ump) + Cep(iston) + Cep(ump)

Pump controlled motor with moment of inertia (transmission)


 
kp Np Ct V0
p 2 1 + s TL
Dm D e Ct
m =  2 m 
s s
s + 2 h + 1
h2 h
s
2
r r
e D m Ct e Jt Bm V0
where h = h = +
V0 Jt 2Dm V0 2Dm e Jt
V0 = V1 Ct = Cit + Cet = Cip + Cim + Cep + Cem

12.6 The servo stability


Feedback systems can become instable if the feedback is incorrect dimensioned. In this case we
study a position servo with proportional feedback Greg = Kreg . The open loop transfer function
become:
Kv
Au = Greg Go =  2 
s s
s + 2 h + 1
h2 h

28
where Go is the transfer function which describes the hydraulic systems output signal (cylinder
position) as function of the hydraulic systems input signal (valve position) when the disturbance
signal (FL ) is zero. The steady state loop gain Kv (also called the velocity coefficient) is:
Kq
Kv = Kreg valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve)
Ap
Kq
Kv = Kreg valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve)
Ah
Kq
Kv = Kreg valve controlled motor
Dm
kp Np
Kv = Kreg pump controlled cylinder
Ap
kp Np
Kv = Kreg pump controlled motor
Dm

Then, the open systems Bode-diagram for a position servo become as figure 7.

1
10 270
c Kv

phase(Au) [degrees], (dashed line)


180
0
10 |Au| = 1
Am
|Au| [-], (solid line)

90
Kv / 2hh
-1
10 0

h -90
-2
10 m
-180

-3
10 -270
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

Figur 7: The open systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude, (solid line) and phase, (dashed).

Stability condition
A stable system is obtained when
the amplitude margin Am > 0 dB at 180 phase shift. If the phase intersects 180 more
than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed.
the phase margin m > 0 at 0 dB amplitude. If the amplitude curve intersects 0 dB more
than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed.
For a proportional position servo with a feedback is, for the hydraulic, the amplitude margin the
critical stability margin. It means that a stable system needs the open loop gain |Au | to be <= 1
(0 dB) when the phase shift is <= 180.
Figure 7 shows that the stability condition becomes
Kv
<1
2h h
Stability margins
Position servo (with Bode-diagram according to figure 7) amplitude margin can be written as:

Kv
Am = 20 10 log [dB]
2h h
The following margins should be used when the control parameters shall be dimensioned in a
hydraulic system with a feedback.

29
amplitude margin: Am 10 dB
phase margin: m 45
The systems critical working condition
Since hydraulic systems are non-linear systems, the stability margin will become different in
different working condition. From the figure for the open systems transfer function Au the
stability margin become worst when both h and h are low and steady state loop gain Kv is big.
This happened for a valve controlled symmetric cylinder when
Vt
Cylinder piston is centered (xp = 0), i.e. V1 = V2 = 2 . h is minimised.
The servo valve is closed (xv = qL = 0), i.e. when Kc = Kc0 . Kce and consequently h is
minimised.

Cylinder piston is out balanced, i.e. when pL = 0. Kq , which is proportional to ps pL ,
is maximised and consequently also Kv (proportional to Kq ).
With similar discussion, the critical working condition can be decided for other systems.
In practical dimensioning, the hydraulic damping is often set to h 0, 1.

12.7 The servos response bandwidth


The bandwidth (b ) for the closed loop system specifies how high frequency the servos output
signal can follow a sinusoidal input signal, when the disturbance FL = 0, without:
the gain lowers more than 3 dB (29,3 %)
or the phase shift become more than 90
If the feedback is 1, the closed loop systems transfer function for a position servo with any of
the earlier described hydraulic systems becomes:
Au 1
Gc = =
1 + Au 1 3
2h 2 1
s + s + s+1
Kv h2 K v h Kv

Xp
where Gc = for a position servo with a valve controlled cylinder.
Xp ref

1
10 270
b,1 |Gc| = 0.71 -3 dB
phase(Gc) [degrees], (dashed line)

180
|Gc| [-], (solid line)

0
10 |Gc| = 1 90

-1
10 -90

-180
b,2
-2
10 -270
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

Figur 8: The closed loop systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude (solid) and phase (dashed).

