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Electrolysis
x The conduction of electricity through an electrolyte
together with the resulting chemical changes.
x In electrolyte the electric current is due to the motion of
free ions.
Application of chemical effect
x To extract metals from their ores; to purify metals; for
electroplating; for anodisation.
Electroplating
x Electroplating is the process of coating a metal on the
surface of a conductor by electrolysis.
x Which metal is to be used for electroplating, that metal is
Anode (positive electrode) and the solution of the same
metal is to be used as the electrolyte. The object which is
to be electroplated is to be used as the cathode (negative
electrode).
Uses of electroplating
x Improve the appearance, to prevent corrosion.
Law of Electrolysis
x The mass of a substance liberated from an electrolyte or
deposited on the electrode is directly proportional to the
charge that is passed through the electrolyte.
x mQ or m = a constant Q
Heating Devices
x Heating coil (Main part)
x Heating coils are made of Nichrome
x Characteristics of Nichrome: High melting point and
resistance, ability to remain in red hot state for a long time
Joules Law
x The heat produced by an electric current flowing through
a conductor is equal to the product of the square of
current passed, the resistance of the conductor and time
for which the current is passed.
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V2 t
x Heat H = I 2 Rt or H = IVt or H = or H = Pt
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x I=Current, R=Resistance, V=Voltage, t=Time, P=Power
Power
x Power is the rate at which work is done.
Work
x Power = Time
V2
x P = I 2 R or P = VI or P = R
x Unit of Power: Watt
Safety fuse
x Parts: Porcelain block, porcelain bridge, fuse wire
x Fuse wire:Alloy of tin and lead(Low melting point)
x Safety fuse is a mechanism to safe electrical appliances by
stopping huge current due to short circuit or overloading
in a circuit.
Incandescent lamp(Filament lamp)
x Main partFilament
x Filament is made of tungsten.
x Characteristics of tungsten: High melting point and
resistance, ability to remain white hot for a long time.
x Working: Heat is produced when current flows through
the tungsten filament and produces white light.
x Tungsten is the pure metal with maximum resistivity.
Discharge Lamps
x Main parts: Two electrodes, a glass tube filled with gas
x Working: As a result of the collision of ions and electrons
with unionized particles and produces light.
x The colour of light depends in gas(Neon-Orange; Nitrogen-
Red; Sodium-Yellow; Mercury-White; Chlorine-green;
Hydrogen-Blue)
Fluorescent Lamps
x Working: The electrons ionize mercury atoms, ultraviolet
rays are produced. These rays are absorbed by the
fluorescent materials and produce visible light.
x Merits: High longevity (five times that of filament lamp),
Shadow minimized, Energy loss is less, Gives greater
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intensity of light.
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CF lamps

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Physics Short Notes
x A CFL has a unit of electronic circuit and fluorescent tube
containing mercury vapour.
LED Lamps
x A very low power is enough for LED lamps.

Electromagnetic Induction
x The magnetic flux associated with a coil changes by the
relative motion of the coil or magnet.
x The phenomenon of producing an in a conductor as a
result of change in the magnetic flux linked with the
conductor is electromagnetic induction.
x The developed due to electromagnetic induction is
called induced and the current so obtained is called
induced current.
x Generator, moving coil microphone etc. work on the
principle of electromagnetic induction.
Generators are two types.
AC generator
x Generator gives alternating current.
x Main parts:
Field magnet: This is the magnet which produces
magnetic flux in a generator.
Armature: An armature is an arrangement of insulated
copper wire wound on a soft iron core.
Slip rings: They are full rings fused to the ends of the
armature coil.
Brushes: An arrangement that is always in contact with
the slip rings
x Working: When the armature rotates in the magnetic
field, an alternating is induced in the coil. The current
is carried to the external circuit through the brushes
keeping contact with the slip rings.
x Different stages of the rotation of the armature: During
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the first half of rotation the current begins from zero and
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reaches the maximum positive value, then decreases

