Professional Documents
Culture Documents
for
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
Revised 2008-10-27
Contents
1 Elementary Equations 1
1.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Reynolds number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Pipe flow 2
2.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Bernoullis extended equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 The flow loss, pf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 The friction factor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.5 Disturbance source factor, s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.6 Single loss factor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Orifices 6
3.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 The flow coefficient, Cq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Series connection of turbulent orifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Parallel connection of turbulent orifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Flow forces 8
4.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Spool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Rotational transmissions 9
5.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2 Efficiency models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6 Accumulators 10
6.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2 Calculating of the accumulator volume, V0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7 Gap theory 11
7.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.2 Plane parallel gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.3 Radial gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.4 Gap between cylindrical piston and cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.5 Axial, annular gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8 Hydrostatic bearings 13
8.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.2 Circled block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.3 Rectangular block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
10 Non-stationary flow 17
10.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.2 Joukowskis equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.3 Retardation of cylinder with inertia load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.4 Concentrated hydraulic inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.5 Concentrated hydraulic capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
10.6 Concentrated hydraulic resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
10.7 Basic differential equations on flow systems with parameter distribution in space . 18
10.8 Speed of waves in pipes filled with liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
11 Pump pulsations 20
11.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
11.2 System with closed end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
11.3 Systems with low end impedance (e.g. volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
13 Hydraulic fluids 38
13.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
14 Pneumatic 42
14.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
14.2 Stream through nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
14.3 Series connection of pneumatic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
14.4 Parallel connected pneumatic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
14.5 Parallel- and series connected pneumatic components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
14.6 Filling and emptying of volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
dV dV V dp
qin
X
qin = +
dt e dt
p, V
Flow out from the volume is counted negative.
vdh
Re = (dh hydraulic diameter)
4 cross section area
dh = (dh = d at cirkular crosssection)
circumference
Laminar flow q p
Turbulent flow q p
1
2 Pipe flow
2.1 Nomenclature
p :pressure [Pa]
Re :Reynolds number [-]
p1 :upstream pressure [Pa]
d :diameter [m]
p2 :downstream pressure [Pa]
d1 :upstream diameter [m]
r :radius [m]
d2 :downstream diameter [m]
v :(mean-) flow velocity [m/s]
h :height [m]
v1 :upstream (mean-) flow velocity [m/s]
h1 :upstream height [m]
v2 :downstream (mean-) flow velocity [m/s]
h2 :downstream height [m]
:correction factor [-]
g :gravitation [m/s2 ]
pf :pressure loss, upstream
:length [m]
to downstream [Pa]
x :distance after disturbance source [m]
:angle [ ]
s :distance after disturbance source
:friction factor [-]
when the flow profile is
:density [kg/m3 ]
completely developed [m]
:single loss factor [-]
s :disturbance source factor [-]
v12 v 2
p1 + + gh1 = p2 + 2 + gh2 + pf
2 2
v 2
at a straight distance
d 2
v 2
pf = s after a disturbance source
2
2
v
at a single disturbance source
2
64
Re < 2300 laminar flow
Re
=
0,316
2300 < Re < 105 turbulent flow in smooth pips
4
Re
x
where x =
dRe
2
s 1,30
1,00
0,50
0,00 lx / d Re
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10 10 10
0,06
x
Figur 1: The disturbance source factor s as function of .
dRe
The turbulant flow is completely developed at the distance s after a disturbance source.
tank
v The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir
1 Sharp edge
(
=
0,5 Slightly rounded edge
tank
v
Pipes in the reservoir wall
= 0,5
3
The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir
with entrance cone: For given , optimal cone angle and
tank resistance factor is stated.
d v /d 0,1 0,15 0,25 0,6 1,0
d1 d2 v
Increase of area: The loss factor is found in the figure 2
0,9
= 180, dashed
0,8 = 60
0,7
40
0,6
0,5 30
0,4 20
0,3
15
0,2 10
0,1 5
0,0
1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 3,50 4,00 d2/d1
Figur 2: The loss coefficient as function of the area relationship with the angle as parameter at increase of area.
The uncompensated disturbance source factor s0 is received from section 2.5, Disturbance source
factor, s .
4
Pipe bend
For pipe bend relates: = 90
90
where 90 is
r d d/r 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00
[ ] 10 20 30 40 50
0,04 0,10 0,17 0,27 0,40
[ ] 60 70 80 90
Special geometries
= 0,50
= 0,10 = 1,20
45 45 Banjo-
nipple
= 0,15 = 0,50 = 2,5 3
= 2,5 4
= 0,06
5
3 Orifices
3.1 Nomenclature
A :area [m2 ] :length [m]
A1 :upstream area [m2 ] p :pressure [Pa]
Cq :flow coefficient [-] p1 :upstream pressure [Pa]
Re :Reynolds number [-] p2 :downstream pressure [Pa]
d :diameter [m] q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
p
K :constant Cq A 2/ [m3 /s P a] :density [kg/m3 ]
p1 p2
r
2
q = Cq A (p1 p2 )
q
p1 p2 A
Cq = Cq (Re, )
A1
A1 A
If nothing else is stated Cq = 0,67 can be used.
p1 d p2
l
1
Cq = p dar x =
1,5 + 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) + 64x dRe
The term 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) agrees with s and can be received from the diagram in
figure 1 in section Pipe flow. When x 0,06, the value 1,21 is accepted.