30
The closed loop systems transfer function can also be written as
1
Gc = 
s2
 
s s
+1 2
+ 2 nc + 1
b nc nc

If h and Kv /h is small
nc h
b K v
Kv
2nc 2h
h

12.8 The hydraulic systems and the servos sensitivity to loading


stiffness
Cylinder - respective motor position sensitivity to disturbance force FL or a disturbance torque
TL is described with its stiffness S. When the stiffness is studied is all other input signals
assumed to be constant (Insignal = 0). The stiffness is defined as

FL TL
S= or S=
Xp m

The hydraulic systems transfer function can be found in section 12.5.


As example on a system without respective with a feedback, the stiffness for the valve controlled
(4-port valve) symmetric cylinder is decided. The same approach is used when the stiffness is
decided for the other hydraulic.
System without feedback
For a hydraulic system without feedback, the stiffness for the valve controlled cylinder is calculated
as  2 
s s
s + 2 h + 1
FL 1 h2 h
S= = =
X
 
Xp p Kce s
1 +
FL A2p s
where
4e Kce
s = = {if Bp isneglected} = 2h h
Vt
The transfer function for the stiffness is shown in figure 9.

10
10

9
10
|S| [N/m]

8
10

qh!h Ap!h 2
2 2

7
Kce 1+ (! )
s
10
s h

6
10
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

Figur 9: The transfer function for the stiffness for the non-feedback valve controlled cylinder.

31
System with feedback
For a system with feedback with the feedback 1 and proportional gain of the control error is
following stiffness obtained for a valve controlled cylinder(Xp ref are set to 0).

1 2h 2 1
s3 + s + s+1
FL 1 Kv h2 K v h Kv
S= = = Kv
Xp
 
Xp Kce s
1+
FL A2p s

where
4e Kce
s = = {if Bp isneglected} = 2h h
Vt
The transfer function for the stiffness in the position servo is shown in figure 10.

10
10

9
10
|S| [N/m]

8
10 2
KvAp / Kce

7
10
s h

6
10
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

Figur 10: The transfer function for the stiffness for the valve controlled cylinder with proportional feedback.

32
12.9 The servos steady state error
The control error e(t) in a servo system is defined as the difference between the output value and
the input value when Disturbance signal = 0.
According to end value theorem, the steady state control error will be:

0 = lim e(t) = lim sE(s)


t s0

where the error gets the following expression if the feedback is 1:


1
E(s) = Xpref Xp = Xpref
1 + Au
The end value theorem is only usable on an asymptotic stable system, i.e. if the output signal
has a finite limit value. For all systems can the transient be studied in the time domain (inverse
transformation, see section 12.10).

The input signal is a step


If the input signal Xpref respective mref is a step with the amplitude A becomes the input
signal A/s in frequency domain. The end value theorem becomes

A 1 A A
0 = lim s = =0
s0 s 1 + Au 1 + lim Au
s0

Practical, the steady state error does never become 0, because of the components which are
included in the control loop do not have ideal characteristic.

The input signal is a ramp


If the input signal Xpref respective mref is a ramp A t (i.e. the speed A is desired), becomes
the input signal A/s2 . The steady state position error becomes

A 1 A
0 = lim s =
s0 s2 1 + Au Kv

12.10 Control technical resources


Linearize
Non-linear differential equations are linearized around a working point with the first term of the
Taylor series according to
n
X f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
f = f (x10 , x20 , . . . , xn0 ) = xj
0 j=1
xj (x10 ,x20 ,...,xn0 )

where the working point is assumed to have stationary working conditions.

33
Laplace transformation
The following Laplace transformation table translates equations in the time domain to equations
in frequency domain (rad/s) and vice versa.
Z
Definition L{f (t)} = F (s) = est f (t)dt
0

Function in time domain Transform to frequency domain

f (t) F (s)

af (t) + bg(t) a, b constants aF (s) + bG(s)

f (t a) a0 eas F (s)
1 s
 
f (at) a>0 F
a a
tn f (t) n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1)n F (n)(s)
Z
f (t) f (t)
lim exists F (u)du
t t0+ t s

eat f (t) a constant F (s + a)



0 then t < 0
f (t a)H(t a) a > 0, H(t) eas F (s)
1 otherwise
f (t) sF (s) f (0)
n
X
f (n) (t) n = 0, 1, 2, . . . sn F (s) snk f (k1) (0)
k=1
Rt F (s)
0
f (u)du
s
Z t Z t
f (t) g(t) = f (u)g(t u)du = g(u)f (t u)du F (s)G(s)
0 0

