EARTHQUAKES:

Earthquake is an unexpected and rapid shaking of earth due to breakage and shifting of
underneath layers of the earth. Earthquake strikes all of a sudden at any time of the day or night
and quite violently.

It gives no prior warning. As for as the casualties are concerned, earthquake top the list. If it
happens in a populated area, the earthquake can cause great loss to human life and property.
About 65% of the total area of the country is vulnerable to seismic damage of buildings in
varying degrees.

Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may occur at any time of
the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little warning. They can destroy buildings and
infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the
entire habitation but may de-stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the
country. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and here is hardly any warning, making it
impossible to predict.

Earth: Long time ago, a large collection of material masses coalesced and formed the
Earth. Large amount of heat was generated by this fusion, and slowly as the Earth cooled, the
heavier and denser materials sank to the center and the lighter ones rise to the top. The
differentiated Earth consists of the Inner Core (radius ~1290km), the Outer Core (thickness
~2200km), the Mantle (thickness ~2900km) and the Crust (thickness ~5 to 40km). Figure 1
shows these layers. The Inner Core is solid and consists of heavy metals (e.g., nickel and iron),
while the Crust consists of light materials (Ex: basalts and granites). The Outer Core is liquid in
form and the Mantle has the ability to flow. At the Core, the temperature is estimated to be
~2500C, the pressure ~4 million atmospheres and density ~13.5 gm/cc; this is in contrast to
~25C, 1 atmosphere and 1.5 gm/cc on the surface of the Earth.

1 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

 Fig.1 shows the parts of the Earth

Causes of Earthquake:

The Circulations: Convection currents develop in the viscous Mantle, because of

prevailing high temperature and pressure gradients between the Crust and the Core, like the
convective flow of water when heated in a beaker (Figure 2). The energy for the above
circulations is derived from the heat produced from the incessant decay of radioactive elements
in the rocks throughout the Earths interior. These convection currents result in a circulation of
the earths mass; hot molten lava comes out and the cold rock mass goes into the Earth. Many
such local circulations are taking place at different regions underneath the Earths surface,
leading to different portions of the Earth undergoing different directions of movements along the
surface.

Fig.2 Convectional currents developed in the viscous mantle

2 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

 Plate Tectonics:

The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some portion of the Mantle,
to slide on the hot molten outer core. This sliding of Earths mass takes place in pieces called
Tectonic Plates. The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates (North
American Plate, South America Plate, Antarctic Plate, African Plate, Australian Plate, Eurasian
Plate and Pacific Plate) and many smaller ones. In the following fig.3 the different tectonic plates
of the world

Fig.3 Tectonic plates of the world

These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from those of the
neighboring ones. Sometimes, the plate in the front is slower; then, the plate behind it comes and
collides (and mountains are formed). On the other hand, sometimes two plates move away from
one another (and rifts are created). In another case, two plates move side-by-side, along the same
direction or in opposite directions. These three types of inter-plate interactions are the
convergent, divergent and transform boundaries (Figure 4 a,b and c), respectively. The
convergent boundary has a peculiarity (like at the Himalayas) that sometimes neither of the
colliding plates wants to sink. The relative movement of these plate boundaries varies across the
Earth; on an average, it is of the order of a couple to tens of centimeters per year.

3 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

 Fig.4 a.Convergent Boundary b. Divergent Boundary

Fig.4 c. Transform Boundary

Tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material. And so, elastic strain energy
is stored in them during the relative deformations that occur due to the gigantic tectonic plate
actions taking place in the Earth. But, when the rocky material along the interface of the plates in
the Earths Crust reaches its strength, it fractures and a sudden movement takes place there, the
interface between the plates where the movement has taken place (called the fault) suddenly slips
and releases the large elastic strain energy stored in the rocks at the interface. For example, the
energy released during the 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake is about 400 times (or more) that
released by the 1945 Atom Bomb dropped on Hiroshima!!

The sudden slip at the fault causes the earthquake a violent shaking of the Earth during
which large elastic strain energy released spreads out in the form of seismic waves that travel
through the body and along the surface of the Earth.

4 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

Several key factors that contribute to vulnerability of human populations to earthquakes:

1. Location of settlements in an earthquake prone area, especially on soft ground, on area

prone to landslides or along fault lines.
2. Dense collection of weak buildings with high occupancy.
3. Non-engineered buildings constructed by earth, rubble, buildings with heavy roofs (more
vulnerable than light weight structures), poor quality and maintenance of buildings
4. Weak or flexible storey intending for parking purposes.

General characteristics:

Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of frequencies and velocities. The actual rupture
process may last for a few seconds to as long as one minute for a major earthquake. The ground
shaking is caused by body waves and surface wave.

