Nuclear Physics Intro

501503742
Nuclear Physics
Instructor: Dr. Saed Dababneh
Nuclear Physics at BAU

htt //
http://nuclear.bau.edu.jo/
l b d j /
This course
http://nuclear bau edu jo/nuclear-radiation/
http://nuclear.bau.edu.jo/nuclear-radiation/
Before we start, let us tackle the following:

• Why nuclear physics?
• Why radiation physics?
• Why in Jordan?
• Interdisciplinary.
• Applied.
Applied
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 1
(Saed Dababneh).
General subjects to be covered
This is an introductory course that will cover the following general subjects
• Nuclear properties.
• Binding energy and nuclear stability.
• Nuclear models.
• Spin and moments.
• Nuclear forces.
• The
Th structure
t t off the
th nucleus.
l
• Nuclear reactions: energetics and general cross-section behavior.
• Neutron moderation, fission, controlled fission and fusion.
• Radioactive decays
decays.
• Interactions of nuclear radiations (charged particles, gammas, and neutrons) with
matter.
This phenomenological course provides the launch point for other

nuclear physics courses that will follow.

(Saed Dababneh).
Level Test
1. Write down whatever yyou know about nuclear
spin.
2. Describe how can either fission or fusion produce
p
energy.
3. What is …
1. Compton scattering?
2. Energy
gy straggling?
gg g
3. Annihilation?
4. Neutron activation?
5. Isotopes, Isotones, Isobars, Isomers?
6. Parity.
y
(Saed Dababneh).
Grading
Mid term Exam

Mid-term 25%
Project, quizzes and HWs 25%
Final Exam 50%
• Homeworks are due after one week unless
otherwise announced.
• Remarks or q
questions marked in red without being
g
announced as homeworks should be also seriously
considered!
• Some tasks can (or should) be sent by email:
saed@dababneh.com
(Saed Dababneh).
Proposed
p Projects
j
• Experiments to determine nuclear properties.
• Nuclear power generation
generation.
• Nuclear medicine.
• Health physics.
• Accelerator
A l t d driven
i systems.
t
• Nucleosynthesis.
• Technological applications (e.g. Material Science).
• Radioactive ion beams.
• Neutrino physics.
• Radiological
g dating.
g
• Environmental radioactivity.
• ….. (your own selected subject).
¾ Decide on the title of your project within two weeks.

¾ Due date (for written version): December 6th.
¾ Presentation: Will be scheduled later.
(Saed Dababneh).
Scale and Objectives
j
Dimensional scale:
Order of magnitude
g of 1 x 10-15 m
≡ 1 femtometer ≡ 1 fm ≡ 1 fermi.
Too small for direct investigation.
What about time and energy
gy scales?
We need to answer …..

1 What are the building blocks
1.
of a nucleus?
2. How do they move relative to
each other?
3. What laws governing them?
We need to understand:
• Nuclear
N l fforces (Q2
(Q2, Q3).
Q3)
• Nuclear structure (Q2, Q3).
We also need High Energy
Physics (to answer Q1).
(Saed Dababneh).
Constants
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html

(Saed Dababneh).
Nomenclature
Element vs. Nuclide.
94 natural chemical elements
elements, total > 100.
100
Element X Atomic number (Z) X chemically identical.
~3000 nuclides……? How many are stable?
S
Same Z but
b t different
diff t neutron
t b (N) X Isotopes.
number I t
Total number of nucleons = Z+N = A X mass number.
A A 22 23 24
Z X N X 11 11 Na Na Na
Radioactive Stable Radioactive
redundant
Same mass number X Isobars X chemically dissimilar
dissimilar, parallel nuclear
features (Radius …). β decay.
Same neutron number X Isotones X ?????.
Am
Same Z and same A X Isomers X metastable.
metastable
Stable isotope X (Isotopic) Abundance.
X
Radioactive isotope X Half-life.

(Saed Dababneh).
Stable Isotopes
p
HWc 1
Odd A Even A
Isotope N Z N Z
Then plot Z vs
vs. N
N.
Odd A Even A

(Saed Dababneh).
Basic Nuclear Properties
p
Properties Structure
The energy of the nucleon in the nucleus is in the order of 10 MeV.

HW 1 Calculate the velocity of a 10 MeV proton and show that it is almost
15% of the speed of light. (Perform both classical and relativistic calculations).
∴ Relativistic effects are not important in considering the motion of nucleons
in the nucleus
nucleus.
HW 2 Calculate the wavelength of a 10 MeV proton and compare it with
the nuclear scale
scale. (Perform both classical and relativistic calculations)
calculations). Is the
nucleus thus a classical or a quantum system?
∴HW 0 Krane, Ch. 2.
HW 3 Calculate the wavelength for an electron of the same energy to
show that it is much too large to be within the nucleus. (Perform both classical
and relativistic calculations). Discuss the proton-electron nuclear hypothesis!
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 Chadwick, neutron. 10
(Saed Dababneh).
Basic Nuclear Properties
p
Static nuclear properties (Time-independent):
Electric charge
charge, radius
radius, mass
mass, binding energy
energy, angular momentum
momentum, parity
parity,
magnetic dipole moment, electric quadrupole moment, energies of excited
states.
Dynamic properties (Time
(Time-dependent):
dependent):
• Self-induced (Radioactive decay).
• Forced (Nuclear reactions) X cross sections. .
The key: Interaction between individual nucleons.
Excited states: atomic intervals ~ eV.

nuclear intervals ~ 104 – 106 eV.
Decays
y and reactions: Conservation laws and selection rules.
HWc 2 Where to find nuclear data???

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Mass (Introduction)
• Unified atomic mass unit u based on 12C.
• Replaced
R l db both
h physical
h i l andd chemical
h i l amu based
b d on 16O andd naturall
oxygen, respectively (Find conversion factors).
• 1 u = M(12C)/12 = ……… kg = …………… MeV/c2.
• Rest masses
u MeV/c2 kg
electron ………… …………… ………
proton ………… …………… ………
neutron ………… …………… ………
12C 12 …………… ………
• Avogadro’s number .. !! What is the number of atoms in 1 kg of pure 238U?
• Mass ' Stability. E = mc2. Tendency towards lower energy X Radioactivity.
• Neutron heavier than proton X “Free”
Free neutron decays (T½ = ???):
_
n → p + e +ν
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Mass (Introduction)
• Nuclear masses measured to high accuracy:
• mass spectrograph.
spectrograph
• energy measurement in nuclear reactions.
• Mass decrement = difference between actual mass and mass number:
∆=m–A
• http://www.eas.asu.edu/~holbert/eee460/massdefect.html
• Negative ∆ X mass into energy.
• Binding Energy?
• Stability?
• Fission?
• Fusion?
• More later ……..
Usually atomic masses are tabulated.
Mass of the atom < ZmH + Nmn.

(Saed Dababneh).
The Valley
y of Stabilityy

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Size
• Different experiments give different results X Radius not well defined.
• Depends
D d on probe
b and d relevant
l t physics.
h i
• Probes should be close to the order of the size of the nucleus ~ 10-14 m.
• Visible light? λ much larger
larger.
• 1 MeV γ? λ = ?? x 10-12 m. But interacts with orbital electrons.
• Suitable probes: p n, α,
p, n α e,
e X
X. Charge distribution.
distribution Mass distribution
distribution.
• All experiments agree qualitatively and somehow quantitatively.
• Project ….
• R ∝ A⅓ Why? In a while ……
• R = r0 A
⅓ with r0 dependent on the method
method.
• Matter distribution ⇔ charge distribution. [Recently some halo
nuclei, e.g. 11Li, found]. What is that?

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Size
HW 4 • Experiments show that
t = (2.4 0 3) fm for all nuclei X
(2 4 ± 0.3)
t/ ∝ A-1/3
R
• Is surface effect the same for all
nuclei?
ρ0
ρ (r) = (r − R ) / a
1+ e ρ0 = nucleon density near the center.
HWc 3
t = “skin”
“ ki ” thi
thickness.
k
Compare for A = 4, 40, 120 and 235.
a = thickness parameter.
(Saed Dababneh). R = Half-density radius.
Nuclear Size
ρ0 decreases with A? Z
ρ ch argg e = ρ matter
No Yes A
High-energy e scattering
A
~ Constant X R ∝ A⅓ Light nuclei?
4 3
πR From some experiments….!
3
R = r0 A⅓ Charge distribution: r0 = 1.07 fm. a = 0.55 fm.
Matter distribution: r0 = 1.25 fm. a = 0.65 fm.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008
(Saed Dababneh).
Why? 17
Nuclear Size
HW 5
Nucleus Z/A Charge density
40Ca ….. …..

59Co ….. …..
115In ….. …..
197Au ….. …..
• Charge radius ~ nuclear radius, even though heavy nuclei have more
neutrons than protons. Explain…
• Density
y of ordinaryy atomic matter ~ 103 kg/m
g 3. Density
y of nuclear matter
~ 1017 kg/m3.
• Neutron stars, 3 solar masses, only 10 km across ….. !!!
• Surface effect?

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Size
Three conclusions can be drawn:
• Inside the nucleus the density is fairly uniform

uniform.
• The transitional surface layer is thin.
• The central densityy has a similar value for different nuclei.
• Saturation?
• Get an estimate for nuclear density and thus inter-
nucleon distance.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Size
1 Ci Pu-Be Neutron Source
Neutron
− µt − σ T nt D
Detector
I = Ioe = Ioe
Absorber
Beam
From Optical Model Di
Dimensions
i
σ T = 2π ( R + λ ) 2
σT
2π Different
targets
g
1 HW 6
Preferably low λ A 3 How can we get r0 from the graph?
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Size
Alpha particle
(
(+2e)
)
Gold nucleus
d (+79e)

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Size
• Closest approach “d”.
• Eα = ECoulomb X d = 2kZe2/Eα
• What about the recoil nucleus?
• HW 7 Show that 2
2kZe m N
d=
where mN : mass of the nucleus
Eα ( m N − mα )
mα : mass of alpha
What are the values of d for 10, 20, 30 and 40 MeV α on Au?
How does this explain … ?

