Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339

www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruc

Stress history generation for truss bridges using multi-level

models
K. Kiss *, L. Dunai
Department of Steel Structures, Technical University of Budapest, M
uegyetem rkp. 5-7, VIII. em., 1111 Budapest, Hungary
Received 6 November 1998; accepted 17 July 1999

Abstract
A technique is described for the automatic computation of numerical stress histories in the steel truss railway
bridges, caused by the passage of pre-dened trains. The 3-D frame of the bridge is combined with nite element
method plate/shell sub-models of selected details. The eects of joint rigidity and interaction of structural elements are
taken into account by the global model. Joint geometry is introduced by the local sub-models. Connection nodes in the
global beam model correspond to the end cross-section centroids of the sub-model. Their displacements are interpreted
as imposed deformations on the sub-models.
The load cases for the global model simulate the passage of two vertical unit forces along the stringers. The load
cases for the sub-model are imposed unit deformations. Combining these, and applying train loads, numerical stress
histories are obtained. The method is illustrated by test load results of an existing railway bridge. 2000 Civil-Comp
Ltd. and Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Stress history; Multi-level models; Geometrical stress concentrations; Steel bridges; Finite element modelling.

1. Introduction necessity. In Chapter 9.4.2 of Ref. [4], ``Stress range in

1.1. Background
There is a need for a suitable computational model
and an applicable technique that allows the relatively
precise calculation of stress histories in certain locations
of steel bridges, with special consideration of the specic
joint geometry. Used together, the multi-level model and
the inuence-line based technique described in this paper
oer a solution to satisfy this need.
As is well known, the geometry of a detail may sig-
nicantly inuence the stress distribution. Geometric
stress concentrations are especially important in fatigue
analysis, where, according to the current design codes,
their consideration is not merely a possibility, but a
parent material'', the following principles can be found:
1. ``Depending upon the fatigue assessment carried
out, either nominal stress ranges or geometric stress
ranges shall be evaluated.''
2. ``When determining the stress at a detail, stresses aris-
ing from joint eccentricity and imposed deforma-
tions, secondary stresses due to joint stiness, stress
redistribution due to buckling and shear lag, and
the eects of prying shall be taken into account.''
The use of nite element methods are permitted by the
Eurocode: in Ref. [4, Chapter 9.5.3] (fatigue assessments
based on geometric stress ranges), paragraph 3 says
``The geometric stresses may be determined using stress
concentration factors obtained from parametric formu-
lae within their domains of validity, a nite element
analysis or an experimental model.''

1.2. The proposed computational model

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +36-1-463-1804; fax: +36-1-
463-3449. The computational model discussed in this paper is
E-mail address: kornel@vpszk.bme.hu (K. Kiss). essentially a combination of nite element surface

0045-7949/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Civil-Comp Ltd. and Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 5 - 7 9 4 9 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 7 9 - 1
330 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339

sub-models of selected details, and the 3-D beam model

of the entire bridge. This kind of multi-level model takes
into consideration several eects that are not dealt with
if two-dimensional truss models or pure 3-D beam
models are used alone, such as the eect of joint rigidity
(secondary moments), the interaction of the structural
elements (main girders, oor beams, bracing system),
stress concentrations arising from the details of the
joints and connections. Another advantage of a multi-
level model (as opposed to modelling the entire bridge
with purely surface nite element method (FEM) ele-
ments) is its practical applicability for personal com-
puters, requiring realistic hardware resources. The
characteristics of these models and their dened loads
are presented in Section 2.

