5 Planning and Preparation PDF

PVD Training
October 25, 2012

Authored by: Pham Van Thien
PVD Training
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1
5.1 Rig Instrumentation and Control Guidelines ........................................................................................................................... 4
5.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4
5.1.2 Pressure Gauges ................................................................................................................................................................ 4
5.1.3 Fluid Measurement ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
5.1.4 Gas Measurement .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
Mud Gas Analysis ................................................................................................................................................................... 6
5.2 Manpower Organization .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.2.2 Individual Responsibilities................................................................................................................................................... 7
The Operator Company Drilling Representative ..................................................................................................................... 7
The Drilling Engineer ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
The Senior Contractor Representative .................................................................................................................................... 8
The Contractor Toolpusher ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
The Driller ................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
The Mud Engineer ................................................................................................................................................................... 8
The Cementing Engineer ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
The Subsea Engineer (where appropriate) ............................................................................................................................. 8
The Mud Logging Engineers ................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.2.3 Communication ................................................................................................................................................................... 9
5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates .......................................................................................................................................... 11
5.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
5.3.2 BOP Drills ......................................................................................................................................................................... 11
5.3.3 D1: Kick While Tripping .................................................................................................................................................... 11
Frequency of Trip Drills: ........................................................................................................................................................ 12
Trip Drill Procedure ............................................................................................................................................................... 12
These duties may include:..................................................................................................................................................... 12
5.3.4 D2: Kick While Drilling ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
5.3.5 D3: Diverter Drill ............................................................................................................................................................... 13
Procedure: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Floaters: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
5.3.6 D4: Accumulator Drill ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
Surface Accumulator Drill Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 14
5.3.7 D5: Well Kill Drill ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
5.3.8 D6: Stripping Drill .............................................................................................................................................................. 15
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5.3.9 Pit Drill .............................................................................................................................................................................. 16

5.3.10 Slow Circulating Pressures, SCRs ................................................................................................................................. 16
5.4 Use of the Mud System ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
5.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
5.4.2 Pit Management................................................................................................................................................................ 17
When Displacing a Kick......................................................................................................................................................... 18
5.4.3 Building Mud Weight ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Barite Delivery to the Mud Pits .............................................................................................................................................. 18
Barite Storage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Building Viscosity into the Mud.............................................................................................................................................. 19
Volume Increase Due to Barite Addition ............................................................................................................................... 19
5.4.4 Dealing with Gas at Surface ............................................................................................................................................. 20
The Degasser ........................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Overboard Lines/Flare Lines ................................................................................................................................................. 20
5.4.5 Chemical Stocks ............................................................................................................................................................... 21
Barite and Mud Chemical Stocks .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Cement Stocks ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
5.5 Pore Pressure Prediction ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
5.5.1 Formation Pressure Prediction before Drilling .................................................................................................................. 21
Seismic Data ......................................................................................................................................................................... 21
5.5.2 Estimation of Formation Pressure While Drilling .............................................................................................................. 21
Rate of Penetration ............................................................................................................................................................... 22
Drilling Exponents: ................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Hole Characteristics .............................................................................................................................................................. 26
Temperature .......................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Resistivity/Conductivity/Chlorides ......................................................................................................................................... 35
Flowline Mud Weight ............................................................................................................................................................. 36
5.5.3 Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling ................................................................................................................ 46
Resistivity Log ....................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Density Log ........................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Other Logs............................................................................................................................................................................. 56
5.5.4 Direct Pressure Measurements .................................................................................................................................... 56
Drillstem Test Data ................................................................................................................................................................ 60
5.6 Kick Tolerance ...................................................................................................................................................................... 61
5.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Kick Tolerance Definition....................................................................................................................................................... 62
5.6.2 Kick Tolerance Calculation Methods ................................................................................................................................ 62
U Tube Principle .................................................................................................................................................................... 62

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Variables of Kick Tolerance................................................................................................................................................... 65

Kick Tolerance Considerations.............................................................................................................................................. 65
5.6.3 Procedure for Kick Tolerance Calculations ....................................................................................................................... 66
5.6.4 When to Calculate Kick Tolerance.................................................................................................................................... 69
STEP 1 Calculate the Height of the Gas (maximum conditions) ........................................................................................ 70
STEP 2 Calculate Kick Volume at the Bit corresponding to the Hgas ................................................................................ 70
STEP 3 Calculate Kick Volume at the Shoe corresponding to the Hgas ........................................................................... 70
STEP 4 Compare Kick Volumes (V1 and V2) .................................................................................................................... 71
Interpretation of Results Current Well Conditions .............................................................................................................. 71
Kick Tolerance Depth Iterations ......................................................................................................................................... 71
5.6.5 Kick Tolerance Next Casing Setting Depth .................................................................................................................... 72
Kick Tolerance CMW Iterations .......................................................................................................................................... 73
Kick Tolerance KI Iterations ............................................................................................................................................... 73
Kick Tolerance Limitations .................................................................................................................................................... 73
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................................... 73
NOMENCLATURE ................................................................................................................................................................ 74
5.7 Drilling Guidelines and Procedures....................................................................................................................................... 75
5.7.1 Tripping guidelines............................................................................................................................................................ 75
Prior to Tripping ..................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Circulate the hole .................................................................................................................................................................. 76
Determine the maximum pipe speed..................................................................................................................................... 76
Line up the Trip Tank ............................................................................................................................................................ 76
Fill in the Trip Sheet .............................................................................................................................................................. 77
Provide the Driller with the necessary information ................................................................................................................ 78
Drill floor preparation ............................................................................................................................................................. 79
Tripping Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 79
Special Procedure for Oil Base Muds ................................................................................................................................... 81
5.7.2 Crew Handover ................................................................................................................................................................. 82
5.7.3 Pre-recorded Data Sheet .................................................................................................................................................. 82
Purpose of the Pre-recorded Data Sheet .............................................................................................................................. 82
Using the Pre-recorded data sheet ....................................................................................................................................... 82

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5.1.1 General
Good and reliable instrumentation is vital for drilling and well control operations.
The instrumentation is required to:
A. Detect changes such as drilling breaks, increase in flow, increase in pit level, increase in gas levels,
increase in torque and drag, H2S presence etc.
B. Assist in controlling critical operations such as well kill operations using a choke.
C. Monitor critical parameters such as pressure during closed in periods and trip tank level during tripping
and stripping operations
For well control, there is a necessity for more accurate instrumentation than for normal drilling operations.
The level of instrumentation on every rig must be evaluated in order to assess its suitability for well control
purposes.
Equipment failure is most likely when the equipment is highly stressed. Therefore it is important that the installed
instrumentation is reliable and a suitable level of back-up instrumentation and control equipment is on site.
5.1.2 Pressure Gauges

Each rig is normally equipped with gauges to read the pressures on the standpipe and the wellhead. These
gauges are generally oil-filled, reliable, but not very accurate and therefore not suitable for well control
operations.
The gauges required for well-control must be of the same pressure rating as the well control equipment on the
rig. They must also be very accurate in order to read the low pressures as well.
Accurate gauges should be located at the drillers console as well as at the choke panel.
General:
Gauges must be readable from the choke manifold if manual chokes are to be used.
It must be possible to easily install and remove low range pressure gauges at the choke panel and at the
choke manifold.
The proposed systems can also be used for measuring slow circulating rate pressures (SCRs).
The following points should be noted from the proposed systems:
A good selection of gauges should be available. Gauges should be calibrated on a regular basis with a Dead
Weight Tester. It is suggested that the gauges are checked at each BOP Test and at this stage the pressure
monitors in the mud logging unit should be checked against the rig equipment
It must be easy to change the gauges
Consideration should be given to completely isolating the supplementary pressure monitoring system from
that originally fitted to the rig. This would ensure that the original system was closed and hence in no way
susceptible to leaking needle valves or misuse of the supplementary system
Sensitive low pressure rated gauges should be removed from the system unless required. The piping and
manifolding should be permanently installed. It would be a good idea to fabricate a cover for the manifolding
at the choke manifold and choke panel
The gauges that are used to measure the slow circulating rate pressures should be used to monitor well
pressures in the event a kick is taken.
PVD Training | 5.1 Rig Instrumentation and Control Guidelines 4

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5.1.3 Fluid Measurement

The drillers console has gauge which read the pit volume totalizer (PVT). There is another gauge on the drillers
console which reads the deviation of the storage tank contents; it measures the gains and losses. This gauge is
equipped with an alarm, which can be set for a certain amount of loss and gains. This alarm is used by the driller
during drilling operations and is usually set at +/- 5 bbls.
A flowmeter, which is normally installed in the mud return flow line, measures a percentage of the flow through
the flowline. The flowmeter gauge is located on the drillers console and is also equipped with an alarm which can
be set to indicate return flow changes of, for example, +/- 10 %.
Mud pump stroke counters are used to measure the circulation rate and displacement of the mud during several
drilling operations. The stroke counter is usually installed on the drillers console. For well killing purposes, a mud
pump stroke counter is installed on the Choke Panel.
The trip tank is a measuring devise used to measure the displacement volume of the drill pipe or other tubulars
being run in or pulled out of the well bore. The tank is usually installed close to the drill floor. The measuring
devise can be mechanical or acoustic and a display will be a gauge on the drillers console or a level indicator
somewhere on the drill floor as shown in Figure 5.1
Fig 5.1
The trip tank can also be used with stripping operations together with a stripping tank.
The stripping tank is used to measure small volumes and API RP 53 recommends that the accuracy of the
measurements during a stripping operation must be half a barrel.
Although there are different ways of accurately measuring fluids during stripping operations, the most
satisfactory arrangement is to use a strip tank as shown in Figure 5.2
This strip tank has a capacity of 3 to 4 bbls which can measure very small volumes.
After bleeding into the strip tank, the tank contents can be emptied into the trip tank, where the total volume of
fluid, bled from the well, can be measured.

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Suggested Fluid Measurement System

Fig 5.2
5.1.4 Gas Measurement

Mud Gas Analysis
Gases circulated from the well in the drilling fluid are usually detected by a gas trap such as the one shown in
Figure 5.3. A vacuum hose draws a mixture of air and gas from the gas trap to a gas detector. An agitator is
usually built into the gas trap to increase the gas-trap efficiency. Gas-trap efficiency is defined as the percentage
of gas in the mud that is removed and transmitted to the gas detector.
The hot wire gas detector employs a catalytic filament that responds to all the combustible gases present. Some
of the newer units employ a hydrogen flame detector in place of the hot wire detector. The gas recorder usually is
scaled in terms of arbitrary gas units, which are defined by the various gas-detector manufacturers. In practice,
significance is placed only on relative changes in the gas concentrations detected. An analysis of the
composition of the gases removed from the mud is made by means of a gas chromatograph.

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Fig 5.3 Gas Trap
5.2.1 General
The Well Control operations are carried out as per well control operations plan. The plan includes the allocation
of individual responsibilities and in case of serious problems, contingency operations.
The Well Control operations plan is rig specific and is made up by the drilling contractor and adapted to comply
with Operator policy and procedures.
Refer to Operator bridging document.
The effectiveness of the Well Control operations plan can be assessed during Well Control drills.
5.2.2 Individual Responsibilities

The Well Control operations plan must allocate the responsibilities of all those concernedin the operation.
Circumstances at the rig site may dictate that these responsibilities bemodified in the event of an incident
covered by the contingency operations, however, the following can be used as guidelines for the allocation of
responsibilities for Well Control operations:
The Operator Company Drilling Representative

Ensures that all the crews are properly trained
Organise a pre-kill meeting for all those involved in the well control operation
Provides specific well control procedures, using the well control guidelines
Implement and supervise these procedures
To be present on the drill floor at the start of the kill operation. Either the Toolpusher or the Operator
Company Drilling Representative should be present at all times on the drill floor during the kill operation
To maintain communication with the Operations base if possible
The Drilling Representative has the right to assume complete control of the work required to regain control
of the well. Reference bridging document
To assign the responsibility of keeping a diary of events
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Note:
In the unlikely event that the well gets out of control, the Drilling Representative has the right to assume complete
control and supervise the work required to regain full control of the well. Reference the bridging document
between contractor and operator.
The Drilling Engineer

Will provide technical back-up to the Drilling Representative
To keep a diary of events
The Senior Contractor Representative

Has the overall responsibility for all actions taken on the rig. Refer to bridging document
Has the responsibility for supervising the contractor staff that are not directly involved in the well control
operation
The Contractor Toolpusher

Has overall responsibility for the execution of the well control operation
Has the responsibility for ensuring that the driller and the drill crew are correctly deployed during the well
control operation
Must be present at the drill floor during the start of the kill operation. Either the Toolpusher or the Operator
Company Representative should be present at all times on the rig floor during the operation
Has the responsibility for briefing the off duty drill crew prior to starting a new shift
The Driller
The Mud Engineer
Has the responsibility for the initial detection of the kick and closing in the well
Has the responsibility for supervising the drill crew during the well control operation
Has continuous responsibility for monitoring the mud system and the conditioning of the mud
It is advisable to have a second Mud Engineer on the rig.
The Cementing Engineer

When drilling through the reservoir or when anticipating higher formation pressures
Will ensure that the cement unit is ready for operation at any time
Will operate the cement unit at the discretion of the Drilling Representative
The Subsea Engineer (where appropriate)

Should be available for consultation at all times during the well control operation
Has the responsibility for checking all the BOP equipment during the operation
The Mud Logging Engineers

Have the responsibility for continuously monitoring the circulating system and the mud density during the
well control operation

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One member of the crew must keep a diary of events

The Drilling Representative informs the relevant persons with the following information:
Maximum Allowable Annual Shut in pressure (MAASP)
Maximum Allowable casing pressure
5.2.3 Communication
It is good practice to have a Well Control meeting with all personnel involved prior to drilling into a reservoir or
when anticipating higher formation pressures.
One of the Drilling Representatives responsibilities is to organise a pre-kill meeting once the well has been shut-
in. The purpose of this meeting is to ensure that all those involved in the supervision and execution of the well
control operation are briefed with the details of the plan that will be used to kill the well. Any amendments to the
execution plan can be made at that meeting.
Experience has shown that even the most well known well control procedures can go badly wrong if
communication before and during the operation is not properly organised.
The objectives of good communication are:
To ensure that all information relevant to the well control operation is communicated to the Drilling
Representative.
To ensure that those involved in the supervision of the operation are at all times in communication with the
Drilling Representative.
To ensure that all those involved in the operation are aware of the line and method of communication that
they should use.
To ensure that communication equipment on the rig is adequate, and is used during the well control
operation in the most effective manner possible.
Note: There is no time for a pre-kill meeting when there is Shallow Gas. Training and discussions about Shallow
Gas Procedures must be performed prior to spudding the well. All personnel involved must know their duties when
shallow gas appears.
Figure 5.6 shows an example of a possible communication system on a semi - submersible rig for use during
standard well control operations. The following can be noted from this example:
After the kick is taken, the well is shut-in and closely monitored
The Drilling Representative calls a pre-kill meeting of those involved in the supervision of the operation
Responsibilities are allocated to those involved in the operation by the supervisors who attended the
meeting
Each line and method of communication is defined. It should be noted that:
The rig telephone system is not overloaded
The most important lines of communication to and from the Drilling
Representative (denoted by those inside the broken line) are best maintained with the use of hand held
radios
The use of intrinsically safe hand held radios ensures that all those inside the broken line can listen in on
each others communication.