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Shape
p
• Crude Nucleons in the nucleus are confined to an approximately
pp y
spherically symmetric structure X Nuclear radius.
• Deformations…! Consequences….!!
• Is there a sharp spherical wall…???!!!
• HW 8
if it is assumed that the charge
g is uniformly
y spherically
p y distributed in a
nucleus, show that the electric potential energy of a proton is given by:
3 Z ( Z − 1)e 2
E= K
5 R

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
Btot((A,Z)
, ) = [ ZmH + Nmn - m(A,Z)
( , ) ] c2 BÏmÐ
Ï
Bave(A,Z) = Btot(A,Z) / A HW 9 Krane 3.9
Atomic masses from: HW 10 Krane 3.12
3 12
http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&all=all&ascii=ascii&isotype=all
Separation Energy
Neutron separation
p energy:
gy ((BE of last neutron)
Sn = [ m(A-1,Z) + mn – m(A,Z) ] c2
= Btot
t t(A,Z)
(A Z) - Btot
t t(A
(A-1
1,Z)
Z) Á HW 11 Show that
HW 12 Similarly, find Sp and Sα. Magic
HW 13 Krane 3.133 13 HW 14 Krane 3.14 3 14 numbers
n mbers

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
Magic
numbers

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
In general
XÎY+a
Sa(X) = (ma + mY –mX) c2
= BX –BY –Ba
The energy needed to remove a nucleon from a
nucleus ~ 8 MeV ≅ average binding energy per nucleon
(Exceptions???).
Mass spectroscopy X B.
Nuclear reactions X S.
Nuclear reactions X Q-value

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
Surface effect Coulomb effect
~200 MeV
HWc 4
Think
Thi k off a computer
t program to
t
reproduce this graph.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
HW 15
A typical research reactor has power on the
order
d off 10 MW.
MW
a) Estimate the number of 235U fission events

that occur in the reactor p
per second.
b) Estimate the fuel-burning

fuel burning rate in g/s
g/s.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
Is the nucleon bounded equally to every
other nucleon?
C ≡ this presumed binding energy
energy.
Btot = C(A-1) × A × ½
Bave = ½ C(A-1) Linear ??!!! Directly proportional ??!!!
Clearly wrong … ! X wrong assumption
X finite range of strong force
force,
and force saturation.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
V)
Neutrron Separation Energy Sn (MeV
L d iisotopes Z = 82
Lead
For constant Z
Sn (even N) > Sn (odd N)
For constant N
Sp ((even Z)) > Sp ((odd Z))
Remember HW 14 (Krane 3.14).
208Pb (doubly magic) X

can then easily remove
th “extra”
the “ t ” neutron
t in
i
209Pb.
Neutron Number N
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Binding
g Energy
gy
Extra Binding between pairs of “identical” nucleons in the same

g α-particle,
state ((Pauli … !)) X Stabilityy ((e.g. p , N=2,, Z=2).
)
Sn ((A, Z, even N)) – Sn ((A-1, Z, N-1))

This is the neutron pairing energy.
even-even more stable

t bl th
than even-odd
dd or odd-even
dd and
d th
these
are more tightly bound than odd-odd nuclei.

(Saed Dababneh).
Abundance Systematics
y
Odd N Even N Total
HW 1\
HWc Odd Z
Even Z
Total
Compare:
• even Z to odd Z
Z.
• even N to odd N.
• even A to odd A
A.
• even-even to even-odd to odd-even to odd-odd.
(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Excess
Z Vs N (For Stable Isotopes)
90
80
Remember HWc 1.
70 Z=N
Z = N
60
50
Z
40
30
20
Odd A
Odd A
10
Even A
0
0 20 40 60 N 80 100 120 140

(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Excess
Remember HWc 1.

(Saed Dababneh).
y

(Saed Dababneh).
y
URE
ON
N CAPTU
CROSS SECTIO
EUTRON
Formation process
NE NEUTRON NUMBER
¾
Abundance
NDANCE
ABUN E
r s r s
MASS NUMBER
(Saed Dababneh).
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
• von Weizsäcker in 1935.
1935
• Liquid drop. Shell structure.
• Main assumptions:
1. Incompressible matter of the nucleus X
R ∝ A⅓.
2. Nuclear force saturates.
• Binding energy is the sum of terms:
1. Volume term. 4. Asymmetry term.
2. Surface term. 5. Pairing term.
3. Coulomb term. 6. Closed shell term.
…..

(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Volume Term Bv = + av A
Bv ∝ volume ∝ R3 ∝ A X Bv / A is a constant
i.e. number of neighbors of each nucleon is
independent of the overall size of the nucleus.
BV
= constant
A
The other terms
are “corrections” to
this term.
term
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Surface Term Bs = - as A⅔
• Binding energy of inner nucleons is higher than that at the surface.
• Light nuclei contain larger
number (per total) at the surface.
• At the surface there are:
2
4πr A 2 3 2
0
= 4A 3 Nucleons.
πro2
Bs 1
∝ 1
A A3
Remember t/R ∝ A-1/3
/3

(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Coulomb Term BC = - aC Z(Z-1) / A⅓
• Charge density ρ ∝ Z / R3.
• W ∝ ρ2 R5. Whyy ???
• W ∝ Z2 / R.
• Actually:
y 4πr drρ
2
W ∝ Z(Z-1) / R.
• BC / A =
- aC Z(Z-1) / A4/3 4 3
πr ρ
3
Remember HW 8 … ?!
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula

(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Quiz 1
From our information so far we can write:
2 −1
M ( A, Z ) = AM n − Z ( M n − M H ) − aV A + a S A 3
+ aC Z ( Z − 1) A 3
+ ...
For A = 125,, what value of Z makes M(A,Z)

( , ) a minimum?
Is this reasonable…???
So …..!!!!
(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Asymmetry Term Ba = - aa (A-2Z)2 / A
• Light nuclei: N = Z = A/2 (preferable).
• Deviation from this “symmetry” X less BE and stability.
• Neutron excess (N-Z) is necessary for heavier nuclei.
• Ba / A = - aa (N-Z)2 / A2.
• Back to this when we talk about
the shell model.

(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Pairing Term Bp = δ
Extra Binding between pairs of identical nucleons in the same state (Pauli !)
X Stability (e.g. α-particle, N=2, Z=2).
even even more stable than even-odd
even-even even odd or odd-even
odd even and these are more tightly
bound than odd-odd nuclei.
Remember HWc 1\ ….?!
Bp expected
t d to
t decrease
d with
ith A;
A effect
ff t off unpaired
i d nucleon
l decrease
d with
ith
total number of nucleons. But empirical evidence show that:
δ ∝ A-¾ .
⎧+ a A− 3 4 evenN evenZ Effect on:
⎪⎪ p • Fission.
Fission
δ =⎨ 0 oddA • Magnetic moment.
⎪ − a A− 3 4 Effect of high angular
⎪⎩ p oddN oddZ momentum
momentum.

(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
Closed Shell Term Bshell = η
• Extra binding energy for magic numbers
off N and
dZZ.
• Shell model.
• 1 – 2 MeV more binding.

(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
• Fitting to experimental data
data.
• More than one set of constants av, as …..
• In
I what
h t constants
t t does
d r0 appear?
?
• Accuracy to ~ 1% of experimental values (BE).
• Atomic masses 1 part in 104.
g numbers.
• Uncertainties at magic
• Additional term for deformation.

(Saed Dababneh).
The Semi-empirical
p Mass Formula
M ( A, Z ) = AM n − Z ( M n − M H )
2 −1
− [aV A − a S A − aC Z ( Z − 1) A
3 3
− a a ( A − 2 Z ) 2 A−1 + δ + η ]
Variations…….
Additional physics….
Fitting……(Global vs. local)…..

(Saed Dababneh).
Work it out …
M ( A, Z ) = AM n − Z ( M n − M H )
2 −1
− [aV A − a S A − aC Z ( Z − 1) A
3 3
− a a ( A − 2 Z ) 2 A−1 + δ + η ]
M ( A, Z ) = α + βZ + γZ 2
α =?
β =? ∂M
∂M
= 0 ⇒ Z min = ?
γ =? ∂Z
∂Z A

(Saed Dababneh).
Mass Parabolas and Stability
y
M ( A, Z ) = α + βZ + γZ 2 HW 16
2
α = AM n − aV A + a S A 3 + a a A − δ − η
−1
β = −( M n − M H ) − a C A 3
− 4a a
−1
γ = 4a a A + aC A −1 3
∂M β
= 0 ⇒ Z min =−
∂
∂Z A 2γ
(Saed Dababneh).
y

(Saed Dababneh).
y
Double β decay! Both Sides!

(Saed Dababneh).
y

(Saed Dababneh).
y
Vertical spacing
b
between b
both
h
parabolas ?
• Determine
constants from
atomic masses.
Odd-Odd
Even-Even

(Saed Dababneh).
y

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Spin
p
• Neutrons and protons have s = ½ (ms = ± ½) so they are fermions and
obey the Pauli-Exclusion Principle.
Principle
•The Pauli-Exclusion Principle applies to neutrons and protons
separately (distinguishable from each other) (Isospin
Isospin).
• Nucleus seen as single entity with intrinsic angular momentum Ι.
• Associated with each nuclear spin is a nuclear magnetic moment
which produces magnetic interactions with its environment
environment.
•The suggestion that the angular momenta of nucleons tend to form
pairs is supported by the fact that all nuclei with even Z and even N
h
have nuclear
l i Ι=0.
spin 0
• Iron isotopes (even-Z), for even-N (even-A) nuclei Ι=0.
Odd-A X co
• Odd contribution
t but o o eut o X half-integer
of odd neutron a tege spin.
sp
• Cobalt (odd-Z), for even-N X contribution of odd proton X half-integer
spin.
Odd N X two
• Odd-N t o unpaired n cleons X large integer spin.
npaired nucleons spin
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Spin
p
Natural
Z A Spin Half-life Decay
Abundance
26 54 0 0.059 stable ...
26 55 3/2 ... 2.7y EC
26 56 0 0.9172 stable ...
26 57 1/2 0.021 stable ...
26 58 0 0 0028
0.0028 stable ...
26 60 0 ... 1.5My β-

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Spin
p
Natural
Z A Spin Half-life Decay
Abundance
27 56 4 ... 77.7d β+
27 57 7/2 ... 271d EC
27 59 7/2 1.00 stable ...
27 60 5 ... 5.272y β-

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Magnetic
g Moment
Remember, for electrons Revise: Torque on a current loop.
Gyromagnetic ratio (g-factor)
Z component ?? Experiment
Experiment, applied magnetic field
field.
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Magnetic
g Moment
For Nuclei
For free protons and neutrons

Proton: g = 5.5856912 ± 0.0000022 ∼ 3.6 Å
Neutron: g = -3.8260837 ± 0.0000018 ∼ 3.8 Æ
The proton g-factor is far from the gS = 2 for the electron, and
even the uncharged neutron has a sizable magnetic moment!!!
X Internal structure (quarks).
(quarks)
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Magnetic
g Moment
Magnetic moment µ
Nuclide Nuclear spin
(in µN)
n 1/2 -1.9130418
1 9130418
p 1/2 +2.7928456
2H (D) 1 +0.8574376
17O 5/2 -1.89279
57Fe 1/2 +0.09062293
57Co
C 7/2 +4 733
+4.733
93Nb 9/2 +6.1705

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Parity
y
• ψ(r) Î ψ((-r)
r) Even.
• ψ(r) Î -ψ(-r) odd.
• For a nucleon ψ is either of even (π = +) or
odd (π = -) parity.
• For
F the
th nucleus
l π = π1 π2 π3 … πA.
• Practically not possible.
• Overall π can be determined experimentally.
• Overall Ιπ for a nucleus (nuclear state).
• Transitions and multipolarity of transitions (γ-
emission)
emission).
(Saed Dababneh).
Electromagnetic
g moments
• Electromagnetic
g interaction X information about
nuclear structure.
g X electric;;
• Charge current X magnetic.
g
• Electromagnetic multipole moments.
Field∝1/r2 ((zeroth,, L=0)) electric monopole
p moment.
1/r3 (first, L=1) electric dipole moment.
1/r4 ((second,, L=2)) qquadrupole
p moment.
………
1/r2 magnetic
g monopole
p (q
(questionable….!).
)
Higher order magnetic moments, we already
discussed the magneticg dipole
p moment.
(Saed Dababneh).
Electromagnetic
g moments
∫ψ ϑψdv
• Expectation value of the moment. *
• Each multipole moment has a parity, determined by

the behavior of the multipole operator when r Î -r.
• Parity of ψ does not change the integrand.
• Electric moments: parity (-1)L.
• Magnetic moments: parity (-1)L+1.
• Odd parity X vanish.
electric dipole.
magnetic quadrupole.
electric octupole.
…………
(Saed Dababneh).
Electromagnetic
g moments
• Electric monopole:
p net charge
g Ze.
• Magnetic dipole: (already discussed). µ = iA
e e 2 evr
µ= A; µ= πr ; µ =
T 2π r v 2
emvr epr e
µ= ; µ= ; µ= L
2m 2m 2m
• g-factors.