Body waves (P and S waves) penetrate the body of the earth, vibrating fast. P waves travel
about 5-6 kilometers per hour and S waves travel with a speed of 3-4 kilometers per hour.
Surface waves vibrate the ground horizontally and vertically. These long period waves cause
swaying of tall buildings and slight waves motion in bodies of water even at great distances from
the epicenter

Earthquakes can be of three types based on the focal depth:

1. Deep:- 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface

2. Medium:- 60 to 300 kms
3. Shallow: less than 60 kms

The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the time the waves reach the
surface the impact reduces. Shallow focus earthquakes are more common and are extremely
damaging because of their proximity to the surface.

Measuring Earthquakes:

Earthquakes can be described by the use of two distinctively different scales of

measurement demonstrating magnitude and intensity. Earthquake magnitude or amount of
energy released is determined by the use of a seismograph which is an instrument that

5 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

continuously records ground vibration. The scale was developed by a seismologist named
Charles Richter. An increase in magnitude (M) by 1.0 implies 10 times higher Waveform
amplitude and about 31 times higher energy released. For instance, energy released in a M7.7
earthquake is about 31 times greater than that released in a M6.7 earthquake, and is about 1000
(3131) times greater than that released in a M5.7 earthquake. An earthquake of magnitude 3
is the smallest normally felt by humans. The largest earthquake that has been recorded with this
system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile, 1960).

The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the effects of an
earthquake where it occurs. The scale was extended and modified to suit the modern times. It is
called the Modified Mercalli Scale (MSK scale) which expresses the intensity of earthquake
effect on people, structure and the earths surface in values from I(least effective) to XII(most
destructive). With an intensity of VI and below most of the people can feel the shake and there
are cracks on the walls, but with an intensity of XII there is general panic with buildings
collapsing totally and there is a total disruption in normal life.

United states geological survey (USGS) has divided the earthquakes into the following types:

(From higher to lower intensities of Earthquakes)

Earthquake type Richter scale Average annually occurring

Great 8 and Higher 11
Major 7-7.9 172
Strong 6-6.9 1342
Moderate 5-5.9 13192
Light 4-4.9 13000 (approximate)
Minor 3-3.9 130000 (approximate)
Very minor 2-2.9 1300000 (approximate)

Distribution pattern of Earthquakes in India:

The most vulnerable areas, according to the present seismic zone map of India, are located in
the Himalaya and sub-Himalaya regions, Kutch and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Depending

6 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

on the varying degrees of seismic city, the entire country can be divided into the following
seismic regions:

1. Kashmir and Western Himalayas - covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Sub-mountainous areas of Punjab.
2. Central Himalayas Includes the mountain and sub-mountain regions of Uttar Pradesh
and sub-mountainous parts of Punjab.
3. North-east India- Comprises the whole of Indian Territory to the east of north Bengal.
4. Cambay and Rann of Kutch.
5. Peninsular India, including the islands of Lakshwadeep.
6. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The entire northern part of Indian subcontinent lies in an earthquake prone belt.

India falls quite prominently on the 'Alpine - Himalayan Belt'. This belt is the line along
which the Indian plate meets the Eurasian plate. This being a convergent plate, the Indian plate is
thrusting underneath the Eurasian plate at a speed of 5 cm per year. The movement gives rise to
tremendous stress which keeps accumulating in the rocks and is released from time to time in the
form of earthquakes.

List of significant Earthquakes in India

Year Location Magnitude of 6+

1950 Arunachal Pradesh - China Border 8.5

1956 Anjar, Gujarat 7.0

1967 Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5

1975 Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh 6.2

1988 Manipur - Myanmar Boarder 6.6

1988 Bihar - Nepal Border 6.4

1991 Uttarkashi - Uttar Pradesh Hills 6.0

7 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

1993 Latur - Maharashtra 6.3

1997 Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 6.0

1999 Chamoli, Uttar Pradesh 6.8

2001 Bhuj, Gujarat 6.9

2005 Muzaffarabad (Pakistan) Impact in 7.4

Jammu & Kashmir

2015 Nepal and India 7.8

(more than 9000 people killed and injured more than 23000)

Effects of the Earthquake:

Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and infrastructure, especially

bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers, pipelines, electrical generating facilities.
Aftershocks of an earthquake can cause much greater damage to already weakened structures.
Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may block water ways and also
cause flooding. Damage may occur to facilities using or manufacturing dangerous materials
resulting in possible chemical spills. There may also be a breakdown of communication
facilities. The effect of an earthquake is diverse. There are large number of casualties because of
the poor engineering design of the buildings and close proximity of the people. About 95 percent
of the people who are killed or who are affected by the earthquake is because of the building
collapse.