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Fig 5.4 Flowchart of Communication System

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5.3.1 General
Shutting in the well quickly to minimize the size of the influx is a very important procedure in successful well
control. Drilling crews can only become proficient in performing this method correctly through training and
practice. The Operator Company Drilling Representative should ensure that the Contract Toolpusher administers
training in kick detection and shut-in procedures until proficiency is demonstrated. The training must be done
frequently enough so that shutting in the well becomes automatic whenever a kick is detected.
The Drilling Representative can judge the crew's level of shut-in proficiency through the use of pit drills and trip
drills that are coordinated with the Contract Toolpusher. Proper drills and training can prevent a panic situation
and provide the necessary experience if a kick should occur. The following information describes how to conduct
drills and provides a basis for crew evaluation.
5.3.2 BOP Drills

The purpose of BOP Drills is to familiarise the drill crews with techniques that will be implemented in the event of
a kick.
The most important fact that influences the wellbore pressures after a kick is taken is the volume of the influx.
The smaller the influx, the less severe will be the pressures during the well kill operation. Therefore, it is most
important that the drill crew react quickly to any sign that an influx may have occurred and promptly execute the
prescribed control procedure. Drills should be designed to reduce the time that the crew take to implement these
procedures.
The relevant Drills should be carried out as often as is necessary, and as hole conditions permit, until the Drilling
Representative and the Contractor Toolpusher are satisfied that every member of the drill crew is familiar with
the entire operation.
Every effort must be made to ensure that the drill is carried out in the most realistic manner possible. Where
practical, there should be no difference between the drill and actual control procedures.
Once satisfactory standards have been achieved, the drills should be held at least once per week per crew. If
standards fall unacceptably, the Drilling Representative should specify that the Drills are conducted more
frequently.
The following drills should be practised where applicable:
D1 Tripping
D2 Drilling
D3 Diverter
D4 Accumulator
D5 Well Kill
These codes should be used to record the results of the drill on the BOP Drill Record Proforma. This form should
be sent to the Drilling Superintendent on completion of the drill. The execution of each drill must also be recorded
on the IADC Drilling Report.
5.3.3 D1: Kick While Tripping

The trip drill is designed to train the drilling crews in recognizing and responding to kick indications that occur
while tripping pipe. Like the pit drill, the trip drill is useful for both teaching and testing purposes.
Note: This Drill should only be conducted when the BHA is inside the last casing string.
The trip drill is supervised by the Contract Toolpusher with the compliance of the Drilling Representative.
PVD Training | 5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates 11

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Frequency of Trip Drills:

When a new rig is picked up, trip drills should be conducted during each trip (both while pulling out and going into
the hole) while the bit is up in the casing. When the crew becomes proficient, trip drills should be conducted at
least once weekly per crew if conditions allow.
Trip Drill Procedure

1. The Toolpusher simulates the kick by raising a float in the trip tank, and makes note of the time. The Drilling
Representative should assist in observing the crew and recording completion times.
2. The Driller must lower the stand and install the lower Kelly cock in the open position.
3. Close the Kelly cock and prepare to shut-in the well using the approved Operator Compnay Shut-in Procedure
While Tripping. This will include spacing out the drillpipe.
4. After the safety valve is installed and the Driller is ready to close the preventers, the Drilling Representative
should announce to the Driller that the exercise is only a drill and that it is not necessary to close the
preventers.
The time should be noted when the Driller is prepared to shut the well in.
5. Members of the drilling crew should proceed with their assigned duties and report back to the rig floor upon
completion.
These duties may include:

Driller:
Shut the well in (simulated).
Record casing pressure and drillpipe pressure after installation of Kelly or Topdrive
Record time
Measure trip tank gain
Driller prepares for stripping in
Floor Hand #1:
Check accumulator pressures and pumps
Check BOP stack for leaks.
Floor Hand #2:
Stab inside BOP. Open safety valve.
Assist Driller on rig floor
Floor Hand #3:
Assist Floor Hand #2
Derrickman:
Report to Driller
5.3.4 D2: Kick While Drilling

The purpose of this Drill is to familiarise the crew with the control procedure that will be implemented in the event
of a kick while drilling.
This Drill may be conducted either in open or cased hole. However if the drill is conducted when the drillstring is
in openhole, the well will not be shut-in.

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When the pipe is on bottom, the following procedure can be used as a guideline for the drill:
(1) Without prior notice, Drilling Representative gradually increases the apparent pit level by manually raising the
float.
(2) The Driller is expected to detect the pit gain and take the following steps:
(a) Pick up the kelly (or topdrive) until the tool joint clears the BOPs and the kelly cock is just above the rotary
table.
(b) Shut down the pumps.
(c) Check the well for flow.
(d) Demonstrate readiness/ability to effect shut-in.
(e) Report to the Drilling Representative.
(f) Record the time required for the crew to react and conduct the drill on the IADC drilling report.
Therefore after tripping the bit to the shoe, the following procedure may be used as a guideline for this Drill:
(1) Stop tripping operations and install the kelly (or topdrive) and start circulating.
(2) Having been instructed by the Drilling Representative, the Driller is expected to take the following steps to
shut-in the well:
(a) Space out Pull-up until the tool joint clears the BOPs.
(b) Shut down the pumps.
(c) Close the annular preventer.
(d) Record the casing and drillpipe pressure.
(e) Record pit gain and hole depth
(f) Record the time taken for the crew to shut-in the well (simulated) on the IADC drilling report.
(g) Drill Rep should monitor actual behaviours to assess competence.
5.3.5 D3: Diverter Drill

If shallow gas is encountered and the well kicks, blowout conditions may develop very quickly. It is therefore
important that crew initiate control procedures as soon as possible in the event of a shallow gas kick.
Diverter drills should therefore be carried out to minimise the reaction time of the crews.
A further objective of the drill is to check that all diverter equipment is functioning correctly.
A diverter drill should be carried out prior to drilling with returns to rig.
Drills should be designed in line with the specific procedure that will be used in the event of a shallow gas kick.
The Contractor Toolpusher must ensure that the drill crew, and marine staff (offshore), are correctly deployed
during the drill and that each individual understands his responsibilities.
The time recorded in the log should be the time elapsed from initiation of the drill until the rig crew (and marine
staff) are ready to initiate the diverter procedures.
Procedure:
1. Check wind direction before opening the diverter line
2. Open the diverter line
3. Close the diverter
4. Check mud line routing
5. Prepare to pump heavy mud.

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Floaters:
1. Evacuate all non-essential personnel
2. Prepare to move off location
5.3.6 D4: Accumulator Drill

Accumulator drills are designed to verify that the accumulator/closing system is in good working order and that it
is properly sized for the particular blowout preventer stack in use. Accumulator performance must be proven with
an accumulator drill when the blowout preventers are first installed (which verifies proper sizing), and every week
thereafter in conjunction with the weekly BOP pressure tests that check for hydraulic leaks.
Results of the accumulator drill, including closing times of the rams and annular preventer, as well as initial and
final accumulator pressures, are to be reported on the Blowout Preventer Test and Equipment Checklist." A
notation should also be made on the tour report that an accumulator drill was conducted.
Accumulator drills must be conducted when the drillpipe is not in open hole, but up in the casing. At least one
joint of drillpipe must be in the hole for the pipe rams to close on.
The Drilling Representative and contract Toolpusher should witness all accumulator drills, but the Toolpusher is
responsible for the actual supervision of the drill.
Surface Accumulator Drill Procedure

1. Turn off all accumulator pressurizing pumps.
2. Record the initial accumulator, manifold, and annular pressures.
3. Close all of the preventers (except the blind rams). Substitute a reopening of a pipe ram to simulate the blind
ram closure when applicable. Open the HCR valve.
4 Measure and record the closing times for each preventer with a stopwatch.
5. Record the final accumulator, manifold, and annular pressures.
6. To pass the accumulator test, all BOPs must have closed in less than 30 seconds with at least:
a. 1,500 psi accumulator pressure remaining in a 3,000 psi accumulator.
b. 1,385 psi accumulator pressure remaining in a 2,000 psi accumulator.
c. 1,285 psi accumulator pressure remaining in a 1,500 psi accumulator.
Note:
a) Equipment that does not meet these requirements either has insufficient capacity, insufficient precharge, or
needs repair.
b) Closing time for annular preventers 20" or larger should not exceed 45 seconds.
7. Observe the remaining pressure for at least 5 minutes to detect any possible ram piston seal leaks.
8. Re-open the BOP and turn the accumulator pump(s) back on.
9. Record / assess time required for system to re-charge to system pressure.
5.3.7 D5: Well Kill Drill

The objective of this drill is to give drill crews the most realistic type of well control training and a feel for the
equipment and procedures that they would use to kill a well.
This drill should be carried out prior to drilling out the intermediate and production strings. It should never be
carried out when openhole sections are exposed. The following procedure is recommended:
(1) Run in hole and tag the top of cement.

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(2) Pull back one stand and install the kelly (or install topdrive).
(3) Break circulation and establish slow circulating rate pressures.
(Consider circulating bottoms up prior to this if the annulus may contain contaminated mud).
(4) Carry out standard BOP Drill D2, resulting in the well being shut-in.
(5) Consider applying low pressure to the casing (typically 200 psi), bring the pump up to kill speed controlling
the drillpipe pressure according to a predetermined schedule.
It is important that this opportunity to circulate across a choke is used to maximum effect. A drillpipe pressure
schedule should be drawn up and carefully adhered to.
It is important that the choke operator develops a feel for the lag time between manipulation of the choke and its
subsequent effect on the drillpipe pressure. The lag time should be recorded, so that it can be used for reference
should a kick be taken in the next hole section.
5.3.8 D6: Stripping Drill

A stripping drill is performed prior to drilling out of the casing shoe after the BOP has been installed and tested. It
will only be done with the joint agreement of the Toolpusher and the Drilling Representative.
A pre-stripping meeting should be held with a minimum of the Drilling Representative, Rig Toolpusher, on-shift
Driller, AD and Derrickman in attendance.
The recommended procedure for stripping is as follows:
(1) Run in hole with the drilling assembly until the bit is +/- 10 stands above the floatcollar or at a pre-agreed
depth. (In case of a floater in deep water ensure that drillpipe is below the BOP.)
(2) Install the full opening drillpipe safety valve. Close the valve.
(3) Install inside BOP and open safety valve
(4) Open the choke line valves to a closed choke and close the (upper) annular preventer. The well is now shut
in. This is the same procedure as used for trip drills.
(5) Make up the topdrive(Kelly) and open the drillpipe safety valve.
(6) Bump the float for the purpose of recording the shut-in drillpipe pressure.
(7) Open the choke and circulate until returns are seen in the triptank. This ensures that you have a correct line
up and all the line are full from the choke manifold to the triptank. Close the choke.
(8) Pressure up the well to a value agreed between the Toolpusher and Company Representatives. This will
normally be 400 to 500 psi. Close the drillpipe safety valve. Bleed off above to ensure it is holding, then
remove the top drive (Kelly).Alternatively, you may pressure up the well via the kill line, keeping the full
opening safety valve closed. This will eliminate the need for breaking a connection with pressure below the
valve.
The Toolpusher and Driller are to ensure that a stripping worksheet is completed with bit depth, pressure and trip
tank level recorded. Assign responsibilities.
(9) Agree an increase in the annulus pressure for the following:
o Choke handling safety factor (e.g. 50 psi)
o A working pressure increase for gas expansion (e.g.50psi)
o An allowance for drill string entering an influx (e.g. 25psi). These will be added to the initial shut-in annulus
pressure when stripping commences.
(10) Reduce annular closing pressure to a minimum to prevent leakage as directed by the Toolpusher. Open
surge bottle, if fitted.

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(11) Commence stripping in the drill pipe at a lowering speed of approx. 30ft/min.The operator on the choke is
to allow the pressure to increase to the initial calculated value as per the worksheet. Once this value has
been reached, the choke operator is to bleed off fluid to maintain this value as the driller lowers each stand.
As the slips are set, the choke operator will close in the choke, maintaining the calculated value.
Note: The Driller to note the string weight loss to strip the pipe through the annular, also string weight loss for
tool joints to pass the annular. This is useful information to have in the case of an actual stripping operation.
(12) Strip two or three more stands in the hole with the choke operator bleeding off fluid to maintain the
calculated pressure as the Driller is lowering the stand.
Note: For surface BOPs, ensure that the tong marks on the tool joints are made smooth prior to lowering the
drillpipe. This is to minimize the damage to the annular rubber.
Consideration should be given to stripping additional stands if required for the drill crew to establish a routine
pattern when stripping. Enter the relevant data on the stripping worksheet after each stand has been run.
(13) Bleed off all annulus pressure and open annular preventor.
(14) Pull back and remove the drill pipe safety valve. Line up all well control equipment back to normal set up for
drilling.
(15) Have a post-stripping meeting with all concerned discussing all aspects of the drill.
5.3.9 Pit Drill

Refer to section 5.3.4
5.3.10 Slow Circulating Pressures, SCRs

There are many reasons why a kick should be displaced from the hole at a rate that is considerably slower than
that used during normal drilling. These include:
o To minimise the pressure exerted on the openhole
o To allow weighting of the mud as the kick is displaced
o To permit adequate degassing of the returned mud
o To limit the speed of required choke adjustments
o To reduce the pressure exerted on well control equipment
All these factors must be taken into account when deciding at what rate to displace the kick.
However the absolute upper limit for the displacement rate may be restricted by the pressure rating of the
surface equipment and in particular the setting of the pump relief valve. The pumping volume can be limited by
the sizing of the mud gas separator.
In order to estimate the circulating pressures during the displacement of a kick, it is necessary to know the
friction pressure in the circulating system at low rates. For this reason, it is useful to have determined the SCR
pressure before a kick is taken.
At a given rate of circulation, the initial circulating pressure can be estimated from the sum of the shut-in drillpipe
pressure and the SCR pressure at the selected kill rate.
Company policy normally requires that SCRs should be conducted regularly and at least:
o Once per tour (or at 1000 ft intervals during the tour)
o When the bit is changed
o When the BHA is changed
o When the mud weight or properties are changed

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Volumetric efficiency is not an issue during slow circulating rates due to the modern pre-charged pumps. Refer to
SCR pressure plot in Figure 5.5
SCR Pressure Plot

Fig 5.5
A graph similar to the SCR pressure plot above aids the selection of circulation rates other than these actually
measured. It also provides a guide to the size of the annulus circulating losses over a range of circulation rates.
5.4.1 General
Well control contingency plans should outline the manner in which the mud system will be utilised during
standard well control operations.
Note: Refer to Section 9 for the general Mud System.
5.4.2 Pit Management

The following guidelines should be considered when specifying pit arrangements:
While Drilling a Critical Hole Section
o Keep the active mud system surface area as small as is practical to ease kick detection. Any reserve mud
stocks in the tanks should be positively isolated from the active system. Ensure that the gates on the trough
are sealing properly
o Adequate reserve stocks of mud should be held; the volume and weight of which will be determined by the
nature of the next hole section
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o Ensure all pit level systems and tank isolating valves are working correctly before drilling into possible gas-
bearing zones
o Keep all mud treatments and pit transfers to the absolute minimum at critical sections of the well. Ensure that
the Driller and the Mud Logging Engineer are aware in advance of any changes to the system.
o Crew safety meetings should discuss the problem of gas kicks, especially if oil based mud is in use, and
emphasise the importance of early detection. Mud engineering and mud logging personnel should attend
these meetings.
When Displacing a Kick

The major factors that will determine the most satisfactory pit arrangement for displacing a kick include the
following:
o The technique that will be used to displace the kick.
o The usable surface pit volume in relation to the hole volume.
o The method of weighing up the mud.
o How to deal with the kick when it is displaced to the surface.
o How to deal with the pit gain caused by influx expansion during displacement.
o How to deal with contaminated returns.
o The nature and toxicity of the influx fluid
o The monitoring of pit levels in the active system
o The kick can be displaced from the hole using the Wait and Weight Method orthe Drillers Method. The most
satisfactory arrangement of the pits will be different for each technique and clearly will be rig-specific. There
are three different stages at which the mud can be weighted up for these three techniques:
o The Wait and Weight Method:
In a typical situation when it is impractical to weight up a complete hole volume prior to displacement of the
kick. This will therefore entail that some mud is weighted while the kick is displaced from the hole. The
volume that is weighted prior to displacement of the kick will depend, for a given hole capacity, on the rate at
which barite can be added into the system in relation to the desired rate of displacement
In the unusual situation when there is adequate surface volume, a complete hole volume of kill mud can be
prepared before displacement of the kick
o The Drillers Method:
In this case the mud is weighted either while the kick is displaced with original weight mud or after the first
circulation depending on the availability of barite and tank space
5.4.3 Building Mud Weight

Barite Delivery to the Mud Pits
The rate at which barite can be added to the original mud influences the time required to increase the weight of a
volume of mud. For this reason it is important to measure the rate at which both the conventional hopper system
and the high rate system (if fitted) can supply barite.
If the Drillers Method is used this will determine the time required to build the mud weight after the kick has been
displaced from the hole.
If the Wait and Weight Method is used, the maximum rate at which barite can be supplied to the mud will:
o Determine the time required to weight the hole volume of mud before the kick is displaced
o Or it may limit the rate at which the kick can be displaced, if the mud is weighted as the kick is displaced.