1.3. The proposed methodology

The computation of numerical stress histories using

only the bridge beam model is discussed in Section 3.
The possibilities and limitations of this simplied
method are outlined there. Section 4 explains the ad-
vanced technique of stress analysis using the multi-level
model, when the numerical stress histories are created in
the following steps:
1. Stress distributions are computed in the sub-model,
caused by imposed unit deformations that corre-
spond to the degrees of freedom of the connection
nodes, see Section 2.3. These stress distributions
may be regarded as ``elements'' of the sub-models
stiness matrix, because, if they are multiplied by
the corresponding actual deformations, and sum-
mated, then the stress distribution caused by the Fig. 1. Flowchart of the methodology for stress history com-
actual system of deformations can be obtained. putation.
2. Numerical stress inuence lines are computed using
the beam models node deections caused by the pas-
sage of two vertical unit forces on the stringers, and analyses have been performed using the ALGOR soft-
the sub-models stress distributions obtained in step ware [1].
1, see Section 4.1.
3. Finally, numerical stress histories are created by ap-
plying pre-dened train loads to the inuence lines 1.4. Comparison with experimental results
computed in step 2, see Section 4.2.
The owchart of both methods is shown in Fig. 1. (The It is important to justify the usefulness of any com-
simplied method is indicated by thin arrows, the multi- putational model and technique by comparing the
level method by thick arrows.) computed results they yield with the experimental mea-
The stiness-matrix-like superposition of stress dis- surements. The applicability and accuracy of the pro-
tributions and the calculation of the numerical stress posed model and methodology is examined in part 5,
histories based on inuence lines and train load models where some stress and strain histories computed by both
are methods that signicantly reduce the necessary methods are compared with experimental results. A
computation time, processor and memory requirements specic joint of an existing railway bridge has been
to a level that allows their application on PCs. Auto- chosen for comparison, where detailed strain-gauge
matic data processing based on the scheme illustrated measurements had been performed during the load test
on Fig. 1 is achieved by programs especially devel- of this bridge. The beam model of the bridge, the FEM
oped for this purpose. All frame and nite element model of the detail, and the model of the train has been
 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339 331

constructed according to the original plans of the

structure and the train used for the load test.

2. The computational model

The bridge chosen for modelling was a steel truss


railway bridge on the OzdB anreve line in north-eastern
Hungary, because the comprehensive results of its load
test were available, making it a useful tool to test and
illustrate the technique. The beam model of this bridge
can be seen in Fig. 2. The indicated joint has been se-
lected for particular study, because extensive gauge
measurements had been performed in this part of the
bridge during the load test. K all
o et al. explain the de-
tails of the test load in Ref. [5].
First, two models of the studied detail are con-
structed, one comprising surface nite elements (the
FEM sub-model as seen in Fig. 3), and one made up Fig. 3. The FEM sub-model.
purely of 3-D beam elements (the beam sub-model see
Fig. 4). Unit forces, bending and torsional moments are
applied to both sub-models, corresponding to the
degrees of freedom of the endpoints of the beam sub-
model. These endpoints are the connection nodes. The
section properties of the beam sub-model are then de-
termined by comparing the displacements and defor-
mations of the two models under the equivalent loads.
Thus, more precise section property values are obtained
rather than by simply calculating them from the cross-
section dimensions.

2.1. The FEM sub-model

The sub-model of the studied detail is made up of

thin, three-and four-node plate/shell nite elements,
each node having six degrees of freedom (Fig. 3). This
Fig. 4. The beam sub-model with the connection nodes.

detail is the joint formed by the connection of the two

lower chords, two diagonals and a oor beam. Char-
acteristic features of this specic FEM sub-model are the
following: curved anges, web stiening plates with an
opening at the lower angeweb weld, abrupt changes in
plate thickness and gradual change of the ange width.
The sub-model has been divided into 2393 elements, and
it contains 2369 nodes.