(Saed Dababneh).
Electromagnetic
g moments
• The nucleus has charge (monopole Classical
moments
moment). t)
• No dipole moment since it is all positive.
• But
B t if the
th nucleus
l iis nott spherically
h i ll
symmetric, it will have a quadrupole
moment. t

(Saed Dababneh).
Electric Quadrupole
p Moment
• For a point charge e: eQ = e(3z2 - r2).
• Spherical
S h i l symmetry t X x2 = y2 = z2 = r2/3 X Q = 0.
0
• For a proton:
eQ = e ∫ψ (3z − r )ψdv * 2 2
• In
I the
th xy-plane:
l Q ∼ - 〈 r 2〉 .
• 〈r2〉 is the mean square radius of the orbit.
• Along
Al z: Q ∼ +2
2 〈 r 2〉 .
• Expected maximum ∼ er02A2/3.
• 6x10
6 10-3030 to
t 50x10
50 10-30
30 em2.
• 0.06 to 0.5 eb.

(Saed Dababneh).
Electric Quadrupole
p Moment
Nuclide Q ((b))
2H (D) +0.00288
17O -0.02578
0 02578
59Co +0.40
• Closed shell X 63Cu -0.209
Spherically
symmetric core.
core 133Cs -00.003
003
• Test for shell model 161Dy
• Strongly deformed +2.4
nuclei
nuclei…..! ! 176Lu
L +8.0
80
209Bi -0.37

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force ((Origin
g of Binding)
g)
Recall Atomic Binding Energies for hydrogen like atoms:
− α ( hc ) Z =1 e21 Dimensionless
V (r) = , α= ≈ fine structure
r 4πε 0 hc 137 constant
constant.
2
1 2 2Z me m N
E n = − α µc 2 , µ=
2 n me + m N
h 2
with Bohr radii: rn = n
µcα
• Coupling constant => Strength.
• Charge.
• Mediators (Bosons).
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
The deuteron: proton-neutron bound state.
− α S ( hc ) !!!!!!!!! qS
2
V (r) = , αS = ≈ 0.1
r 4πε 0 hc
1 2 2 1 m p mn
En = − α S µc 2 ,
2 n
µ=
m p + mn
!!!!!!!!!
h
rn = n 2
µcα S HW 17
Hydrogen: E1 = … eV r1 = …x10
x10-10 m
Positronium: E1 = … eV
D t
Deuteron: E1 = … MeV
M V r1 = …x10
10-15
15 m
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
Attractive but repulsive core.
core At what separation?
• Saturation?
• Get an estimate for nuclear density and thus inter-
nucleon distance
distance. Have
Ha e you
o done that?

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
Is the nucleon bounded equally to every
other nucleon?
C ≡ this presumed binding energy
energy.
Btot = C(A-1) × A × ½
Bave = ½ C(A-1) Linear ??!!! Directly proportional ??!!!
Clearly wrong … ! X wrong assumption
X finite range of strong force
force,
and force saturation.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
• Rate of decayy or interaction R ∝ ρ((E).
)
• Coupling constant α. Vertices in the diagrams.
• For decaysy R ∝ 1/T. ((T ≡ Lifetime).
)
• The density of states ρ is a measure of the
number of q quantum mechanical states p per unit
energy range that are available for the final
products. The more states that are available,, the
p
higher the transition rate.
p g constant α can be interpreted
• The coupling p as an
intrinsic rate.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
• Electrostatic and gravitational potential X long range (V∝1/r).
• Near constancy of nuclear binding energy per nucleon B/A means
that each nucleon feels only the effect of a few neighbors. This is
called saturation. It implies also that the strong internucleon potential
is short range.
• Range is of order of the 1.8 fm internucleon separation.
• Since volume ∝ A, nuclei do not collapse
collapse, there is a very short range
repulsive component.
• Exchange.
• Some particles are immune. Like what?
• Is nuclear physics just quark chemistry?
• Charge independence.
independence
• Spin dependence. (Deuteron).
• Non-central (tensor) component X conservation of orbital angular
momentum….?
t ?
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
• Spin dependent X difference in neutron scattering
cross sections of ortho- and para-hydrogen.
• Compare n-p to n-n and p-p X Charge
independence of nuclear force.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
Mirror Nuclei

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
What about
If two charges
charges, q and q'
q exchange forces between
photons, the Coulomb force quarks?
occurs between them. Color?
Krane 4.5
If pions are exchanged between two

nucleons the strong nuclear force
nucleons,
occurs.
Remember the weak nuclear
_
force…
Boson? n → p + e +ν
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force
• Only Hadrons.
• Typical time: 10-24 s.s (c,
(c 10-15 m).
m)
• Exchange of light ∼ 140 MeV pions.
8
• ∆t = ħ/∆E = 4.7 x 10-24 s. (Why ∆E?).
• Range ∼ ∆t c = ħ/mc = 1.4 x 10-15 m. 9
• Range and time complicated by possibilities of heavier hadron
exchange.
• Isospin. Conservation of Isospin. Only relevant to hadrons.
• Hadron multiplets: Doublet of nucleons and triplet of pions and …
• The members of a multiplet have the same strangeness,
hypercharge, spin,, eetcc… , but
ype c a ge, sp bu ddiffer
e in ccharge
a ge a
and
dddiffer
e sslightly
g y in
mass.
• Relationship between particle and nuclear physics.
• Accelerators and large accelerators.
(Saed Dababneh).
Isospin
p
• Isospin Magnitude T (T + 1)
• T3 can take T, T-1, T-2, ….., -T.
• 1,2,3 not x,y,z (Isospin space).
• Singlets (T = 0),
0) Do blets (T = ½),
Doublets ½) Triplet (T = 1),
1) Quartet
Q artet (??).
(??)
• -T3 for antiparticles.
• Isospin addition: for a collection of hadrons (e
(e.g.
g in interaction)
Tmax = ∑ T (i ) T3 = ∑ T3 (i ) T ≥ T3
i i
• Example: π+-p scattering, Tmax = 3/2, T3 = 3/2 X T can only be 3/2.
Read Krane 11.

11.3.

(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron

(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron
• Deuterium (atom).
•The only bound state of two nucleons X simplest bound state
state.
• Neither di-proton nor di-neutron are stable. Why?
• Experimentally ∼ 2.224 MeV (Recoil..!). n + H → H +

1 2
γ
• Also inverse (γ,n) reaction using Bremsstrahlung (Recoil…!).
• Mass spectroscopy X mass of D (or deuterium atom).
• ∆mc2 = 2.224…??…MeV X Very weakly bound.
• Mass doublet method X all results are in agreement
agreement.
• Compare 2.224 MeV to 8 MeV (average B/A for nuclei).
•OOnlyy ground
g ou d state
state. ((There
e e is
saan add
additional
t o a virtual
tua state)
state).
HW 18
Problems 4.1
4 1 - 4.5
4 5 in Krane
Krane.
(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron
V(r) = -V0 r < R
=0 r>R
• Oversimplified.
HW 19
Assuming l = 0, show
that V0 ∼ 35 MeV.
(Follow Krane Ch.4
Ch.4 and
Problem 4.6), or similarly
any other reference.
• Really weakly bound.
• What if the force were a
bit weaker…?
(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron

(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron
• Experiment X deuteron is in triplet state X Ι = 1.
• Experiment X even parity.
• Ι = l + sn + sp parity = (-1)l
• Adding spins of proton and neutron gives:
s = 0 (antiparallel) or s = 1 (parallel).
• For Ι = 1
parallel s-state even
parallel p-state odd
antiparallel p-state odd
parallel d-state even
(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron
• Experiment X µ = 0.8574376 µN X spins are
aligned…..But.?
• Direct addition X 0.8798038 µN.
• Direct addition of spin components assumes s-state
(no orbital component).
• Discrepancy X d-state admixture.
ψ = a0ψ0 + a2ψ2
µ = a02µ0 + a22µ2
HW 20 In solving HW 19 you assumed an s-state.
How good was that assumption?
(Saed Dababneh).
The Deuteron
•S state X No quadrupole moment.
S-state
• Experiment X +0.00288 b.
HW 21
Discuss this discrepancy.
• From µ and Q, is it really admixture?

• What about other effects?
• Important to know the d-state wavefunction.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Force

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Models
• Nuclear force is not yet fully understood.
• No absolutely satisfying model, but models.
• Specific experimental data X specific model.
• Model X success in a certain range.
• Some are:
¾ Individual particle model. (No interaction, E. states, static properties, …).
¾ Liquid drop model. (Strong force, B.E., Fission, …).
¾ Collective model.
¾ α-particle model.
¾ Optical model
model.
¾ Fermi Gas model.
¾ others …..
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• Electron configuration…. Chemistry!
1 2 2s
1s 2 2 2p
2 6 3s
3 2 3p
3 6 4s
4 2 3d10 4p
4 6 ….
• Atomic Electron magic numbers: 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, …
¾ Common center of “external” attraction.
¾ Well understood Coulomb force.
¾ One kind of particles.
¾ Clear meaning g for electron orbits.
¾…
• Nuclear magic numbers: 2,
2 8,
8 20,
20 28,
28 50, 82 126 …
50 82,126,
(for Z or N).

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Evidence:
1) End of radioactive series:
thorium series 208Pb
uranium series 206Pb
actinium series 207Pb
neptunium series 209Bi
2) At
A Z andd N mn’s
’ there
h are relatively
l i l llarge numbers
b
of isotopes and isotones.

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
3) Natural abundances.

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
4) Neutron
N t capture
t cross section.
ti
PTURE
TION
RON CAP
SS SECT
CROS
NEUTR
NEUTRON NUMBER

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
5) Binding energy of the last neutron
(S
(Separation
ti Energy).
E )
(The measured values are plotted relative to the calculations without η).