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The maximum rate at which the mud can be weighted can be determined for a given required mud weight
increase from the following formula:
Maximum possible rate at which the mud can be weighted bbl/min =
Therefore for the following example:

Required mud weight increase = 1.7 ppg (from 12.5 ppg to 14.2)

Barite required = = 126 lb/bbl
If the maximum barite delivery rate for the rig = 350 lb/min
Then:
Maximum rate at which the mud can be weighted = = 2.8 bbl/min
This figure therefore gives an indication of the maximum displacement rate if the mud is weighted as the kick is
displaced from the hole.
Barite Storage
When possible at least one full barite storage tank should be pressured up at all times and the bulk delivery
system tested regularly.
Building Viscosity into the Mud

There may be well control situations which require that considerable volumes of weighted mud are built from a
water or oil base. This may be the case in the following situations:
o If considerable losses are experienced
o If the required volume of kill weight mud is greater than the surface stocks of active and reserve weighted
mud
o If the returns are severely contaminated and have to be dumped
The limiting factor for an oil base mud may be the rate at which viscosity can be built into the base oil. Building
viscosity is usually a less important factor when water base muds are used.
Shear equipment is required for building viscosity using clay viscosifiers in new base oil.
Some offshore rigs have jet line mixers to help build viscosity.
In circumstances in which large volumes of new oil mud must be built, it would be useful to know the rate at
which new mud can be sheared to a level at which barite can be suspended. This rate is determined by shearing
a known volume of new mud until the minimum viscosity is reached. As a guideline, the minimum viscosity would
be represented by a yield point of 10, and a 10 second gel reading of 3.
In emergency situations, viscosity can be built quickly using an oil mud polymer (Baroids LFR 2000 as an
example) at 4 lb/bbl in conjunction with organophilic clays. However, it is recognised that these polymers can
cause high temperature gelation of the mud, and as such, they are not recommended for use in high temperature
wells.
Volume Increase Due to Barite Addition

The volume of a given amount of mud will increase as barite is added to it. This may be significant when large
mud weight increase is required in a large volume of mud.
The volume increase due to barite addition can be determined from the following relationship:
Volume increase = 1.48 bbl per standard US unit calculations of barite added.

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Therefore in the following situation:

The required addition of barite = 200 lb/bbl
Volume to weight up = 600 bbl
Volume increase due to barite addition: = x 1.48 = 80 bbl
5.4.4 Dealing with Gas at Surface

It is important that suitable equipment is available on the rig to deal with the influx once it is displaced to surface.
Returns should be piped through the mud gas separator and then on to the degasser for further treatment.
The Degasser
The degasser should be lined up at all times during the well control operation.
The degasser is designed to remove the small bubbles of gas that are left in the mud after the mud has been
through the mud gas separator.
It is important that the degasser is working properly and as such it should be tested every tour. While drilling with
gas cut returns, the degasser can be checked as follows:
(1) Measure actual (gas cut) mud weight at the shaker header box using a non pressurised mud balance.
(2) Measure actual mud weight at the degasser outlet using a non pressurized mud balance.
If the actual mud weight at the outlet of the degasser is greater than the actual mud weight at the inlet, then the
degasser is working. If the mud weight at this stage is not equal to the active system mud weight, then either
the degasser is not working properly, or the returns are at a lower weight than the mud in the active system. If
the actual mud weight measured at this stage is equal to the active system mud weight, then the degasser is
working properly.
(3) Measure mud weight at the degasser outlet and the shaker header box using a pressurised mud balance. If
the actual mud weight at the outlet of the degasser is equal to the reading on the pressurised mud balance, the
degasser has removed all the gas from the mud. Refer to section 9 Mud System sub-section 9.4 degassers.
Overboard Lines/Flare Lines

It is recommended that a second method of dealing with severely gas cut returns be available at the rigsite,
whether on land or offshore. This will generally be either an overboard line, or a flare line to the burn pit on land.
It should be easy to switch the returns from the mud system to the flare line. It may be. necessary to use the flare
line during a well control operation in the following situations:
o The gas flowrate is too high for the mud gas separator.
o Hydrates are forming in the gas vent line from the mud gas separator.
o The gas is found to contain H2S.
o The mud system is overloaded.
Lines that are required to handle high velocity gas must be as straight as possible to minimise erosion. Significant
erosion is likely to occur in the path of high velocity gas and solids, therefore the redundancy in flowlines and
manifolds downstream of the choke must be analysed on all rigs.

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5.4.5 Chemical Stocks

Barite and Mud Chemical Stocks
Details of the minimum stocks of barite and mud chemicals that should be held at the rigsite are subject to
company policy but are generically:
Sufficient weighting material stocks must be maintained on site such that the entire mud circulating volume can
be raised by a minimum of 2.0 ppg.
Reserve stocks of bentonite or viscosifier must also be on site to enable this increase in mud weight to be
effected.
Where transport and logistics are not assured (offshore and remote locations) the minimum onsite weighting
material stock must be 100 tons but depends on logistics, storage and anticipated well problems.
Cement Stocks
Cement stocks should not drop below the quantity of cement and additives that will be required to set two 500 ft
cement plugs in the hole section being drilled.
Additionally, in high pressure wells, an abandonment plug recipe should be onsite prior to drilling into the
reservoir. Batch mix tanks should also be onsite during the drilling of such reservoir sections.
Refer to Operator Company policy for all chemical stock and applications.
5.5.1 Formation Pressure Prediction before Drilling

In well planning, the formation pore pressure data have the greatest utility if they are available as early as
possible. Several early decisions are made at this phase which is directly influenced by the pore pressure profile
for the well to be drilled.
The casing and mud programs depend on the magnitude of the expected pore pressure as well as the well head
and BOP equipment design. In some cases the pressure profile can ultimately influence the rig selection.
There are usually two sources of well pressure data for the well being planned: geophysical/geological data and
offset well data. The preferable source would be offset well data but in instances where there are no offset wells
or it is considered that the offset wells are too far away to be relevant then seismic analysis would have to be
used to predict the pore pressure.
Seismic Data
Seismic data is used in the exploration phase to map and identify potential reservoir traps and to estimate
formation tops in the lithological column. It can also be used to give a quantitative estimate of the formation
pressure and hence an indication of any pore pressure abnormalities.
Offshore seismic data is also used to try and determine the possible presence of shallow gas bearing sands. In
this case a high resolution seismic is performed which usually investigate formations down to a depth of some
3500 ft below the sea-bed.
5.5.2 Estimation of Formation Pressure While Drilling

The aim of formation pressure evaluation while drilling is to determine the optimum mud weight to contain any
formation pore pressures encountered, while maximising rates of penetration and minimising the hazards of lost
circulation and drillstring differential sticking. To achieve this, formation properties have to be closely monitored in
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order to detect any changes that may indicate the transition from a normally pressured zone to an abnormally
pressured zone or vice-versa.
Abnormally pressured zones may exhibit several of the following properties when compared to normally
pressured zones at the same depths:
o Higher porosities
o Higher temperatures
o Lower formation water salinity
o Lower bulk densities
o Lower shale resistivities
o Higher interval sonic velocities
o Hydrocarbon saturations may be different (ie higher saturation)
Any measurable parameter which reflects the changes in these properties may be used as a means of evaluating
formation pressures. The parameters listed above are commonly used to evaluate formation pressures while
drilling, however; they also vary with differing lithologies. Lithological variations should always be taken into
account when interpreting changes in drilling and mud parameters.The aim of formation pressure evaluation
while drilling is to reduce the risk of taking well kicks, this section concentrates on the techniques used to achieve
this.
Rate of Penetration
Rate of penetration varies with the weight on the bit, rotary speed, bit type and size, hydraulics, drilling fluid
properties and formation characteristics. If the weight on bit, rotary speed, bit type, mud density and hydraulics
are held constant, and then the rate of penetration (ROP) in shales will decrease uniformly with depth. This is
due to the normal compaction increase in shales with depth.
However, the undercompaction present in transition and abnormally pressured zones, together with the reduction
in differential pressures across the bottom of the hole, result in an increase in penetration rate. It should also be
noted that slower penetration rates have often been observed in the cap rock (pressure seal) overlying transition
zones.
The increase in ROP on drilling into a transition zone can be best seen on a plot of ROP versus depth. The
average ROP over 1.5 ft to 6 ft depth increments (depending on whether the drilling is slow or fast) is plotted as
shown in Figure 5.6. A normal compaction trend can be established in shales as shown. A new trendline must be
established for each new bit run. An increase in penetration rate away from the normal compaction trend may
indicate abnormal pressures provided that the drilling and mud parameters, and lithology, remain constant.

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Example showing Increase in Penetration Rate on Entering an Abnormally High Pressure Zone
Fig 5.6
Complications arise due to lithology changes and bit dulling. Sandstone usually drills much faster than shales.
This is normally shown by a sharp increase in ROP as the sandstone is penetrated. This effect, known as a
drilling break is shown schematically in Figure 5.7. The normal compaction trend must be established over the
shale sections only.
Drilling breaks must always be flow checked regardless of whether the current estimated pore pressure gradient
is less that the mud weight. Occasionally, the transition zone may be only a few metres thick if there is a very
good pressure seal.
This may make it very difficult to identify an increase in ROP as being one due to increased pore pressure,
because it may be masked by a drilling break.

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Fig 5.7 - Effect of Lithology Variation on Penetration Rate
Bit dulling can also mask penetration rate changes due to pore pressure increases. A comparison of ROP curves
in an overpressured section for a dull bit and a sharp bit are shown in Figure 5.8 The dull bit continues to show
the normal compaction trend in the transition zone while the sharp bit clearly shows a gradual increase in ROP.
The dull bit ROP may even show a decrease in the overpressured zone if the bit is very worn and close to being
pulled.
In practice, drilling parameters are rarely held constant, as they are purposefully varied in order to maximise the
penetration rate. Thus, ROP curves alone tend to be of limited use in identifying overpressured zones. They may,
however, provide additional information when used in conjunction with other abnormal pressure indicators.
Drilling Exponents:
Mud loggers can provide detailed analysis to help locate transition zones as shown in Figure 5.8 sample log.

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Fig 5.8 - Schematic Diagrams showing Various Typical dc-exponent Responses

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Hole Characteristics
Drag and Torque
Drag is the excess hook load over the free hanging load required to move the drillstring up the hole. Drag may be
caused by bit and stabiliser balling, dog legs, insufficient hole cleaning, etc, and also by overpressure effects in
shales. Overpressured shales often behave plastically and creep into the borehole. This reduces the wellbore
diameter and will cause an increase in drag as the bit/stabilisers are moved up through the section.
In an underbalanced drilling situation, an increased volume of cuttings may come into the wellbore. This may
result in an increase in drag when picking up the drillstring to make a connection, especially if the cuttings are not
circulated above the drillcollars prior to picking up. Normal drag after drilling new hole is usually of the order of
10,000 to 20,000lb, depending on the hole and BHA geometries. Consistent drag values much higher than this
may indicate borehole instability caused by abnormal pressures. In deviated holes however, consistently higher
drag will invariably be seen.
Torque usually increases gradually with depth due to the increase in wall-to-wall contact between the drillstring
and borehole. This is only applicable for rotary drilling (from the top) and not when drilling with mud motors or
turbines; However the drill string will be rotated with slow RPM when using mud motors or turbines if no sliding
takes place.
If underbalanced conditions exist then an increase in torque may be observed due to excess cuttings entering
the hole. A reduced wellbore diameter caused by overpressured shales may also result in an increased torque,
especially if full gauge stabilisers are being used.
Torque can be useful in detecting large increases in pore pressures, for example when crossing a fault line into
overpressured formations. However, sudden large increases in torque can also be caused by a locked cone on
the bit, a sudden change in formation type, and by stabilisers hanging up on hard stringers.
Both torque and drag are not considered to be valid overpressure indicators when drilling high angle deviated
holes. Also, increases in torque due to abnormal pressures are difficult to distinguish from the normal torque
increase with depth. When drilling from a floating rig the vessel motion and varying offset from the wellhead tend
to produce significant torque fluctuations that make interpretation very difficult.
Conclusion:
Drag and Torque may not be a good indicator for overpressures but is a good well control indicator for potential
swab and surge indicators during tripping.
Hole Fill
Hole fill after making a connection or after a trip out of the hole may indicate abnormal pressures. As discussed
above, overpressured shales may squeeze into the wellbore and reduce its diameter. Then, as the bit is run in
the hole to bottom after a connection or trip, it removes the shale which is pushed to the bottom of the hole.
Cavings caused by underbalance conditions may also enter the wellbore during a connection or a trip and cause
hole fill.
Hole fill may also be the result of insufficient hole cleaning caused by poor mud properties, or by not circulating
all the cuttings out of the hole prior to tripping.
However, any excessive hole fill after making a connection or a trip should be noted and other abnormal
pressure indicators evaluated to determine if overpressures are actually being encountered.
Mud Parameters - Gas Levels
Hydrocarbon gases enter the mud system from various sources during the drilling of a well. The gases in the
return mud stream are extracted from the mud for analysis in the mud logging unit. There is no quantitative
correlation between measured gas levels and formation pressure. However, changes in gas levels can be
accounted for by relating them to the actual drilling operation in progress (drilling, tripping etc) and the mud
weight in use. Tentative pore pressure estimates may then be made.

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The main sources of gas in the mud system are:

Gas liberated from drilled cuttings.
Gas flowing into the wellbore due to underbalanced conditions.
The gas levels from these sources are dependent upon the formation gas saturations, the mud weight and the
particular drilling operation.
Gas levels are categorised as follows:
(a) Background Gas
This is the total level of gas extracted from the return mud stream while drilling ahead.
It originates primarily from the unit volume of formation cut by the bit. Hydrocarbons are often generated within
shales and migrate to more porous formations such as sandstones where they may be trapped. Gas in shale
cuttings is released into the mud stream due to the reduction in pressure as the cuttings are circulated up the
hole.
If hydrocarbons are present in any formations drilled, there will be relatively high levels of background gas in the
mud stream. However, if the mud weight in use causes a high overbalance in highly permeable formations, there
may be little, if any, entry of gas into the mud. The high overbalance will cause the mud filtrate to flush the gas
away from the wellbore.
In underbalanced drilling conditions, gas may enter the mud at a rate that depends on the permeability of the
formations being drilled. Shales may show an increase in background gas levels, due to an increase in cavings
caused by the underbalanced conditions. Background gas levels normally show a gradual increase as a
transition zone to abnormal pressures is drilled.
Background gas can not be used quantitatively to estimate formation pressures since the levels depend on mud
circulation rate, efficiency of gas extraction from the return mud stream (gas trap efficiency) and also on the gas
composition. However, if mud properties, drilling conditions, and lithology remain fairly constant, then increasing
background gas levels may well indicate that the formation pressure gradient is approaching, or possibly
exceeding the mud gradient.
(b) Connection Gas
When circulation is stopped to make a connection, the bottomhole pressure of the mud column is reduced by an
amount equal to the annulus pressure loss (i.e. the effective mud weight is reduced from the ECD to the static
mud weight). This reduction in pressure may be enough to allow gas to be produced into the mud column. This is
known as connection gas. Also, connection gas may be caused by swabbing when picking up the drillstring to
make a connection.
When this gas reaches the surface, it appears as a peak above the background gas level on the total gas trace
recorded in the mud logging unit. Connection gas peaks are generally short and sharp depending on the
bottoms up time. In general, the longer the bottoms up time, the wider the peak will be.
It is possible to correlate connection and background gas levels with the mud weight to give a fairly accurate
estimate of the formation pressure as shown schematically in Figure 5.9. As the pore pressure approaches the
bottomhole dynamic pressure, connection gas peaks begin to appear, probably due to swabbing. As the pore
pressure increases further, the background gas level also begins to increase and the connection gas peaks
become higher. It is reasonable to assume at this point that the pore pressure slightly exceeds the dynamic
bottomhole pressure (ECD). A slight increase in the mud weight at this point then causes a sudden decrease in
the background gas and the connection gas peaks disappear, indicating that a slight static overbalance has been
established.
One major problem with this type of interpretation is to distinguish connection gas peaks caused by effective mud
weight reduction due to stopping circulating, from gas swabbed into the wellbore when the drillstring is picked up.
Swabbing effects are much more difficult to quantify than simple reductions from the ECD to static mud weight.