Function in time domain Transform to frequency domain


n!
tn n = 0, 1, 2, . . . Re(s) > 0
sn+1
1
eat a constant Re(s) > Re(a)
sa
n!
tn eat n = 0, 1, 2, . . . Re(s) > Re(a)
(s a)n+1
s
cos at Re(s) > |Im(a)|
s2 + a 2
a
sin at Re(s) > |Im(a)|
s2 + a 2
sa
eat cos bt Re(s) > |Im(a)|
(s a)2 + b2
b
eat sin bt Re(s) > |Im(a)|
(s a)2 + b2
s2 a 2
t cos at Re(s) > |Im(a)|
(s2 + a2 )2
2s3
2 cos at at sin at Re(s) > |Im(a)|
(s2 + a2 )2
2as2
sin at + at cos at Re(s) > |Im(a)|
(s + a2 )2
2

2a3
sin at at cos at Re(s) > |Im(a)|
(s2 + a2 )2

34
Block diagram reduction

Reduction System Equivalent system

u + y
G u G y
1. Feedback

1 GH
H

2. Series connection u y u y
G H GH

u G + y u y
3. Parallel connection G+H
+
H

u y u y
G G
4. Move branch point
after a block u 1
u
G

u y u y
G G
5. Move branch point
in front of a block y
y G

u y u + y
6. Move summation point + G
G
after a block z
z G

u + y
u + y G
7. Move summation point G
in front of a block 1 z
z
G

y
u + + + u + y z
y
z u + + u + y z
8. Shift summation order
y
u + + + u + y z z

z

35
Bode diagram
For the transfer functions
s s s
    
1+ 1+ 1+
K z1 z2 z
1. G(s) = p    m (real numbers)
s 1+ s s s

1+ 1+
p1 p2 pn

1
2. G(s) = 0 < 1 (complex numbers)
s2 s
+ 20 +1
02 0

the amplitude curve becomes


i i
1. log |G(i)| = log K p log || + log 1 + + log 1 + +
z1 z2

i 1 + i log 1 + i log 1 + i

+ log 1 + log
zm p1 p2 pn

1
2. |G(i)| = s
2 2
2
 

1 2 + 20
0 0

and the phase becomes

     

1. arg G(i) = p90 + arctan + arctan + + arctan
z1 z2 zm
    

arctan arctan arctan
p1 p2 pn



20 0




arctan da 0 0


2
1


02




2. arg G(i) = 90
da = 0





20 0



180 + arctan

da > 0

2
1


2

0

Nyquist diagram
If the transfer function is plotted direct in the complex domain, the Nyquist diagram is obtained
which is more usable than the Bode diagram. From the Bode diagram can Nyquist diagram be
constructed in following way:

36
1
10 270

phase(Au) [degrees], (dashed line)


180
0
10

|Au| [-], (solid line)


90
|Au(ii)|
-1
10 0

-90
-2 arg(Au(ii))
10
-180
i
-3
10 -270
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

0,50

0,25
Im(Au)

0,00
|Au(ii)| arg(Au(ii))

-0,25

-0,50
-1,50 -1,00 -0,50 0,00 0,50
Re(Au)

Linear systems - linearized system


Under presumption that Au does not have poles in the right side are following valid:
For a feedback system shall be stable must not the open loop systems transfer function
enclose Re(Au ) = 1 in the Nyquist diagram.
Mnemonic rule: Pull the rope downward. If Re(Au ) = 1 follows - the system is instable!

Non-linear systems
With non-linear systems can a host of phenomenon occur due to occurrence of play, hysteresis in
the system etc despite the system is seemingly stable. A analyse method for investigation of the
stability is the descriptive functions where the open loop systems transfer function is divided in
a linear part and a non-linear part according to

Au = Glinear Gnonlinear

which results in the stability condition

Glinear Gnonlinear = 1

By plotting Glinear and (1/Gnonlinear) in the Nyquist diagram can the stability be investigated.
The intersection point gives in many cases the frequency and the amplitude for the self oscillation.
See other literature for determination of the non-linear transfer function.