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
6) Excited states.
Pb (even-A) isotopes.

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
7) Quadrupole moments ….. ?
HW 22
Work out more examples for the
above evidences. For example, take
part of a plot and work on a group of
relevant nuclides.

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• Nucleons are in definite states of energy
gy and
angular momentum.
• Nucleon orbit ?? Continuous scattering g expected
p ..!!
• No vacancy for scattering at low energy levels.
• Potential of all other nucleons.
• Infinite square well:
⎧0 r<R
V =⎨
⎩∞ r=R
• Harmonic oscillator:
1
V = mω r
2 2
2
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell
model ?
?
2(2l + 1) ?
accounts 9
correctly 9
for the
number of
9
nucleons
in each
level.
level Infinite spherical well Harmonic oscillator
But what (R=8F)
about Eν = (ν + 2 )hω
3
magic E nl = ( 2n + l − 1 2 )hω
numbers?
numbers
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• More realistic! (Can it solve the problem?)
• Finite square well potential:
⎧− V0 r≤R
V =⎨
⎩ 0 r>R
• Rounded well potential:
V0 Adjusted by the separation energies.
V (r) = − (r − R ) / a V0 ~ 57 MeV
1+ e
• Correction for asymmetry and Coulomb repulsion.

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
HW 23
N −Z
∆Vas = ±27 ( MeV )
A
Coulomb repulsion? Vc(r) = ??
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• Separation of variables:
ψ ( r,θ ,φ ) = R( r )Θ(θ )Φ(φ ) = R( r )Yl (θ ,φ ) m
• For
F a given
i spherically
h i ll symmetric t ti l V(r),
t i potential V( )
the bound-state energy levels can be calculated
f
from radial
di l wave equation
ti for
f a particular
ti l orbital
bit l
angular momentum l. HW 24
• Notice the important centrifugal potential.

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
centrifugal potential

(Saed Dababneh).
ml 1s 1p 1d 2s 1f 2p 1g 2d 3s
2(2l +1) 2 6 10 2 14 6 18 10 2
ms Total 2 8 18 20 34 40 58 68 70
• 2, 8, 20 ok.
• Whatat about ot
other
e magic
ag c
numbers?
• Situation does not improve
p
with other potentials.
• Something g veryy fundamental
about the single-particle
interaction p
picture is missing
g in
the description…..!!!!!
• Spin-orbit
p coupling.
p g
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• So far, 2(2l + 1) accounts correctly for the number
of nucleons in each level, since we already
considered both orbital angular momentum, and
spin, but still not for closed shells.
l , ml , s, m s ≡ Yl ml χ sms
Spherical But this representation
Harmonics
Harmonics, does not solve the
Eigenfunctions of problem.
L2 and Lz.
S 2 χ sms = s ( s + 1)h 2 χ sms s =1 2
S z χ sms = m s hχ sms − s ≤ ms ≤ s

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Spin--Orbit Coupling
Spin
• M. G. Mayer and independently Haxel,
Jensen, and Suess.
• Spin-Orbit term added to the Hamiltonian:
p2
H= + V ( r ) + VSO ( r ) S .L
2m

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
S .L = ( J − S − L ) / 2
2 2 2
J =S+L
L S
LL UL
J antiparallel parallel
J 2
jm j ls = j ( j + 1)h jm j ls , 2
l−s ≤ j≤l+s
J z jm j ls = m j h jm j ls , − j ≤ mj ≤ j
L jm j ls = l (l + 1)h jm j ls ,
2 2
l = 0,1,2,....
S jm j ls = s( s + 1)h jm j ls ,
2 2
s =1 2
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell
model
2j+1
2(2x3 + 1) = 14
l=3
1f7/2
First j
time

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
2
p
H= + V ( r ) + VSO ( r ) S .L
2m
1
L.S = [ j ( j + 1) − l (l + 1) − s( s + 1)]h 2
2
HW 25 1
gap ∝ ( 2l + 1)h 2 , l>0
2
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Notes:
1. The shell model is most useful when applied to closed
1 closed-shell
shell or
near closed-shell nuclei.
2. Awayy from closed-shell nuclei collective models takingg into
account the rotation and vibration of the nucleus are more
appropriate.
3. Simple versions of the shell model do not take into account
pairing forces, the effects of which are to make two like-nucleons
combine to give zero orbital angular momentum
momentum. The pairing
force increases with l.
4. Shell model does not treat distortion effects ((deformed nuclei))
due to the attraction between one or more outer nucleons and
the closed-shell core.

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Fermi Gas
EF ∝ n2/3

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Nuclear
reactions?
ti ?
Transition
probability?

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Ground state: ((near closed shells))
1. Angular momentum of odd-A nuclei is determined by
the angular
g momentum of the last nucleon that is odd.
2. Even-even nuclei have zero ground-state spin,
because the net angular
g momentum associated with
even N and even Z is zero, and even parity.
3. In odd-odd nuclei the last neutron couplesp to the last
proton with their intrinsic spins in parallel orientation.
A < 150
(Saed Dababneh).
190 < A < 220 117
Shell model
Harmonic
Near drip No spin-
oscillator
line orbit Near
coupling valley of β
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 stability 118
(Saed Dababneh).
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
• 17 p, 21 n.
• p in 1d3/2 lÆsÅ π=+
• n in 1f7/2 lÅsÅ π = - X total π = -
• Rule 3 X sp Å sn Å X lp Æ ln Å
•½+½+3–2=2

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Excited states:

(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Extreme independent particle model!!! Does the core really remain inert?
1d3/2
?
1p1/2
l Å pairing Å
2s1/2
1d5/2
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Core 20
• Extreme independent
particle model X only
23rd neutron.
• More complete shell
model X all three
“
“valence” nucleons.
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
HW 26 Discuss the energy levels of nuclei with
odd number of nucleons in the 1f7/2 shell.

(Saed Dababneh).
and 43Sc, 43Ti. 125
Shell model
Dipole Magnetic Moment
µ = g j jµ N
HW 27 Show that
j ( j + 1) − l (l + 1) + s( s + 1) j ( j + 1) + l (l + 1) − s( s + 1)
g j = gs + gl
2 j ( j + 1) 2 j ( j + 1)
and examine Eqs.
Eqs 5.9
5 9 in Krane
Krane. In addition
addition,
work out problem 5.8 in Krane X Conclusion?
Proton:
P t gs(free)
(f ) = 5.5856912
5 5856912 ? gl = 1 ?
Neutron: gs(free) = -3.8260837 ? gl = 0 ?
b t π+ and
Wh t about
What d π-?
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Electric Quadrupole Moment In the xy-plane: Q ∼ - 〈r2〉.
Refined QM X
2 j − 1 3 2 23 ⎡ n −1 ⎤
Q =− r A ⎢1 − 2
5 0 ⎥
2( j + 1) ⎣ 2 j − 1⎦
Extremes 1≤ n ≤ 2 j
Single particle: n = 1 X - ive Q
Number of protons in
Single hole: n = 2j X +ive Q
a subshell
Examine
E i T Table
bl 5.1
51 <r2> for a uniformly
and Fig.5.10 in charged sphere
K
Krane
(Saed Dababneh).
(Saed Dababneh).
Shell model
Validity Nuclide Q (b)
A < 150 2H (D) +0.00288
190 < A < 220 17O -0.02578
59Co +0.40
63Cu -0.209
133Cs -0.003
0 003
161Dy
y +2.4
176Lu +8.0
209Bi -0.37
0 37
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
• Large quadrupole moments X nucleus as a collective
b d (Li
body (Liquid
id ddrop model).
d l)
• Interactions between outer nucleons and closed shells
cause permanentt deformation.
d f ti
• Single-particle state calculated in a non-spherical
t ti l X complicated.
potential li t d
• Spacing between energy levels depends on size of
di t ti
distortion.
• Doubly magic X 1st excited state away from GS.
• Near
N closure
l X single-particle
i l ti l states.
t t
• Further away from closure X collective motion of the
core X excited
it d states.
t t
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
• A net nuclear potential due to filled core
shells exists.
• Collective model combines both liquid
drop
p model and shell model.
• Two major types of collective motion:
t ti
¾Rotations:
¾R Rotation
R t ti off a deformed
d f d shape.
h
¾Vibrations: Surface oscillations.

(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
• Rotational motion observed for non-spherical nuclei.
• Deformed nuclei are mainly 150 < A < 190 and A > 220.
• Ellipsoid of surface:
R (θ , φ ) = r0 A 3 [1 + βY20 (θ , φ )]
1
4 π ∆R Difference
Diff
β= 1 between
3 5 r0 A 3 semimajor and
Deformation semiminor axes.
parameter
parameter. Rav
HW 28 Problems 5.11 and 5.12 in Krane.
Di
Discuss effect
ff t on quadrupole
d l moment. t
(Saed Dababneh).
β>0 β 132
<0
Collective model
Symmetry
axis 1
E = gω 2
2
l = gω
l2 h2
E= = I ( I + 1)
2g 2g
GS (even
(even-even)
even) X 0+
Symmetry X only even I
E (0 + ) = 0
E ( 2 + ) = 6( h 2 / 2 g ) = 91.4keV ⇒ h 2 / 2 g = 15.23keV
E ( 4 + ) = 20( h 2 / 2 g )
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
HW 29 compare measured energies of the states of the

ground state rotational band to the calculations.
Rigid body or liquid drop? Intermediate X Short
range andd saturation
t ti off nuclearl fforce.
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
Emeasured
HW 29 (continued) Spin parity
(keV)
E/E(2+) I(I + 1)/6
Higher angular
momentum X
centrif gal stretching
centrifugal 12+
X higher moment of 10+ 1518.00 16.61 18.33
inertia X lower 8+
energy than expected 6+ 7.00
X additional 4+ 299.44 3.28 3.33
evidence for lack of 2+ 91.4 1.0 1.0
rigidity. 0+ 0
164Er
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
Odd-A
1
E = gω 2 + Enucleon
2

(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
Average
shape
Instantaneous
shape

(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
λ α λµ = α λ, -µ
R(t) = R av + ∑ ∑α λµ (t) Yλµ (θ, φ) Symmetry
Instantaneous
coordinate
r0A1/3 λ µ = − λ Amplitude Spherical
harmonics
http://wwwnsg.nuclear.lu.se/basics/excitations.asp?runAnimation=beta10
λ=1 λ=2 λ=3
λ=0 dipole quadrupole octupole
monopole

(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
λ=0
α00 Y00
R(t) = Ravr +α
monopole
l
1
R(t) = R avr + ∑α
µ = −1
1µ Y1µ (θ , φ ) λ=1
dipole
= R avr + α11 Y11 + α10 Y10 + α1, -1 Y1, -1
= R avr + α10 Y10
Both monopole and dipole excitations require

high energy.

