Hall Ticket Number:

IV/IV B.Tech (Regular/Supplementary) DEGREE EXAMINATION

APRIL, 2017 Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Eighth Semester FACTS Controllers
Time: Three Hours Maximum : 60 Marks
Answer Question No.1 compulsorily. (1X12 = 12 Marks)
Answer ONE question from each unit. (4X12=48 Marks)

1. Answer all questions (1X12=12 Marks)

a)What are the objectives of FACTS?

b) What are various categories of FACTS controllers?
c) Define the term FACTS.
d) What is the necessity of compensation?
e)Write the application of SVC.
f) Draw VI characteristics of STATCOM.
g)What are the different modes of operation of TCSC?
h) state objectives of series compensation?
i)What is the need of phase angle regulators?
j) What is UPFC?
k) Differentiate between UPFC and IPFC
l) Give the importance of reactive power.

UNIT I
2. Explain basic types of FACTS controllers and Explain relative importance of different types
of controllers.

(OR)

3.a) Explain the need of transmission inter connection in power systems.

b) Explain the transformer connection of 12-pulse converter.

 UNIT II
4.a) Discuss various types of static var genarators

b)Explain with help of a block diagram representation ,how the STATCOM is implemented for
the transient stability enhancement during a disturbance.

(OR)

5.a)Explain the working of TSC with relevant wave forms.

b) Explain the functional control scheme for the FC-TCR.

UNIT III

6.a) Explain in detail,the basic operating control scheme of TSSC.

b) Discuss the functional system control scheme for the SSSC.

(OR)

7.Explain in detail, the basic operating control scheme of TCVR and TCPAR.

UNIT IV

8.State the salient features of UPFC and explain the operation with a neat sketch.

(OR)

9. a) Explain in detail,the basic operating control scheme of IPFC.

b) Give the comparison of UPFC with other FACTS devices.
 SCHEME OF EVALUTAION for EE-424

Answer all questions (121=12M)

a)What are the objectives of FACTS?

Ans. Flexible Alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronic-based and
other static controllers that provide control of one or more AC transmission system parameters.

b) What are various categories of FACTS controllers?

Ans. SVC ( TCR ,TSC ,FC-TCR,TSC-TCR) STATCOM

GCSC,TCSC,TSSC,SSSC, TCVR,TCPAR ,UPFC,IPFC

c) Define the term FACTS.

Ans. Flexible Alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronic-based and
other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability of
system.

d) What is the necessity of compensation?

Ans. The lack of reactive power can cause voltage collapse in a system. It is therefore important
to supply(or) absorb excess reactive power to and from the network. To increases transmission
capacity, improve system stability, control voltage regulation.

e)Write the application of SVC.

Ans. 1. It increased the power transmission capability of the transmission lines.

2.It improved the transient stability of the system.

3.It controlled the steady state and temporary over voltages.

4.It improved the load power factor, and therefore, reduced line losses and improved
system capability.
f) Draw VI characteristics of STATCOM.

Ans.

g)What are the different modes of operation of TCSC?

Ans. 1.By passed thyristor mode.

2.Blocked thyristor mode.

3.Partial conducting thyristor mode.

h) state objectives of series compensation?

Ans. The objective of series compensation attainable maximal power transmission, steady-state
power transmission limit, transient stability, voltage stability and power oscillation damping.

i)What is the need of phase angle regulators?

Ans. When power between two buses is transmitted over parallel lines of different electrical
length or when two buses are inserted whose prevailing angle difference is insufficient to
establish the desired power flow. In these cases a Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) is frequently
applied.
j) What is UPFC?

Ans. : A combination of static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and a static series

compensator (SSSC) which are coupled via a common dc link, to allow bidirectional flow of real
power between the series output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output terminals of the
STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent real and reactive series line compensation
without an external electric energy source.

k) Differentiate between UPFC and IPFC

Ans. UPFC:It can control individually or in combination of all three transmission

parameters(voltage ,impedance ,phase angle). Directly can control the real and reactive power
flow in the line.