37
13 Hydraulic fluids
13.1 Nomenclature
V :volume [m3 ] x0 :amount of air in the oil
V1 :start volume (secant) [m3 ] (gas volume/total volume at
V2 :end volume (secant) [m3 ] normal state, NTP) [-]
Vc :volume (reservoir) [m3 ] :kinematic viscosity [m2 /s]
Vg :volume (gas) [m3 ] :density [kg/m3 ]
V :volume (fluid) [m3 ] e :effective bulk modulus [Pa]
Vt :total volume [m3 ] c :bulk modulus (reservoir) [Pa]
p :absolute pressure [Pa] g :bulk modulus (gas) [Pa]
p0 :absolute pressure at NTP (= 0,1 MPa) [Pa] :bulk modulus (fluid) [Pa]
p1 :start pressure (secant) [Pa] t :bulk modulus with no air in the oil (tangent) [Pa]
p2 :end pressure (secant) [Pa] s :bulk modulus with no air in the olja (secant) [Pa]
u :flow velocity in x-led [m/s] bt :bulk modulus with air in the oil (tangent) [Pa]
n :polytrophic exponent [-] bs :bulk modulus with air in the oil (secant) [Pa]
ys :correction coefficient (secant) [-] :skjuvspanning [N/m2 ]
yt :correction coefficient (tangent) [-] :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]

y u(y)
Definition,
dynamic viscosity du
=
for Newton fluid dy
x


Kinematic viscosity =

Bulk modulus for oil with no air


Tangent value, is used at small changes

dp
t = V
dV
t is shown in figure 11. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften
based oil and Paraffin based oil.

2500
ASME-36 Naften based oil
ASME-31 Paraffin based oil T = 0
Bulk modulus, tangent [MPa]

25
2000
50

75
100
1500

1000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]

Figur 11: Tangent value of the bulk modulus for oil with no air.

38
Secant value, is used at big changes from normal pressure
(p1 = 0, V1 ) till (p2 , V2 )
p2
s = V1
V2 V1
s is shown in figure 12. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften
base oil and Paraffin base oil.

2500
ASME-36 Naften based oil
ASME-31 Paraffin based oil
Bulk modulus, secant [MPa]

T = 0
2000
25

50
1500 75
100

1000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]

Figur 12: Secant value of bulk modulus for oil with no air.

Bulk modulus for oil with air


Tangent value
Simplified model and can be used when x0 0,1.
1
bt = yt t dar yt =
 1
x0 t p0 n
1+
np (1 x0 ) p
yt is shown in figure 13 for different amount of air in the oil, x0 , at the special case:
polytrophic exponent n = 1,4
t = 1500 + 7,5p [MPa]

1,0

x0 = 0,1
0,8
Compensator factor yt

x0 = 0,05
x0 = 0,02
0,6
x0 = 0,01

0,4 x0 = 0,005
p0 = 0,1 MPa

0,2 n = 1,4
t = 1500 + 7,5p MPa

0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]

Figur 13: Correction for the air included in oil, tangent value.

39
Secant value
Simplified model and can be used when x0 0,1.
1
bs = ys s dar ys =
 1

s x0 p0 n
1 x0 + 1
(p p0 ) p

ys is shown in figure 14 for different amount of air in the oil, x0 , at the special case:
polytropexponent n = 1,4
s = 1500 + 3,7p [MPa]

1,0
s = 1500 + 3,7p MPa
x0 = 0,005
p0 = 0,1 MPa
0,8
Compensator factor ys

n = 1,4
x0 = 0,01
0,6
x0 = 0,02

x0 = 0,05
0,4

0,2
x0 = 0,1

0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]

Figur 14: Correction for the air included in oil, secant value.

Effective bulk modulus, e


The effective bulk modulus, e ,
is defined as
1 Vt Gas
=
e Vt p Vg

Total initial volume: Vt = V + Vg


At compression: Vt = V Vg + Vc Fluid Vl

where , g och c refer to fluid, gas respective reservoir.

In general, the bulk modulus is calculated as (secant


value)    
1 Vg 1 V 1 1 Gas
= + + Vt
e Vt g Vt c Vg
For oil with no air:
Fluid
1 1 1
= + Vc
e c

40
Specific heat capacity

2500

3
20 = 840 kg/m
2300

Specific heat [J/kg K]


860
880
2100 900
920
940
960
1900

1700
0 50 100 150
Temperature [degrees C]

Thermal conductivity ability

0,14
3
20 = 840 kg/m
Thermal conductivity [W/m K]

860

0,13 880
900
920

0,12 940
960

0,11
0 50 100 150
Temperature [degrees C]