Turbulent flow in the orifice with 2 20
d
1
s 2300 Re 2 104
0,316
1,46 + 0,088 +
d 4
Re d
Cq =
1
2 104 Re
r
1,46 + 0,115
d
p0 p1 p2 pi pn
q
K1 K2 Ki Kn
6
The sum of the orifices applies:
r
1 2
q = K p0 pn dar K= v Ki = Cqi Ai
u n
uX 1
t
i=1
Ki2
p0 q
q1 q2 qi qn
K1 K2 Ki Kn
p1
7
4 Flow forces
4.1 Nomenclature
Fs :flow force [N] q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
d :spool diameter [m] v :(mean-)flow velocity [m/s]
:length [m] w :area gradient [m]
p :pressure [Pa] x :spool opening [m]
p1 :upstream pressure [Pa] :jet angle [ ]
p2 :downstream pressure [Pa] :density [kg/m3 ]
4.2 Spool
Fluidelement
Fs d
p
p1
p2
The term with absolute value is the static part of the flow force and has a closing effect.
If the spool and bushing have sharp and right angle edges and if the gap between the spool and
the bushing is small and also x d, then are:
8
5 Rotational transmissions
5.1 Nomenclature
Cv :laminar leakage losses [-] qe :effective flow [m3 /s]
D :displacement [m3 /rev] p :pressure difference [Pa]
Min :driving torque pump [Nm] :displacement setting [-]
Mut :output torque motor [Nm] hm :hydraulic mechanical efficiency [-]
kp :Coulomb friction [-] vol :volumetric efficiency [-]
kv :viscous friction losses [-] Sub index
k :displacement coefficient [-] p pump
n :revs [rev/s] m motor
Pump
Effective flow
np, Min
p qep = p Dp np volp
Dp qep
Torque
p Dp 1
Min = p
p 2 hmp
Motor
Effective flow
nm, Mut 1
qem Dm m qem = m Dm nm
volm
Torque
m Dm
p Mout = phmm
2
Motor
Volumetric efficiency Hydraulic mechanical efficiency
1 nm (k (1 |m |))
volm = hmm = 1 (kp + kv )e
p p
1 + Cv
|m |nm
9
6 Accumulators
6.1 Nomenclature
V0 :accumulator volume [m3 ] p1 :minimum working pressure (absolute) [Pa]
n :polytrophic exponent [-] p2 :maximum working pressure (absolute) [Pa]
p0 :pre-charged pressure (absolute pressure, V :working volume [m3 ]
normally 90 % av p1 ) [Pa]
p1
V (
1 isotherm process
p0
V0 = n=
1
p1 n 1,4(1,5) adiabatic process
1
p2
p2
V
p0
V0 = n = 1,4(1,5)
1
p2 n
1
p1
10
7 Gap theory
7.1 Nomenclature
p :pressure [Pa]
Ff :friction force [N] q :leakage flow [m3 /s]
Mf :friction torque [Nm] r :radius [m]
Pf :power loss [W] r1 :inner radius [m]
b :gap width perpendicular r2 :outer radius [m]
to flow direction [m] v :relative velocity [m/s]
e :eccentricity [m] p :pressure difference through
h :gap height [m] the gap (p1 p0 ) [Pa]
h1 + h2
h0 mean gap height ( ) [m] :angle [rad]
2 :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
:length [m]
:angular speed [rad/s]
l vbh bh3 p
q = +
v 2 12
p1 h ql p0 Friction force
vb bh
Ff = p
h 2
Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)
bh3 p2 v 2 b
Pf = +
12 h
p0 ql
r When h r can the equations for plane parallel
gap be used with following substitution:
h
v = r
= r
p1
11
Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)
" 2 #
rh30 p2 e 2rv 2
Pf = 1 + 1,5 + s
6 h0 2
e
h0 1
h0
ph3
q =
r2
6 ln
p0 ql r1
r2 Pressure as function of radius
p1 r1
r
ln
r1
pr = p1 (p1 p0 )
r2
h ln
r1
Friction moment
4
Mf = (r r14 )
2 h 2
Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)
h3 p2 2 4
Pf = + (r r14 )
6 r2 2 h 2
ln
r1
12
8 Hydrostatic bearings
8.1 Nomenclature
Ae :effective area [m2 ] kb :constant [Ns/m2 ]
B :bearing chamber length [m] k2 :constant [Nms]
F :load [N] p :pressure [Pa]
K1 :constant [Ns] pb :pressure in the bearing chamber [Pa]
K2 :constant [Nm2 s] qs :flow through the bearing [m3 /s]
L :bearing surface length [m] qsB :flow through
ae :effective area/width [m] the bearing/width [m2 /s]
f :load/width [N/m] r1 :inner radius [m]
h :gap height [m] r2 :outer radius [m]
:length [m] :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
p=0
If pb = 0
r2
Load
r1 K2
pb F = h
h3
F where
. 3 4
"
r1
3 4 #
r1 r1
h K2 = r 1 2 + 2
h 2 2 r2 r2 r2
13
8.3 Rectangular block
h = constant
p=0 Flow
h3
L qsB = pb
kb
pb Load
f = ae p b
f
B where
kb = 6L
h and
L ae = B + L
Squeeze
Pressure
p=0 K1
pb = h
L h3
Load
pb k2
f = h
h3
f
B where
. K1 = 6L(B + L)
h
h and
4
k2 = 6L B 2 + 2BL + L2
L 3
p=0
L
If pb = 0
pb Load
k2
f f = h
h3
B
. where
h k2 = 2L3
h
L
14
9 Hydrodynamic bearing theory
9.1 Nomenclature
q :flow/width unit in -axis [m2 /s]