IPFC: IPFC is able to transfer real power between lines. To provide series reactive
compensation

l) Give the importance of reactive power.

Ans. Electric generators supply reactive power (in addition to active power) that is consumed by
customer load. Synchronous generators, SVC and various types of other Distributed energy
resource (DER) equipment are used to maintain voltages throughout the transmission system.

UNIT I

2. Explain basic types of FACTS controllers and Explain relative importance of different
types of controllers.

Basic types of facts controllers -8M

Relative importance of different types of controllers-4M

Ans. In general, FACTS Controllers can be divided into four categories

1.Series Controllers

2.Shunt Controllers

3.Combined series-series Controllers

4.Combined series-shunt Controllers

Figure 1(a) shows the general symbol for a FACTS Controller: a thyristor arrow inside a box.
1.Series Controllers:

Figure 1(b) The series Controller could be a variable impedance, such as capacitor, reactor, etc.,
or a power electronics based variable source of main frequency, subsynchronous and harmonic
frequencies (or a combination) to serve the desired need. In principle, all series Controllers inject
voltage in series with the line. Even a variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through
it, represents an injected series voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature
with the line current, the series Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power.
Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

2. Shunt Controllers:

Figure 1(c) As in the case of series Controllers, the shunt Controllers may be variable
impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt Controllers inject
current into the system at the point of connection. Even a variable shunt impedance connected to
the line voltage causes a variable current flow and hence represents injection of current into the
line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt
Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will
involve handling of real power as well.

3. Combined series-series Controllers:

Figure 1(d) This could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are controlled in a
coordinated manner, in a multiline transmission system. Or it could be a unified Controller,
Figure 1.4(d), in which series Controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for
each line but also transfer real power among the lines via the power tint. fne real power transfer
capability of the unified series-series Controller, referred to as Interline Power Flow Controller,
makes it possible to balance both the real and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby
maximize the utilization of the transmission system. Note that the term "unified" here means that
the dc terminals of all Controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer.

4.Combined series-shunt Controllers:

Figures 1(e) and 1(f) This could be a combination of separate shunt and series Controllers, which
are controlled in a coordinated manner Figure 1(e), or a Unified Power FIow Contoller with
series and shunt elements Figure 1(f). In principle, combined shunt and series Controllers inject
current into the system with the shunt part of the Controller and voltage in series in the line with
the series part of the Controller. However, when the shunt and series Controllers are unified,
there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt Controllers via the power link.
Figure (1) Basic types of FACTS controllers: (a) general symbol for FACTS controller; (b) series
Controller; (c) shunt Controller; (d) unified series-series Controller; (e) coordinated series and
shunt Controller; (f) unified series-shunt Controller

Relative importance of different types of controllers:

The series-connected Controller impacts the driving voltage, current and power flow
directly.

The application is to control the current,power flow and damp oscillations.

The series Controller for a given MVA size is several times more powerful than the shunt
Controller.
 The shunt Controller is like a current source, which draws from or injects current into the
line.

The shunt Controller is to control voltage at and around the point of connection through
injection of reactive current (leading or lagging), alone or a combination of active and
reactive current for a more effective voltage control and damping of voltage oscillations.

Combination of the series and shunt Controllers can provide the best of both, i.e., an
effective power,current flow and line voltage control.

Combination of series and shunt Controllers, the shunt Controller can be a single unit
serving in coordination with individual line Controllers.This arrangement can provide
additional benefits reactive power flow control with unified Controllers.

(OR)

3.a) Explain the need of transmission inter connection in power systems.

Explanation -6M

Ans.

We need these interconnections because, apart from delivery, the purpose of the
transmission network is to pool power plants and load centers in order to minimize the
total power generation capacity and fuel cost.