41
14 Pneumatic
14.1 Nomenclature
A0 :min. cross-section area of the orifice [m2 ] b :critical pressure ratio [-]
A12 :effective entrance area [m2 ] bi :b-value for component i [-]
A23 :effective exit area [m2 ] bs :b-value for system [-]
Ae :effective orifice area (Cd A0 ) [m2 ] m :mass flow [kg/s]
Cd :flow coefficient [-] p1 :upstream total absolute pressure
Ci :C-value for component i [-] (= static + dynamic pressure) [Pa]
Cs :C-value for system [-]
p p2 :downstream static absolute pressure [Pa]
K :constant [ kgK/J] p3 :atmospheric pressure (0,1 MPa) [Pa]
pv :atmospheric pressure in volume [Pa]
p
Kt :temperature correction ( T0 /T1 ) [-]
q :volume flow [m3 /s]
N :parameter [-]
t :time [s]
R :gas constant (287 for air) [J/kg K]
:parameter [-]
T0 :reference temperature (NTP) [K]
:isentropic exponent [-]
T1 :upstream total temperature [K]
:parameter [-]
T3 :downstream total temperature [K]
Tv :total temperature i volume [K] :dimension free time (= RT V
At
) [-]

14.2 Stream through nozzle


According to the thermodynamic, the mass flow m through a nozzle can be written as
v
 + 1
u
u 
p1 Cd A0 KN t 2 1
u
m = where K=
T1 R +1
 
p2 p2
1 for


p1 p1




v
  2   + 1

u


uu p2 p2
N= u  
u p1 p 1 p2 p2
u for >
 + 1



u p1 p1
u 1 2



t 1
2 +1

   
critical pressure ratio: p2 2 1
b= =
p1 +1

With b- and C-value hold for volume flow q following expression at NTP

q = p1 Kt C
p2
1 for b



p1

uv p 2
2
= u b
u p1 p2
t1 1 b for >b

u
p1



42
14.3 Series connection of pneumatic components

p1 b1 p2 b2 p3 bi bn pn+1
q1 C1 q2 C2 q3 Ci Cn qn+1
T1
bs ,Cs

Figur 15: Series connection of pneumatic components with b- and C-values

On condition that
every component can be described with q = p1 Kt C
b- and C-value is known for every component
absolute static pressure after one component is equal to the absolute total pressure before
the next component
the entrance temperature holds for all system
every component have the same mass flow (q1 = q2 = = qn )

r
T0
qs = p1 Kt Cs med Kt =
T1
pn+1
1 for bs



p1
v
p 2
n+1
u
= u bs
u 1 p1
u pn+1
for > bs


1 b p1

t

s

Case A If b- and C-value is about the same

n n
1 X 1 X 1 bi
= bs = 1 Cs2
Cs3
i=1
Ci3 i=1
Ci2

Case B In cases of, the components characteristics show large divergence,


the components sequence have to be considered (gradual reduction)
Calculation sequence:
C1
12 =
C2 b1
12 < 1 Critical pressure drop first over component 1, and because of
the decrease of pressure ratio as well in component 2.
12 = 1 Both components is critical at the same time
12 > 1 Critical pressure drop only in component 2

C1

s
for 12 1
 2
1 b1
12 b1 + (1 b1 ) 212 +

1

C12 = b1

C
2 12  2 for 12 > 1

1 b1
212 +


b1

43
 
2 1 b1 1 b2
b12 = 1 C12 +
C12 C22
 
C12
13 = osv . . .
C3 b12

14.4 Parallel connected pneumatic components

p1
q1 b1 b2 bn
bs ,Cs
T1 C1 C2 Cn
p2

Figur 16: Parallel connected pneumatic components with b- and C-values

r
T0
qs = p1 Kt Cs med Kt =
T1
p2
1 forr bs



p1
v
p 2
2
u
= u bs
u
u1 p1 p2
for > bs


1 bs p1

t


For systems with the same further line (see figure 16) relates to
n n
X Cs X Ci
Cs = Ci =
i=1
1 bs i=1
1 bi

14.5 Parallel- and series connected pneumatic components


For system with separate further lines are dealt as series links, after which the total flow is obtained
as the sum of all the partial flows in every series links.

14.6 Filling and emptying of volumes


Assumptions
isotherm process (T = T1 = Tv = T3 )
 
dT dAe dV dp1 dp3
stationary conditions = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0, =0
dt dt dt dt dt
p3 = atmospheric pressure
p1 and pv are absolute pressure
A12 and A23 are effective areas

44
Charging a volume

RT A12 t
The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time = with the area
V
A23
relation of as parameter.
A12

0,6
A23/A12 = 0,0
0,5
0,5

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]


1,0
A12 A23 0,4
1,5

0,3
p1 pv p3 2,0
V
T1 Tv T3 0,2

(a) The downstream pressure p3 = 0,1 MPa absolute. 0,1

0,0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
tao [-]
(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)

1,1 2,2
A23/A12 = 0,0 A23/A12 = 0,0
1,0 2,0
0,5
0,9 1,8
Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

0,5
0,8 1,6
1,0 1,0
0,7 1,4
1,5 1,5
0,6 1,2
2,0 2,0
0,5 1,0
0,4 0,8
0,3 0,6
0,2 0,4
0,1 0,2
0,0 0,0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
tao [-] tao [-]
(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute) (d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)

Figur 17: Charging of the volume V .