U1 :velocity in x-axis surface 1 [m/s]
r :radius [m]
U2 :velocity in x-axis surface 2 [m/s]
t :time [s]
V1 :velocity in y-axis surface 1 [m/s]
u :flow velocity in x-axis [m/s]
V2 :velocity in y-axis surface 2 [m/s]
w :flow velocity in z-axis [m/s]
T :temperature [K]
:dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
c :specific heat [kJ/kg K]
x :shear stress in x-axis [N/m2 ]
h :gap height [m]
:shear stress in -axis [N/m2 ]
p :pressure [Pa]
:density [kg/m3 ]
qx :flow/width unit in x-axis [m2 /s]
1 :velocity in -axis surface 1 [rad/s]
qz :flow/width unit in z-axis [m2 /s]
2 :velocity in -axis surface 2 [rad/s]
qr :flow/width unit in r-axis [m2 /s]
:angle [rad]
y V2 U2
z x
V1 U1
Speeeds
1 p y y 1 p
u= [y(y h)] + U1 1 + U2 w= [y(y h)]
2 x h h 2 z
Flows
h3 p h h3 p
qx = + (U1 + U2 ) qz =
12 x 2 12 z
Shear stresses
h p U2 U1 y
x|y=0 = + p
2 x h x|y=h
h p U2 U1 z x
x|y=h = + x|y=0
2 x h
Reynolds equation
h3 p h3 p
+ = 6(U1 U2 ) (h) + 12(V2 V1 )
x x z z x
y 2 V2 w u
x y r
1 V1
15
Velocities
1 p 1 p y y
u= [y(y h)] w= [y(y h)] + r1 1 + r2
2 r 2 r h h
Flows
h3 p h3 p rh
qr = q = + (1 + 2 )
12 r 12 r 2
Shear stresses
h p r(2 1 ) y
|y=0 = + p
2 r h |y=h
h p r(2 1 )
|y=h = + |y=0
2 r h
Reynolds equation
h3 r p
3
h p
+ = 6r(1 2 ) (h) + 12r(V2 V1 )
r r r
16
10 Non-stationary flow
10.1 Nomenclature
p :pressure [Pa]
A :line sectional area [m2 ]
p :pressure in point of operation [Pa]
B :constant (L0 a) [kg/s m40 ]
p :upstream pressure [Pa]
CH :conc. hydr. capacitance [m5 /N] 1
p :downstream pressure [Pa]
C0 :conc. hydr. capacitance/l.enh. [m4 /N] 2
ps :supply pressure [Pa]
F :force [N]
q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
LH :conc. hydr. inductance [kg/m4 ]
q :flow in point of operation [m3 /s]
L0 :conc. hydr. inductance/l.enh. [kg/m ]0
5
s :Laplace operator (i) [1/s]
P :pressure (frequency dependent) [Pa]
t :time [s]
Q :flow (volume flow) (frequency dependent) [m3 /s]
t :valve closing time [s]
RH :conc. hydr. resistance (lam.) [Ns/m5 v]
v :flow velocity [m/s]
RHt :conc. hydr. resistance (turb.) [Ns/m5 ]0
:velocity of cylinder [m/s]
R0 :conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (lam.) [Ns/m6 ]
:dimensionless area [-]
R0t :conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (turb.) [Ns/m6 ]
3 e :effective bulk modulus [Pa]
V1 :volume [m ]
3 p :change in pressure due to pressure peek [Pa]
V2 :volume [m ]
:dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
Z0 :impedance [Ns/m5 ]
:friction coefficient [-]
a :speed of sound [m/s]
:parameter [1/m]
d :diameter [m]
:density [kg/m3 ]
:length [m]
:single resistant loss [-]
m :mass [kg]
p = av0
v0
V2 V1 FL
m Pressure difference for retardation (v0 0)
p2 p1
r
2e m
p1max p2min = v0
V1
ps = const pT = 0
dq
p1 p2 = L H were LH =
dt A
dp A
q1 q2 = CH were CH =
dt e
17
10.6 Concentrated hydraulic resistance
128
RH = For laminar flow
d4
p1 p2 = RH q were RH = For turbulent flow,
q0
RHt = d A2 with linearization around the working
point with the flow q0
p q q p
+ L0 + R0 q|q|m = 0 + C0 =0
x t x t
Parameter values (per length unit)
independent of flow regime
A
C0 = L0 =
e A
with laminar flow
128
R0 = m=0
d4
with turbulent flow
0,1582 0,25 0,75
R0t = m = 0,75
d1,25 A1,75
Graphical solution
F-wave f-wave
F f
p = Bq p = Bq
were B = L0 a
18
Boundary conditions:
At a valve
q p
r
=
q0 p0
were = dimensionless area and p0 , q0 is stationary state.
At a pressure source with concentrated friction loss
q 2
p = p0 +
d 2A2
r
p L0 s + R0
were = (L0 s + R0 )C0 s Z0 =
C0 s
19
11 Pump pulsations
11.1 Nomenclature
A :the pipes cross-sectional area [m2 ] ps :static pressure level [Pa]
T :wave propagation time [s] z :the pumps piston number [-]
D :pump displacement [m3 /varv] :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
L :pipe length [m] p :dim.free cylinder volume [-]
P :pulsation amplitude [N/m2 ] :bulk modulus [Pa]
V :volume [m3 ] :the pumps displacement [-]
a :wave propagation speed [m/s] :dim.free dead volume [-]
d :pipe diameter [m] :density [kg/m3 ]
fp :dim. free flow spectrum [-] :dim.free charging time [-]
n :pump speed [rev/s] :angular frequency [rad/s]
Figur 3: Amplitude for the resonances k = 1, 2, 3 and 4 in a system with closed end.