2.2. The beam sub-model

This model is a simple beam model, the beams rep-

resenting the centre lines of the connecting webs (Fig. 4).
The eccentricity of the oor beam is allowed for by
inserting a rigid bar between the endpoint of that
Fig. 2. The 3-D frame of the bridge. beam, and the central node. This model is supported by
332 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339
restraining all the six degrees of freedom of the central
node.
The section properties are obtained in two steps:
First, temporary values are calculated using the cross-
section dimensions of each beam. Unit axial and shear
forces, bending and torsional moments are applied to
each endpoint (connection node), as distinct load cases.
These forces and moments, reduced to stresses, then
applied to the FEM sub-model, act as equivalent loads
on that model. Next, the translations and rotations of
the connection nodes resulting from each load case are
compared with the corresponding displacements of the
end cross-section centroids in the FEM sub-model. Fi-
nally, the original section properties are corrected ac-
cording to this comparison.
2.3. The load model for the sub-model
The primary aim was to develop a technique that
requires a relatively modest hardware background, with
the minimum computing time and eort. In this light, it
would be unrealistic to perform the nite element
stress analysis of an FEM sub-model with more than ten
1000 degrees of freedom for each combination of de-
formations resulting from the connection node deec-
tions during the passage of a train. For this reason, a
stiness-matrix-like approach is used: unit deformations
corresponding to the six degrees of freedom of each
connection node are imposed on the sub-model as dis-
tinct load cases, and the resulting stress distributions are
treated as the ``elements'' of the stiness matrix. Thus,
the sub-model needs to be analysed only 6  n times,
where n is the number of connection nodes. In the cur-
rent example, this means, that the FEM analysis of the
sub-model has to be run 6  5 30 times (Table 1).
The imposed unit deformations of the sub-model are
applied as translations of the nodes that form the end
cross-sections. The result of these node translations is
the desired imposed deformation of each end cross-
section. The boundary conditions are dened as follows:
all translation components of the nodes belonging to the
end cross-sections are restricted, except for the transla-
tion components that correspond to the imposed unit
deformations.
The results of these stress analyses contain the values
of the chosen stress components (membrane, bending or
Table 1
The sub-models load cases (unit translation: 1 mm, unit rotation: 103 )
Connection node x translation y translation
1 1 2 3
2 7 8 9
3 13 14
4 19 20
5 25 26
surface stresses in any direction) belonging to each node
of the sub-model.
2.4. The 3-D beam model of the bridge
2.4.1. The bridge structure
The Banreve bridge is a simply supported structure,
made up of two main triangular trusses, with horizontal
upper and lower chords, and diagonals of nearly 59
inclination (Fig. 2). Floor beams, connected rigidly to
the main truss, support the two continuous stringers.
The height of the oor beams and the stringers are
equal. At each oor beamstringer joint, a single, 40 mm
thick element serves as the upper ange of those mem-
bers. Secondary oor beams transfer the loads from the
rail tracks to the stringers. Upper as well as lower
bracing systems are formed by K-trusses. The bridge has
a span of 66.0 m, a height of 6.8 m, and a width of 5.0 m.
The distance between the main truss nodes is 8.25 m, the
distance between the oor beams is 2.75 m, and the
distance between the stringers is 1.50 m. All beams have
welded ``I'' sections, and the connections are riveted. An
interesting feature of the bridge structure is the fact that
the inner anges of the upper and lower chords are
joined to the anges of the diagonals by curved sections
at the joints.
There are some features of the bridge structure that
result in a mechanical behaviour which only faintly re-
sembles the behaviour of a hypothetical truss structure.
These are the following features: occasional drastic
changes in cross-sections, the curved anges, the rela-
tively rigid joints, the bending of the lower chords
caused by the intermediate oor beams, the presence of
some quite thick web and ange plates, the interaction
of the main truss and the oor beam/stringer system,
and the strong welded connections of the whole struc-
ture. These features result in the bending of the beams,
and the transversal bending of the curved anges, that
cannot be predicted by traditional models.
2.4.2. The computational model of the bridge
Using a 3-D beam model, as opposed to a plane truss
model, allows the consideration of the secondary mo-
ments from joint rigidity, and the interaction of the
main girders with the oor beams, stringers and the
bracing system. The bridge is modelled as a frame, using
z translation x rotation y rotation z rotation
4 5 6
10 11 12
15 16 17 18
21 22 23 24
27 28 29 30
 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339 333