45
Discharging a volume

RT A23 t
The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time = with the area
V
A12
relation of as parameter.
A23

0,6

A12/A23 = 1,0
0,5

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]


0,8

A12 A23 0,4


0,6

0,3
p1 pv p3 0,4
V
T1 Tv T3 0,2
0,2
0,0
(a) The downstream pressure p3 = 0,1 MPa absolute. 0,1

0,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
tao [-]
(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)

1,1 2,2
1,0 2,0
A12/A23 = 1,0 A12/A23 = 1,0
0,9 1,8
Pressure pv [MPA absolute]
Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

0,8
0,8 1,6 0,8
0,7 0,6 1,4 0,6
0,6 1,2
0,5 0,4 1,0 0,4
0,4 0,8
0,3 0,2 0,6 0,2
0,2 0,4
0,0 0,0
0,1 0,2
0,0 0,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
tao [-] tao [-]
(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute) (d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)

Figur 18: Discharging the volume V .

For both charging and discharging a volume


If p1 is between the assumed levels in the diagrams can the time be calculated with linear inter-
polation of the two diagram according to the equation below ((p1 in MPa)).

t5 + p1 0,6 (t10 t5 )

for 0,6 p1 1,1 MPa
t= 0,5
t10 + (p1 1,1)(t20 t10 ) for 1,1 p1 2,1 MPa

46
Appendix A
Symbols for hydraulic diagrams
Correspond to the international standard CETOP RP3 and the Swedish SMS 712. It is specified
when the two standards differ.

General symbols................................................................... 48
Mechanical elements............................................................. 48
Pipes and connections.......................................................... 48
Control systems.................................................................... 49
Pumps and Motors............................................................... 49
Cylinders.............................................................................. 51
Directional control valves..................................................... 52
Check valves or non-return valves........................................ 53
Pressure control valves....................................................... 54
Flow control valves............................................................... 55
Components for cooling, filtering, energy storage etc.......... 56
Energy sources..................................................................... 57
Measurement equipments..................................................... 57

47
General symbols
1) 2) 1)Hydraulic
Flow direction 2)Pneumatic

Variability

Joined compo- Components belonging to one assembly or


nents functional group

Mechanical elements
D Shaft, lever arm,
D<5E bar, rod piston Rod piston can be drawn with a single line

Rotational shaft One respective two rotational directions

Spring

Pipes and connections


Solid line = main pipe
Dotted line with L>10E = control pipe
E Dotted line with l<5E = drain pipe
L<10E
E Line (E = line width)
L<10E

Flexible pipe,
hose The symbol is used mainly for movable parts

d
Pipe connection d = 5E (E = line width)

1) Air-drain for hydraulic pipe


1) 2) 3) Air-drain and 2) Air outlet without possibility of connection
air outlet 3) Air outlet with possibility of connection

1) Plugged connection
2) Connection with connected pipe. (Nor-
1) 2)
Connection mally is the connection plugged.)

Enable connection of pipes without tools.


1) Quick connect fitting without valve (inter-
connected)
1) 2) 2) Quick connect fitting with valve (intercon-
3) 4) nected)
Quick connect 3) Half of a quick connect fitting without valve
fittings 4) Half of a quick connect fitting with valve
Rotatable con-
nection Can rotate during operation, with one line

48
Control systems
1) General symbol
1) 2) 2) Control with push button
3) Control with lever arm
3) 4) Manual controls 4) Control with pedal

1) Plunge
Mechanical con- 2) Roll
1) 2) 3) trols 3) Spring

1) Electromagnetic with one winding


2) Electromagnetic with two winding (active
in two directions)
1) 2) 3) M Electric controls 3) Control with electric motor

Pressure control through pressure rise respec-


Pressure control tive pressure reduction

Pressure control Direct control through differential pressure

Simplified symbol for pre-controlled valve.


Indirect pres- Control at pressure rise respective pressure re-
sure control duction.
Internal control
line Control line is inside the valve.