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gradually and comes to zero. In the second half, the
current reaches the maximum negative value, then
decreases gradually and reaches zero.
x As a result of variation of the magnetic flux linked with a
conductor, a current is induced in it, the direction of
which changes continuously. This is known as alternating
Current (AC).
DC generator
x DC Generator gives direct current.
x Field magnet, armature and split rings are main parts.
x Working: When the armature rotates in the magnetic
field, an alternating is induced in the coil. The flux cot
in the first half of the rotation is in one direction and in
the opposite direction during-the second half rotation.
Hence the direction of flow of current in the armature
changes. When the direction of the current in the
armature changes during the successive half rotations,
the contact of one half of the split ring shifts from one
brush to the other. So the-direction of the current in the
external circuit does not change.
Similarities and dissimilarities of the structure of
an AC generator with a DC generator
x Field magnet, armature and brushes are common in AC
generator and DC generator.
x In an AC generator the end points of the armature coil are
connected to slip rings but in DC generator the end points
of the armature coils are connected to split rings.
Moving coil microphone
x In moving coil microphone, the voice coil remains in the
magnetic gap of a powerful magnet. The voice coil vibrates
with the vibrations of the diaphragm when sound waves
fall on it. The movement of the voice coil across the
magnetic field induces an electric current in the coil. The
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intensity of the current varies in accordance with the

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variations of sound waves falling on the diaphragm.

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x When the intensity of sound produced in front of the
diaphragm increases; the amplitude of the induced
electric signal formed in the coil also increases.
x In moving coil microphone sound energy is converted into
electrical energy
Mutual induction
x A magnetic field is generated around the primary solenoid
when an electric current is passed through it by
connecting the ends of the solenoid to a battery cell. But
induced is not produced in the secondary solenoid as
there is no change in this magnetic flux. When the switch
is on and off the flux linked with the secondary coil
changes and thus an is induced in the secondary coil.
x Here AC is passed through the primary coil. The direction
of ac changes at regular interval continuously. As the
secondary coil is located at this magnetic field which
changes at regular interval continuously, the change in
flux causes the production of an induced in the
secondary coil continuously. So the bulb glows
continuously. If the number of turns of the secondary is
more than the number of turns of the primary the induced
emf increases and if the number of turns of the secondary
is less than the number of turns of the primary the
induced emf decreases.
x When there are two nearby coils the variation of current
in one of them produces a change in the magnetic flux
around it and an is induced in the secondary coil.
Transformer: Transformer are Two types
Step up transformer
x Increases AC voltage
x Number of turns is less and thick wire is used in primary
x Number of turns is large and thin wire is used in
secondary
x In primary Current is large and Voltage less
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Step down transformer

x Decreases AC voltage
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x Number of turns is large and thin wire is used in primary
x Number of turns is less and thick wire is used in
secondary
x In primary Current is less and Voltage large
VS NS VS NS IP
= ; VP I P = VS I S ; = =
V NP P V N I P P S
VS =Secondary voltage; VP=Primary voltage;
NS =Secondary turns; NP=Primary turns;
IS =Secondary current; IP=Primary current.
Self-Inductance
x It is the phenomenon of inducing emf in a coil caused by
the variation of magnetic flux produced by a varying
current in the same coil.
x The effective voltage is reduced through a conductor due
to back emf.
Inductors
x Inductors are coil which can oppose the changes of
current in a circuit.
Flemings left hand rule
x Stretch the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the left
hand so that they are perpendicular to one another. The
fore finger represents the direction of the magnetic field,
the middle finger represents the direction of the current,
and the thumb indicates the direction of the force, This is
Flemings left hand rule.
Motor Principle
x A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
experiences a force. Electric motor, moving coil loud
speaker etc. work on the principle of electric motor.
x Electric motor(electrical energy to mechanical energy) and
Loud speaker (electrical energy to sound energy) works on
the motor principle
Electric Motor
x It has a field magnet and an armature capable for free
rotation about an axis. The armature rotates in the
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magnetic field produced by the field magnet. When a