20
Example: The above equations are used for following example. A constant pressure pump
presumed work against a closed valve. Following data is obtained:
d = 38 103 [m] = 0,2
n = 25 [rev/s] =0
z=9 = 0,02 [Ns/m2 ]
D = 220 106 [m3 /rev] = 900 [kg/m3 ]
e = 1,5 109 [Pa] = 0,25
In the table below shows the obtained relationship between pulsations pressure amplitude and the
systems pressure level for respective disturbance harmonic. Note, for L = 1,91 m and L = 2,15 m
can some disturbance harmonics not be analysed with the equations above, since they dont
coincide with any of the pipes resonances or anti-resonances. However, the amplitudes at these
frequencies are relative small because they dont coincide with any of the pipes resonances. In
the table below, these values are in parenthesis.
(k + 21 )
= k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
T
Figur 4: Amplitude for the resonances k = 0, 1, 2 and 3 for a system with low end impedance.
Anti-resonances in a pipe system with low end impedance is obtained at following frequencies:
k
= k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
T
The same equations as in previous section can be used here for calculation of maximum pressure
amplitude for the pulsations.
21
If a volume, which size is not infinite, is connected to the pipe system is a dislocation of the
lines resonances from the values in above equations obtained. This dislocation can be calculated
according to following equation
1 V
= arctan
T 2 Aa
Note, the volume is relative small and therefore the dislocation equation has to be used. When
the new resonance frequency is calculated, passningsrakning has to be used. The method is
shown bellow for L = 1,47 m and k = 1.
= 430 rad/s = 1810 rad/s
= 340 rad/s = 1720 rad/s
k + 21
= = 1350rad/s = 350 rad/s = 1730 rad/s
T
The size of the pulsation amplitude in relation to the static system pressure is shown in the table
below. The values in parenthesis show, as in previous example, a more correct analyze of the
disturbance harmonic which can not be calculated with the equation given in this handbook.
22
12 Hydraulic servo systems
12.1 Nomenclature
Vh :control volume (3-port valve) [m3 ]
Vt :total volume [m3 ]
A :piston area [m2 ]
e :control error
Ah :control piston area (3-port valve) [m2 ]
kp :displacement gradient (pump) [m3 /rad2 ]
Am :amplitude margin [dB]
p :pressure [Pa]
Ar :piston area, rod side
pc :control pressure (3-port valve) [Pa]
(3-port valve) [m2 ]
ps :supply pressure [Pa]
Au :the open systems transfer function
q :flow (volume flow) [m3 /s]
Bm :viscous friction coeff. (motor) [Nms/rad]
qc :centre flow [m3 /s]
Bp :viscous friction coeff. (cylinder) [Ns/m]
s :Laplace operator (i) [rad/s]
Ce :external leakage flow coeff.
t :time [s]
(cylinder/motor/pump) [m5 /Ns]
xv :position (servo valve) [m]
Ci :internal leakage flow coeff.
xp :position (cylinder piston) [m]
(cylinder/motor/pump) [m5 /Ns]
5 w :area gradient [m]
Ct :total leakage flow coeff. [m /Ns]
e :effective bulk modulus [Pa]
Cq :leakage flow coeff. [-]
h :hydraulic damping [-]
D :displacement (motor/pump) [m3 /rad]
0 :control error (stationary)
FL :external (load-) force on cylinder [N]
:density [kg/m3 ]
Gc :the closed systems transfer function
m :angular position (motor) [rad]
Go :the open systems transfer function
p :displacement angle (pump) [rad]
Greg :controller transfer function
m :phase margin [ ]
Jt :total moment of inertia
2 :angular frequency [rad/s]
(motor and load) [kg m ]
5 b :bandwidth [rad/s]
Kc :flowpressure coeff. (servo valve) [m /Ns]
c :crossing-out frequency [rad/s]
Kp :pressure gain (servo valve) [Pa/m]
h :hydraulic eigen frequency [rad/s]
Kq :flow gain (servo valve) [m2 /s]
Re :real part
Kreg :control gain
Im :imaginary part
Kv :loop gain
Mt :total mass (cylinder piston
and load) [kg]
Tillaggsindex
0 :working point
Np :pump speed [rad/s]
e :effective
S :stiffness
m :motor
TL :external (load-)moment on motor [Nm]
p :cylinder (piston), pump
U :under lap [m]
v :valve
V :volume [m3 ]
t :total
L :load
23
12.2 Introduction
The servo technical section discusses following system:
valve controlled cylinder
valve controlled motor
pump controlled cylinder
pump controlled motor
As example in this section will a position servo of the type valve controlled cylinder in a constant
pressure system be used. In this example is the servo valve a 4-port valve with negligible dynamic
and the cylinder is symmetric. See figure 5.
xp
V1 A1 A2 V2 FL
Mt
p1 p2
Bp
- xv
+ Greg
xp ref
pT = 0
ps = constant
Figur 5: Lagesservo: ventilstyrd cylinder i konstanttryckssystem.
FL (TL)
Xp ref (m ref) +
E X v (p) Xp (m)
Controller Hydraulic system
-
The special case when the hydraulic system consists of a valve controlled cylinder becomes the
block diagram as:
FL
(
Kce Vt Hydraulic
A2p
1+
4eKce
s ) system
Xp ref + E X v Kq - 1 Xp
(
Controller
s2
- Ap +
s
h2
+ 2h s + 1
h )
12.3 The servo valves transfer function
All the transfer functions in this section are applied when the load spring constant K is negligible
and its viscous friction Bp and Bm respectively is small (can often be set to 0). The direction
24
dependent friction coefficient Cf is neglected also in the motor case.