beam elements with six degrees of freedom per end-
point. The beam sub-model, with section properties
calculated in Section 2.2, is incorporated into the bridge
model.
All connections are assumed to be fully rigid, in
agreement with the design code philosophies. In Ref. [4,
Chapter 5.2.2.2] (models for global analysis), paragraph
6 states the following: ``In general, the connections in
bridges should be designed as rigid except for pinned
connections or connections of cables which may be
considered as nominally pinned, to improve their fatigue
life''. In Chapter 5.2.3.5 (truss bridges), paragraph 2
contains this note: ``For the fatigue verication sec-
ondary moments shall be taken into account.''
The stringers are divided into 25 cm long segments,
as this is required to apply the load cases (see Section
2.5). The Banreve bridge model contains 970 beams and
736 nodes, with a total of 6  736 4416 degrees of
freedom.
2.4.3. The load test of the bridge
Ordered by the Hungarian Railways, the load test of
the B anreve bridge had been carried out in October
1987, by a scientic team from the Department of Steel
Structures, TU Budapest [5]. Static and dynamic load
test was performed, measuring displacements, stresses,
and frequencies. Displacements were measured using
surveying instruments, stresses were measured using
strain-gauges and ``D'' type rosettas 3  60. The
measured stress histories result from the gauge mea-
surements corresponding to 20 positions of the train.
These experimental results are used to verify the pro-
posed model and methodology in Section 5.
3. Beam model stress histories
3.1. The applicability of the simplied method
Often, a precise stress calculation is required in cer-
tain places, where geometric stress concentrations may
occur. In these situations, the multi-level model is used,
as described in Section 4. To illustrate this necessity,
strain histories calculated in the centre of the upper and
lower anges of Section IIII, from both the beam
model and the multi-level model, are plotted and com-
pared with the gauge measurements in Figs. 5 and 6.
Experimental results are plotted with a thick line,
computed results with a thin line (multi-level model:
continuous line, beam model: dashed line). Section IIII
is located near the studied joint, where stresses are much
inuenced by the details geometry. This explains why
the multi-level model results are closer to the measure-
ments than the simplied beam model results.
In certain cross-sections, however, the stresses cal-
culated directly from the internal forces of the beam
model are suciently accurate, such as at beam mid-
sections. In these cases, numerical stress histories can be
produced from the beam model stress inuence lines by
applying the pre-dened train loads. The rst steps in
 any et al. in Ref. [2].
this direction had been taken by Ad