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current flows through the armature, it moves on the basis
of Flemings left hand rule.
Moving coil loudspeaker
x A voice coil placed between the poles of a permanent
magnet is the important part of a loud speaker. A
diaphragm is attached to this coil.
x The electrical signal corresponding to the variations of
sound from the microphone is amplified by an amplifier
and is fed to the voice coil. The voice coil vibrates in
accordance with the intensities of the electrical signals.
These vibrations induce vibrations on the paper cone
attached to the coil causing vibrations to the air around it.
As a result, the original sound is reproduced more loudly.

x Mainly three types of power station

Hydroelectric power station
x Hydroelectric power stations are power stations where
electricity is produced by rotating turbines of a generator
by allowing water stored at a height to flow through pipes
or tunnels.
x Mechanical energy Electrical energy
x Eg: Moolamattam,Pallivasal,Kuttiadi,Sabarigiri
Thermal Power station
x In thermal power station the heat energy released during
the burning of fuels like naphtha, coal and lignite is used
for heating water and producing steam at high pressure.
The steam thus produced is used for rotating turbines and
generate electricity
x Chemical EnergyThermal Energy Mechanical
EnergyElectrical Energy
x Eg: Kayamkulam, Neyveli, Ramagundam, Brahmapuram.
Nuclear Power Energy
x In nuclear power station the heat energy released during
nuclear fission is used for heating water and producing
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steam at high pressure. The steam thus produced is used

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for rotating turbines and generate electricity

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x Nuclear EnergyThermal Energy Mechanical
EnergyElectrical Energy
x Eg: Kalpakkam,Tharapur,Kotta,Narora.
Power Generator
x Mainly Three Parts.
x Rotor : The rotating part (Field magnet)
x Stator : Stationary part (Armature)
x Excitor : (Auxiliary Generator) : Providing DC to
electromagnets in large AC generators)
x The problems when a permanent magnet is used as the
field magnet.
The limitation of producing strong magnets.
The magnetic strength of permanent magnet loses
gradually. So the flex cannot be maintained stable.
The strength of the field magnet cannot be increases or
decreases.
x The armature of a power generator will be heavy and so it
is used as the stator. This helps to eliminate the graphite
brush and avoid sparks.
Single phase Generator
x One Field magnet and One Armature Coil
x Only a single Ac is obtained
x It is used in House and Shops
Three Phase Generator
x One Field magnet and Three Armature Coil
x Three distinct AC is obtained
x It is used in Power station
x Numbers of turns are equal in three armature coil.
x Three identical armature coil at angle of 1200 with one
another
Power Transmission
x The process of sending electricity through wire from the
generating station to the area where it is consumed.
x In our country electricity is generated in 11 kV.
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x Step up transformers are used at the substation near the

powerhouse.
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x In other stages of distribution step-down transformer is
used.
x Problems related to the Transmission(Transmission loss):
x Voltage drop and energy loss
Transmission loss minimized
x By raising the voltage during transmission
x By reducing strength of electric current
x Use low resistance material.
Star Connection
x It is a mechanism to send electricity from distribution
transformer to house
x 4 lines(3 phase +One neutral)
x Three phase line are connected to a point is called neutral.
x The line starting from this point is neutral line.
x The voltage of this line is zero.
x Potential difference between Two phase line is 400V
x Potential difference between phase line and neutral line is
230V
x Potential difference between neutral line and earth is 0V
x Potential difference between phase line and earth is 230V
Household wiring
x Phase line and neutral line
x The different electrical appliances that are usually used in
our houses works at 230V.
x Bulbs connected in parallel circuit are brighter.
x In parallel circuits, it one bulb stops working, then all
other bulbs keep working normally. But in series circuit it
one bulb stops working, then all other bulbs also stop
working.
Advantages of parallel circuits in domestic wiring
are
x In parallel circuits, if one electrical appliance stops
working then all other appliances keep working normally.
x Each appliance has its own switch due to which it can be
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turned on or off independently, without affecting other