Transmission interconnections enable taking advantage of diversity of loads,

availability of sources, and fuel price in order to supply electricity to the loads at
minimum cost with a required reliability.

In general, if a power delivery system was made up of radial lines from individual
local generators without being part of a grid system, many more generation resources
would be needed to serve the load with the same reliability and the cost of electricity
would be much higher.

With that perspective, transmission is often an alternative to a new generation

resource. Less transmission capability means that more generation resources would be
required regardless of whether the system is made up of large or small power plants.

In fact small distributed generation becomes more economically viable if there is a

backbone of a transmission grid.

The cost of transmission lines and losses, as well as difficulties encountered in

building new transmission lines, would often limit the available transmission capacity.
 In a deregulated electric service environment, an effective electric grid is vital to the
competitive environment of reliable electric service.

On the other hand, as power transfers grow, the power system becomes increasingly
more complex to operate and the system can become less secure for riding through the
major outages. It may lead to large power flows with inadequate control, excessive
reactive power in various parts of the system, large dynamic swings between different
parts of the system and bottlenecks, and thus the full potential of transmission
interconnections cannot be utilized.

b) Explain the transformer connection of 12-pulse converter.

Diagram -3M

Explanation-3M

Ans. The two voltages were 30 degrees out of phase. If this phase shift is corrected, then for
the phase to neutral voltage, i.e., Van the harmonics, other than those of the order of.
12n+1,12n-1 would be in phase opposition to those of the phase-to-phase voltage Vab and with
1/3 times the amplitude. It follows then, as shown in Figure 2(a), that if the phase-to-phase
voltages of a second converter were connected to a delta-connected secondary of a second
transformer, with 3 times the turns compared to the wye-connected secondary, and the pulse
train of one converter was shifted by 30 degrees with respect to the other (in order to bring Vab
and Van to be in phase), the combined output voltage would have a 12-pulse waveform, with
harmonics of the order of l2n+1,12n-1 i.e., l1th, 13th, 23rd, 25th ..., and with amplitudes of
1/11th, 1/13th,1/23rd,1/25th..., respectively, compared to the fundamental. Figure 2(b) shows
the two waveforms Van and Vab, adjusted for the transformer ratio and one of them phase
displaced by 30 degrees. These two waveforms are then added to give the third waveform, which
is seen to be a 12-pulse waveform, closer to being a sine wave than each of the six-pulse
waveform.

In the arrangement of Figure 2(a), the two six-pulse converters, involving a total of six phase-
legs are connected in parallel on the same dc bus, and work together as a 12-pulse converter. It is
necessary to have two separate transformers.

Otherwise phase shift in the non-12-pulse harmonics, i.e.,5th,7th,17th,19th . . . in the secondaries

will result in a large circulating current due to common core flux. To the non-12-pulse voltage
harmonics, common core flux will represent a near short circuit. Also for the same reason, the
two primary side windings should not be directly connected in parallel to the same three-phase
ac busbars on the primary side. Again this is because the non-12-pulse voltage harmonics, i.e.,
5th, 7th, 17th,19th . . ., while they cancel out looking into the ac system, would be in phase for
the closed loop. Consequently, a large current corresponding to these harmonics will also flow in
this loop, limited only by the impedance of the loop, which is essentially the leakage inductance
of the transformers.

The circulating current of each non-12-pulse harmonic is given by:

Ih /I1= 100/(XT * n2) percent

where, I1is the nominal fundamental current, n is the relevant harmonic number, and XT is the
per unit transformer impedance of each transformer at the fundamental frequency.

Figure.(2) Twelve-pulse voltage-sourced converter (a) 12-pulse converter with wye and delta
secondaries; (b) 12-pulse waveform from two six-pulse waveforms;
 UNIT II

4.a) Discuss various types of static var genarators

Diagram -2M

Explanation-4M

Ans A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted. to exchange
capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical
power system (typically bus voltage).