The load flow and load pressure through a 4-port valve controlled symmetric cylinder/motor is
defined according to following expression:
The dynamic of the pump in the pump controlled systems is assumed to be negligible compared
to the system. The pumps ideal flow is:
qp ideal = p Dp Np = kp p Np
Linearised and Laplace transformed equations which describes the dynamic of the following hy-
draulic systems are presented in section 12.5.
25
xp
xp
V1 A1 A2 V2 FL
Mt Vh Ah Ar FL
p1 p2 Mt
pc
q1 q2 Bp Bp
xv
xv
ps = const pT = 0 ps = const pT = 0
a. Valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve) b. Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve)
TL Bm
TL B m
Jt
Jt
m xp
m
Dm V1 A1 A2 FL
p1 p2 Mt Dm
p1
V1 V2 Bp p1 p2 =
q1 q2 const
p2 = const V1
xv
ps = const pT = 0 M M
c. Valve controlled motor d. Pump controlled cylinder e. pump controlled motor (transmission)
26
4-port under lapped valve
r r
ps pL ps + pL
Load flow: qL = Cq w (U + xv ) (U xv ) for |xv | U
ps
r
Centre flow: qc = 2Cq wU
r
ps 1 2ps
r
Zero coefficients: Kq0 = 2Cq w Kc0 = Cq wU Kp0 =
ps U
qL0 = 0 pL0 = 0 xv0 = 0
Kq Kce Vt
Xv 2 1 + s FL
Ap A 4e Kce
Xp = 2p
s s
s + 2h +1
h2 h
s
4e A2p
if V1 V2
Vt Mt Kce
r
e M t Bp
r
Vt
where h = s h = +
e A2p 1
1
Ap Vt 4Ap e M t
+ if V1 6= V2
Mt V1 V2
Cep
Kce = Kc + Cip + Vt = V1 + V2 Ap = A1 = A2
2
27
Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder with mass load (3-port valve)
Kq Kce Vh
Xv 2 1 + s FL
Ah A e Kce
Xp = 2h
s s
s + 2 h + 1
h2 h
s
e A2h
r r
Kce e Mt Bp Vh
where h = h = + Kce = Kc + Cip
Vh Mt 2Ah Vh 2Ah e Mt
28
where Go is the transfer function which describes the hydraulic systems output signal (cylinder
position) as function of the hydraulic systems input signal (valve position) when the disturbance
signal (FL ) is zero. The steady state loop gain Kv (also called the velocity coefficient) is:
Kq
Kv = Kreg valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve)
Ap
Kq
Kv = Kreg valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve)
Ah
Kq
Kv = Kreg valve controlled motor
Dm
kp Np
Kv = Kreg pump controlled cylinder
Ap
kp Np
Kv = Kreg pump controlled motor
Dm
Then, the open systems Bode-diagram for a position servo become as figure 7.
1
10 270
c Kv
90
Kv / 2hh
-1
10 0
h -90
-2
10 m
-180
-3
10 -270
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]
Figur 7: The open systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude, (solid line) and phase, (dashed).
Stability condition
A stable system is obtained when
the amplitude margin Am > 0 dB at 180 phase shift. If the phase intersects 180 more
than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed.
the phase margin m > 0 at 0 dB amplitude. If the amplitude curve intersects 0 dB more
than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed.
For a proportional position servo with a feedback is, for the hydraulic, the amplitude margin the
critical stability margin. It means that a stable system needs the open loop gain |Au | to be <= 1
(0 dB) when the phase shift is <= 180.
Figure 7 shows that the stability condition becomes
Kv
<1
2h h
Stability margins
Position servo (with Bode-diagram according to figure 7) amplitude margin can be written as:
Kv
Am = 20 10 log [dB]
2h h
The following margins should be used when the control parameters shall be dimensioned in a
hydraulic system with a feedback.
29
amplitude margin: Am 10 dB
phase margin: m 45
The systems critical working condition
Since hydraulic systems are non-linear systems, the stability margin will become different in
different working condition. From the figure for the open systems transfer function Au the
stability margin become worst when both h and h are low and steady state loop gain Kv is big.
This happened for a valve controlled symmetric cylinder when
Vt
Cylinder piston is centered (xp = 0), i.e. V1 = V2 = 2 . h is minimised.
The servo valve is closed (xv = qL = 0), i.e. when Kc = Kc0 . Kce and consequently h is
minimised.
Cylinder piston is out balanced, i.e. when pL = 0. Kq , which is proportional to ps pL ,
is maximised and consequently also Kv (proportional to Kq ).
With similar discussion, the critical working condition can be decided for other systems.
In practical dimensioning, the hydraulic damping is often set to h 0, 1.
Xp
where Gc = for a position servo with a valve controlled cylinder.
Xp ref
1
10 270
b,1 |Gc| = 0.71 -3 dB
phase(Gc) [degrees], (dashed line)
180
|Gc| [-], (solid line)
0
10 |Gc| = 1 90
-1
10 -90
-180
b,2
-2
10 -270
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]
Figur 8: The closed loop systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude (solid) and phase (dashed).
30
The closed loop systems transfer function can also be written as
1
Gc =
s2
s s
+1 2
+ 2 nc + 1
b nc nc
If h and Kv /h is small
nc h
b K v
Kv
2nc 2h
h
FL TL
S= or S=
Xp m
10
10
9
10
|S| [N/m]
8
10
qh!h Ap!h 2
2 2
7
Kce 1+ (! )
s
10
s h
6
10
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]
Figur 9: The transfer function for the stiffness for the non-feedback valve controlled cylinder.