appliances.
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x Each appliance gets the same voltage.
x The overall resistance of the circuit is reduced due to
which the current from the power supply is high
x Connect in parallel of the order Watt Hour meter main
fusemain switch fusesswitches appliances
x Fuse is connected to the phase line.
x The switches are connected to the phase line
x In house all appliances are connected in parallel to neutral
line through switches
Three pin plug and two pin plug
x The line that comes in contact with pin E is the earth line.
It is thicker and longer than the other two. This line is
connected to the metallic covering of the appliance.
x The phase and neutral lines are connected to the heating
coil of the electric iron.
x When the phase line comes in contact with the outer
metallic case the current will flow to the earth.
x In our house watt hour meter is the device which connects
the electric lines first. Watt-hour meter is an instrument
which can he directly read the amount of electrical energy;
consumed. It is connected at the beginning of the electric
circuit.
Measurement of electrical energy
x The quantity of energy consumed in one hour at the rate
of 1j/s is called Kilowatt hour. It is the commercial unit of
electricity.

Sound
x Sound is a form of energy which makes us hear.
x Sound is produced by the vibration of objects(solid, liquid,
gas)
Source of Sound
x Devices that produce sounds are called source of sound.
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Sources of sound The part that vibrates

Drum, Tabala Diphragm
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Violin, Veena, Guitar Strings

Flute Air
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Natural frequency
x Every vibrating object has its own frequency. This is its
natural frequency.
Factors depends on vibration (frequency of a wire)
x The nature of material
x Thickness of wire
x Length of wire
x Tension of the wire
Transmission of sound
x Sound needs a material medium to travel.
x Astronauts in space or on the moon use radios to talk each
other because there is no air on the moon to carry the
sound waves.
Medium Velocity (m/s)
Aluminium 6420
Steel 5950
Pure water 1498
Air 340
x The sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Measures of Wave
Wavelength()
x The distances between two nearest points in a wave are in
same phase of vibration.
x Unit-metre(m)
Frequency(f)
x The number of vibration per second.
x Unit-Hertz(Hz)
Velocity (v)
x It is the distance travelled by a wave in one second.
x Unit-(m/s)
Relation between , f and v
x v = f or f=v/ or =v/f
Characteristics of Sound
Intensity
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x The intensity of the sound is the amount of energy passing

through unit area per second perpendicular to the
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direction of propagations.
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x The intensity of sound is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the sound.
x Its unit is W/m2
Loudness
x Loudness is the measure of audibility produced by sound
in u person.
x Loudness depends on the intensity, frequency and
efficiency of the ear.
x The unit of Loudness is decibel (dB).
x Sounds higher than 120 dB are painful to the ear.
Pitch
x Shrillness of a sound felt by the ear is its pitch.
x The faster the vibration of the source, the higher is the
frequency and higher is the pitch.
Two Types
x Sounds of high pitch: Chirping of crickets, whistles, sound
of women, sound of children
x Sounds of low pitch: Thundering sound, sound of man,
sound of cow, sound of drum
Timbre
x The quality of sound (timbre) that distinguishes the
sounds of two persons.
Bass and Treble
x A group of sound waves of low pitch is bass. A group of
sound waves of high pitch is treble.
Doppler Effect
x The change in frequency experienced by the receiver either
because of the relative motion of the source or the receiver
or both is Doppler Effect.
x We felt that there is an increase in frequency of the
whistling from a fast train when it comes from a distance
to the station and a decrease in frequency when the train
passes us without stopping. It is due to Doppler Effect.
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Natural vibration
x The free vibration of an object is called Natural vibration.
x Free vibration depends on shape and elasticity etc.
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x If an object is allowed to vibrate freely, the object should
vibrate in its own natural frequency.
x The frequency of the natural vibration is called natural
frequency.
Forced vibration
x If a vibrating body forces another body to vibrate with the
same frequency as that of the vibrating body, it is called
forced vibration.
Resonance
x The wooden part of the veena and sonometer is almost
alike. When an excited tuning fork mounted on a
sonometer, between the bridges when the distance
between the bridges became a particular length, the
bridges is forced to vibrate at a frequency of tuning fork.
Due to resonance the wire may start vibrating violently
and the paper rider thrown away from the wire.
x If the natural frequency of a body undergoing forced
vibration is the same as that of the forcing body, then they
are said to be in resonance.
x The body undergoing forced vibration will vibrate with
greater amplitude.
x Sonometer and Resonance column are used in laboratory
for explain resonance.
Practical effects of resonance
x Soldiers cannot march through a hanging bridge
x The doors and windows of nearby buildings vibrate at the
time of firework.
x When we talk near instruments of violin, guitar etc. its
string vibrates.
Beats
x If two sound sources of slightly different frequencies are
sounded together, a periodic rise and fall in intensity will
be heard. This is known as phenomenon of beats.
Persistence of Hearing
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x The sensation of hearing produced by sound is retained