(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
2
λ=2
R(t) = R avr + ∑ α 2µ Y2µ (θ ,φ )
µ = −2 quadrupole
= R avr + α 22 Y22 + α 21 Y21 + α 20 Y20 + α 2,-1 2 1 + α 2,
2 1 Y2,-1 2 - 2 Y2,
2 -2
= R avr + α 20 Y20
• Quantization
Q ti ti off quadrupole
d l vibration
ib ti iis called
ll d a
quadrupole phonon.
• A phonon
h carries
i ttwo units
it off angular
l momentum t
and even parity (-12).
• This
Thi mode d iis d
dominant.
i t F
For mostt even-even nuclei,
l i
a low lying state with Jπ=2+ exists.
• Octupole
O t l phonon.
h
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
l=4 µ = +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4
Triplet
l=2 µ = +2,
2 +1,
1 0,
0 -1,
1 -2
2
0 + , 2+ , 4+
l=0 µ=0
-2 -1 0 1 2
-2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-1 -3 -2 -1 0 +1
0 -2 -1 0 +1 +2
1 -1
1 0 +1 +2 +3
2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
(Saed Dababneh).
Collective model
Two-phonon triplet at twice the HW 30
energy of the single phonon state. Krane 5.10

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
X(a b)Y
X(a,b)Y
• First in 1919 by Rutherford:
4He + 14N Æ 17O + 1H
14N(α,p)17O
• Incident
I id t particle ti l may: change h di
direction,
ti llose
energy, completely be absorbed by the target……
• Target
T t may: transmute,
t t recoil…… il
• b = γ X Capture reaction.
• If B.E.
B E permits it X fission
fi i ((comparable bl masses). )
• Different exit channels a + X Æ Y1 + b1
Æ Y2 + b2
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 Æ Y + b ……. 143
3 3
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
• Recoil nucleus Y could be unstable X β or γ emission.
• One should think about:

¾ Reaction dynamics and conservation laws i.e.
conditions necessary for the reaction to be
energetically possible.
¾ Reaction mechanism and theories which
explain the reaction.
¾ Reaction cross section i.e. rate or probability.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
Conservation Laws
• Charge, Baryon number, total energy, linear momentum, angular
momentum, parity, (isospin??) …….
b
pb θ mi c − m f c = T f − Ti = Q
2 2
a
pa X φ +ve Q-value X exoergic reaction.
pY
Y ve Q-value
-ve value X endoergic reaction
reaction.
Tb + TY = Q + Ta
+ve Q-value X reaction possible if Ta Æ 0.
-ve Q-value X reaction not possible if Ta Æ 0. (Is Ta > |Q| sufficient?).
Conservation of momentum ……
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
• Conservation of momentum. HW 31
• We
W usually
ll ddo nott d t t Y.
detect
Show that:
ma mbTa cosθ ± ma mbTa cos 2 θ + ( mY + mb )[mY Q + ( mY − ma )Ta ]
Tb =
mY + mb
• The
Th threshold
th h ld energy (f (for Ta):
) (the condition occurs for θ = 0º).
mY + mb
TTh = −Q
mY + mb − ma
• +ve Q-value X reaction possible if Ta Æ 0.
• Coulomb
C l bb barriers…….!!!
i !!!
• -ve Q-value X reaction possible if Ta > TTh.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
HW 31 (continued)
• The double valued situation occurs between TTh and the

upper limit Ta\.
mY
T = −Q
\
mY − ma
a
• Double-valued
Double valued in a forward cone
cone.
( mY + mb ))[mY Q + ( mY − ma )Ta ]
cos θ max
2
=−
ma mbTa

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
Sample

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
• If the reaction reaches excited states of Y
Qex = m X c + ma c − (mY c + Eex ) − mb c = Q0 − Eex
2 2 2 2
58Ni(α,p)61Cu
even less ….
less proton energy
Highest proton energy
See Figures 11.4

(Saed Dababneh).
in Krane 152
Nuclear Reactions
Neutron scattering
• Inelastic X Q = -Eex (=-E*).
• Elastic X Q = 0.
HW 32
Discuss the elastic and inelastic scattering of
neutrons using the relations you derived in
HW 31.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
Categorization of Nuclear Reactions
• According to: bombarding particle, bombarding energy, target,
reaction product, reaction mechanism.
• Bombarding particle:
¾ Charged particle reactions. [ (p,n) (p,α) (α,γ) heavy ion reactions ].
¾ Neutron reactions. [ (n,γ) (n,p) ….. ].
¾ Photonuclear reactions. [ (γ,n) (γ,p) … ].
¾ Electron induced reactions………….
• Bombarding energy:
¾ Thermal.
¾ Epithermal.
¾ Slow.
Slow ?Neutrons.
¾ Fast.
¾ Low energy charged particles.
¾ High
Hi h energy charged
h d particles.
ti l
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Reactions
• Targets:
¾ Light nuclei (A < 40).
¾ Medium weight nuclei (40 < A < 150).
¾ Heavy nuclei (A > 150).
• Reaction products:
¾ Scattering. Elastic 14N(p,p)14N
Inelastic 14N(p,p/)14N*
¾ Radiative capture.
¾ Fission and fusion.
¾ Spallation.
¾ …..
• Reaction mechanism:
¾ Direct reactions.
reactions
¾ Compound nucleus reactions.
• More in what follows ….
• What is a transfer reaction….?????
(Saed Dababneh).
Reaction Cross Section(s)
( ) (Introduction)
• Probability.
P j til a will
• Projectile b bl hit ttargett X if area is
ill more probably i llarger.
• Classically: σ = π(Ra + RX)2.
Classical σ = ??? (in b) 1H + 1H,H 1H + 238U, U 238U + 238U
• Quantum mechanically: σ = π D2. HW 33

ma + m X h h
D= =
mX 2 ma E a 2 µ aX EaX
CM
• Coulomb and centrifugal barriers X energy dependence of σ.

σ
• Nature of force:
Strong:
g 15N(p,α)
(p, )12C σ = 0.5 b at Ep = 2 MeV.
Electromagnetic: 3He(α,γ)7Be σ = 10-6 b at Eα = 2 MeV.
Weak: p(p,e+ν)D σ = 10-20 b at Ep = 2 MeV.
• Experimental
E i t l challenges
h ll tto measure llow X
X-sections..
ti
(Saed Dababneh).
( ) (Introduction)
Detector for p
particle “b”
dΩ
Ia θ,φ
“b” particles / s
cm2
dRb
d
dσ =
Ia N
Typical nucleus (R=6 fm): geometrical πR2 ≈ 1 b.

Typical σ: <µb to >106 b.
b
(Saed Dababneh).
( ) (Introduction)
Many different quantities are called Angular distribution
“
“cross section”.
ti ”
Krane Table 11.1 dΩ
dRb = r (θ ,φ )
Units … ! 4π
“Differential” cross section dσ r (θ ,φ )
σ(θ,φ
θ φ) or σ(θ ) =
or “cross section” …!! dΩ 4πI a N
dΩ = sin θdθdφ D bl diff
Doubly differential
ti l
π 2π
dσ dσ
σ =∫ dΩ = ∫ sin θdθ ∫ dφ dσ d σ 2
dΩ dΩ
0 0
dE dEb dΩ
σt for all “b”
b particles.
particles
Energy state in “Y”
(Saed Dababneh).
Coulomb Scattering
g
• Elastic or inelastic.
• Elastic X Rutherford scattering. zZe 1 2
V=0
• At any distance: 1
mv = mv +
2 1 2
Ta = ½mvo 2 2
4πε o r
2
o
l = mvob
vo vmin
rmin
b
2
d
1zZe
V=
4πε o d
Ta = 0
(Saed Dababneh).
No dependence on φ 159
Coulomb Scattering
g

(Saed Dababneh).
Coulomb Scattering
g
bXθ f = ( nx )πb 2
<bX>θ
db X dθ df = ( nx )2πbdb
n ≡ target nuclei / cm3
x ≡ target thickness (thin).
nx ≡ target nuclei / cm2
HW 34 d θ
Show that b = cot
and hence 2 2
2 2 b
dσ (θ ) ⎛ zZe ⎞ 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dΩ ⎝ 4πε o ⎠
4 θ
4
⎝ a⎠
T sin 2
Rutherford cross section

(Saed Dababneh).
Coulomb Scattering
g
Study Fig. 11.10 (a,b,c,d)
in Krane
See also Fig

Fig. 11.11
11 11 in
Krane.
HW 35
Show that the fraction of incident
alpha particles scattered at
backward anglesg from a 2 µ
µm
gold foil is 7.48x10-5.
(Saed Dababneh).
Coulomb Scattering
g
• Elastic X Rutherford scattering.
• Inelastic X Coulomb excitation.
See the corresponding

p g alpha
p spectrum
p of Fig.
g 11.12 in Krane.

(Saed Dababneh).
Coulomb Scattering
g

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Scattering
g
• Elastic or inelastic.
• Analogous to diffraction
diffraction.
• Alternating maxima and minima.
• First maximum at θ ≈ λ
h R
λ=
p
1
R = Ro A 3
• Minimum not at zero (sharp edge

of the nucleus??)
• Clear for neutrons.
• Protons? High
g energy,
gy, large
g
angles. Why?
• Inelastic X Excited states,
energy, X-section and spin-parity.
(Saed Dababneh).
Compound
p Nucleus Reactions
Direct
• Time.
• Energy.
CN decays
• Two-step reaction.
EaCM • CN “forgets” how it was formed
formed.
• Decay of CN depends on
statistical factors that are functions
QCN of Ex, J.
• Low energy projectile, medium or
heavy target.
(Saed Dababneh).
Compound
p Nucleus Reactions

(Saed Dababneh).
Compound
p Nucleus Reactions
• Consider p + 63Cu at EpCM= 20 MeV.
• Calculate Ep + [m(63Cu) + m(p) – m(64Zn)]c2.
• Divide by 64 X available energy per nucleon << 8 MeV.
• Multiple collisions X “long”
long
time X statistical distribution
of energy X small chance for
a nucleon to get enough
energy X Evaporation
Evaporation.
• Higher id t energy X
Hi h iincident
more particles “evaporate”.
See also Fig. 11.21 in

Krane.

(Saed Dababneh).
Direct Reactions
• Random collisions X
nearly isotropic angular
distribution.
• Direct reaction
component X strong
angular dependence.
See also Fig. 11.20

in Krane.

(Saed Dababneh).
Direct Reactions
• Peripheral collision with surface nucleon.
• 1 MeV incident nucleon X D ≈ ?? X more likely to interact with
the nucleus X CN reaction.
• 20 MeV incident nucleon X D ≈ ?? X peripheral collision X
Direct reaction.
• CN and Direct (D) processes can happen at the same incident
particle energy. Distinguished by:
¾ D (10-22 s) CN (10-18-10-16 s).
[Consider a 20 MeV deuteron on A=50 target nucleus].
¾ Angular distribution.