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This may result in higher than actual pore pressure estimates being made, especially if the connection gases
observed are entirely due to swabbing.
Schematic Diagram showing Mud Gas Levels as an Indicator of Formation Pressures

Fig 5.9
Clearly, it is good practice to use connection procedures that minimise swabbing. If used consistently, this will aid
in the interpretation of connection gas levels.
Trip Gas
o Raising the string at a controlled rate while pumping at a rate sufficient to retain positive flow around
BHA.
o It is a bad practice to turn off the pump prematurely in order to obtain a dry connection. (This should
not be necessary due to the standard inclusion of a drillpipe float).
This gas is produced by the same mechanism as connection gas, but the effect of swabbing due to pulling the
drillstring from the hole will generally be greater. This is because the cuttings will have been circulated from the
annulus and pipe speeds will be greater.
A trip gas peak will be observed on circulating bottoms up after a round trip or non-drilling operation.
Swabbing, due to pulling the drillstring out of the hole, may cause the whole of the openhole section to be
underbalanced. Thus the observed trip gas may not come from the bottom of the hole but from somewhere
higher in the openhole section, and two or more gas peaks may be observed. This effect may also appear for
connections if there is a high degree of swabbing or the hole is underbalanced. Lag time calculations should
locate the depths/formations causing the gas peaks.

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Due to the complex causes of trip gas, it may only be used qualitatively in estimating formation pressures. The
early onset of trip gas after circulation is resumed may indicate that upper portions of the openhole might have
been slightly underbalanced. Other abnormal pressure indicators must be consulted to confirm this.
Miscellaneous Gases
These are mainly kelly gas, recirculated trip gas and carbide gas.
Kelly gas (also known as kelly cut) is caused by air being circulated around the system from a partly empty
drillstring or kelly after a trip or connection. The air is pumped into the borehole as a slug of mud aerated with
compressed air. This enhances any gas diffusion effects from formations to the borehole and may result in
enrichment of the aerated mud with the hydrocarbon gases.
Kelly gas due to connections is rarely seen as the kelly is usually kept full of mud during connections by closing
the lower kelly cock.
Re-circulated trip gas after a trip is sometimes observed as shown in Figure 5.10 but should be easily
distinguishable from other gas peaks by experienced Mud Loggers. Although indicating the presence of
hydrocarbon gases.
Note: Trip gas is of no value for formation pressure evaluation. Re-circulated trip gas (or any other re-circulated
gas) behaves in a similar way to Kelly gas, and should be anticipated by the Mud Loggers from knowledge of the
mud system total circulation time.
Carbide gas is used to check the calculated total circulation time and is caused by the Mud Loggers putting
calcium carbide down the drillpipe at a connection. The carbide reacts with the water in the mud to produce
acetylene, a hydrocarbon gas that is detected as a large sharp gas peak when circulated round to surface. The
circulation time can then be used to back calculate the openhole volume and thus to check for hole enlargement.
It must be noted that evaluation of formation pressures from gas levels relies entirely on hydrocarbon gases
being present to some extent in the well being drilled. Occasionally, very dry holes are drilled which may be
overpressured, but show very low background gas levels. In these wells, it is very difficult to use gas levels as a
reliable formation pressure indicator.

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Fig 5.10
Example of Mud Gas Levels showing Trip Gas, Kelly Gas (Kelly Cut), and Recycled Trip Gas
Temperature
Due to the radial flow of heat from the earths core to the surface, the subsurface temperature increases with
increasing depth. The geothermal gradient is the rate at which the temperature increases with depth and is
usually assumed to be constant for any given area. However, it has been found that the temperature gradient
across abnormally pressured formations is generally higher than that found across normally pressured
formations in the same area.
This phenomenon can be explained by considering the thermal conductivity of the formations. Since water has a
thermal conductivity of about one-third to one-sixth that of most formation matrix materials, then formations with a
higher water content (higher porosity) will have a lower thermal conductivity. These formations will thus have a
higher geothermal gradient across them. Overpressured shales usually have ahigher water content than normal
and will thus have higher than normal geothermal gradients across them.
The top of overpressured shale should therefore be marked by a sharp increase in geothermal gradient. This
may often be reflected by an increase in the temperature of the return mud in the flowline. Also, the caprock
immediately above a pressure transition zone often shows a reduced geothermal gradient due to increased

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compaction (higher thermal conductivity) and a lower than normal temperature at the top of the transition zone.
This effect is shown schematically in Figure 5.11
Theoretical Geothermal Gradients and Temperature Profile through an Overpressured Zone

Fig 5.11
Again, this may be reflected in the flowline mud temperature by a reduced flowline temperature gradient. In some
cases, the flowline temperature may even fall (negative gradient) and be then followed by a large increase as the
overpressured zone is penetrated, as shown schematically in the plot of flowline temperature versus depth in
Figure 5.12
This example shows a theoretical case where the flowline temperature reflects the changes in formation
temperature and there are no other influences on the mud temperature. In practice, there are many other factors
that affect the flowline temperature and make the interpretation of flowline temperature plots very difficult,
especially offshore. Such factors include:
Circulation rate.
Rate of penetration.
Time elapsed since the last trip (the mud in the hole heats up during a trip).
Volume of the mud system.
Surface treatments such as adding water, mud chemicals or weighting material.
Ambient temperature (diurnal temperature changes, such as those encountered in desert regions, may
cause large fluctuations in flowline temperatures).
Lithology effects (sandstones and limestones generally have higher thermal conductivities than shales).
Cooling effect of the sea around long marine risers.

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Expected Flowline Temperature Response on Drilling through an Over Pressured Zone

Fig 5.12
Various methods are used to improve the interpretation of temperature-depth plots.
Surface effects can be minimised by measuring the temperature of the mud in both the flowline and the suction
pit (mud temperature into the hole), and then plotting lagged differential temperature. A sharp increase in
differential pressures may then indicate entry into a pressure transition zone. However, the temperature trends
(flowline and differential) are still found to be obscured by discontinuities at bit trips, wiper trips and other periods
with no circulation. These discontinuities split the temperature depth plot into a series of unconnected depth
segments, as shown in the left hand curve in Figure 5.13
Since overpressure indications are based on temperature gradient changes rather than on the magnitude of the
flowline temperature, each depth segment on the temperature depth plot can be investigated separately for
gradient changes. It may, however, be helpful to plot the segments end to end, disregarding the absolute
temperatures, to produce a smoothed curve. Also, end to end plotting of the individual segment trendlines may
be of value, but care is required to ensure that this technique does not smooth out obvious gradient changes
within an individual segment. The three techniques for plotting flowline temperature are also shown in the graph.

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Flowline Temperature Plots showing Raw Data Plot, End-to-end Plot and Trend-to-Trend Plot
Fig 5.13
Due to the many factors affecting the flowline mud temperature, it is very difficult to interpret temperature-depth
plots to evaluate formation pressures. At least, changes in the gradient of the plots may suggest that an
overpressured zone has been penetrated.
It is unlikely that flowline temperature will be the primary indication of abnormal pressures, though it may well be
useful to support other pressure indicators.
(a) Bottomhole Formation Temperature (BHT)
The actual formation geothermal gradient can not be estimated from surface mud temperature measurements.
Downhole formation temperatures are required. However, it is only possible to measure the downhole mud
temperature. This is normally done during wireline logging runs as most logging tools contain a maximum
recording thermometer.
Mud temperatures recorded from consecutive logging runs are used to predict the actual bottomhole formation
temperature, assuming that the maximum temperature is at the bottom of the hole.

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Example Horner Temperature Plot for Estimation of True Bottomhole Temperature (BHT)
Fig 5.14
When drilling, the formations in the lower section of the hole are cooled by the mud in circulation. When circulation
stops, the mud temperature begins to rise and gradually approaches the formation temperature. It is estimated that
about four days are required for the mud temperature to reach equilibrium with the formation temperature. A
modified Horner expression is used to model the temperature increase with time. By extrapolating the temperature
increases to infinite time, it is possible to estimate the formation temperature.
The Horner temperature expression is:
T = Tf c.log{ }
Where T = measured temperature (F or C) (from each wireline logging run)
Tf = actual formation temperature (F or C)
c = constant
tC = circulation time at TD
tL = time since circulation stopped
A plot of T versus log ((tC + tL)/tL) should thus give a straight line, as shown in Figure 5.14
At infinite time after circulation was stopped (i.e. tL = infinity) the value of log (tC + tL)/tL) equals zero. Hence,
extrapolating the plot to intercept the temperature axis gives the estimated actual formation temperature. The
geothermal gradients between the logging run end points can then be calculated. Increases in the geothermal
gradient may indicate the presence of abnormal pressures.
Unfortunately the actual formation temperature can only be estimated at logging points.

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Thus, only three or four formation temperatures can be estimated from which geothermal gradients can be
established. These gradients are thus average gradients over significant depth intervals and they can only be
established after each hole section has been drilled. Hence, they are generally of little use in pressure evaluation
while drilling, but may confirm any flowline temperature trends that were noticed earlier.
Resistivity/Conductivity/Chlorides
The resistivity of a formation depends on the porosity and the dissolved salts concentration in the formation pore
water. Due to their higher pore water content, overpressured shales generally have lower resistivities than
normally pressured shales at the same depths. When using water base muds, an attempt can be made to
monitor this formation property by measuring the mud conductivity (conductivity is simply the inverse of
resistivity).
The mud conductivity at the flowline and suction pit can be measured and a conversion made to chlorides. An
increase in the differential chlorides, known as delta-chlorides, may then indicate abnormal pressures. It is
doubtful whether an increase in mud conductivity due to the release of pore water from drilled cuttings would be
measurable.
This is due to the volume of pore water released being minute compared to the volume of mud.
However, pore water influxes from more permeable formations may be seen as changes in mud conductivity or
delta-chlorides. Hence, a warning of underbalanced conditions may be given. The system is best suited to
situations where there is a large difference between pore water and mud salinity. In these situations, the
response of differential mud conductivity is similar to that of mud gas levels showing influx peaks at connections
or a gradual increase due to underbalanced conditions. This is shown schematically in Figure 5.15
Obviously, mud conductivity as an abnormal pressure indicator has many limitations. A large salinity contrast
between mud filtrate and formation fluids is required. Thus, the method is of little use in saline mud systems,
unless of course, the mud filtrate salinity is much greater than the formation water salinity.
This could be the case with saturated salt and potassium chloride (KCl) mud systems, and may result in a mirror
image plot to that shown below.
Example of Typical Response of Differential Mud Conductivity/Delta Chlorides

Fig 5.15

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Flowline Mud Weight

Continuous recording of the flowline mud weight will show mud density changes due to gas cutting or formation
influxes. Some influxes are not always picked up by an increase in return mud flow or by an increase in mud pit
level, especially if the influx occurs gradually due to a very low permeability formation. Thus, an underbalanced
situation due to abnormal pressures may be indicated by a slight reduction in the flowline mud weight.
(a) Shale Bulk Density
The bulk density of normally compacted shales increases with depth. Overpressured shales are generally
undercompacted and thus have higher porosities and lower bulk densities than would be expected. If shale bulk
density is plotted against depth as drilling progresses, then a normal compaction trendline can be established. A
decrease in shale bulk density away from the normal compaction trendline may then indicate the presence of an
overpressured zone. A schematic shale bulk density plot is shown in Figure 5.16
The magnitude of abnormal pressures can be calculated from shale bulk density plots using the equivalent depth
method (as described previously for d-exponent plots).
Fig 5.16 Schematic Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plot
Alternatively empirical curves, relating observed bulk density deviation from the normal trend to formation
pressure gradient, can be used. However, such curves are area dependent, so can only be used if the
appropriate area curve is available. Hence it will usually be necessary to use the equivalent depth method if

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formation pressure magnitudes are required from shale bulk density plots. The most common methods of
measuring shale bulk density at the rigsite are:
Mud Balance
Shale cuttings are added to the mud balance cup until the balance reads 8.33ppg with the cap on. The cup is then
topped up with fresh water and reweighed (W).
The shale bulk density is then given by:
Bulk Density (ppg) =

Density Column
A graduated column of fluid is prepared from a mixture of two fluids of different densities such that the density of
the mixture varies with column height. The column is calibrated using beads of known density which settle at
different heights in the column.
Selected shale cuttings are then dropped into the column and the height at which they settle is converted to
shale density using the calibration curve. The method is illustrated in Figure 5.17
Fig 5.17 Variable Density Column for Measuring Shale Bulk Density
The mud balance method has the advantage of being fast and simple and uses a good quantity of cuttings to
obtain a good average bulk density. The density column, however; this requires selection of individual cuttings
and multiple determinations to obtain an average density value. The mud balance method is probably the more
representative method.
Use of shale bulk densities for the detection and evaluation of formation pressures frequently has the following
limitations:
Presence of shale gas in the cuttings decreases the bulk density values determined
Cavings from higher up the hole may be part of the sample
The reliability of the data depends on the consistency and care taken by personnel, when carrying out the
density determinations

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Formation age boundaries and unconformities may cause shifts in the normal compaction trendline. It
may be necessary to determine individual normal compaction trends for each geological age unit
Variations in the lithology, such as high carbonate content, silty/sandy shales etc, may cause significant
variations in the bulk density determinations. Only good clean shales should be plotted. The presence of
high density minerals, such as pyrite, will increase bulk density values and may mask the onset of
abnormal pressures
Density measurements on cuttings from water base muds are usually low due to the absorption of water
by the cuttings. Less reactive muds, such as oil base muds and highly inhibited water base muds, will
give more accurate cuttings densities
The response of shale bulk density values in abnormal pressured zones will vary with the type of
mechanism that caused the overpressure. This is illustrated by the idealised plots shown in Figure 5.18.
However; as most overpressures in shales are caused by compaction disequilibrium and aquathermal
pressuring, the most common response will be a decrease in shale bulk density at the top of an
overpressured zone.
Despite the above limitations, shale bulk density plots can be a very valuable indicator of abnormal pressures.
They should be constructed during the drilling of all exploration and appraisal wells, and are most useful when
long shale sections are encountered.

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Fig 5.18
Response of Shale Bulk Density/Depth Plots in Overpressures caused by Various Mechanisms
(b) Shale Factor
Shale factor is a measure of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of shales. The CEC of a shale is dependent on
the montmorillonite content. This in turn depends on the degree to which montmorillonite conversion to illite has
progressed in the shale since montmorillonite has a much higher CEC than illite. The CEC is expressed in milli
equivalents per 100 grams of sample (meq/100gm), and is termed the shale factor.
The shale factor of a sample of shale cuttings is determined using the methylene blue test. Basically, a
suspension of powdered sample (in water) is titrated against a solution of methylene blue dye of known
concentration. The end point of the titration is when the sample suspension water first turns blue. The shale
factor is then calculated from:
Shale factor (meq/100gm) = 100 sample wt (gm) x titrant vol (ml) x titrant normality
Pure montmorillonite clays have a high shale factor of about 100 meq/100gm. This is due to the presence of
many loosely bound cations (Na+, Ca++) between the clay platelets. However, pure illite clays, due to their tightly
bound cation (K+) between clay patelets, have low shale factors of 10 to 40 meq/100gm. Thus, shale factor can
be used to identify the montmorillonite/illite content of shale samples.
For abnormal pressure evaluation, however, the use of shale factor is limited as it is dependent on the various
mechanisms that may cause overpressures.
Generally, shale factor decreases with depth as montmorillonite is converted to illite. In overpressured intervals
caused by compaction disequilibrium clay dewatering has been restricted, which in turn restricts montmorillonite
diagenesis to illite. Thus a larger proportion of montmorillonite will be present in the overpressured zone,
resulting in an increase in shale factor. This is shown schematically in Figure 5.19 (a).
However, overpressures caused by clay diagenesis (montmorillonite dehydration) will show a decrease in shale
factor on entering the overpressured zone. The proportion of montmorillonite has been reduced by conversion to

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illite, with the release of large amounts of water. This causes increased pore pressure if water escape is
restricted.
This shale factor response is shown schematically in Figure 5.19 (b).
Since compaction disequilibrium is thought to be the major contributing mechanism to overpressure development
in shales, the shale factor response of Figure (a) will probably be the most dominant. However, the contribution
of other overpressure mechanisms will complicate the interpretation of shale factor plots. This often results in
shale factor being of little use in the detection of abnormal pressures.
Fig 5.19
Shale Factor/Depth Response to Overpressure caused by Compaction Disequilibrium and Clay Diagenesis
Cuttings Character
The presence of cavings in drilled cuttings samples is an indication that the borehole wall is unstable. Cavings
are much larger than normal drilled cuttings and are readily seen at the shale shakers. They are thought to be
produced by two different mechanisms which result in cavings of different shapes and sizes, these two
mechanisms are:
Underbalanced drilling
Borehole stress relief
In underbalanced drilling conditions, the pore pressure in the formation adjacent to the borehole is greater than
the pressure in the borehole. In impermeable formations, such as shales, the pressure differential due to an
underbalance may be high enough to exceed the tensile strength of the shales. The shale will thus fail in tension
and form cavings which fall into the borehole. These cavings are usually long, splintery, concave and delicate, as
illustrated in Figure 5.20 (a).