for a period of 1/10 second. This peculiarity of the ear is
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persistence of hearing.
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Limit of audibility
x Normally a person can hear frequencies from 20 hertz to
20,000 hertz. This is limit of audibility.
x Sounds of frequency less than 20 Hz are infrasonic sounds
and sounds of frequency greater than 20 kHz are
ultrasonic sounds.
Uses of ultrasonic sounds
x To record the functioning of the heart (Echocardiography)
x To study the functioning of internal organs like liver,
kidney, uterus (Ultrasonography)
x To crush small stones formed in the kidney
x To measure the depth of oceans (SONAR- Sound
Navigation and Ranging)
Situations/Animals to utilize Infra sonic sounds
x Elephants, whales, Rhinoceroses, earthquakes.
Reflection
x Sound bounce back when it falls on hard surface is
reflection
x Megaphones, Horns, Stethoscope, Sound board are
utilizing multiple reflections.
Echo
x Echo is the same sound heard a gain after sound is heard.
x The distance from the sound reflecting surface to hear an
echo should be above 17m
Reverberation
x The persistence of sound as a result of multiple reflection
is reverberation
Acoustics of buildings
x Acoustics of buildings is the branch of science which deals
with the conditions to be fulfilled in the construction of a
hall for clear audibility.
Problems
x Cannot hear sound properly
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x The sound is heard repeatedly

x The sweetness of music is lost
Loudness is insufficient
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Minimize Options
x A large number of ventilators and windows are provide
x Curtains having many folds are used
x Carpets are used
x Walls are made rough.
x Sound Pollution:
Ways to minimise sound pollution
x Plant trees on the roadside.
x Obey the laws to control noise pollution
x Maintaining automobiles in good condition

Dispersion of Light
x The phenomenon of splitting of visible light into its
constituent colours is dispersion.
x The component colours in the white light deviate at
different rates according to their wavelength; this is the
reason for dispersion.
Rainbow
x The dispersion of light in water forms rainbow.
x The light ray entering to a drop of water undergoes two
refraction and one total internal reflection.
x The line joining the centre of the rainbow and the observer
is the line of vision.
x Rainbow is seen as an arc because each colour makes a
definite angle with the line of vision.
Opaque objects
x An opaque object reflects only its colour. It absorb all other
colours falls on it.
Transparent objects
x The colour of a transparent object depends upon the
colour that it allows to pass through it.
Persistence of vision
x The sensation of seeing an object remains for about 1/16
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of a second after the object is removed from view. This is

known as persistence of vision
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Newtons colour disc