(Saed Dababneh).
Direct Reactions
• (d,n) stripping (transfer) reactions can go through both
processes.
• (d,p) stripping (transfer) reactions prefer D rather than CN;
protons do not easily evaporate (Coulomb).
(Coulomb) [(p,d)
(p d) is a pickup reaction]
reaction].
• What about (α,n) transfer reactions?
HW 36 Show that for a (d,p) reaction taking place on the surface
of a 90Zr nucleus, and with 5 MeV deuterons, the angular
momentum transfer can be approximated by l = 8sin(θ/2), where θ
i th
is the anglel th
the outgoing
t i proton t makes k with
ith th
the iincident
id t d deuteron
t
direction. (Derive a general formula first).
Jπ(90Zrgs) = 0+ Fig. 11 23 in Krane.
Fig 11.23 l 0 1 2 3
J(91Zr) = l ± ½, π = (-1)l θ 0º 14.4º 29º 44º

Optical model, DWBA, Shell model, Spectroscopic Factor.
⎛ dσ ⎞ ⎛ dσ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = S ⎜ ⎟
(Saed Dababneh). ⎝ dΩ ⎠ meas ⎝ dΩ ⎠ calc 171
Neutron-induced Reactions
2
X(n,b
, )Y σ n ∝ D Y + b H II C C H I X + n
2
1 1 Γb(Q+En)
∝ ∝ 2
E v
Γn(En)
∝ vn Pln ( En )
Probability to
penetrate the
potential barrier
For thermal neutrons Γ (Q) ≈ constant Po(Ethermal) = 1
b
Q >> En P>o(Ethermal) = 0
1
Non-resonant σ n ( En ) ∝
v
(Saed Dababneh).

(Saed Dababneh).
(Saed Dababneh).
n-TOF
CERN

(Saed Dababneh).
(Saed Dababneh).
n_TOF
n TOF
CERN

(Saed Dababneh).

(Saed Dababneh).
Charged
g Particle Reactions
What is the Gamow Peak?

Nuclear
Radius
(Saed Dababneh).
Charged
Electron Screening

(Saed Dababneh).
Charged
e2 = 1.44x10-12 keV.m HW 37 2
Z1Z 2 e
Tunneling probability: P≅e −2πη η=
hv
S
Sommerfeld
f ld parameter
t
Gamow factor
µ ((uu )
In numerical units: 2πη = 31.29 Z1 Z 2
E CM ( keV )
For γ-ray emission: ΓL ( Eγ ) = α L Eγ2 L +1
Multipolarity
ΓDipole ( Eγ ) = α1 Eγ3

(Saed Dababneh).
Charged
−2πη
σ ((E
E) ∝ e
1
σ ( E ) ∝ πD ∝ 2
E
1 − 2πη
σ (E) = e S(E)
E
Nuclear (or astrophysical) S-factor

(Saed Dababneh).
Charged
EC = ??

(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
∆E Ù ∆t
CN X p particle emission X ∆EÏ X ∆E > spacing
p g between
virtual states X continuum. (Lower part X larger spacing X
isolated resonances).
D X bound states X γ-emission X ∆EÐ X isolated states.
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
HW 38
In the 19F(p,αγ) reaction:
• The
Th Q Q-value
l iis 8.???
8 ??? MMeV.
V
• The Q-value for the formation of the C.N. is 12.??? MeV.
• For a proton resonance at 668 keV in the lab system
system, the
corresponding energy level in the C.N. is at 13.??? MeV.
• If for this resonance the observed g gamma energy gy is 6.13 MeV,
what is the corresponding alpha particle energy?
• If for this resonance there has been no gamma emission
observed,
b d what
h t would
ld th
then b
be th
the alpha
l h particle
ti l energy? ?

(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
Jπ Ex
Excited a+XÎY+b Q>0
State b+YÎX+a Q<0
Entrance
Ch
Channell Exit
a+X Channel Inverse Reaction
Compound b + Y
Nucleus C*
2J + 1 2
σ aX = πD 2
(1 + δ aX ) Y + b H II C C H I a + X
( 2 J a + 1)( 2 J X + 1)
aX
Statistical Identical • Nature of force(s).

QM
F
Factor (ω)
( ) particles • Time-reversal
Time reversal invariance
invariance.
2J + 1 2
σ bY = πD 2
(1 + δ bY ) a + X H I C C H II b + Y
( 2 J b + 1)( 2 J Y + 1)
bY
σ aX
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 HW 39 = ?? 186
(Saed Dababneh).
σ bY
Resonance Reactions
Projectile
Projectile
Target
g Target
g
Q-value Q-value
Q + ER = Er
Eγ = E + Q - Eex
Non-resonantt
N Resonant
Capture Capture
(all energies) (selected energies
with large X-section)
2 2
σ γ ∝ Y Hγ a + X
2
σ γ ∝ E f H γ Er E r H CN a + X
(Saed Dababneh).
σ γ ∝ Γa Γb 187
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
h
L = lh = bp = b
D
b = lD
σ l , max = πb 2
l +1 − πb = ( 2l + 1)πD
l
2 2
656.7
HW 40 πD (b) =
2
µ (u ) E ( keV )
CM
2J + 1
σ max = πD aX 2
(1 + δ aX )
( 2 J a + 1)( 2 J X + 1)
ω
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
Damped Oscillator Oscillator strength
g
f
response ∝
(ω − ωo ) + ( 2 )
2 δ 2
1 Damping
δ=
t0 factor
eigenfrequency
Γa Γb
σ (E) ∝
( E − ER ) + ( 2 )
2 Γ 2

(Saed Dababneh).
Γto = h 190
Resonance Reactions
2J + 1 Γa Γb
σ ( E ) = πD aX 2
(1 + δ aX )
( 2 J a + 1)( 2 J X + 1) ( E − E R ) 2 + ( Γ2 ) 2
Breit--Wigner formula
Breit
Γ = Γa + Γb
• All quantities in CM system
• Only for isolated resonances.
σ R ∝ Γa Γb Reaction Usually Γa >> Γb.
σ e ∝ Γa Γa Elastic scattering
σ R Γb HW 41 When does σR take its maximum value?
=
σ e Γa
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
Exit
Ja + JX + l = J Jπ Ex
Ch
Channel
l
Excited
(-1)l π(Ja) π(JX) = π(J) State b+Y
Entrance
(-1)l = π(J) Natural parity. aChannel
+X
Compound
Nucleus C*

(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
What is the “Resonance Strength” …? HW 42
What is its significance?
In what units is it measured?
2J + 1 Γa Γb
ωγ = (1 + δ aX )
( 2 J a + 1)( 2 J X + 1) Γ
Crooss secttion
Charged particle
radiative capture (a,γ)
(What about neutrons?)
ωγ ∝ Γa EC ωγ ∝ Γγ
Energy
(Saed Dababneh).
Resonance Reactions
14N((p,γ)
HW 43
• Q = ??
• EC = ??
• ER = 2.0 MeV
Formation via s-wave p protons,, Take J = ½,, Γp = 0.1 MeV,,
dipole radiation Eγ = 9.3 MeV, Γγ = 1 eV.
Show that ωγ = 0.33 eV.
• If same resonance butb t att ER = 10 keV
k V
Γp = ?? Eγ = ?? Γγ = ??
Show that ωγ = 3.3x10
3 3x10-23 eV.
eV
Huge
g challenge
g to experimentalists
p
(Saed Dababneh).
α transfer reactions
α-transfer
Angular distribution
Resonance Jπ Estimated
Energy (keV) ωγ (µeV)
566 2+ 1.9 18O(α, γ)22Ne
3- 0.15
4+ 0 01
0.01
470 0+ 0.6
1- 0.2
Experimental upper limit < 1.7 µeV
(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Resonance Reactions

(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Activation Analysis
y
(Z,A
, ) + n Î (Z, A+1)
β-
γ (β-delayed γ-ray)
(Z+1, A+1)

(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Attenuation
Neutrons
Target
Thickness “x”
dI −σ t nx
= −σ t ndx I = Ioe
I
Similar to γ-attenuation. Why?

(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Moderation
Show that,, after elastic scattering g the HW 44
ratio between the final neutron energy E\
gy E is g
and its initial energy given by: y
E \ A2 + 1 + 2 A cosθ CM
=
E ( A + 1) 2
2
⎛E ⎞
\
⎛ A −1⎞
For a head-on collision: ⎜⎜ =⎜
⎝ E ⎠ min ⎝ A + 1 ⎠
After n s-wave collisions: ln En = ln E − nζ
\
⎡ E ⎤ ( A − 1) 2
A −1
where ζ = ⎢ln \ ⎥ = 1 + ln
⎣ E ⎦ av 2A A +1
(Saed Dababneh).
Neutron Moderation
HW 44 (continued)
How many collisions are needed to thermalize a 2 MeV
neutron if the moderator was:
1H 2H 4He 12C 238U
Discuss the effect of the thermal motion of the moderator

atoms.
atoms

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
Surface effect Coulomb effect
~200 MeV

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
• B.E. per nucleon for 238U (BEU) and 119Pd (BEPd) ?
• 2x119xBE 238 BEU = ?? X K.E.
2 119 BEPd – 238xBE K E off the
th
fragments X ≈ 1011 J/g
B i coall X 105 J/g
• Burning /
• Why not spontaneous?
• Two
T 119Pdd fragments
f t just hi X The
j t touching
t Th C Coulomb
l b
barrier is:
2
( 46)
V = 1.44 MeV . fm ≈ 250 MeV > 214 MeV
12.2 ffm
• Crude …! What if 79Zn and 159Sm? Large neutron
excess, released
l d neutrons,
t sharp
h potential
t ti l edge…!
d !
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
• 238U (t½ = 4.5x109 y) for α-decay.

• 238U (t½ ≈ 1016 y) for fission
fission.
• Heavier nuclei??
• Energy absorption from a neutron (for example) could
form an intermediate state X probably above barrier X
induced fission
fission.
• Height of barrier is called activation energy.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
Liquid Drop
Energy (MeV)
Shell
Activation E

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
4 3
πR R = ab
3 2 a = R (1 + ε )
3
= R
4
πab 2 b=
3 Volume Term (the same) 1+ ε
Surface Term Bs = - as A⅔ (1 + 25 ε 2 + ...))
Coulomb Term BC = - aC Z(Z-1) / A⅓ (1 − 15 ε 2 + ...)
− 13
aC Z ( Z − 1) A > a S A 3 X fission
2
1 2
5 5
X
Z2 Crude: QM and original shape

> ~ 47 could be different from spherical.
spherical
A
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
2
(120)
= 48
300
Consistent with activation energy
curve for A = 300.
300
Extrapolation to 47 X ≈ 10-20
20 s.
s
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
235U +n
Î
93Rb + 141Cs + 2n
Not unique.
Low-energy
fission
processes.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
Z1 + Z2 = 92
Z1 ≈ 37, Z2 ≈ 55
A1 ≈ 95,, A2 ≈ 140
Large neutron excess
Most stable:
Z=45 Z=58
Ð
Prompt neutrons within 10-16
16 s.
Number ν depends on nature of

fragments and on incident particle energy.
The average number is characteristic of
the process.
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
The average
number of
neutrons is
different, but
the
distribution is
G
Gaussian.
i

(Saed Dababneh).
Higher than Sn?
Delayed neutrons
~ 1 delayed neutron
per 100 fissions,
fi i b
butt
essential for control
of the reactor
reactor.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
1/v Fast neutrons

should be
moderated.
d t d
235U thermal cross sections

σfission ≈ 584 b.
σscattering ≈ 9 b.
σradiative capture ≈ 97 b.
b
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 Fission Barriers 212
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
• Q for 235U + n Î 236U is 6.54478 MeV.