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Fig 5.20
(A) (B)
Characterisation of Shale Cavings Caused by Underbalanced Conditions and Stress Relief
Thus, the presence of cavings in cuttings samples will not necessarily mean that the hole is underbalanced.
However, other overpressure indicators should always be examined in detail to confirm whether abnormal
pressures are being encountered. Even if it can not be confirmed that the hole is underbalanced, it may still be
necessary to increase the mud weight to regain hole stability, and avoid the problems caused by excessive
amounts of cuttings/cavings being present in the hole.
The natural stresses that are present in the earths crust vary regionally and with depth, lithology etc. Drilling a
hole through formations will relieve some of these stresses depending on the hole angle and direction in relation
to the principal formation stresses.
The result may be that the formation stress at the borehole wall is greater than the stress (pressure) due to the
mud column. The borehole wall may then fail either in compression from vertical stresses or in tension due to
horizontal stresses, or a combination of both. Cavings produced in this manner tend to be blocky and rectangular
in shape, as shown in Figure 5.20 (b).
Other Methods
Several other methods of formation pressure evaluation based on measurements on shale cuttings have been
developed. These include shale cuttings resistivity, filtration rate of shale cuttings slurry, filtrate (shale water)
colour index, shale cuttings moisture index, redox and pH potential of cuttings slurry and slurry filtrate. These
methods are fairly complex and time consuming and thus have not gained wide acceptance as rigsite
techniques. A more detailed discussion of these techniques is given by Fertl.
Measurement While Drilling (MWD) tools are now able to provide continuous downhole drilling parameter data
and electric log data while drilling is in progress. The use of MWD data in formation pressure evaluation follows
the same principles as previously discussed for surface measured drilling parameters. The advantage of MWD
data is that actual downhole drilling parameters (weight-on-bit, torque) are measured and the formation log data
are obtained very shortly after the formation has been drilled. Thus, formation log data and conventional while
drilling techniques can be combined to evaluate formation pressures as drilling progresses.
The downhole drilling parameters of most relevance are:
Weight-on-bit
The actual downhole weight-on-bit (WOB) is usually less than recorded at surface due to the drag in the hole.
Using the actual downhole WOB will give more accurate values for d-exponent or the drilling rate method that is
being used as a formation pressure indicator.
Downhole Torque

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Variations in torque at the bit may be used to indicate bit wear. This in turn may be used to account for bit wear in
more complex drilling rate methods for estimating formation pressures.
Downhole Temperature
The difference between downhole annulus temperature and flowline temperatures will give an indication of the
amount of heat transferred from the formation to the mud. A similar effect to that described in Differential
Temperature on Page 62, should be observed on drilling into an overpressured zone.
The MWD formation logs presently available for formation pressure evaluation are gamma ray, resistivity and
most recently, porosity.
The gamma ray log is used to identify lithology. Shales show a high level of radioactivity, whereas sands and
evaporites (except for complex salts) show a low level.
Hence the gamma ray log can be used to pick clean shale sections for overpressure determination by any of the
shale related parameters previously discussed. In particular, the gamma ray log can be used in conjunction with
the MWD resistivity log to plot shale resistivities while drilling. The theory and method of formation pressure
evaluation from shale resistivities is discussed further under Wireline Logs.
The gamma ray log itself has been used as a formation pressure indicator. A normal depth related compaction
trend was established with departures from this trend indicating the magnitude of overpressures. However, it
would appear that this method may only be valid for US Gulf Coast shales.
More recently, an MWD porosity log has become available. Thus shale porosities may be measured while drilling
and a normal compaction trend established. Again, over pressured shales will show an increase in porosity away
from the decreasing normal trend. The MWD gamma ray log will also be required to pick clean shales, from
which the porosity values can be plotted.
The combination of MWD logging techniques and downhole/surface measured drilling parameter techniques
should enhance the ability to detect and evaluate formation pressures while drilling is in progress. Developing
MWD technology is continually assessed by Drilling Division, and reports periodically issued.
The function of the wellsite mud logging service is twofold:
Sampling and description of drilled cuttings, and hydrocarbons detection and evaluation.
Monitoring and interpretation of drilling data for drilling optimisation and formation pressure
evaluation.
These functions, and their relation to information flow through a typical mud logging unit, are illustrated in Figure
5.21. The level to which the latter function is required depends on the type of wellbeing drilled. Usually
exploration and appraisal wells require mud logging services capable of a higher level of formation pressure
evaluation than for development wells.
Pressure Evaluation Service
In most mud logging services, there is a Pressure Evaluation Geologist or Engineer permanently on duty in the
mud logging unit. It is this individuals responsibility to closely monitor all the available formation pressure
indicators and to communicate this information to the Company supervisory personnel at the rig site. He should
also make formation pressure estimates based on all the available pressure indicators (and discussions with
Company personnel), and be able to support these estimates with sound reasoning.
The Pressure Evaluation Geologist/Engineer holds a very responsible position amongst the various rigsite
personnel and should have many years experience in rigsite mud logging work. It is important that a good level of
communication is established and maintained with the person(s) concerned in order that reliable formation
pressure estimates are obtained and their implications speedily acted upon.
Composite Logs

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As part of the pressure evaluation service, the Pressure Evaluation Geologist/Engineer will prepare composite
logs showing well depth versus various selected overpressure indicators. These logs are potentially most useful
as they show graphically the response of the various overpressure indicators to differing lithologies and formation
pressure regimes. It is most important that these logs are kept up to date to enable up-to-theminute pressure
estimates to be made based on the information given by the logs.
Mud Logging Equipment
The equipment contained within a modern mud logging unit is very complex, and there are numerous different
types of sensors available for measuring the various drilling parameters. Different methods are also employed to
relay the measured data to the mud logging unit. It is not the intention of this manual to discuss the equipment
used by the individual mud logging service companies. General sensor specifications are however given in Table
5.1.

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Fig 5.21 - Mud Logging Unit Functions and Information Flow Diagram

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General Mud Logging Sensor Specifications

Table 5.1
(d) Mud Logging Unit Suitability

The suitability of a mud logging unit for a Company drilling operation depends essentially on the level of pressure
evaluation service required, which in turn depends on the type of well that is to be drilled. The basic geological
sampling and mud logging service should not vary significantly with the well type.
The majority of the while drilling formation pressure indicators discussed are only applicable to massive shale
sections inter-bedded with sandstone/siltstones. However, as most of our drilling occurs in sedimentary basins
containing such sections, then the techniques discussed are of direct relevance to our drilling operations.
The most reliable abnormal pressure indicators in shales are probably d-exponent (or other drilling rate method)
in combination with gas levels and cuttings character (cavings). Occasionally, one indicator may be particularly
effective in showing the onset of abnormal pressures, but this will probably not be apparent until drilling has
progressed well into the overpressured zone.
It is stressed that all formation pressure indicators must be carefully examined to confirm the possible abnormal
pressures that may be implied by a particular overpressure indicator. Also, the possibility of lithological changes
should always be borne in mind when sharp changes in abnormal pressure indicators are observed.

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5.5.3 Formation Pressure Evaluation after Drilling

Wireline Log Data
A full suite of wireline logs is usually run across any potential reservoir section of the hole in order to determine
its physical characteristics and evaluate its hydrocarbon content.
The RFT tool provides a direct measurement of formation pressures as a primary function but even if this tool is
not run then data from three other logs can be used to provide estimated values.
Sonic Log
to travel through one foot
(or metre) of formation. This is known as the interval transit time (ITT) and is the reciprocal of formation interval
velocity. The principle of operation of the sonic tool (borehole compensated (BHC) tool) is shown in Figure 5.22.
Sonic pulses from two transmitters travel through the formation, and are picked up by two pairs of receivers. The
time difference between sonic arrivals at each pair of receivers is measured. The average time difference is then
recorded to compensate for borehole geometry and tool tilt.
Overpressured shales show a higher sonic ITT than normally pressured shales at the same depth. Thus, a plot of
sonic ITT in shales versus depth on semi-logarithmic axes should show a straight line compaction trend in
normally pressured shales. A departure from this line towards higher shale ITT values indicates abnormal
pressures.
Schematic diagram showing the Operating Principle of the Sonic (BHC) Logging Tool
Fig 5.22

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The normal compaction trend and sonic log departure in overpressures are shown in the schematic sonic log plot
in Figure 5.23.
Schematic diagram showing Shale Sonic Interval Travel Time Response in Overpressures
Fig 5.23

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Different lithologies frequently have vastly different sonic ITTs. Care should be taken to ensure that the normal
compaction trend line is established through ITT values in good cleanshale sections only. It may be necessary to
make sonic log plots from several wells (if data available) in the area of interest. These may then be used to
determine the position and gradient of an average regional normal compaction trend line.
The BHC sonic tool has a depth of investigation of only a few inches into the borehole wall.
Hence, reactive shales that absorb water from the drilling mud, may exhibit higher ITT values
(higher porosity) than would be recorded if the shales were non-reactive. These higher ITT values
may falsely indicate the presence of abnormal formation pressures. A deeper reading long
spacing sonic (SLS) tool is sometimes run. When available, the sonic log data from this deeper
reading tool should be used in preference to those from the BHC sonic tool.
Unconformities/disconformities may produce a marked sudden shift in sonic ITT values and may
require a second separate normal compaction trend line to be established.
A discussion of the problems associated with the interpretation of ITT depth plots, is given in relation to seismic
ITT data in Section 5.5.1. The main problem areas are:
Scales
Two types of formats have been proposed for plotting ITT-depth data. These are log-log plots (as suggested by
Pennebaker), and semi-log plots, as suggested above. The semi-log format is recommended as the linear depth
scale enables direct comparison of sonic ITT data with other overpressure indicator plots.
Normal Trend Line
It is sometimes very difficult to confidently establish the position of the normal shale compaction trend line. The
depth interval over which the sonic log data are obtained in normally pressured upper hole sections is often too
small to reliably establish the normal compaction trend. This is because logs are normally only obtained from
below surface casing.
Once the position of the normal compaction trend lines has been firmly established on the semi-log sonic ITT-
depth plot, then the depths and magnitudes of suspected abnormal pressures may be calculated. Several
methods are available for estimating the magnitude of abnormal pressures from sonic log plots:
Empirical Correlations
Charts relating the magnitude of formation pressures to the difference between the observed shale ITT value and
the extrapolated normal ITT value are available. These empirical correlations are area dependent. Note that the
correlation developed by Pennebaker should not be used with semi-log ITT plots. This was developed for use in
conjunction with log-log seismic ITT plots and is probably only valid for the US Gulf Coast.
The empirical correlations are quick and easy to use as formation pressure gradients are read directly from the
charts. However, the correlations are area dependent, so their use is limited to areas for which correlations are
available.
Equivalent Depth Method
When no empirical correlation is available, the equivalent depth method may be used. A full discussion of the
method is given in connection with dc-exponent plots, in Section 5.5.2.
The next equation is also used for formation pressure calculations from sonic ITT plots:
Where FPGO = formation pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)

OPGO = overburden pressure gradient at depth of interest (psi/ft)

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OPGE = overburden pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)

FPG NE = normal formation pressure gradient at equivalent depth (psi/ft)
DO = depth of interest (ft)
DE = equivalent depth (depth at which sonic ITT is equal to value at DO) (ft)
Note: This equation can be used directly with gradients in sg, ppg or psi/ft and depths in metres or feet.
It is necessary to obtain overburden pressure gradient data for the well being investigated in order to use the
equivalent depth method. These data should be available in the form of an overburden gradient-depth plot in the
Mud Loggers report for the well.
The advantages and disadvantages of this method are discussed in the previous sections.
Eaton Equation
The following equation was presented by Eaton for calculation of formation pressures from sonic ITT plots, the
derivation of which is exactly analogous to previous the equation, which was developed for dc-exponent plots:
Despite the problems outlined earlier, it is considered that the use of sonic ITT data provides the most reliable
method of formation pressure evaluation from well logs. The use of an empirical correlation provides the quickest
method of estimating the magnitude of abnormal pressures from sonic ITT plots. However, if a correlation is not
available for the area of interest, it will be necessary to use either the equivalent depth method or the Eaton
equation (or both). These latter methods require overburden pressure gradient data which should be readily
available in Mud Loggers reports for the well(s) under investigation.
Resistivity Log
The resistivity of shales depends on the following factors:
Porosity
Salinity of pore water
Temperature
Temperature varies approximately linearly with depth and hence formation resistivities can be corrected for
temperature. Also, the salinity of the pore water should not vary significantly with depth. Porosity is thus the
major factor controlling shale resistivity.
Under normal compaction (i.e. in normal pressure environments), shale resistivity increases with depth since
porosity decreases. A plot of shale resistivity versus depth will thus show an increasing trend with depth. In clean

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shale sections, any departure from this normal trend towards lower shale resistivities may indicate an increase in
porosity and hence overpressures.
Shale resistivity (Rsh) is plotted on a log scale versus depth on a linear scale. The shape and slope of the normal
trend line will vary with the age and type of shales present. This will lead to individual normal compaction trends
being developed for each area investigated. It is unlikely that any two areas will have identical normal
compaction trends.
A schematic shale resistivity-depth plot is shown in Figure 5.24. The normal compaction trend line may be a
curve or may approximate to a straight line over certain depth intervals, depending on the area under
investigation.
Schematic Shale Resistivity/Depth Plot showing Response in Overpressures

Fig 5.24

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Originally, shale resistivities were plotted from the amplified short normal (ASN) curve of the now absolute ES
(electrical survey) logging suite. Today, a variety of resistivity logging tools are run, from which shale resistivity
plots may be made. The tools are designed for various depths of investigation from shallow to very deep. The deep
reading tools record the true resistivity of virgin formation and thus near borehole effects (shale hydration, mud
filtrate invasion in permeable zones) do not affect the resistivity values recorded.
The deep reading logs that should be used for resistivity plots are the ILd curve from the dual induction laterolog
(DIL) tool and the LLd curve from the dual laterolog (DLL) tool.
The dual laterolog tool requires a conductive mud, so it will not work in oil base muds.
The dual induction laterolog will work in oil base or water base muds and tends to be the resistivity log that is
normally run.
Possible problems that may be encountered with shale resistivity plots are:
Only shale resistivities in thick clean shales must be plotted. It may be necessary to consult a
geologist in order to pick good clean shales from the well logs. Use the deepest reading resistivity
curve available to plot true shale resistivities.
It may be very difficult to firmly establish the shape and position of the normal compaction trend line
from the resistivity plot for just one well. An average regional trend may have to be established from the
resistivity plots of many wells in the area of interest. Unconformities/disconformities and variations in
geological age may show sudden changes in shale resistivities which will affect the position of the
normal trend line.
Changes in formation water salinity may give false pressure indications. For example, shales in the
proximity of large salt masses (e.g. salt domes) have very low resistivities due to increased pore water
salinity. This may indicate higherthan-actual formation pressures. Also, shales at depths Less than
3281 ft below surface or the mudline, usually contain formation water fresher than sea water. This
results in high resistivity values that may indicate lower-than-actual formation pressures.
The problems associated with interpreting shale resistivity plots are illustrated in Figure 5.24
Once the normal compaction trend has been firmly established, it is possible to estimate the magnitude of any
abnormal formation pressures indicated by the shale resistivity plot. Again, there are several methods available:
(a) Empirical Correlations
At depths where the observed shale resistivity values (Rsh(O)) diverge from the normal trend value (Rsh(N)), the
ratio of normal to observed shale resistivity (R sh(O)/Rsh(N)) is calculated. The corresponding formation
pressure gradient is then read from a chart such as the one shown in Figure 5.25. As can be seen from this
chart, the correlations are area-dependent and the appropriate chart is required for the particular area under
investigation.