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x When the Newtons colour disc was rotated at high speed
it appeared white. Due to the persistence of vision we feel
the effect of seeing all colours together.
Primary colours
x Green, red and blue are called primary colours.
x Three colours green, red and blue super impose appears
white.
x Primary colours cannot be obtained by mixing other
colours.
Secondary colours
x The colours formed by the combination of any two primary
colours are secondary colours.
Complementary colours
x The pair of colours combined with a primary colour to get
white light is called complementary colours.
x secondary Primary x complementary
x colours
colour colour colour
x Green+redx yellow xx green x Magenta
x Green+blue x cyan x red x cyan
x Blue+red x Magenta x blue x yellow
Scattering of light
x When light falls on rough surface or on tiny particles in
the atmosphere, it reflects into all directions. This
phenomenon of light is known as scattering
x Red colour, which has a long wavelength, can travel large
distances without scattering.
The rising or setting sun and the colour of the sky
x The colour of longer wavelength red in the sun rays
reaching the earth from the rising or setting sun. So the
sun in red during sunrise and sunset.
x Colours of shorter wavelength such as violet, indigo and
blue scatter more when compared to other colours of
longer wavelength, and spread in the sky.
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x There is no atmosphere in the moon. So light reach at the

moon is not scattered. There is no presence of any kind of
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scattered light, in the moon, sky appears dark.

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Ultraviolet rays and infrared rays
x An infrared ray which has more wavelength than visible
light and ultraviolet rays of least wavelength are the
radiations on either side of the visible light.
x Infrared rays travel long distance with less scattering.
x Though ultraviolet radiations are invisible; we can detect
its presence through its reactions on photographic plate.
x Ultraviolet radiations of moderate intensity helps to
produce vitamin D when react with, the coloured; pigment
melanin present below our skin
x Substances which absorb light of shorter wavelength and
convert them to light of larger wavelength are fluorescent
substances.
x When ultraviolet radiation fall on fluorescent substances,
their wavelength increases
x Fluorescent paints are able to absorb ultraviolet
radiations and convert into visible light.

Components in an electronic circuit

Resistors
x The function of a resistor is to supply the necessary
potential difference to the components by regulating the
current in a circuit. Resistance is measured in the unit
ohm. Its symbol is . The value of resistance is recorded
directly on it or using a colour code.
Inductors
x Inductors are coils of conducting wire which can resist
variations of electric current in a circuit. The ability to
resist the variation of electric current is inductance. The
unit of inductance is henry.
Capacitors
x Capacitors are components used to store electric charges
and release them when necessary. A capacitor is
constructed by placing a dielectric between two parallel
17

metal plates. The unit of capacitance is farad (F).

x Capacitors are commonly known by the dielectric used in
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them.
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x Capacitors which use an electrolyte as a dielectric are
electrolytic capacitors.
Semiconductors
x There are substances with properties different from both
conductors and insulators. They are semiconductors. The
two main semiconductors are Germanium and Silicon.
Change the conductivity of semiconductors by adding
other elements.
Diode
x One end of a diode is marked positive and the other end,
negative.
x When p - end of a diode is connected to positive pole and
n - end to the negative pole of a cell, then a current is
passed through the diode.
x When a diode is connected in a circuit so that current
flows through it, the diode is said to be forward biased and
when no current flows, the diode is said to be reverse
biased
Light emitting diode (LED)
x Light emitting from certain diodes when electric current
passes through them. They are called LED.
Rectification
x Diode converts AC into DC. This is rectification. A device
which makes this possible is a rectifier.
x During the positive half cycle of the input voltage there is
output voltage but during the negative half cycle of the
input voltage there is no output voltage. This type rectifier
is called half wave rectifier.
Full wave rectifier
x A full wave rectifier is one which is arranged to allow the
AC to flow continuously in one direction through it.
Transistor
x A transistor is an electronic component made of
semiconductors. They have three terminals.
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Amplification
x Amplification is the process of increasing the strength of
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electrical signals.
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x There is no difference in the number of cycles formed in a
fixed time interval before and after the amplification. The
amplitude of the wave increases
Integrated circuits
x The device Integrated circuit or IC is a small
semiconductor chip with lakhs of electronic components
like resistor, capacitor, diode and transistor suitably
linked in them.
x The processor which can be called the brain of the
computer is an integrated circuit.