13 1 in Krane: Activation energy EA for 236U ≈ 6.2
• Table 13.1 6 2 MeV
(Liquid drop + shell) X 235U can be fissioned with zero-energy
neutrons.
• Q for 238U + n Î 239U is 4.??? MeV.

• EA for 239U ≈ 6.6 MeV X MeV neutrons are needed.
• Pairing term: δ = ??? (Fig.
(Fig 13.11
13 11 in Krane)
Krane).
• What about 232Pa and 231Pa? (odd Z).
• Odd-N nuclei have in g general much larger
g thermal neutron
cross sections than even-N nuclei (Table 13.1 in Krane).
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First 213
Semester, 2007-2008 (Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
Why not use it?
σf,Th 584 2.7x10-6 700 0.019 b

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
• 235U + n Î 93Rb + 141Cs + 2n
• Q = ????
• What if other fragments?
• Different
Diff t number
b off neutrons.
t
• Take 200 MeV as an average.
66 MeV 98 MeV
Heavy Light
g t
fragments fragments
miscalibrated
(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
• Mean neutron energy ≈ 2
MeV.
MeV
• ≈ 2.4 neutrons per fission
(average) X ≈ 5 MeV
average kinetic energy
carried by prompt neutrons
per fission.
HW 45
• Show that the average momentum carried by a neutron is only ≈
1.5 % that carried by a fragment.
• Thus neglecting neutron momenta, show that the ratio between
kinetic energies of the two fragments is the inverse of the ratio of
their masses
masses. E1 m2 66 95
≈ ≈
(Saed Dababneh).
E2 m1 98 140 216
Nuclear Fission
Enge
g Distribution of fission energy
Krane
sums
them up
as β Lost … !
decays.

(Saed Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
Segrè Distribution of fission energy
a
Lost … ! b
c
• How much is recoverable?

• What about capture gammas? (produced by ν-1 neutrons)
neutrons)
• Why c < (a+b
(a+b)) ?
Nuclear
Nuclearand
Reactors,
Radiation
BAU, 1st Semester,
Physics, BAU, First
2007-2008
Semester, 2007-2008 218
(Saed(Saed
Dababneh).
Dababneh).
Nuclear Fission
• Recoverable energy release ≈ 200 MeV per 235U fission.
• Fission
Fi i rate 2 7 1021 P fissions
t = 2.7x10 fi i per day.
d P in
i MW.
MW
• Burnup rate: 1.05 P g/day. P in MW.

σ γ ((E
E)
• Capture-to-fission ratio: α ( E ) = HW 46
σ f (E)
• Consumption
C 1 05(1 α) P g/day.
i rate: 1.05(1+ /d
• 1000 MW reactor.
• 3.1x10
3 1x1019 fissions per second 0 012 gram of 235U per second.
second, or 0.012 second
• Two neutrinos are expected immediately from the decay of the
two fission p
products, what is the minimum flux of neutrinos
expected at 1 km from the reactor.
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First 219
Semester, 2007-2008 (Saed Dababneh). 4.8x1012 m-2s-1
Nuclear Fission
• 3.1x10
3 1x1010 fissions per second per W W.
• In thermal reactor, majority of fissions occur in
region, φ and Σ are maximum
thermal energy region maximum.
• Total fission rate in a thermal reactor of volume V
V Σ fφ
• Thermal reactor power (quick calculation)
V Σ fφ
Pth = 10
3.1x10
Nuclear
Nuclearand
Reactors,
Radiation
BAU, 1st Semester,
Physics, BAU, First
2007-2008
Semester, 2007-2008 220
(Saed(Saed
Dababneh).
Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
• 235U + n Î X + Y + (~2.4)n Fast second generation neutrons
• Moderation of second generation neutrons X Chain reaction.
• Net change in number of neutrons from one generation to
th nextt ≡ k∞ (neutron
the ( t reproduction
d ti factor).
f t )
Infinite medium (ignoring leakage at the surface).
• k∞ ≥ 1 X Chain reaction
reaction.
• Water, D2O or graphite moderator.
• k < 1 X subcritical system.
y Chain reacting pile
• k = 1 X critical system.
• k > 1 X supercritical system.
• For
F steady
t d release
l off energy (steady-
( t d
state operation) we need k =1.

(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
235U thermal
e cross
c oss sec
sections
o s Probability for a thermal neutron to
fi i on 235U is
cause fission i
σfission ≈ 584 b.
σscattering ≈ 9 b.
σf 1
≈ =
σradiative capture ≈ 97 b. σ f + σγ 1+ α
If each fission produces an average of ν neutrons, then the mean

number of fission neutrons produced per thermal neutron = η
σf σf ν
η =ν =ν = η <ν
σa σ f + σγ 1+ α

(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
• Assume natural uranium: 235U
99 2745% 238U, 0.7200%
99.2745% 0 7200% 235U.
Thermal σf = 0 b 584 b
Th l σγ = 2.75
Thermal 2 75 b 97 b 4πR 2
Σ = Σ x + Σ y = N xσ x + N yσ y
= (γ xσ x + γ yσ y ) N
238U
• Σf / N = (0.992745)(0)
(0 992745)(0) + Doppler effect?
(0.0072)(584) 4πR 2
= 4.20
4 20 b.
b
• Σγ / N = (0.992745)(2.75) +
(0.0072)(97)
= 3.43 b. Using the experimental elastic
Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First scattering data the radius of the 223
Semester, 2007-2008 (Saed Dababneh). nucleus can be estimated.
Moderation (to compare x-section)
2H 1H
(n,n) (n,n)
(n,γ) (n,γ)
• Resonances?
(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
σf
• Probability for a thermal neutron to cause fission ≈
4.20 σ f +σγ
• For natural uranium = = 0.55
4.20 + 3.43
• If each fission produces an average of ν = 2.4 neutrons, then the
mean number of fission neutrons produced per thermal neutron =
η = 2.4 x 0.55 ≈ 1.3 σf
η =ν
σ f +σγ
• This is close to 1. If neutrons are still to be lost, there is a danger
of losing criticality.
• For enriched uranium (235U = 3%) η = ????? (> 1.3). 1 3)
• In this case η is further from 1 and allowing for more neutrons to
be lost while maintaining criticality.
(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
• N thermal neutrons in one generation have produced so far
ηN fast
f t neutrons.
t
• Some of these fast neutrons can cause 238U fission X more fast
neutrons X fast fission factor = ε (= 1.03
1 03 for natural uranium).
uranium)
• Now we have εηN fast neutrons.
• We need to moderate these fast neutrons X use g graphite
p X for 2
MeV neutrons we need ??? collisions. How many for 1 MeV
neutrons?
• The
Th neutron
t will
ill pass th
through
h th
the 10 - 100 eV
V region
i d during
i ththe
moderation process. This energy region has many strong 238U
capture resonances (up to 1000 b) X Can not mix uranium and
graphite as powders.
• In g
graphite,
p an average
g distance of 19 cm is needed for
thermalization X the resonance escape probability p (≈ 0.9).
(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
• Now we have pεηN thermal neutrons.
• Graphite must not be too large to capture thermal neutrons;
when thermalized, neutrons should have reached the fuel.
• Graphite thermal cross section = 0.0034 b, but there is a lot
of it present.
• Capture can also occur in the material encapsulating the fuel
elements.
l t
• The thermal utilization factor f (≈ 0.9) gives the fraction of
thermal neutrons that are actually available for the fuel
fuel.
• Now we have fpεηN thermal neutrons,
neutrons could be > or < N
thus determining the criticality of the reactor.
∞ k = fpεη
f The four
four--factor formula.
k = fpεη(1
(1-lfast)(1-lthermal
f t)(1 th l)
(Saed Dababneh). Fractions lost at surface
Neutron
reproduction
f
factor
k = 1.000
x 0.9
Th
Thermal l
utilization xη
factor “f”
x 0.9
Resonance
escape
probability
b bilit
What is: ”p”
• Migration
g length?
g x 1.03
Fast fission
• Critical size? “ε”
factor “ε
How does the
geometryt affect
ff t the
th
reproduction factor?

(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
Time scale for neutron multiplication
• Time τ includes moderation time (~10-6 s) and diffusion time of
thermal neutrons (~10-3 s).
Time Average number of thermal neutrons
t N
t+τ kN
t + 2τ k2N
• For a short time dt dN kN − N

=
dt τ
( k −1) t τ
• Show that N (t ) = N 0e
(Saed Dababneh).
Controlled Fission
( k −1) t τ
N (t ) = N 0e
• k = 1 X N is constant (Desired).
• k < 1 X N decays exponentially.
exponentially
• k > 1 X N grows exponentially with time constant τ / (k-1).
• k = 1.01 (slightly
g y supercritical
p ) X e(0.01/0.001)t = e10 = 22026 in 1s.
• Cd is highly absorptive of thermal neutrons.
• Design the reactor to be slightly
subcritical for prompt neutrons.
• The “few” “delayed” neutrons
will be used to achieve criticality
criticality,
allowing enough time to
manipulate
p the control
rods. Cd control rods
(Saed Dababneh).
Fission Reactors
Essential elements:
• Fuel (fissile material).
Core
• Moderator (not in reactors using fast neutrons).
• Reflector (to reduce leakage and critical size).
• Containment vessel (to prevent leakage of waste).
• Shielding (for neutrons and γ’s).
• Coolant.
• Control system.
• Emergency systems (to prevent runaway during failure).

(Saed Dababneh).
Fission Reactors
Types of reactors:
Used for what?
• Power reactors: extract kinetic energy of fragments as
heat X boil water X steam drives turbine X electricity.
• Research reactors: low power (1-10 MW) to generate
neutrons (~1013 n.cm-2.s-1 or higher) for research.
• Converters: Convert non-thermally-fissionable material
to a thermally-fissionable material. _
238
U + n → 239 U ⎯23 ⎯→ 239 Npp + β − + ν
⎯min
_
Fertile ⎯2⎯
⎯
.3 d
→ 239
Pu + β − + ν
σf,th = 742 b
(Saed Dababneh).
Fission Reactors
_
232
Th + n → 233Th ⎯22
⎯min P + β − +ν
⎯→ 233 Pa
_
Fertile ⎯27
⎯→
⎯d → 233
U + β − +ν
σf,th = 530 b
• If η = 2 X Conversion and fission
fission.
• If η > 2 X Breeder reactor.
• 239Pu: Thermal neutrons (η = 2.1)) X hard for breeding. g
Fast neutrons (η = 3) X possible breeding X fast
breeder reactors.
After sufficient time of breeding, fissile material can be easily
(chemically) separated from fertile material.
C
Compare ti 235U from
tto separating f 238U.