31
System with feedback
For a system with feedback with the feedback 1 and proportional gain of the control error is
following stiffness obtained for a valve controlled cylinder(Xp ref are set to 0).
1 2h 2 1
s3 + s + s+1
FL 1 Kv h2 K v h Kv
S= = = Kv
Xp
Xp Kce s
1+
FL A2p s
where
4e Kce
s = = {if Bp isneglected} = 2h h
Vt
The transfer function for the stiffness in the position servo is shown in figure 10.
10
10
9
10
|S| [N/m]
8
10 2
KvAp / Kce
7
10
s h
6
10
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]
Figur 10: The transfer function for the stiffness for the valve controlled cylinder with proportional feedback.
32
12.9 The servos steady state error
The control error e(t) in a servo system is defined as the difference between the output value and
the input value when Disturbance signal = 0.
According to end value theorem, the steady state control error will be:
A 1 A A
0 = lim s = =0
s0 s 1 + Au 1 + lim Au
s0
Practical, the steady state error does never become 0, because of the components which are
included in the control loop do not have ideal characteristic.
A 1 A
0 = lim s =
s0 s2 1 + Au Kv
33
Laplace transformation
The following Laplace transformation table translates equations in the time domain to equations
in frequency domain (rad/s) and vice versa.
Z
Definition L{f (t)} = F (s) = est f (t)dt
0
f (t) F (s)
f (t a) a0 eas F (s)
1 s
f (at) a>0 F
a a
tn f (t) n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1)n F (n)(s)
Z
f (t) f (t)
lim exists F (u)du
t t0+ t s
2a3
sin at at cos at Re(s) > |Im(a)|
(s2 + a2 )2
34
Block diagram reduction
u + y
G u G y
1. Feedback
1 GH
H
2. Series connection u y u y
G H GH
u G + y u y
3. Parallel connection G+H
+
H
u y u y
G G
4. Move branch point
after a block u 1
u
G
u y u y
G G
5. Move branch point
in front of a block y
y G
u y u + y
6. Move summation point + G
G
after a block z
z G
u + y
u + y G
7. Move summation point G
in front of a block 1 z
z
G
y
u + + + u + y z
y
z u + + u + y z
8. Shift summation order
y
u + + + u + y z z
z
35
Bode diagram
For the transfer functions
s s s
1+ 1+ 1+
K z1 z2 z
1. G(s) = p m (real numbers)
s 1+ s s s
1+ 1+
p1 p2 pn
1
2. G(s) = 0 < 1 (complex numbers)
s2 s
+ 20 +1
02 0
i i
1. log |G(i)| = log K p log || + log 1 + + log 1 + +
z1 z2
i 1 + i log 1 + i log 1 + i
+ log 1 + log
zm p1 p2 pn
1
2. |G(i)| = s
2 2
2
1 2 + 20
0 0
1. arg G(i) = p90 + arctan + arctan + + arctan
z1 z2 zm
arctan arctan arctan
p1 p2 pn
20 0
arctan da 0 0
2
1
02
2. arg G(i) = 90
da = 0
20 0
180 + arctan
da > 0
2
1
2
0
Nyquist diagram
If the transfer function is plotted direct in the complex domain, the Nyquist diagram is obtained
which is more usable than the Bode diagram. From the Bode diagram can Nyquist diagram be
constructed in following way:
36
1
10 270
-90
-2 arg(Au(ii))
10
-180
i
-3
10 -270
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Angular frequency [rad/s]
0,50
0,25
Im(Au)
0,00
|Au(ii)| arg(Au(ii))
-0,25
-0,50
-1,50 -1,00 -0,50 0,00 0,50
Re(Au)
Non-linear systems
With non-linear systems can a host of phenomenon occur due to occurrence of play, hysteresis in
the system etc despite the system is seemingly stable. A analyse method for investigation of the
stability is the descriptive functions where the open loop systems transfer function is divided in
a linear part and a non-linear part according to
Au = Glinear Gnonlinear
Glinear Gnonlinear = 1
By plotting Glinear and (1/Gnonlinear) in the Nyquist diagram can the stability be investigated.
The intersection point gives in many cases the frequency and the amplitude for the self oscillation.
See other literature for determination of the non-linear transfer function.
37
13 Hydraulic fluids
13.1 Nomenclature
V :volume [m3 ] x0 :amount of air in the oil
V1 :start volume (secant) [m3 ] (gas volume/total volume at
V2 :end volume (secant) [m3 ] normal state, NTP) [-]
Vc :volume (reservoir) [m3 ] :kinematic viscosity [m2 /s]
Vg :volume (gas) [m3 ] :density [kg/m3 ]
V :volume (fluid) [m3 ] e :effective bulk modulus [Pa]
Vt :total volume [m3 ] c :bulk modulus (reservoir) [Pa]
p :absolute pressure [Pa] g :bulk modulus (gas) [Pa]
p0 :absolute pressure at NTP (= 0,1 MPa) [Pa] :bulk modulus (fluid) [Pa]
p1 :start pressure (secant) [Pa] t :bulk modulus with no air in the oil (tangent) [Pa]
p2 :end pressure (secant) [Pa] s :bulk modulus with no air in the olja (secant) [Pa]
u :flow velocity in x-led [m/s] bt :bulk modulus with air in the oil (tangent) [Pa]
n :polytrophic exponent [-] bs :bulk modulus with air in the oil (secant) [Pa]
ys :correction coefficient (secant) [-] :skjuvspanning [N/m2 ]
yt :correction coefficient (tangent) [-] :dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2 ]
y u(y)
Definition,
dynamic viscosity du
=
for Newton fluid dy
x
Kinematic viscosity =
dp
t = V
dV
t is shown in figure 11. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften
based oil and Paraffin based oil.