2.5. The load model for the bridge

In order to minimise computing time and hardware

requirements, it is necessary to produce the numerical
inuence lines rst, then apply the train load to them to Fig. 5. Section IIII, upper ange (centre).
create numerical stress histories [3]. To achieve this, the
load model for the bridge is dened as a series of load
cases, each containing two vertical, unit-magnitude
forces acting upon the stringers, 25 cm from those of the
previous load case. The self-weight of the bridge may be
added to all load cases if it is to be considered. (The
computed stress histories in this paper are compared to
gauge measurement results. These measurements do not
contain the eect of self-weight, since zero gauge strain
corresponds to the bridge carrying its dead load, without
any train load.) In case of the Banreve bridge, the total
number of load cases is 66=0:25 1 265, the two unit
forces of the rst load case on one end of the bridge, and
those of the last load case on the other end. The unit
forces have 1 kN of magnitude each. Fig. 6. Section IIII, lower ange (centre).
334 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339
This method for stress history generation based on beam
models was developed in Ref. [6].
3.2. Creating axial stress inuence lines
First, numerical inuence lines of the internal forces
belonging to the endpoints of requested beams are cre-
ated from the results of the beam models stress analysis
(the internal force components are listed in Table 2).
Then, these inuence lines for the axial force and both
bending moments at the beam endpoints can be converted
to axial stress inuence lines in any section of the beam
simply by introducing the section properties.
3.3. Applying the train load to the inuence lines
The axle weights and the axle co-ordinates of the pre-
dened train load must be rst specied. The train used
in the load test of the B anreve bridge was assembled
from three ``M62'' diesel locomotives of six axles each,
weighing 19.33 tons/axle (approximately 95 kN/wheel),
as shown in Fig. 7. The total length of the train is
48.1 m.
Since the ordinates of the numerical inuence lines
are known every 25 cm, and in a general situation the
axle distances cannot be divided by this value, the in-
uence line ordinates are linearly interpolated for every
5 cm. Then, the train load can be applied to any selected
numerical stress inuence line. The program creates the
numerical stress histories through a series of three em-
bedded loops. (The ``outer'' loop cycles through the
stress history ordinates to be computed, the ``middle''
loop cycles through the train axles, and the ``inner'' loop
through the inuence line ordinates.) Just as an inuence
line shows how the value of a stress component at a
Table 2
Internal force components
1 Axial force (R1)
2 Shear force in the direction of the weak axis (R2)
3 Shear force in the direction of the strong axis (R3)
4 Torque (M1)
5 Bending moment about the weak axis (M2)
6 Bending moment about the string axis (M3)
Fig. 7. The train used in the load test.
given point changes during the passage of the two ver-
tical unit forces along the stringers, a stress history
shows how this stress value changes during the passage
of a train. This means, that the length of a stress history
diagram equals the length of the bridge plus the length
of the train.
4. Multi-level model stress histories
4.1. Obtaining stress-distribution inuence lines from the
multi-level model
As the sub-model's stress distributions from each unit
deformation are known, as well as the beam model's
connection node deections for each load case, numer-
ical stress-distribution inuence lines of the multi-level
model can be computed by forming linear combinations
of those stress distributions. The output of the beam
model analysis is a database containing the connection
node displacements due to the passage of the unit forces.
The output of the plate/shell model is a database con-
taining the stresses at the sub-model nodes due to each
of the 30 unit deformations. A cyclic linear superposi-
tion is carried out to compute a specied stress com-
ponent at a given node of the sub-model due to the
actual system of deformations during the passage of
the unit forces. This way, the desired stress inuence
line may be obtained. This calculation is detailed be-
low.
The superposition principle used in this technique
states, that the stress distribution in the sub-model re-
sulting from a linear combination of the imposed unit
deformations is equal to the same linear combination of
the stress distributions resulting from those unit imposed
deformations separately:
!
X6n X
6n
r ai ei ai rei : 1
i1 i1
In Eq. (1), ei means the ith unit deformation imposed
on the sub-model, ai is its combination factor (the actual
connection node displacement component), r(e) symb-
olises the sub-models stress distribution resulting from
the imposed deformation system e, and n is the number
of connection nodes. The ordinates of the numerical
inuence line corresponding to the specied stress type
and node number are calculated step by step, consider-
ing each connection node in a separate cycle. At the end
of this cyclic computation, the desired stress inuence
line ordinates are known. These inuence lines can be
used directly for design purposes, or they can serve as
the input data for creating stress histories with specic
pre-dened trains, in which case they are linearly inter-
polated at every 5 cm.
 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339
4.2. Applying the train load to the multi-level model
inuence lines
Using pre-dened train models, the above created
numerical stress inuence lines can be converted into
numerical stress histories, through the procedure de-
scribed in Section 3.3, using the train model shown in
Fig. 7.
5. Comparison with measurements
5.1. Beam model stress histories
During the load test, strain gauges were used to
measure stress histories in the middle cross-section of
beams 68 (lower chord) and 770 (upper chord).
Gauges 5759 were xed on the upper ange, Gauges
7779 on the lower ange of beam 68. Gauges 2 and 3
were attached to the upper ange, and Gauges 1 and 5
to the lower ange of beam 770 . In Fig. 8, the stress
histories computed for the upper and lower anges at
the middle cross-section of beam 770 are compared
with the corresponding gauge results. These stresses are
calculated using the axial force P, the bending moment
about the strong axis (M3 ), and area A and section
modulus S3 .
A similar comparison between the measured and
calculated numerical stress histories for the middle
cross-section of beam 68 is made in Fig. 9. Experi-
mental results are plotted by thick lines, the corre-
sponding computed results are plotted by thin lines in
both gures. It can be seen from these charts, that in the
middle cross-sections of the main girders, the stresses
calculated from the 3-D beam model closely follow the
measured stresses. The eect of secondary moments
from the joint rigidity may be noted also as the dier-
ence between the axial stresses in the anges caused by
bending.
A detailed comparison of test load results of another
bridge with stress histories generated by this beam model
method can be found in the work of Mark o [7].
Fig. 8. Beam 770 (upper chord).
335
Fig. 9. Beam 68 (lower chord).
5.2. Multi-level model strain histories
As part of the load test, a number of strain gauges
had been attached to the upper and lower anges of that
part of the bridge included in the sub-model (Fig. 10).
An especially dense array of gauges was applied in the
curved upper ange at 0, 20, 40 and 60 angles
(Sections IIII to VV).
In the anges, only longitudinal deformations had
been measured during the load test. It can be seen
looking at the calculated stress histories, however, that
sometimes the transversal stresses in the anges are not
negligible when compared to the longitudinal stresses.
To illustrate this, strain histories at gauge 49 are shown
in Fig. 11. The measured longitudinal strain is plotted
with a thick line, the calculated strain considering the
Poisson eect with a thin continuous line, and the cal-
culated strain without the Poisson eect with a dashed
line. The importance of the transversal stresses in some
parts of the ange is clearly indicated. For this reason,
the measured longitudinal strains in the anges are
compared with the calculated longitudinal strains using
Fig. 10. Location of strain gauges and rosettas.
336 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339