(Saed Dababneh).
Fission Reactors
What neutron energy?
• Thermal, intermediate (eV – keV), fast reactors.
• Large, smaller, smaller but more fuel.
What fuel?
• Natural uranium,, enriched uranium,, 233U, 239Pu.
From converter or
How??? breeder reactor.
reactor
HW 47

(Saed Dababneh).
Fission Reactors
What moderator?
1 Cheap
1. Ch andd abundant.
b d t
2. Chemically stable.
3 Very
3. V low
l mass ((~1).1)
4. High density.
5 Minimal
5. Mi i l neutron t capture
t cross section.
ti
• Graphite (1,2,4,5) increase amount to compensate 3.
• Water
W t (1,2,3,4) b t n + p → d + γ X enriched
(1 2 3 4) but i h d uranium.
i
• D2O (heavy water) has low capture cross section X
natural
t l uranium,
i b
butt if capture
t occurs, produces
d
tritium.
• Be
B and dB BeO,
O but b t poisonous.
i
(Saed Dababneh).
Fission Reactors
What assembly?
• Heterogeneous:
H t moderator
d t and d ffuell are llumped.
d
• Homogeneous: moderator and fuel are mixed together.
• In
I homogeneous
h systems,
t it is
i easier l l t p and
i tto calculate d
f for example, but a homogeneous natural uranium-
graphite
hit mixture
i t can nott go critical.
iti l
What coolant?
• Coolant prevents meltdown of the core.
• It transfers heat in power reactors.
• Why pressurized-water reactors.
• Why liquid sodium?

(Saed Dababneh).
Boiling water reactor
Pressurized
water
ate
reactor
• Light water reactors.

• Both use “light”
light water as
coolant and as moderator,
thus enriched ((2
2-3%))
uranium is used.
• Common in the US.

(Saed Dababneh).
CANDU
reactor
• Canada has D2O
and natural uranium.
Gas
• Most cooled
power
reactor
reactors in
i
GB are
graphite
moderated
gas--
gas
g
cooled.
(Saed Dababneh).
• Liquid
q sodium cooled, fast breeder reactor.
• Blanket contains the fertile 238U.
• Water should not mix with sodium. Breeder
reactor

(Saed Dababneh).
More on Fission Products
• β and γ
emissions from
radioactive fission
products carry part
of the fission
energy, even after
shut down.
• On approaching end of the chain, the decay energy decreases
and half-life increases
increases. Long-lived isotopes constitute the main
hazard.
• Can interfere with fission p
process in the fuel. (p
(poisoning).
g)
• Important for research.
• β-decay favors high energy X 17 MeV compared to 6 MeV for γ.
• Only 7 MeV from β-decay appears as heat. Why?
(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
• Not anticipated! Reactor shut down! Time scale:
135Xe 149Sm Hours and days.
105 b
10 b
6
σ Xe m
φ
a
γI γ Xe
σ aI φ σ aXeφ
(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
HW 48 Reactivity ≡ ρ = k − 1 , let us use k∞ (Infinite reactor).
k
∑ afuel
f1 = ffuel (critical)
∑ a + ∑ clad
a + ∑ mod erator
a
∑ afuel
f2 =
∑ afuel
f l
+ ∑ clad
a
l d
+ ∑ mod
a
d erator
t
+ ∑ poison
a
i
∑ apoison
Show that ∆ρ = ρ 2 − ρ1 = − fuel
∑ a + ∑ clad
a + ∑ mod erator
a
Negative reactivity due to poison buildup. It is

proportional
p opo t o a to tthe
eaamount
ou t oof po
poison.
so
(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
r
∂I (r , t ) r r r r small
= γ I ∑ f φ (r , t ) − λI I (r , t ) − σ aI I (r , t )φ (r , t )
∂t
r
∂Xe(r , t ) r r r r r
= γ Xe ∑ f φ (r , t ) + λI I (r , t ) − λ Xe Xe(r , t ) − σ a Xe(r , t )φ (r , t )
Xe
∂t
Initial conditions?
• Clean Core Startup.
Startup Assume no spacial
• Shutdown (later). dependence.
I (0) = Xe(0) = 0 Fresh Fuel.

and l us assume φ (t ) = φ (0) = constant.
d let

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
γ I ∑ f φ0
The solution is I (t ) = (1 − e −λ t ) I
λI
I (∞)
Xe(∞)
(γ I + γ Xe ) ∑ f φ0 − ( λ Xe +σ aXeφ0 ) t
and Xe(t ) = (1 − e )
λ Xe + σ φ Xe
a 0
γ I ∑ f φ0 −( λ Xe +σ a φ0 ) t
Xe
−λI t
+ (e −e )
λ Xe − λI + σ a φ0
Xe

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
I ((∞)
Xe(∞)
• Now, we know Xe(t)

∑ apoison (t ) σ aXe Xe(t )
∆ρ = − fuel = − fuel
∑a + ∑a + ∑a
clad mod erator
∑a + ∑a + ∑a
clad mod erator

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
• Shutdown. After the reactor has been operating for a “long” time.
r
∂I (r , t ) r r r r
= γ I ∑ f φ (r , t ) − λI I (r , t ) − σ a I (r , t )φ (r , t )
I
∂t
r
∂Xe(r , t ) r r r r r
= γ Xe ∑ f φ (r , t ) + λI I (r , t ) − λ Xe Xe
X (r , t ) − σ a Xe
Xe
X (r , t )φ (r , t )
∂t
r
I (0) = I (∞) ∂I (r , t ) r
= −λI I ( r , t )
Xe(0) = Xe(∞) ∂t
r
φ (t ) = φ (0) = 0. ∂Xe(r , t ) r r
= λI I (r , t ) − λ Xe Xe
X (r , t )
∂t

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
The solution is I (t ) = I (∞)e − λI t
− λ Xet λ I I (∞ ) − λ t − λ t
X (t ) = Xe
Xe X (∞ )e + (eXe
−e ) I
λI − λ Xe
>0?
Height off the peak
depends on I(∞)
d Xe(∞), i.e.
and
depends on φ.

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
Shutdown X Xe K X negative ∆ρ X move control rods
out X tryy to add p y X need to have
positive reactivity
enough reserve X costly to do that.
If, the available excess
reactivity can
compensate for less
than 30 minutes of
poison buildup, can’t
startup again after ~3030
minutes of shutdown,
because you can’t
achieve criticality. Need
to wait some 40 hours
(in this case) for Xe to
decay down. 250
(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
Strategies
• If you plan to shut down for “short
short maintenance”
maintenance , think
about stepback.
• Examine different scenarios using this code from
http://www.nuceng.ca/
• You will get more experience after you finish the
computational physics course.

(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
Xe Oscillations
• φ(r,t) (spacial dependence) X flux K locally X Xe
burnup K X ρ (reactivity) K X flux further K X control
rods globally in X flux L elsewhere X Xe burnup L X
ρ L ….. Xe oscillation but limited by opposite effect due
to increase (decrease) of I in the high (low) flux region.
• In large reactors (compared to neutron diffusion
length) local flux, power and temperature could reach
unacceptable values for certain materials X safety
issues.
• Think of one sensor and one control rod X feel
average flux X apparently OK X more sensors and
control rods to locate and deal with local changes.
(Saed Dababneh).
Poisoning
Permanent Poisons
• 149Sm has sizeable but lower cross section than 135Xe.
• It does not decay.
r
∂Sm(r , t ) r r r r
≈ γ Sm ∑ f (r , t )φ (r , t ) = γ Sm ∑ f (r ,0)φ (r ,0) = γ Sm . Constant
C t t
∂t
• Start from fresh fuel:
r r r
Sm(r , t ) = γ Sm ∑ f (r ,0)φ (r ,0)t = γ Sm . Constant . t Linear with time.
• Thus:
r r r
∑ (r , t ) = σ a γ Sm ∑ f (r ,0)φ (r ,0)t
Sm
a
Sm
Linear
ea wit
w th ttime.
e.

(Saed Dababneh).
Radioactive Fission Products
Read section 13
13..7 in Krane.
Krane
Look at sections 13
13..8 and 13.
13.9

(Saed Dababneh).
[
P (t ) = 4.1x1011 t −0.2 − (t + T ) −0.2 MeV / s ]
per watt of original operating power.
T = time of operation.

(Saed Dababneh).

(Saed Dababneh).
Fusion Reactions
• Neutron-induced fission X No Coulomb barrier.
• Charged particle-induced fusion X Coulomb barrier.
1
2
mv = 23 kT
2
• Thermonuclear reactions
• At room temperature X kT = 0.025 eV.
• Practically,
y, keV available energy
gy but much higher
g
Coulomb barrier.
• What is the temperature
p required
q to classically
y
overcome the barrier for a D-D reaction.
• Penetration p y X much lower temperatures.
probability p
(Saed Dababneh).
Fusion Reactions
• We formulated the cross section when we

considered
co s de ed ccharged
a ged pa
particle
t c e reactions.
eact o s
1 − 2πη
σ (E) = e S(E)
E
(Saed Dababneh).
Fusion Reactions
• Show that
Q
1
2 mv =2
1 + mb mY
b b
Q
1
2 mv =2
1 + mY mb
Y Y
1 2
mv mY
2
1
=
b b
2
2 mv mb
Y Y

(Saed Dababneh).
Fusion Reactions

(Saed Dababneh).

Nuclear Physics Intro

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Nuclear Physics Intro

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501503742

Nuclear Physics at BAU

Before we start, let us tackle the following:

This phenomenological course provides the launch point for other

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 2

Mid term Exam

¾ Decide on the title of your project within two weeks.

We need to answer …..

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 7

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 8

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 9

The energy of the nucleon in the nucleus is in the order of 10 MeV.

The key: Interaction between individual nucleons.

Excited states: atomic intervals ~ eV.

HWc 2 Where to find nuclear data???

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 13

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 14

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 15

40Ca ….. …..

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 18

Three conclusions can be drawn:

• Inside the nucleus the density is fairly uniform

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 19

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 21

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 22

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 23

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 24

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 25

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 26

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 27

a) Estimate the number of 235U fission events

b) Estimate the fuel-burning

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 28

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 29

208Pb (doubly magic) X

Extra Binding between pairs of “identical” nucleons in the same

Sn ((A, Z, even N)) – Sn ((A-1, Z, N-1))

even-even more stable

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 31

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 33

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 34

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 35

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 38

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 40

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 42

For A = 125,, what value of Z makes M(A,Z)

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 44

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 45

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 46

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 47

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 48

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 49

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 51

Double β decay! Both Sides!

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 52

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 53

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 54

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 55

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 57

27 57 7/2 ... 271d EC

27 59 7/2 1.00 stable ...

Nuclear and Radiation Physics, BAU, First Semester, 2007-2008 58

Gyromagnetic ratio (g-factor)

For free protons and neutrons