2500
ASME-36 Naften based oil
ASME-31 Paraffin based oil T = 0
Bulk modulus, tangent [MPa]
25
2000
50
75
100
1500
1000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]
Figur 11: Tangent value of the bulk modulus for oil with no air.
38
Secant value, is used at big changes from normal pressure
(p1 = 0, V1 ) till (p2 , V2 )
p2
s = V1
V2 V1
s is shown in figure 12. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften
base oil and Paraffin base oil.
2500
ASME-36 Naften based oil
ASME-31 Paraffin based oil
Bulk modulus, secant [MPa]
T = 0
2000
25
50
1500 75
100
1000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]
Figur 12: Secant value of bulk modulus for oil with no air.
1,0
x0 = 0,1
0,8
Compensator factor yt
x0 = 0,05
x0 = 0,02
0,6
x0 = 0,01
0,4 x0 = 0,005
p0 = 0,1 MPa
0,2 n = 1,4
t = 1500 + 7,5p MPa
0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]
Figur 13: Correction for the air included in oil, tangent value.
39
Secant value
Simplified model and can be used when x0 0,1.
1
bs = ys s dar ys =
1
s x0 p0 n
1 x0 + 1
(p p0 ) p
ys is shown in figure 14 for different amount of air in the oil, x0 , at the special case:
polytropexponent n = 1,4
s = 1500 + 3,7p [MPa]
1,0
s = 1500 + 3,7p MPa
x0 = 0,005
p0 = 0,1 MPa
0,8
Compensator factor ys
n = 1,4
x0 = 0,01
0,6
x0 = 0,02
x0 = 0,05
0,4
0,2
x0 = 0,1
0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pressure [MPa]
Figur 14: Correction for the air included in oil, secant value.
40
Specific heat capacity
2500
3
20 = 840 kg/m
2300
1700
0 50 100 150
Temperature [degrees C]
0,14
3
20 = 840 kg/m
Thermal conductivity [W/m K]
860
0,13 880
900
920
0,12 940
960
0,11
0 50 100 150
Temperature [degrees C]
41
14 Pneumatic
14.1 Nomenclature
A0 :min. cross-section area of the orifice [m2 ] b :critical pressure ratio [-]
A12 :effective entrance area [m2 ] bi :b-value for component i [-]
A23 :effective exit area [m2 ] bs :b-value for system [-]
Ae :effective orifice area (Cd A0 ) [m2 ] m :mass flow [kg/s]
Cd :flow coefficient [-] p1 :upstream total absolute pressure
Ci :C-value for component i [-] (= static + dynamic pressure) [Pa]
Cs :C-value for system [-]
p p2 :downstream static absolute pressure [Pa]
K :constant [ kgK/J] p3 :atmospheric pressure (0,1 MPa) [Pa]
pv :atmospheric pressure in volume [Pa]
p
Kt :temperature correction ( T0 /T1 ) [-]
q :volume flow [m3 /s]
N :parameter [-]
t :time [s]
R :gas constant (287 for air) [J/kg K]
:parameter [-]
T0 :reference temperature (NTP) [K]
:isentropic exponent [-]
T1 :upstream total temperature [K]
:parameter [-]
T3 :downstream total temperature [K]
Tv :total temperature i volume [K] :dimension free time (= RT V
At
) [-]
critical pressure ratio: p2 2 1
b= =
p1 +1
With b- and C-value hold for volume flow q following expression at NTP
q = p1 Kt C
p2
1 for b
p1
uv p 2
2
= u b
u p1 p2
t1 1 b for >b
u
p1
42
14.3 Series connection of pneumatic components
p1 b1 p2 b2 p3 bi bn pn+1
q1 C1 q2 C2 q3 Ci Cn qn+1
T1
bs ,Cs
On condition that
every component can be described with q = p1 Kt C
b- and C-value is known for every component
absolute static pressure after one component is equal to the absolute total pressure before
the next component
the entrance temperature holds for all system
every component have the same mass flow (q1 = q2 = = qn )
r
T0
qs = p1 Kt Cs med Kt =
T1
pn+1
1 for bs
p1
v
p 2
n+1
u
= u bs
u 1 p1
u pn+1
for > bs
1 b p1
t
s
n n
1 X 1 X 1 bi
= bs = 1 Cs2
Cs3
i=1
Ci3 i=1
Ci2
43
2 1 b1 1 b2
b12 = 1 C12 +
C12 C22
C12
13 = osv . . .
C3 b12
p1
q1 b1 b2 bn
bs ,Cs
T1 C1 C2 Cn
p2
r
T0
qs = p1 Kt Cs med Kt =
T1
p2
1 forr bs
p1
v
p 2
2
u
= u bs
u
u1 p1 p2
for > bs
1 bs p1
t
For systems with the same further line (see figure 16) relates to
n n
X Cs X Ci
Cs = Ci =
i=1
1 bs i=1
1 bi
44
Charging a volume
RT A12 t
The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time = with the area
V
A23
relation of as parameter.
A12
0,6
A23/A12 = 0,0
0,5
0,5
0,3
p1 pv p3 2,0
V
T1 Tv T3 0,2
0,0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
tao [-]
(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)
1,1 2,2
A23/A12 = 0,0 A23/A12 = 0,0
1,0 2,0
0,5
0,9 1,8
Pressure pv [MPa absolute]
0,5
0,8 1,6
1,0 1,0
0,7 1,4
1,5 1,5
0,6 1,2
2,0 2,0
0,5 1,0
0,4 0,8
0,3 0,6
0,2 0,4
0,1 0,2
0,0 0,0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
tao [-] tao [-]
(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute) (d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)
45
Discharging a volume
RT A23 t
The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time = with the area
V
A12
relation of as parameter.