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Illustrating the Problems Associated with Formation Pressure Interpretation

Fig 5.25
Equivalent Depth Method

This method is identical to that previously discussed for dc-exponent and sonic log plots. The dc-exponent
equation is valid for use with shale resistivity plots:

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Empirical Correlations for Estimation of Formation Pressures from Shale Resistivity Ratio
Fig 5.26
(c) Eaton equation

The equation was proposed by Eaton for calculating formation pressures from shale resistivity plots.
Again, the value of the shale resistivity ratio exponent, 1.20, was derived from actual well data. Overburden
pressure gradients for the well are also required (from Mud Loggers well report) in order to use this equation.
(d) Formation Factor Method
This method was proposed by Foster and Whalen, and is based on the equation:

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Basically, the method involves computing a formation water resistivity (Rw) depth profile from the SP
(spontaneous potential) curve in clean, shale free water sands. Values of Rsh are then obtained from thick, clean
shales from whichever resistivity log is available (ILd or LLd curve). Values of Fsh at depths corresponding to the
Rsh values are then calculated.
A plot of Fsh versus depth on semi-log scales (linear depth scale) then shows a straight line trend in normally
pressured formations, Fsh increasing with depth. Departure from the normal trend towards decreasing Fsh
values then indicates abnormal pressures. The magnitude of any abnormal pressures can then be calculated
using the equivalent depth method (as discussed in (b) above).
The major drawback with this method is the calculation of Rw values from the SP curve. The method is subject to
inaccuracies, is difficult and is very time consuming. The advantage of this method is that it takes into account
changes in formation water resistivity, Rw. Other methods rely on the assumption that formation water resistivity
remains relatively constant with depth.
The method is detailed in full by Foster and Whalen and Fertl.
All the pressure evaluation methods using resistivity logs were developed for the US Gulf Coast and would
appear to work quite well for this region. However, they have been found to be of limited use in the North Sea.
Formation water salinity variations cause erratic tool responses which make it virtually impossible to construct a
normal compaction trend.
Density Log
The formation density logging tool consists of a radioactive source which bombards the formations with medium-
energy gamma rays. The gamma rays collide with electrons in the formation which cause the gamma rays to
scatter. The degree of scattering is directly related to the electron density and therefore the bulk density of the
formation.
The scattered gamma rays that return to the borehole are picked up by detectors in the logging tool.
In the FDC (formation density compensated) logging tool, the gamma ray source and two detectors are mounted
on a skid that is pushed against the borehole wall by aneccentering arm. The skid has a plough shaped leading
edge to cut through any mud cake present on the borehall wall. Any mud cake that is not removed will affect the
tool reading. The dual detectors of the FDC tool automatically compensate for mud cake effects. The corrected
bulk density (Pb) and the correction made () are recorded on the FDC log.

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Fig 5.27 - Log-derived Shale Bulk Density Plot on Semi-logarithmic Scales

A plot of shale bulk density versus depth on either linear or semi-log scales will show a straight line normal
compaction trend. Since the bulk density of shales is inversely proportional to porosity, and an increase in shale
porosity indicates abnormal pressures, then a decrease in shale bulk density from the normal compaction trend
line will indicate abnormal pressures. The semi-log type plot is shown schematically in Figure 5.27.
The densities from non-washed-out pure shale sections should be plotted. After the normal compaction trend line
has been established, the equivalent depth method (See Sonic and Resistivity Logs) may be used to estimate
the magnitude of formation pressures.
The use of shale bulk density trends from the formation density log should be a fairly reliable overpressure
indicator. However, it has been found that unless borehole conditions are ideal (uniform gauge hole), the

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formation density log will not be as accurate or reliable for pressure evaluation as other techniques based on
sonic or resistivity logs.
Other Logs
Other wireline logs that have been used to evaluate formation pressures include the spontaneous potential (SP)
log, the neutron porosity log (CNL), the thermal neutron decay time log (TDT), and also downhole gravity and
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logs. These techniques are discussed further by Fertl.
Also, the use of an MWD gamma ray log for formation pressure evaluation of US Gulf Coast shales, has been
discussed by Zoeller.
5.5.4 Direct Pressure Measurements

RFT/FIT Data
The repeat formation tester (RFT) is an electric wireline tool designed to measure formation pressures and to
obtain fluid samples from permeable formations. After it has been run in the hole, the tool can be set any
number of times. This enables a series of pressure readings to be taken and permits the Logging Engineer to
pre-test, or probe the formation for permeable zones before attempting to take a fluid sample or a pressure
recording.
The RFT was developed from the formation interval tester (FIT) which is only able to take one, less accurate,
pressure measurement while taking a sample. However, the FIT is able to take a pressure measurement/sample
in cased hole by using a shaped charge to perforate the casing.
A schematic diagram of the RFT pre-test and sampling principle is shown in Figure 5.28.

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Fig 5.28
Schematic diagram showing the RFT Pre-test and Sampling Principle
Once the tool is set a packer moves out on one side and back-up pistons move out on the opposite side. This
forces the packer against the borehole wall and holds the body of the tool away from the wall to reduce the
chances of differential sticking. The probe is then forced into the formation and opened by retracting the filter
probe piston. This operation is shown in Figure 5.29.
Diagram showing the Operation of the RFT Sample Probe

Fig 5.29

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Example of an RFT Analogue Pressure Recording

Fig 5.30
The initial pressure prior to the tool being set is the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column. When the tool is set,
the pressure rises slightly due to the compression of the mud cake by the packer. The probe piston then retracts
giving a drop in pressure due to the flowline volume expansion and communication with the formation. When the
piston stops retracting, there is a slight pressure rise because the packer continues to compress the mud cake
until the tool is fully set.
The pressure drops again as the first 10cc pre-test piston starts to retract (at time t O).
After about 15 seconds, the first pre-test chamber is full (at time t1) and the second piston begins moving at a
rate 2.5 times faster than the first piston. The pressure thus drops further until the second pre-test chamber is full
(at time t2). The pressure then builds up towards a final pressure, which is usually that of the original formation
pressure. Finally, the probe and packer are retracted and the mud hydrostatic pressure is again measured.
Thus, the RFT provides three distinct pieces of pressure data:
The mud column hydrostatic pressure (two readings)
The formation pressure
The pressure transient induced by the withdrawal of a small sample of formation fluid (2 x 10cc)
The two mud hydrostatic pressure readings are compared to verify the stability of the tools recording system.
The two values should be within a few psi of each other. The formation pressure is used to verify estimates made
while drilling the well and to construct a reservoir pressure profile. This will yield data on the pressure gradients
and nature of the reservoir fluids.
The pressure/flowrate/time data from the pre-test sample withdrawal can be used to calculate reservoir
characteristics, such as permeability.
Hence, the RFT provides accurate data on formation pressures. However, formation pressure data can only be
obtained from permeable formations such as reservoir sandstones. These formations may or may not be at the
same pressure as adjacent shales.
RFTs are normally run at the request of the Geologists/Petroleum Engineers to seek information on potential
reservoir formations. However, in deep high pressure a well, the RFT is being increasingly run to obtain accurate
formation pressures before potentially troublesome drilling operations (such as coring) are commenced. Accurate

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knowledge of formation pressures in such wells allows fine mud weight adjustments to be made to minimise the
risk of swab/surge pressure problems.
Fig 5.31 - Typical Drillstem Test String (for a high pressure gas well) showing Position of Gauges

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Drillstem Test Data

Whenever drillstem tests are carried out on potential reservoir formations, various pressure gauges are run in the
hole with the test string. The purpose of these pressure gauges is to record the downhole pressure during the
sequence of flow and shut-in periods that comprise the drillstem test (DST). The pressures recorded during the
test are used to calculate reservoir characteristics such as formation pressure, permeability, skin damage and
productivity index.
Various types of pressure gauges are available. These are run in conjunction with clocks and recorders, and
include:
Mechanical gauges normally bourdon tube (BT) type pressure gauges with mechanical clocks and
recorders.
Electronic gauges strain gauge, quartz crystal or bourdon tube type pressure gauges with electronic
clocks. Data are recorded on various types of electronic memories and read from the gauge on surface
after the test by a special reader.
Electronic surface read out (SRO) gauges strain gauge or quartz crystal type pressure gauges linked
by cable to the surface where downhole pressures are continuously monitored and recorded.
The mechanical and electronic gauges can be run in various ways/positions in the test string:
Set in a wireline nipple (hence retrievable during or after a test).
Hung off in the tailpipe (below the packer) using a DST hanging kit.
Placed in a bundle carrier or gauge carrier in various positions in the string.
The SRO gauges are always placed above the tester valve (above the packer) as they are connected to surface
equipment by a cable. A typical DST string is shown in Figure 5.31 (for a gas well test) and illustrates the various
positions of the pressure gauges in the DST string.
After a DST has been successfully completed, the test string is pulled and the pressure gauges are retrieved for
the pressure charts to be read. A typical valid pressure chart from a mechanical gauge placed below the tester
valve is shown in Figure 5.32. Note that a linear plot of the pressures recorded by an electronic gauge should
have the same general form, without the baseline.
The significant events during the test (marked by capital letters) on Figure 5.46 are as follows:
A: Atmospheric pressure at surface.
A-B: The gauge is run in the hole with the test string and records increasing hydrostatic pressure. The early
steps effect is the result of pauses to pump the water cushion into the test string.
B: At test interval depth, the gauge records the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.
C: The packer is set, squeezing the sump below the packer and causing an increase in pressure.
D-E: The tester valve is opened and the gauge is suddenly subjected to the reduced hydrostatic pressure of
the water cushion alone.
E-F: The influx of reservoir fluid into the test string adds to the pressure of the partial water cushion.
F: The tester valve is shut after an initial 5 to 10 minute short flow period.
F-G: The reservoir pressure slowly builds up. After 30 minutes, no more build up is seen. The gauge now
gives an estimate of the virgin reservoir pressure (G).
G-H: The tester valve is now opened again and the reservoir is exposed to hydrostatic pressure of the fluids
in the test string.
H-I: The reservoir flows again and the gauge pressure increases until the water cushion reaches the surface.

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I-J: As the reservoir fluid replaces the water cushion in the test string, the gauge pressure decreases until the
entire water cushion has been unloaded (J).
J-K: The pressure continues to fall due to wellbore effects before steadying out as the flow into the wellbore
becomes radial second flow period.
Typical Pressure Chart from a Mechanical Gauge placed below the Tester Valve in the DST String
Fig 5.32
K: The tester valve is closed at the end of the

K-L: The reservoir pressure starts to build up again as it returns to equilibrium.
L-M: The packer is unset at the end of the second build up period and the pressure gauge again reads the
pressure of the annulus mud column.
N-O: The test string is pulled out of the hole and the gauge pressures reduces.
O: Finally, the gauge is back on surface and reads atmospheric pressure.
Analysis of the pressure build up data from the shut-in periods can then give accurate estimates of the reservoir
formation pressure. Thus, data from drillstem tests can give accurate estimates of formation pressures. However,
the pressure data can only be obtained from permeable reservoir formations that are considered to have ufficient
hydrocarbon potential to warrant the expense of a drillstem test. As with RFT pressure data, the reservoir
pressure calculated from DST data may or may not be the same as the pressures in adjacent shales.
5.6.1 General
Kick Tolerance (KT) is a valuable drilling engineering tool that has historically been used improperly or not
completely utilized. Proper understanding and application of KT becomes extremely critical when dealing with
marginal development projects, exploration programs, and deepwater drilling.
For the planning phase, KT can be critical in defining casing setting depths. During the drilling phase, KT is a well
control parameter that assures the integrity of the wellbore, by setting operational limits (crew training needs,
equipment requirements, kick detection, well control procedure, mud weights and open-hole intervals).
KT is derived from a basic pressure balance in the wellbore. Since those calculations involve several variables,
there are different interpretations that produce the same results. These different interpretations create confusion
on how KT can be used, or even if it is useable tool for both Drilling Engineers and Drilling Representatives.
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In order to realize the maximum advantage of Kick Tolerance (KT), we must have a consistent interpretation and
methodology of use. The objective of this section is to simplify and unify the definition of KT and its proper
application.
Kick Tolerance Definition

Kick tolerance is the maximum kick size that can be successfully shut-in and circulated out of a well without
exceeding MAASP, for a given formation pressure (FP). This definition allows the engineer to examine the KT
with different formation pressures.
5.6.2 Kick Tolerance Calculation Methods

U Tube Principle
The pressure balance in a shut-in well can be illustrated by a U-tube, one side representing the drill string and
the other side representing the annulus. The two sides are connected at the bottom of the U-tube. The pressure
on the bottom hole (BHP) for static shut-in conditions will be equivalent to the sum of hydrostatic pressure and
surface pressure on each side of the U-tube as shown below in Figure 5.33
Fig 5.33
Balance Condition
A shut-in well is at balance when there is no trapped pressure in the system. BHP is equal to the formation
pressure (FP) as shown below in Figure 5.34.

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Fig 5.34
Maximum Conditions on a Shut-in Well
The current mud weight (CMW) is a fixed value; therefore the hydrostatic pressure in the drill string will be fixed.
If we study the worst case scenario in the well above, we can maximize the well conditions considering:
Gas kick
SICP equal to Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP)
Under these new conditions we will have a maximum SIDPP and a maximum formation pressure (FPmax) as
shown below in Figure 5.35.
Fig 5.35
Definition of SIDPP
Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure (SIDPP) is the surface pressure needed to compensate the lack of hydrostatic
pressure of the CMW inside the drill pipe in order to balance FP. This value is used to calculate the kill mud
weight (KMW). In other words, SIDPP is the measure of the kick intensity and it is equivalent to the difference
between the hydrostatic pressure exerted by CMW inside the drill string and the formation pressure (FP).

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Definition of Kick intensity (KI)

Kick Intensity (KI) is the amount of under balance between the current mud weight (CMW) and the formation
pressure (FP). It is actually the same as the SIDPP and it can be expressed in psi or in ppg. For the U-tube in
Figure 5.36, the maximum SIDPP will be the maximum kick intensity (KI) tolerable.
Calculation of Maximum Formation Pressure (FPmax)
The maximum formation pressure (FPmax) is defined by either of the following two equations:
Expressed as pressure: FPmax (psi) = KI (psi) + HPdp (psi)
FPmax = KI(psi) + (0.052 x CMW x TVD) Equation 4
Expressed as EMW: FPmax (ppg) = KI (ppg) + CMW (ppg) Equation 5
Definition of MAASP
Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP) is the pressure in excess of the hydrostatic pressure
that, if exceeded, will cause losses to the formation or casing burst.
It is required to identify the weak point in the well bore to calculate MAASP. This weak point could be located at
surface (wellhead / BOPE) or down-hole (casing / shoe / open hole). ChevronTexaco engineers normally design
wells based on the shoe integrity, assuming that the upper most part of the open hole is the weakest point in the
system.
Therefore, MAASP is based on the casing shoe integrity and calculated based on the Leak-Off Test (LOT):
MAASP (psi) = LOT (psi) HP above shoe (psi) Equation 6
U-Tube with Maximum Shut-in Conditions
Replacing SIDDPmax by KI, we have the pressure balance between the drill string side and annulus as shown
below in Figure 5.36
Fig 5.36
Equation 7

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Variables of Kick Tolerance

Kick Intensity (KI)
This number expressed as EMW (ppg), is specified in the planning phase based on formation pressure (FP) and
fracture pressure (FRP) predictions. The maximum kick tolerance provides a safety margin between the fracture
pressure at the shoe (LOT) and the mud weight (MW) in the open-hole section. The amount of kick intensity (KI)
will be a function of the certainty of the pore pressure and fracture pressure data.
Local guidelines should be established concerning allowable Kick Intensity (KI). An example of a guideline is
given below in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2
The actual KI guidelines may vary for a given region or area.
Kick Size (Vkick)

The volume of kick in barrels is the result of KT calculations. It depends on the openhole annulus geometry.
We assume that the kick is located in the open-hole section for all calculations.
Kick Tolerance Considerations

Kick Detection
Kicks are primarily detected and measured at the bit for drilling operations.
The pit gain will be taken as the Kick Size (Vkick) for calculations.
Gas Kick Behaviour
For constant BHP well control procedures, gas kicks will expand in a controlled manner while they are circulated
up the annulus.
Simultaneously, casing pressure at surface will increase in order to compensate the loss of mud hydrostatic
pressure due to the additional gas height as the kick expands.
Maximum Pressure at the Casing Shoe
The increase in casing pressure at surface during the well control operation will cause a higher pressure on the
casing shoe, reaching its maximum when the top of gas arrives at the shoe.