The earthquake effects on ground:

1. Fissures
2. Settlement
3. Landslides
4. Liquefaction
5. Earth pressures

8 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

Effects on man-made structures:

1. Cracking
2. Sliding
3. Overturning
4. Buckling
5. Collapse

Effects on water:

1. Waves
2. Hydrodynamic pressure
3. Tsunamis (causing high sea waves)

Possible Chain effects:

1. Landslides : - Destruction of settlements - Temporary dams along the river and its failure
2. Dam Failure : Flood flow, Flooding of land Destruction of structures, Water
Contamination Causing water borne diseases and epidemics
3. Tsunamis : Devastation by high waves
4. Atomic power plant failure : Radiation hazard, Causing cancers and hormonal imbalances
in future generations
5. Fires: Conflagration , Life loss -Vegetation and wild life loss, - Property loss, natural and
physical environment affected and disruption of existing systems.
Physical Damage damage or loss of buildings and service structures. Fires, floods due to dam
failures, landslides could occur.

Casualties often high, near to the epicenter and in places where the population density is high
(say, multistoried buildings) and structures are not resistant to earthquake forces.

Public health multiple fracture injuries, moderately and severely injured is the most
widespread problem, breakdown in sanitary conditions and large number of casualties could lead
to epidemics.

Water supply severe problems due to failure of the water supply distribution network and
storage reservoirs. Fire hydrants supply lines if vulnerable could hamper fire service operations.

9 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

Transport network severely affected due to failure of roads and bridges, railway tracks, failure
of airport runways and related infrastructure.

Electricity and Communication all links affected. Transmission towers, transponders,

transformers collapse

Possible risk reduction measures:

1. Preventive Phase before Disaster include

i) Preparation of earthquake categories, epicentral & geologic-tectonic maps;

ii) Analysis of seismic risk and seismic zoning for general purposes;

iii) Development of anti-seismic codes of design and construction of various structures;

iv) Education & training of engineer and architects in earthquake engineering principles and use
of codes;

v) Promulgation of laws and bye-laws for providing earthquake resistance features in all new
construction according to codes;

vi) Development of methods for seismic strengthening of existing structures, particularly in the
structures considered critical for the community;

vii) Earthquake assurance for the buildings and structures to reduce the economic impact on
individuals; and

viii) Installation of seismological observations for monitoring seismic activity with a variety of
instruments capable of recording and locating all earthquakes bigger than a selected magnitude.

2. Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for
safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the buildings are constructed the
building plans have to be checked by the Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many
existing lifeline buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with
earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded by retrofitting
techniques. Follow Indian Standard Codes for construction of buildings (IS 1893-2002 Criteria

10 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

for earthquake resistant design of structures). Enforcement of the Byelaws including Land use
control and restriction on density and heights of buildings.

3. Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an effect of Soil type
on ground shaking essential requirements in a masonry building earthquake and preparedness
measures. It can be created through sensitization and training programmes for community,
architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries teachers and students.

4. Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per the building by
laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and engineering inputs need to be put together
to improve building design and construction practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed before
construction. Building structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on soft soil are more
likely to get damaged even if the magnitude of the earthquake is not strong. Similar problems
persist in the buildings constructed on the river banks which have alluvial soil.

5. Community based Earthquake Risk Management Project should be developed and

sustainable programmes launched. Retrofitting of schools and important buildings, purchase of
emergency response equipment and facilities, establishing proper insurance can be the
programmes under Earthquake Risk Management Project. A large number of local masons and
engineers will be trained in disaster resistant construction techniques. A large number of masons,
engineers and architects can get trained in this process.

11 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

 Figure 5. shows the seismic zones of India

As per the latest seismic zoning map of India the country is divided into four Seismic
Zones as shown in fig.5. Zone V marked in red shows the area of Very High Risk Zone, Zone IV
marked in orange shows the area of High Risk Zone. Zone III marked in yellow shows the
region of Moderate Risk Zone and Zone II marked in blue shows the region of Low risk Zone.
Zone V is the most vulnerable to earthquakes, where historically some of the country's most
powerful shock has occurred. Geographically this zone includes the Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, all of North-Eastern India, parts of north-western Bihar, eastern sections of Uttaranchal,
the Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh, near the Srinagar area in Jammu & Kashmir and the
Rann of Kutchh in Gujarat. Earthquakes with magnitudes in excess of 7.0 have occurred in these
areas, and have had intensities higher than IX. Much of India lies in Zone III, where a maximum
intensity of VII can be expected. New Delhi lies in Zone IV whereas Mumbai and Chennai lie in
Zone III. All states and UTs across the country have experienced earthquakes.

12 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur

13 Sagar.K Asst.Prof Civil Engineering Dept. BVRIT, Narsapur