x The moon takes approximately 27 days to revolve, round

the earth once.
x The moons orbit can be divided into 27 segments, each
1
of 13 degrees.
3
Asterism (Naal)
x The time taken by the moon to describe 1/27 of its orbit
is called an asterism or a birthstar (naal).
x Asterisms are formed on the basis of the stars that come
in the moon's orbit.
x 365 days are required for the earth to revolve once
around the sun.
Ecliptic
x Our feeling of the sun moving among the stars is due to
the revolution of the earth.
x The orbit, along which the sun appears to move among the
stars, is known as ecliptic.
Constellations
x The ecliptic is divided into 12 equal parts.
x These are the 12 solar constellations.
x Each constellation is known by the shape of the stellar
distribution in it.
x A Malayalam month will be known by the name of the
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constellation in which the sun appears to be at that time.

x The sun passes through the 27 asterisms also while it
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passes through the 12 constellations.

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x The sun takes nearly 365 days to pass past 27 asterisms
once.
Njattuvela
x The period of time for which the sun appears together with
an asterism is a njattuvela.
x A njattuvela is approximately 13-14 days.
The Sun
x The sun, which is the centre of the solar system is one star
among them
x The sun is a white hot gaseous sphere.
Photosphere
x The outer layer of the sun that we can see is called the
photosphere.
x The source of the sun's energy is the fusion of hydrogen
taking place in the core.
Chromosphere
x The chromosphere which is the thin layer outside the
photosphere.
Corona
x The corona which is an extensive region outside it can be
considered as the atmosphere of the sun.
Sun spots
x Though the temperature of the photosphere comes to 6000
kelvin, there are certain regions of lower temperature
(about 3500 kelvin) in it that appear as black spots. These
are known as sun spots.
Solar wind
x From the surface of the sun, there is a massive flow of
helium nuclei (alpha particles) and hydrogen nuclei
(protons). This is the solar wind
Solar prominences
x Sometimes huge flames rise from the surface of the sun
and fall back in the form of an arch. They are the solar
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prominences.
x There a relation between the colours and temperatures of
the stars.
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Nebula
x The gaseous cloud in the interstellar space is the birth
place of stars. These are known as nebula.
x The contraction of the gaseous cloud in the nebula due to
gravitation, initiates the birth of a star.
x A star becomes visible to us only when the energy due to
fusion is produced.
Path of evolution of the sun
x Nebula Primitive star Main sequence star Red
giant White dwarf Black dwarf
Galaxy
x A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and interstellar
matter, bound by gravitational force.
x There are billions of galaxies in the universe
x Milky Way is our galaxy.
x It takes 8 minutes for the light from the sun to reach the
earth.
Astronomical Unit
x The distance between the sun and earth.
Light Year
x The distance travelled by light in one year.
x Dr. Vikram Sarabai (1919 - 1997), is the the father of
Indian Space Research.
x Indian scientists have been able to develop many artificial
satellites and launching vehicles like GSLV
(Geosynchronous Satellite Launching Vehicle) to launch
geostationary satellites, PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicles) to launch polar satellites etc.
Equatorial satellites (Geostationary satellites)
x Equatorial satellites revolve around the earth along an
orbit above the equator. If their period of revolution is the
same us the period of the rotation of the earth, they are
called geostationary satellites.
Polar satellites
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x The satellites revolving along an orbit passing above the

north and south poles of the earth at an altitude of 200-
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1000 km are called polar satellites.