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Up to this point, the hydrostatic pressure above the shoe remains constant. Once the gas is completely above
the shoe, the pressure on the casing shoe will remain constant if the BHP is held constant.
Successful Shut-in vs Maximum Pressure at the Casing Shoe
A well successfully shut-in does not guarantee that the weak point (casing shoe) will not be exceeded during the
well control procedure, even if the BHP is held constant.
The maximum pressure at the shoe could be reached when the gas is at the shoe.
This consideration is critical for tight annular spaces and long open-hole sections, where the height of the gas
kick due to expansion can make the sum of the hydrostatic pressure above the shoe (CMW) and surface casing
pressure higher than the LOT.
Due to this consideration KT calculations should include an analysis of two scenarios:
1. When the gas kick is at the bit
2. When the gas kick is at the casing shoe
Note: In both scenarios annular geometries must be known.
5.6.3 Procedure for Kick Tolerance Calculations

Using Equation 7 we can calculate the kick volume (Vkick) knowing the following parameters:
KI (psi) Based on the expected formation pressure (FP)
MAASP (psi) Based on the LOT
CMW (ppg) Current Mud Weight in the well bore
Well Geometry Annular Capacity Factor (ACF)
STEP 1 Calculate the Height of the Gas (maximum conditions)

KI + HPdp = HPgas + HPmud + MAASP Equation 7
Calculating HPdp:
HPdp = 0.052 x CMW x TVD Equation 8
Calculating HPgas with gas gradient of 0.1 psi/ft:
HPgas = 0.1 x Hgas Equation 9
Calculating HPmud:
HPmud = 0.052 x CMW x (TVD Hgas) or equal to
HPmud = (0.052 x CMW x TVD) (0.052 x CMW x Hgas) Equation 10
Calculating MAASP based on the LOT (ppg):
MAASP = 0.052 x TVDshoe x (LOT - CMW) Equation 11
Calculating KI in psi:
KI(psi) = 0.052 x KI(ppg) x TVD Equation 12
Substituting terms in Equation 7 with Equations 8, 9, and 10, and solving to calculate Hgas:

Hgas = Equation 13


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Equation 13 will be used to calculate the maximum height of the gas at any point in the open-hole section
which does not exceed the MAASP for the given well conditions (KI, CMW and well geometry).
Then, Hgas should be used as the maximum gas height for the scenarios when a gas kick is detected at the bit
and when the gas is at the casing shoe.
STEP 2 Calculate Max Kick Volume at the Bit corresponding to the Hgas
V1 = Hgas x ACFOH-BHA Equation 14
STEP 3 Analysis of Kick Volume at the Shoe

Calculate Max Kick Volume at the Shoe corresponding to the Hgas
Vshoe = Hgas x ACFOH-DP Equation 15

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Vshoe is the volume of the kick that corresponds to the maximum height of gas allowable (Hgas) at the casing
shoe depth.
Convert Vshoe back to Bit Conditions

Vshoe is the volume of kick that has been expanded in a controlled manner coming from the initial shut-in
conditions at bit until reaching the casing shoe. Since the kicks are detected at the bit, we need to convert that
Vshoe back to the initial kick conditions.
The pressure corresponding to the Vshoe will be:
Pshoe = 0.052 x LOT x TVDshoe Equation 16
The initial kick pressure at the bit is the maximum formation pressure (FPmax) calculated with equation 4:
FPmax = KI(psi) + (0.052 x CMW x TVD)
Calculating Vshoe converted to the bit conditions using Boyles law:
V2 = Equation 17
STEP 4 Compare Kick Volumes (V1 and V2)

Kick Tolerance (KT) for the given well conditions will be the minimum volume allowed to be detected at the bit
(minimum between V1 and V2).
Factors Affecting Kick Tolerance
KT DECREASES with:
Decreasing weak point integrity (typically LOT of casing shoe)
Increasing open hole TVD
Increasing mud weight
Increasing kick intensity (formation pressure)
Smaller annular capacities (kick lengthens)
Kick Tolerance Reference
Similar to Kick Intensity (KI), local guidelines should be established concerning the approval of allowable Kick
Tolerance (KT) values for a project. An example of a guideline is given in Table 5.3. The actual KT guidelines
may vary according to the level of uncertainty of the information that is available for a given region or area.

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5.6.4 When to Calculate Kick Tolerance

KT is required to be calculated for each hole-section during the planning phase (well design), based on the
information available for the area. For drilling operations KT should be re-calculated based on the actual LOT of
the last casing shoe or weak point in the well. The Drilling Engineer should also provide a means to check kick
tolerance while drilling progresses, based on the actual operational parameters.

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STEP 1 Calculate the Height of the Gas (maximum conditions)

Calculating MAASP based on the LOT (ppg):
MAASP = 0.052 x TVDshoe x (LOT - CMW) Equation11
MAASP = 0.052 x 5,000 x (13.5 ppg 10.0 ppg)
MAASP = 910 psi
Calculating KI in psi:
KI(psi) = 0.052 x KI(ppg) x TVD Equation 12
KI(psi) = 0.052 x 1.0 ppg x 10,000
KI(psi) = 520 psi
Replacing MAASP and KI in equation 13:
MAASP(psi) KI(psi)
Hgas = Equation 13
(0.052 x CMW) 0.1
910 psi 520 psi
Hgas = = 929
(0.052 x 10.0 ppg) 0.1
STEP 2 Calculate Kick Volume at the Bit corresponding to the Hgas

V1 = Hgas x ACFOH-BHA Equation 14
V1 = 929 x 0.0352 bpf
V1 = 32.7 bbls
STEP 3 Calculate Kick Volume at the Shoe corresponding to the Hgas

Calculating Vshoe
Vshoe = Hgas x ACFOH-DP Equation 15
Vshoe = 929 x 0.0459 bpf
Vshoe = 42.6 bbls
Calculating Pshoe
Pshoe = 0.052 x LOT x TVDshoe Equation 16
Pshoe = 0.052 x 13.5 ppg x 5,000
Pshoe = 3,510 psi
Calculating FPmax
FPmax = KI(psi) + (0.052 x CMW x TVD) Equation 4
FPmax = 520 psi + (0.052 x 10.0 ppg x 10,000)
FPmax = 5,720 psi
Calculating Vshoe converted to the bit conditions using Boyles law:
Vshoe x Pshoe 42.6 bbls x 3,510 psi

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V2 = = Equation 17
FPmax 5,720 psi
V2 = 26.1 bbls
STEP 4 Compare Kick Volumes (V1 and V2)

V1 = 32.7 bbls
V2 = 26.1 bbls is the Kick Tolerance @ 10,000
In this case, if KT is calculated only based on the initial kick volume (V1), ignoring the gas expansion from the bit to
the shoe, the well can be shut-in successfully, but the casing shoe integrity will be exceeded during the well control
operation.
Interpretation of Results Current Well Conditions

The well can be shut-in on maximum kick size of 26.1 bbls
The gas kick can be circulated out using a constant BHP well control method with out exceeding the casing
shoe integrity
The maximum formation pressure that can be penetrated will be:
FP(ppg) = CMW (ppg) + KI (ppg) = 11.0 ppg (EMW)
If the kick size if larger than 26.1 bbls, the well can be shut-in successfully, but the shoe integrity will be
exceeded circulating the gas at any point from bottom to the casing shoe (open-hole section), regardless of
whether or not a constant BHP method is used.
Kick Tolerance Depth Iterations

KT iterations should be done as soon as a LOT is performed on a casing shoe. These calculations are executed
using the same procedure described, iterating the open hole depth from 5,000 to the next planned casing point.
The iteration will provide the maximum kick size that can be taken at any depth below the casing shoe for a
particular
MW and KI. For the example the results of KT in the open-hole section are shown in Table 5.4 and Figure 5.40.
As a check depth we can take 7,500, the allowable KT will be 46.1 bbls while at 10,000 it will be only 26.1 bbls.

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Fig 5.40
5.6.5 Kick Tolerance Next Casing Setting Depth

In the example, as the formation pressure is known, we can recommend the next casing setting depth based on
the KT (only if there are no abnormal changes in formation pressure or fracture pressure). For a KT equal to
25 bbls the casing should be run at 10,200 ft as shown in Figure 5.41.
Fig 5.41

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Kick Tolerance CMW Iterations

For variable MW in the open-hole section, the KT can be calculated using the same equations. In this case by
keeping the KI constant, the formation pressure (FP) will be different for each MW. This will be useful when the
expected formation pressure has some degree of uncertainty (appraisal projects). The next casing setting depth
can be determined if we decided to have a minimum KT (for example 25 bbls) for different MW and Formation
Pressures as shown in Figure 5.42.This can be applied only if there are no abnormal changes in formation pressure
or fracture pressure in the open-hole section.
Figure 5.42
Kick Tolerance KI Iterations

Using the same methodology, we can have a series of KT curves for different Kick Intensities (KI).
Kick Tolerance Limitations

As shown in Table 5.5, KT can be used as an additional tool to assist in defining casing setting depths. However;
the Primary means of defining casing setting depths is based in the pore pressure and fracture pressure profiles.
Wellbore conditions can limit the use of KT in defining casing setting depths (wellbore instability, lost circulation,
completion requirements, geology, etc)
Conclusions
1 KT should be defined as the maximum kick volume that can be taken for some specific well conditions
2 KT calculations should include an analysis of the kick volume at the shoe as well as the bit. It will provide the
maximum kick size that can be shut-in and circulated out of the well without breaking down the casing shoe.
3 KT can help in defining casing setting depths as a complement to other methodologies.

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4 KT can help in optimizing hole-size as a complement to other methodologies (slim holes).

5 KT is a tool provided by the drilling engineer for the operation, and should be updated continuously based on
the actual well data.
6 KT has been used successfully in marginal projects to improve the well design (fewer and slimmer hole-
sections). To do so requires a low level of uncertainty in the field data (pore pressure, fracture pressure, geology
markers, well-bore problems, etc).
7 KT Applications:
NOMENCLATURE
ACF Annular Capacity Factor, bbls/ft
ACFOH-BHA Annular Capacity Factor (Open Hole-BHA), bbls/ft
ACFOH-DP Annular Capacity Factor (Open Hole-DP), bbls/ft
BHA Bottom Hole Assembly
BHA OD Outside Diameter of Bottom Hole Assembly, inch
BHP Bottom Hole Pressure, psi
BOPE Blow-out Prevention Equipment
CMW Current Mud Weight, ppg
DP Drill Pipe
DP OD Outside Diameter of drill pipe, inch
EMW Equivalent Mud Weight, ppg
FP Formation Pressure, psi
FP (ppg) Formation Pressure in EMW, ppg
FPmax Maximum Formation Pressure, psi
FRP Fracture Pressure, psi
HPdp Hydrostatic Pressure in Drill Pipe, psi
HPgas Hydrostatic Pressure of gas, psi

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Hgas Height of Gas, ft

HPkick Hydrostatic Pressure of kick, psi
HPmud Hydrostatic Pressure of mud, psi
KI Kick Intensity in EMW, ppg
KI (psi) Kick Intensity, psi = 0.052 x KI x TVD
KT Kick tolerance, bbls
LOT Leak-off Test in EMW, ppg
LOT (psi) Leak-off Test, psi
MAASP Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure, psi
MW Mud Weight, ppg
Pshoe Pressure at the Casing Shoe, psi
SIDPP Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure, psi
SIDPPmax Maximum Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure, psi
SICP Shut-in Casing Pressure, psi
TVD Total True Vertical Depth, ft
TVDshoe True Vertical Depth at the Casing Shoe, ft
V1 Kick Volume at the bit, bbls
V2 Vshoe converted to Kick Volume at the bit, bbls
Vkick Kick Size (Volume), bbls
Vshoe Kick Volume at the Casing Shoe, bbls
Table 5.6
5.7.1 Tripping guidelines

Formation pressures are contained by the hydrostatic pressure of a column of drilling fluid - this is primary well
control.
If primary control is lost the blowout preventers are closed and secondary well control techniques are used to kill
the well.
Primary control is maintained by ensuring that a full column of drilling fluid of an appropriate weight is allowed to
exert its full hydrostatic pressure in the hole.
Industry wide experience has shown that the most common causes of loss of primary control and hence the well
kicks are:
Swabbing during trips
Not adequately filling the hole during a trip
Insufficient mud weight
Lost circulation
The evidence also shows that the majority of kicks have occurred during trips. This chapter outlines the measures
that are required to eliminate or minimise the risk of a kick due to the above causes, and to minimise influx
volumes if a kick occurs.
PVD Training | 5.7 Drilling Guidelines and Procedures 75

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Prior to Tripping
Considerable preparation is required before the trip is commenced. The following are among the most important
actions that should be carried out prior to tripping:
Circulate the hole

The mud should be conditioned to ensure that tripping will not cause excessive swab/surge pressures
Any entrained gas or cuttings should be circulated out
The mud weight should be such as to ensure an adequate overbalance will exist at all times during the trip
Determine the maximum pipe speed

Swab/surge pressures should be calculated at various tripping speeds using the appropriate formulae.
The maximum average pipe speed should be selected bearing in mind the estimated overbalance or trip
margin
Line up the Trip Tank

Company policy states that
A trip tank must be available on every rig and be complete with a mechanically operated indicator of the
trip tank level, visible from the Drillers position. The trip tank level must also be monitored from the Mud
Loggers cabin.

PVD Training
Fig 5.43 - Typical Trip Tank Hook-up on a Floating Rig

It is considered unsafe to trip without a trip tank and as such, spare parts for the hole fill pump/motor should
be kept at the rig site.
In order that maximum use is made of the trip tank on trips in and out of the hole, a trip sheet should be
used to record the mud volumes required to keep the hole full.
Fill in the Trip Sheet

Company policy states that:
A Trip sheet will be filled out by the Driller on every trip

PVD Training
Figure 5.44 shows a completed example of the trip sheet. This trip sheet should be used if the contractor
cannot provide a similar sheet. The basic requirement for a trip sheet is that a clear method of comparing
calculated with actual hole fill volumes is provided. The cumulative discrepancy between the two values
should also be recorded
The trip sheet for the last trip out of the hole should be available for comparison
Provide the Driller with the necessary information

The Driller should be told the reason for the trip.
He should be told of any indicators of increasing pore pressure or near balance that were identified during
drilling before, or since, he came on shift.
He should be fully aware of the procedures to be adopted in the event of a kick while tripping.
An example of the standing orders that should be provided to the Driller is shown in Figure 5.45

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Drill floor preparation

Crossovers should be available on the rig floor to allow a full opening drillpipe safety valve to be made up to
each tubular connection that is in the hole
A drillpipe safety valve (kelly valve) should be available on the rig floor. It should be kept in the open
position.
An inside BOP such as a Gray valve, should be available on the rig floor. This valve should be used in the
event that stripping into the hole may be required.
The rig crew should be completely familiar with, and practiced in, their responsibilities in the event of a kick
Tripping Procedure
Having completed the preparations as outlined in the previous section, the trip out of the hole can be started. The
following procedure is proposed as a guideline:
(1) Flow check the well with the pumps off to ensure that the well is stable with the ECD (equivalent circulating
density) effect removed.
(2) Pump a slug.
This enables the pipe to be pulled dry and the hole to be accurately monitored during a trip.
The following formula can be used to calculate the volume of slug to ensure a length, L, of dry pipe:

PVD Training
Fig 5.45 - Example of Standing Orders for Driller

As a general rule, the slug should be mixed to maintain a minimum of 2 stands of dry pipe. It is important to
accurately displace the slug to the pipe. In this manner, the Driller will know the weight, depth and height of the
slug at all times during the trip.
(3) For the first 5 10 stands off bottom, monitor the hole through the rotary. This is to check for swabbing as the
pipe is removed from the hole. The pipe wiper should therefore be installed only after the first stands have been
pulled. The trip tank should not be overfilled at this stage to ensure that swabbing is clearly indicated, should it
occur. The circulating pump should be switched off at this stage and the hole filled from the trip tank, after each
stand.
(4) Circulate the hole across the trip tank and continue to trip out, monitoring hole volumes with the aid of the trip
sheet.