1) Control with electromagnetic controlled


pre-control valve.
Combined con- 2) Control with electromagnetic or pre-control
1) 2) trols valve.

Pumps and Motors


Pump with
1) 2) constant dis- 1) One flow direction
placement 2) Two flow directions

Pump with
1) 2) variable dis- 1) One flow direction
placement 2) Two flow directions

49
Example of con-
1) 2) trols for variable 1) Manual control
pump 2) Pressure control via control valve

Compressor
with one flow
direction The two distorted lines is not included in SMS

Vacuum pump

Motor with
1) 2) constant dis- 1) One flow direction
placement 2) Two flow directions

Pneumatic
motor with
constant dis- 1) One flow direction
1) 2) placement 2) Two flow directions

Motor with
1) 2) variable dis- 1) One flow direction
placement 2) Two flow directions

Motor with
limited angle of
twist

Component working as pump/motor at:


1) Shifted flow direction, maintained pressure
side.
Pump/motor 2) Maintained flow direction, shifted pressure
1) 2) 3) with constant side.
displacement 3) Shifted flow direction and pressure side.

Hydrostatic Pump and motor together as one unit without


gear external pipe system.

50
Cylinders
Single-acting The fluid pressure exercises a force in one di-
cylinder rection only.

The fluid pressure exercises a force in one di-


Single-acting rection only and the return stroke by return
cylinder spring.

Double-acting The fluid operates alternatively in both direc-


cylinder tions.

Double-acting
symmetric
cylinder

Double-acting cylinder where the area differ-


Differential ent between the both sides are essential for the
cylinder function.

1) Cylinder with 1) Single acting cushion.


cushion 2) Double acting cushion.
2)

1) Cylinder with 1) Single acting cushion.


2)
variable cushion 2) Double acting cushion.

Unit converting a pressure X into a higher


1) x y x y pressure Y.
Pressure inten- 1) For one medium (air).
2) x y x y sifiers 2) For two mediums (air and oil).

Unit converting a pneumatic pressure into an


Air-oil actuators equal hydraulic pressure.

51
Directional control valves
Opening and closing of one or more flow paths. Symbols with
several squares. The external flow lines are normally situated
at the square which indicates the neutral or normal position.
Other positions can be shown by displacement of the squares
until the external flow lines are situated at the corresponding
square.

1) Two pipe connections and free throughflow.


1) 2) 2) Two connections that are closed.
3) 4) Four connections and free throughflow.
3) 4) 5) Four connections where all are tied to each
Example of other.
5) 6) squares with 6) Four connections were two are closed and
different flow two are tied together.
7) paths. 7) Five connections were one is closed.

Several service positions each shown by a


square;
1) Valve with two distinct positions.
2) Valve with three distinct positions.
1) 3) Valve with two distinct positions (outer
squares), but between the distinct positions
2) Non-throttling the valve passes a central position with
directional essential function.
3) control valve

First number in the description denotes the


number of ports, the second the number of
positions. Pilot ports are not included. Con-
trol e.g.
1)
1) manual
2/2 directional 2)by pressure against return spring (unloading
2)
control valve valve).

1) Control by pressure from both ends.


1) 3/2 directional 2) Control by solenoid against return spring,
control valve with transient intermediate position.
2)

Electro hy-
draulic servo
valve with pilot
and mechanical Combined with solenoid operated pilot valve
feedback. with return spring. Representation
4/2 directional 1) detailed
control valve 2) simplified.

5/2 directional
valve Control by pressure in both directions.

52
Two end positions and intermediate throttling
positions.
1) Shows only the end positions.
2) Shows the end positions and the centre
1) Throttling di- (neutral) position.
rectional control All valve symbols have parallel lines outside
2)
valve the envelope.

One throttling Tracer valve; plunger operated against return


orifice (2 ports) spring.

Two throttling Pressure controlled against return spring in


orifices (3 ports) two directions.

Four throttling Tracer valve; plunger operated against return


orifices (4 ports) spring.

Single stage
electro- Amplification of infinitely variable electrical
hydraulic servo input signals transformed onto hydraulic out-
valve put; without pilot operation.

Two stage
electro-
hydraulic
servo valve
with mechanical
feedback

Two stage
electro-
hydraulic
servo valve
with hydraulic
feedback

Check valves or non-return valves


1) without, 2) with back pressure. Opening
if inlet pressure is 1) higher than the outlet
pressure, 2) higher than the outlet pressure
1) 2)
Check valve plus spring pressure.