values than obtained at Gauge 47. Finally, the measured

and calculated strain histories at Gauge 50 are shown in
Fig. 14. This gauge was placed on the other edge of the
ange, giving higher values than obtained at Gauge 46.
These results clearly demonstrate the eect of shear lag,
which increases the longitudinal stresses near the web
and decreases them near the edges of the ange.
In Figs. 1518, a similar comparison is made with the
upper ange of Section IVIV. This section is located on
the curved part of the ange. The curvature of the ange
probably accounts for an interesting phenomena shown
Fig. 11. Section IIII, upper ange (Gauge 49).

Eq. (2), where rk and r? are the computed longitudinal

and transversal surface stresses. The value of the Poisson
ratio is m 0:3, the modulus of elasticity is E 210 000
MPa:
rk mr?
ek : 2
E

Some examples of stress histories (converted into

strain histories) are presented here. In Figs. 1214,
measured and computed longitudinal strains in the up-
per ange of Section IIII are plotted, at gauges 4650 Fig. 13. Section IIII, upper ange (Gauge 48).
and the corresponding nodes in the sub-model. This
section is located at the beginning of the curved ange,
however at this point the curvature of the ange is zero.
Experimental results are plotted by thick lines and
computed results by thin lines. As mentioned earlier, the
importance of the transverse bending of the ange is
shown by the dierence between the curves in Fig. 11.
Fig. 12 shows the signicant dierence between stresses
on the ange at dierent distances from the web. Gauge
46 was placed at the edge of the ange, while Gauge 47
was placed halfway between the web and the edge of the
ange. It may be noted that the stresses at Gauge 46
were less than a third of those at Gauge 47. The good
agreement between measured and computed results may
also be seen. Fig. 13 shows the deformations at Gauge Fig. 14. Section IIII, upper ange (Gauge 50).
48, which was placed right over the web, giving higher

Fig. 12. Section IIII, upper ange (Gauges 46 and 47). Fig. 15. Section IVIV, upper ange (Gauge 40).
 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339 337

Fig. 16. Section IVIV, upper ange (Gauge 39). Fig. 19. Section VIVI, lower ange.

Fig. 17. Section IVIV, upper ange (Gauge 38).