PVD Training
(5) Conduct a flowcheck when the BHA is into the casing shoe.
(6) Conduct a flowcheck prior to pulling the BHA through the stack. Be aware that the required hole fill volume per
stand of heavy weight and drill collars will be greater than for drillpipe as the BHA is being removed from the
hole.
If unsure of the overbalance, consideration should be given to conducting a short round trip. Once back on bottom,
the overbalance can be assessed from the level of the trip gas at bottoms up.
If the hole does not take the correct amount of fluid at any stage in the trip, a flowcheck should be carried out.
If the flowcheck indicates no flow and the cause of the discrepancy cannot be accounted for at surface, the string
should be returned to bottom while paying particular attention to displacement volumes. After circulating bottoms
up, it may be necessary to increase the mud weight before restarting the trip out of the hole.
If the flowcheck is positive, the well should be shut-in according to the procedure indicated in the standing orders.
Subsequent action will be dependent upon the conditions at the rigsite.
Special Procedure for Oil Base Muds

When oil base mud is in use, gaseous fluids have a tendency to go into solution with the mud at high temperature
and pressure. Experience has shown that once an influx has gone into solution, it will not break out of solution until
the bubble point is reached, typically at 1000 1500psi (this will depend on the fluids concerned). The possible
consequence of this is that a small influx that was undetected at depth may suddenly break out of solution close to
the surface. This may cause a dangerous liberation of gas at surface as well as significant reduction in hydrostatic
pressure in the well.
Consideration should also be given to the possibility of thermal expansion of the mud at high temperatures. This
can cause a reduction in effective mud weight and hence in the overall hydrostatic head.
It is therefore recommended that tripping procedures are modified to take account of this potential problem when
oil base mud is in use in the following situations: When drilling or coring in a potential pay zone:
On prediction of an increase in pore pressure
On detecting significant levels of gas in the mud
In these circumstances the following procedure is recommended prior to pulling out of the hole:
(1) Flow check the well.
(2) Circulate bottoms up.
(3) Check trip to the shoe monitoring hole volumes.
(4) Flow check at the shoe and run back to bottom.
(5) Circulate bottoms up. Close in the BOP and circulate through the choke when the potential influx is at 1640 ft
below the stack, watching for any pit gain.
(6) If necessary increase the mud weight and perform a further check trip.
This procedure can be relaxed if, after several trips under the same conditions, the well remains stable.
The following procedure is recommended in these circumstances after a round trip.
(1) When back on bottom prior to any further drilling or coring, circulate bottoms up to check for trip gas.
(2) Circulate until potential influx is at 1640 ft below the stack, watching for any pit gain.
(3) Close in the well and circulate the potential influx through the choke.

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5.7.2 Crew Handover

The new crew should be thoroughly briefed on everything that transpired during the work day. The handover notes
should include information about what has been accomplished, where the job stands at that point, any problems or
complications that occurred as well as normal parameters (such as well-depth, new BHA, pump rates and
pressures, string weight, torque and drag, gains/losses, fluid properties etc.) that were experienced during the shift.
Ensure that the pre-recorded data sheet has been updated.
Inform your relief what happened, what you are watching for and what to expect.
For a continuous smooth operation, a staggered crew change policy, especially at supervisory level, can be
beneficial.
5.7.3 Pre-recorded Data Sheet

Purpose of the Pre-recorded Data Sheet
The Pre-recorded Data Sheet shown in Figures 5.46 (A) and 5.46 (B), is a two-sided information page) which lists
the wellbore capacities and volumes for a particular well.
This is a critical well control document that must be kept as current and as accurate as possible. The Drilling
Representative will need this information to complete the Wait and Weight or Drillers Method Worksheets if a kick
occurs.
The information on the Pre-recorded Data Sheet is used to calculate pumping volumes and strokes and is
therefore crucial to the successful completion of most well killing operations. A sheet must be filled out when a kick
is taken so that the information it contains will be readily available. When the Data Sheet has been filled out ahead
of time, the Drilling Representative does not have to spend his time figuring wellbore capacities and volumes after
a kick has occurred when time may be critical. Also, this gives the Drilling Representative additional time to check
the accuracy of the figures.
Note: It is strongly recommended that the Pre-recorded Data Sheet be filled-out as completely as possible at all
times while drilling.
Much of the data on the Pre-recorded Data Sheet remains the same from day-to-day, so its fairly simple to keep it
up-to-date. Many of the measurements are easily memorized because they are used so frequently. However, it's
advisable to keep important figures written down and on hand for everyone on the rig to refer to in a critical
situation.
Using the Pre-recorded data sheet

The following information is a guide for the Drilling Representatives when completing the blanks on a Pre-recorded
Data Sheet:
Well Data
The well data section is composed of the well name, field name, and rig name. These items should be filled out
completely.
Hole Data
Record the hole size as the diameter of the bit in the hole.
Record the hole MD and TVD after the well has kicked. It should take only a short while to determine these
values from the Drillers pipe figures and survey data.
Record the capacity factor of the hole size listed above in bbls/ft. This is an approximation and does not
account for hole washout or actual casing diameter. Multiply this number by the Measured Depth to
determine the hole capacity (bbls).

PVD Training
To determine the open hole capacity for subsea wells, multiply by the measured depth minus the RKB to
mud line length by the open hole capacity factor.
Pump Data
Record as the pump liner diameter (inches) for duplex or triplex pumps.
Record as the pump stroke (inches) for duplex or triplex pumps.
Record the pump rod diameter (inches) for duplex pumps only.
Record as the mechanical pump efficiency % as determined by top plug displacement during a cement job
or by pumping into the trip tank.
Determine the theoretical pump displacement and multiply by % Efficiency above to determine the actual
pump output in Bbl/stk
Casing Data
Record the outside diameter, inside diameter, measured depth, and true vertical depth of the last full string of
casing in the ground.
Wellhead or Casing Pressure Limitation
Record as the lesser of:
a) 100% of wellhead pressure rating.
b) 100 % of blowout preventer pressure rating.
c) 80% of last casing string burst rating.
Liner Casing Data
Record the outside diameter, inside diameter, measured depth to top and vertical depth to shoe of any liner casing
in the ground.
Drillstring Data
Record the outside diameter (ins) and weight (lb/ft) of all drillpipe, heavyweight drillpipe and drill collars in the
string. This data should be reviewed and updated on every trip in the hole.
Internal Capacities
Record the length of each drillstring component by its associated internal capacity factor (bbl/ft). Treat bottomhole
assembly components (stabilizers, crossover subs, etc.) as drill collars for capacity calculations. Calculate the total
volume (bbls) for each component section by multiplying the component length by its capacity factor. Since the
length of drillpipe will not be known until after the well kicks, the drillpipe capacity and total internal capacity will
have to be calculated after the kick. Check that the Measured Depth indicated is equal to the sum of the individual
component lengths.
Divide the Total Internal Capacity (bbls) by the pump displacement (bbls/stk) to determine these capacities in
strokes.
Annulus Capacities (surface stacks only)
Record the length of each drillstring component and its associated annular capacity factor in the given hole size.
Treat bottomhole assembly components (stabilizers, crossover subs, etc.) as drill collars for capacity calculations.
Calculate the annular capacity (bbls) opposite each component section by multiplying the component length by the
annular capacity factor. Since the length of drillpipe will not be known until after the well kicks, the annular
capacity opposite the drillpipe and the total annular capacity will have to be calculated after the kick.

PVD Training
Note: Check that the Measured Depth indicated is equal to the sum of the individual component lengths.
Finally, add the Total Internal Capacity to the Total Annular Capacity to determine the System Total Capacity (not
including the active pit volume).
Divide the Total Annulus capacity (bbls) and the System Total capacity by the pump output (bbls/stk) to determine
these capacities in strokes.
Maximum Initial SICP
The maximum casing pressure that will fracture the formation at the shoe upon shut-in can be determined by
subtracting the present mud weight from the shoe test (in lbs/gal) and then multiplying this figure by the true
vertical depth of the shoe and by 0.052.
This formula is stated in equation form below:
MISICP = (Shoe Test, lb/gal EMW - Present Mud Weight, lb/gal) x TVD
Keep this Well Data Sheet Current at all times shoe, ft x 0.052
The Pre-recorded Data Sheet should be kept as current and as accurate as possible so that time wont be wasted
looking up routine capacity numbers after a kick has been taken. The Data Sheet has been designed so that nearly
all of the Sections can be completed prior to a kick. These Sections include:
Sections Fully Completed:
Well Data Section
Pump Data Section
Casing Data Section
Wellhead or Casing Pressure Limitation Section
Liner Casing Data Section
Drillstring Data Section
Maximum Initial SICP Section
However, some of the Sections on the Pre-recorded Data Sheet cannot be fully completed until after the well has
kicked. These include:
Sections Partially Completed
Hole Data Section: All items should be completed except the Measured Depth and True Vertical m Depth. These
depths are recorded after the kick occurs.
Internal Capacities: All items should be completed except the Drillpipe Length (ft) and Volume (bbls). These items
are recorded after the kick occurs.
Annulus Capacities: All items should be completed except Drillpipe x Casing or Hole (ft) and Volume (bbls). These
items are recorded after the kick occurs.
If the Pre-recorded Data Sheet is completed as described above, the only blanks remaining on the sheet will be
those whose which require the length of drillpipe in the hole (which is constantly increasing as you drill deeper). If a
kick is taken, the Drilling Representative simply needs to determine the length of drillpipe in the hole and the
remaining capacities (hole, internal, and annulus) can be easily calculated.
Some Complicating Situations
Sometimes, complicated wellbore and drillstring configurations combine to make completion of the Pre-recorded
Data Sheet unclear. Some of these special situations (with remedies) are described below.
Drilling Liner:

PVD Training
A drilling liner is a complicating situation because the change in casing diameters at the liner top changes the
annular capacity figures. To resolve the situation, you will need to add additional annular capacity figures to the
Pre-recorded Data Sheet.
The drillstring component, which is opposite the liner top, needs to have two separate annular capacity figures
(one for the liner, a second for the casing). Therefore, include the annular capacity figures for both the liner and the
casing in the Annulus Capacity Section. Make a note in the left hand margin to indicate which capacity figure is for
the liner and which is for the casing.
Note: Do this only for the drillstring component that is opposite the liner top.
If drillpipe is opposite the liner top while drilling, then the length of Drillpipe x Casing can be determined and
recorded on the Data Sheet. However; if the heavyweight drillpipe is opposite the liner top while drilling then the
length of heavyweight inside the liner and casing will be constantly changing when drilling. In these instances, it
will not be possible to record the correct lengths until after a kick has been taken and the measured depth
determined.
Tapered Drillstring:
A tapered drillstring changes both the internal and the external capacity figures at the point of crossover. Include
the capacity figures (bbl/stk) for both sizes of drillpipe on the Pre-recorded Data Sheet. Compute the internal and
annular capacities opposite the smaller diameter drillpipe in the same manner as the Drill Collars.
Subsea Considerations
Use of a subsea preventer stack creates several situations that are not addressed in the previous discussions. The
opposite side of the Pre-recorded Data Sheet is designed for subsea use only and replaces or augments the
prerecorded information on the front.
Internal Capacity:
The internal capacity of the drillstring is transferred from the front side of the sheet.
Annular Capacity:
The annular capacity calculations must be modified when a subsea blowout preventer is used. The Annular
Capacity Section on the front side of the sheet should not be used. Instead, the following subsea items of interest
must be considered.
1. Choke line length
This is recorded as the total length of the actual piping from the subsea stack to the choke manifold. Allowances
may be made for loops in the moon pool and other turns when determining this length. Record this length in the
Annulus Capacity Section.
2. D.P. x Casing or Hole Length
Is determined by the subtracting the DC x Hole Length and the RKB to Mud Line Length from the Measured Depth
of the hole. This will provide the length of drillpipe from the bottomhole assembly to the subsea stack.
DP x Casing or Hole Length = MD - (DC x Hole Length) - (RKB to Mud Line Length)
3. D.C. x Hole Length is simply the length of the bottomhole assembly.
Note: Addition of these three lengths may yield a value which is greater than the Measured Depth of the hole. This
is normal and should be expected.
The difference should be equal to the difference between the RKB to Mud Line Length and the Choke Line Length.
Choke Line Friction: This section is provided to record the most recent choke line friction measurements.
Riser Capacity: Use this section to record riser capacity.

PVD Training
Pre-recorded Data Sheet

Fig 5.46 (A)

PVD Training
Pre-recorded Data Sheet

Fig 5.46 (b)

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PVD Training

October 25, 2012

PVD Training | Table of Contents 1

5.3.9 Pit Drill .............................................................................................................................................................................. 16

PVD Training | Table of Contents 2

Variables of Kick Tolerance................................................................................................................................................... 65

PVD Training | Table of Contents 3

5.1.2 Pressure Gauges

PVD Training | 5.1 Rig Instrumentation and Control Guidelines 4

5.1.3 Fluid Measurement

PVD Training | 5.1 Rig Instrumentation and Control Guidelines 5

Suggested Fluid Measurement System

5.1.4 Gas Measurement

PVD Training | 5.1 Rig Instrumentation and Control Guidelines 6

Fig 5.3 Gas Trap

5.2.2 Individual Responsibilities

The Operator Company Drilling Representative

PVD Training | 5.2 Manpower Organization 7

The Drilling Engineer

The Senior Contractor Representative

The Contractor Toolpusher

The Cementing Engineer

The Subsea Engineer (where appropriate)

The Mud Logging Engineers

PVD Training | 5.2 Manpower Organization 8

One member of the crew must keep a diary of events

PVD Training | 5.2 Manpower Organization 9

Fig 5.4 Flowchart of Communication System

PVD Training | 5.2 Manpower Organization 10

5.3.2 BOP Drills

5.3.3 D1: Kick While Tripping

PVD Training | 5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates 11

Frequency of Trip Drills:

Trip Drill Procedure

These duties may include:

5.3.4 D2: Kick While Drilling

PVD Training | 5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates 12

5.3.5 D3: Diverter Drill

PVD Training | 5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates 13

5.3.6 D4: Accumulator Drill

Surface Accumulator Drill Procedure

5.3.7 D5: Well Kill Drill

PVD Training | 5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates 14

5.3.8 D6: Stripping Drill

PVD Training | 5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates 15

5.3.9 Pit Drill

5.3.10 Slow Circulating Pressures, SCRs

PVD Training | 5.3 Drills and Slow Circulation Rates 16

SCR Pressure Plot

5.4.2 Pit Management

PVD Training | 5.4 Use of the Mud System 17

When Displacing a Kick

5.4.3 Building Mud Weight

PVD Training | 5.4 Use of the Mud System 18

Maximum possible rate at which the mud can be weighted bbl/min =

Therefore for the following example:

Building Viscosity into the Mud

Volume Increase Due to Barite Addition

PVD Training | 5.4 Use of the Mud System 19

Therefore in the following situation:

5.4.4 Dealing with Gas at Surface

Overboard Lines/Flare Lines

PVD Training | 5.4 Use of the Mud System 20