Pilot controlled
Pilot controlled 1) Opening can be prevented
1) 2)
check valve 2) Closing can be prevented

The inlet under pressure is automatically con-


nected to the common outlet and the other
Shuttle valve inlet is closed.

53
One way restric- Valve which allows free flow in one direction
tor and restricted flow in the other direction.

Quick exhaust When pressure falls at the inlet connection,


valve the outlet is automatically opened to exhaust.

Pressure control valves


Automatic control of pressure;
1) One throttling orifice, normally closed.
1)
2) One throttling orifice, normally open.
3) Two throttling orifices. Arrows with or
2)
without tails.
Pressure control Pictures in the right column are not according
3)
valves to SMS standard.

Inlet pressure is controlled by opening the ex-


haust port to the reservoir or the atmosphere
against an opposing force. The left valve has
Pressure relief fixed preloaded spring force, the right has vari-
valve able.

Inlet pressure is controlled by spring force or


by a value determined by the pressure in a
Pilot controlled outer pilot port. In the left figure pilot pres-
pressure relief sure acts against the spring force. In the right
valve figure it acts together with the spring force.

Proportioning
pressure relief Inlet pressure is limited to a value propor-
valve tional to the pilot pressure.

When the inlet pressure exceeds the opposing


force of the spring, the valve opens permitting
Sequence valve flow through the outlet port.

With varying inlet pressure the outlet pressure


remains substantially constant. Inlet pressure
1) must however remain higher than the selected
outlet pressure.
2) 3) Pressure regula- 1) without,
tor 2) with unloading device.

54
Pilot controlled
pressure regula- Outlet port pressure proportional to pilot
tor pressure.

Differential
pressure regula- The outlet pressure is reduced by a fixed
tor amount with regard to the inlet pressure.

Proportioning
pressure regula- The outlet pressure is reduced by a fixed ratio
tor with regard to the inlet pressure.

Flow control valves


Manual controlled throttle valve.
1) Detailed
1) 2) 2) Simplified
Mechanical controlled throttle valve.
3) Variable flow 3) Mechanical controlled against spring (brak-
control valve ing valve).

Regulator with fixed setting, without exceed-


1) 2) ing oil bleed off.
Series flow con- 1) Detailed
trol valve 2) Simplified

Regulator with fixed setting, with exceeding


1) 2)
oil bleed off.
By-pass flow 1) Detailed
control valve 2) Simplified

The flow is divided into two fixed flows sub-


Flow divider stantially independent of pressure variations.

Shut-off valve Simplified symbol.

55
Components for cooling, filtering, energy storage etc.
Acc. CETOP:
1) Viscosity dependent (pipe orifice)
2) 1) Viscosity dependent (sharp edged)
Acc. SMS:
1) 2) 3) 1) General symbol
Orifices 3) Viscosity dependent (pipe orifice)

1),2), and 4) Reservoirs with atmospheric


pressure.
3) Pressured reservoir. 1),3) The flow line flow
into the reservoir above the the fluid level. 2)
The flow line flow into the reservoir below the
1) 2) 3) 4) the fluid level. 4) The flow line flow connected
Reservoirs under the reservoir.

1) Hydraulic, the fluid is subjected to pressure


from a spring, weight or gas (air, nitrogen, etc)
1) 2)
Accumulators 2) pneumatic (receiver)

Filter; strainer

1) Manual control of draining, 2) automatic


1) 2)
Water trap draining.

Filter with wa- The apparatus is a combination of filter and


1) 2)
ter trap water trap..

Desiccator Air drying by chemicals.

For lubrication of apparatus small quantities


of oil are added to the air which is flowing
Lubricator through the lubricator.

1) Apparatus comprising filter, pressure regula-


Maintenance tor and lubricator assembled as a unit, 1) de-
unit tailed 2) simplified.
2)

56
The fluid temperature is controlled between
Temperature two predetermined values. The arrows indi-
controller cate both heat introduction and dissipation.

1) Without 2) with indication of the flow lines


of the coolant. The arrows in the square indi-
1) 2)
Cooler cate the heat dissipation.

Heater The arrows indicate introduction of heat.

Silencer

Energy sources

Pressure source

Electric motor

Combustion en- 1) According to CETOP


1) 2) gine 2) According to SMS

Measurement equipments
Manometer
(Pressure trans-
ducer)

Thermometer The symbol can be placed arbitrarily.

Flow rate meter Measure flow (volume per time unit)

Integrated flow
meter Measure the total volume which is passed.

Pressure switch The symbol shows a switching contact.

57

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