Fig. 18. Section IVIV, upper ange (Gauges 36 and 37).

in these gures, namely, the fact that the longitudinal

stresses change sign in the ange. Negative stresses occur
at the edges (Gauge 40 in Fig. 15 and Gauge 36 in Fig.
18), positive stresses occur halfway between the web and
the edge of the ange (Gauge 39 in Fig. 16 and Gauge 37
in Fig. 18), and still higher positive stresses at the web
ange connection (Gauge 38 in Fig. 17). Just as with
Section IIII, the generally good agreement between the
measured and computed results may be noted.
Fig. 19 shows measured and computed strain histo-
ries at Gauge 9 on the lower ange of Section VIVI. In
Fig. 20, the longitudinal strains along the centre line Fig. 20. Calculated and measured strain tendencies along the
(upper chart), the inner and outer edges (middle and centre line, the inner, and outer edge of the curved upper ange.
338 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339
lower chart) of the curved part of the upper ange are
plotted, corresponding to Sections VV, IVIV, IIIIII
and IIII, for certain positions of the train load. It can
be seen, that the tendencies obtained from the calcu-
lated stress histories follow closely the tendencies of the
measured deformations. The gradually changing be-
haviour from the beginning of the curved ange (IIII)
to the middle of the curved ange (VV) is illustrated by
the gure. In addition to shear lag, the curvature of the
ange also contributes to the change in the transverse
distribution of the stresses. The combination of the two
phenomena results in the change of the sign of the
stresses on the curved part of the ange.
Two pairs of rosettas were used during the load test,
on both sides of the web, 20 mm from the upper ange
(see Fig. 10 for the location of the rosettas). They
measured the deformations horizontally (0), at 60 and
at 120 angles. The measured and computed deforma-
tions at Rosetta 2 are compared in Fig. 21 on the inside
of the web, and in Fig. 22 on the outside.
The strains were calculated from the 090, 60150
and 12030 stress component pairs, taking into ac-
count of the Poisson eect by Eq. (2). The dierence
between the strains on the two sides of the web indicate
the presence of bending stresses besides the membrane
stresses.
Fig. 21. Rosetta 2 (inside).
Fig. 22. Rosetta 2 (outside).
6. Summary and conclusions
The advanced fatigue design methods, e.g. in Euro-
code 3 [4], require the renement of stress analysis
models of steel bridges. The eects not addressed in the
traditional calculation methods, such as geometrical
stress concentrations, joint rigidity, bending of chords,
transversal bending of anges, and the interaction of
structural elements, should be considered in the rened
models.
Traditional truss computational models cannot deal
with these problems. Using the available numerical
models, e.g. modelling the entire bridge with surface -
nite elements, or dening the load model directly as train
axles passing through the bridge would lead to imprac-
tical solutions that require an immense hardware back-
ground.
In this paper a multi-level computational model and
methodology is proposed for the stress analysis of steel
bridges. The method can take into account the above
eects but keeps the advantages of applicability, by
combining a 3-D beam model with surface sub-models.
The method involves the formation of sub-model sti-
ness matrices, the computational links between the dif-
ferent models, the computation of numerical inuence
lines, and the derivation of the stress histories by the
applied vehicle model.
The proposed model and the developed method is
veried experimentally using the measured data ob-
tained from the load test of a steel truss bridge. It has
been demonstrated in part 5 on an existing railway
bridge, that the stress histories produced by this method
are quite accurate, and they follow the values and ten-
dencies resulting from the strain-gauge measurements
performed during the load test.
The model and methodology discussed in this paper
therefore can be used to produce stress histories for
design purposes. On the bases of the calculated geo-
metrical stress ranges and the pertinent stress spectra the
advanced fatigue design methods can be used.
Further work is planned to introduce the design
related stochastic uncertainties of material-and cross-
section properties, execution, loading, and the com-
putational model, by performing a reliability analysis
based on the method described in this paper, combined
with Monte Carlo simulation. It is planned to develop a
third level of modelling to analyse the micro-scale en-
vironment of welds.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the nancial
support of the TEMPUS mobility grant #11236/96 and
OTKA project #T023378.
 K. Kiss, L. Dunai / Computers and Structures 78 (2000) 329339
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