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Combustion/Burning
x Burning is the process in which heat and light are formed
by the intense reaction of substances with oxygen.
Fuels
x Fuels are substances to produces heat energy.
Substances formed when fuels burn
x Carbon dioxide; Charcoal ; Water vapour; Carbon
monoxide (CO)
Conditions for the complete combustion
x Dryness
x Adequate supply of oxygen.
x Facilities for the removal of gases produced as a result of
combustion.
Partial burning
x In the absence of sufficient quantity of oxygen, carbon
monoxide is formed in a greater measure, carbon dioxide
and smoke in a small measure. This kind of burning is
partial burning.
Drawbacks of partial combustion
x Fuel loss
x Wastage of time
x Large scale environmental pollution.
x Large quantity of smoke is produced.
x Increase the amount of C and CO.
Source of fuels
x Diesel, LPG Petroleum x Coal Coal
x Petrol, Naphtha x Hydrogen Water
Petroleum x Kerosene Petroleum
x CNG Natural gas x Fire wood Trees
x Electricity Power stations, water, fossil fuels
Fossil fuels
x Fossil fuels ate formed by the transformation of animals
and plants buried in the earth millions of years ago, in the
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absence of air, at high temperature and pressure.

x Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels.
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x They are non-renewable sources of energy.

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Coal
x Based on the carbon content it is classified into four
groups as peat, lignite, anthracite and bituminous coal.
Situations where Coal are used
x It is used as household fuel.
x It is used as industrial fuel.
x It is used as the fuel in thermal power stations.
x It is used to produce Coaltar, Coal gas Coke and Ammonia.
x More details of CNG, LNG and LPG as fuels:
x CNG x LNG x LPG
x It cannot be liquefied at x It can be liquefied
x It can be liquefied
normal pressure. at normal at normal
x It is difficult to transport pressure pressure.
to far off places. x Easy to transport x Easy to transport
x Methane is the main x Methane is the x Main components
component main component are propane and
Butane
Calorific value
x The amount of heat liberates by the complete combustion
of 1 kg of fuel is its calorific value.
x Its unit is joule/kilogram.
x Hydrogen is the fuel which has the highest calorific value.
x Hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets
Biomass
x Biowastes are generally known as biomass.
Properties must a substance have in order to be
considered as a good fuel are
x Increased availability; low cost; minimum atmospheric
pollution; a liquid fuel must not evaporate quickly at
ordinary temperatures; low ignition temperature; easy to
store and transport.
The problems that arise due to their combustion are
x Smoke is produced; Carbon monoxide is formed ; Gases
like sulphur dioxide are formed
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Solar devices
x Solar Panel; Solar water heater; Solar cooker; Solar
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thermal power plant.

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x In a solar panel light energy is converted in to electrical energy.
x Solar cells It is the main source of energy in all artificial
satellites.
Black Surfaces
x Black mid rough surfaces absorb radiant heat well. They also
emit radiations well.
x In solar water heater, suns heat is absorbed through the
copper pipe. Black and rough surface absorb radiant heat
well.
Advantages of cooking food in a solar cooker
x No atmospheric pollution at all.
x It can be placed anywhere if sunlight is available in plenty.
x Can be used for long time after it is made.
Limitations of a solar cooker
It is not possible to fry, make chappathis etc. since high
temperatures cannot be attained.
Cannot be used in the night.
Cannot be used at a time when the sky is cloudy.
x Solar power plants generate electricity using solar energy
x The energy from windmills are utilised : To produce electricity
; To operate water pumps
x By converting the kinetic energy of sea waves into mechanical
energy and then into electrical energy.
x Energy contained in the flowing water at the time of low tide
and high tide is tidal energy.
x In Kerala there are no hot spots present in the interior of the
earth.
x Nuclear energy can be obtained from Nuclear fission and
Nuclear fusion
Conventional energy sources
x Fossil fuels; Biomass; Hydroelectric power; Firewood
Non-conventional energy sources
x Solar energy; Tidal energy; Nuclear energy; Geothermal
energy; Biogas ; Wind
Things to reduce energy crisis
x Judicious utilisation of energy.
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x The maximum utilisation of solar energy.

x Fossil fuel must be used judiciously.
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x Find out new energy sources.

BRAINS MOOZHIKKAL, CALICUT Short Notes 9048332443
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