A23
0,6
A12/A23 = 1,0
0,5
0,3
p1 pv p3 0,4
V
T1 Tv T3 0,2
0,2
0,0
(a) The downstream pressure p3 = 0,1 MPa absolute. 0,1
0,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
tao [-]
(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)
1,1 2,2
1,0 2,0
A12/A23 = 1,0 A12/A23 = 1,0
0,9 1,8
Pressure pv [MPA absolute]
Pressure pv [MPa absolute]
0,8
0,8 1,6 0,8
0,7 0,6 1,4 0,6
0,6 1,2
0,5 0,4 1,0 0,4
0,4 0,8
0,3 0,2 0,6 0,2
0,2 0,4
0,0 0,0
0,1 0,2
0,0 0,0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
tao [-] tao [-]
(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute) (d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)
t5 + p1 0,6 (t10 t5 )
for 0,6 p1 1,1 MPa
t= 0,5
t10 + (p1 1,1)(t20 t10 ) for 1,1 p1 2,1 MPa
46
Appendix A
Symbols for hydraulic diagrams
Correspond to the international standard CETOP RP3 and the Swedish SMS 712. It is specified
when the two standards differ.
General symbols................................................................... 48
Mechanical elements............................................................. 48
Pipes and connections.......................................................... 48
Control systems.................................................................... 49
Pumps and Motors............................................................... 49
Cylinders.............................................................................. 51
Directional control valves..................................................... 52
Check valves or non-return valves........................................ 53
Pressure control valves....................................................... 54
Flow control valves............................................................... 55
Components for cooling, filtering, energy storage etc.......... 56
Energy sources..................................................................... 57
Measurement equipments..................................................... 57
47
General symbols
1) 2) 1)Hydraulic
Flow direction 2)Pneumatic
Variability
Mechanical elements
D Shaft, lever arm,
D<5E bar, rod piston Rod piston can be drawn with a single line
Spring
Flexible pipe,
hose The symbol is used mainly for movable parts
d
Pipe connection d = 5E (E = line width)
1) Plugged connection
2) Connection with connected pipe. (Nor-
1) 2)
Connection mally is the connection plugged.)
48
Control systems
1) General symbol
1) 2) 2) Control with push button
3) Control with lever arm
3) 4) Manual controls 4) Control with pedal
1) Plunge
Mechanical con- 2) Roll
1) 2) 3) trols 3) Spring
Pump with
1) 2) variable dis- 1) One flow direction
placement 2) Two flow directions
49
Example of con-
1) 2) trols for variable 1) Manual control
pump 2) Pressure control via control valve
Compressor
with one flow
direction The two distorted lines is not included in SMS
Vacuum pump
Motor with
1) 2) constant dis- 1) One flow direction
placement 2) Two flow directions
Pneumatic
motor with
constant dis- 1) One flow direction
1) 2) placement 2) Two flow directions
Motor with
1) 2) variable dis- 1) One flow direction
placement 2) Two flow directions
Motor with
limited angle of
twist
50
Cylinders
Single-acting The fluid pressure exercises a force in one di-
cylinder rection only.
Double-acting
symmetric
cylinder
51
Directional control valves
Opening and closing of one or more flow paths. Symbols with
several squares. The external flow lines are normally situated
at the square which indicates the neutral or normal position.
Other positions can be shown by displacement of the squares
until the external flow lines are situated at the corresponding
square.
Electro hy-
draulic servo
valve with pilot
and mechanical Combined with solenoid operated pilot valve
feedback. with return spring. Representation
4/2 directional 1) detailed
control valve 2) simplified.
5/2 directional
valve Control by pressure in both directions.
52
Two end positions and intermediate throttling
positions.
1) Shows only the end positions.
2) Shows the end positions and the centre
1) Throttling di- (neutral) position.
rectional control All valve symbols have parallel lines outside
2)
valve the envelope.
Single stage
electro- Amplification of infinitely variable electrical
hydraulic servo input signals transformed onto hydraulic out-
valve put; without pilot operation.
Two stage
electro-
hydraulic
servo valve
with mechanical
feedback
Two stage
electro-
hydraulic
servo valve
with hydraulic
feedback
Pilot controlled
Pilot controlled 1) Opening can be prevented
1) 2)
check valve 2) Closing can be prevented
53
One way restric- Valve which allows free flow in one direction
tor and restricted flow in the other direction.
Proportioning
pressure relief Inlet pressure is limited to a value propor-
valve tional to the pilot pressure.
54
Pilot controlled
pressure regula- Outlet port pressure proportional to pilot
tor pressure.
Differential
pressure regula- The outlet pressure is reduced by a fixed
tor amount with regard to the inlet pressure.
Proportioning
pressure regula- The outlet pressure is reduced by a fixed ratio
tor with regard to the inlet pressure.
55
Components for cooling, filtering, energy storage etc.
Acc. CETOP:
1) Viscosity dependent (pipe orifice)
2) 1) Viscosity dependent (sharp edged)
Acc. SMS:
1) 2) 3) 1) General symbol
Orifices 3) Viscosity dependent (pipe orifice)
Filter; strainer
56
The fluid temperature is controlled between
Temperature two predetermined values. The arrows indi-
controller cate both heat introduction and dissipation.
Silencer
Energy sources
Pressure source
Electric motor
Measurement equipments
Manometer
(Pressure trans-
ducer)
Integrated flow
meter Measure the total volume which is passed.
57