This is a general term for a thyristor-controlled or thyristor-switched reactor, and/or thyristor-

switched capacitor or combination . SVC is based on thyristors without the gate turn-off
capability. It includes separate equipment for leading and lagging vars; the thyristor-controlled or
thyristor-switched reactor for absorbing reactive power and thyristor-switched capacitor for
supplying the reactive power.

Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR): A shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled inductor whose

effective reactance is varied in a continuous manner by partial-conduction control of the thvristor
valve.

TCR is a subset of SVC in which conduction time and hence, current in a shunt reactor is
controlled by a thyristor-based ac switch with firing angle control in Figure 3(a).

Figure .3 (a) &(b) TCR ,TSR Figure.3(c)

Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR); A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched inductor whose

effective reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation of the
thvristor valve.

TSR as shown in Figure 3(b) is another a subset of SVC. TSR is made up of several shunt
connected inductors which are switched in and out by thyristor switches without any firing angle
controls in order to achieve the required step changes in the reactive power consumed from the
system. Use of thyristor switches without firing angle control results in lower cost and losses. but
without a continuous control

Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC): A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor whose

effective reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation of the
thyristor valve.

TSC as shown in Figure 3(c) is also a subset of SVC in which thyristor based ac switches are
used to switch in and out (without firing angle control) shunt capacitors units, in order to achieve
the required step change in the reactive power supplied to the system. Unlike shunt reactors,
shunt capacitors cannot be switched continuously with variable firing angle control.

b)Explain with help of a block diagram representation ,how the STATCOM is

implemented for the transient stability enhancement during a disturbance.

Diagram-3M

Explanation -3M

Ans. Specifically, the regulation of the voltage at particular intermediate points and selected load
terminals of the transmission system, limits voltage variation, prevents voltage instability
(voltage collapse), and increases transient (first swing) stability limits, whereas appropriate
variation of the terminal voltage can further enhance transient stability and provide effective
power oscillation damping (dynamic stability). In order to meet the general compensation
requirements of the power system, the output of the static var generator is to be controlled to
maintain or vary the voltage at the point of connection to the transmission system. A general
control scheme, converting a static var generator (either a controlled impedance type or a
converter based type) into a transmission line compensator, is shown in Figure 4(a) .

The power system, at the terminal of the compensator, is represented by a generator with a
generally varying rotor angle internal voltage v, and source impedance Z (including the
generator and transmission line impedance) that is a function of the angular frequency or and
time t (The impedance variation in time is due to faults, line switching, etc.) The terminal voltage
VT of the power system can be characterized by a generally varying amplitude VT and angular
frequency .

The output of the static var generator is controlled so that the amplitude Io, of the reactive
current i, drawn from the power system follows the current reference Iref. With the basic static
compensator control, the var generator is operated as a perfect terminal voltage regulator: the
amplitude VT of the terminal voltage VT is measured and compared with the voltage reference
Vref ; the error VT is processed and amplified by a PI (proportional integral) controller to
provide the current reference Iqref for the var generator. In other words, Io, is closed-loop
controlled via Iqref so that VT is maintained precisely at the level of the reference voltage Vref
in face of power system and load changes.

If the proper compensation of the ac power system requires some specific variation in the
amplitude of the terminal voltage with time or some other variable, then an appropriate
correcting signal Vrc derived from the auxiliary inputs, is summed to the fixed reference Vref
in order to obtain the desired effective (variable) reference signal Vref* that closed-loop controls
the terminal voltage VT. In the following sections, some practical auxiliary control loops and the
corresponding characteristics of the static compensator are described

Figure 4(a).General control scheme of a static var generator.

Figure 4(b).Implementation of the transient stability enhancement concept by increasing the
reference voltage during the first swing of a major disturbance.

The implementation of the transient stability enhancement in the basic control scheme shown in
Figure 4(a) can be accomplished simply by summing a signal V to the fixed voltage reference
signal Vref as illustrated in Figure 4(b) The signal V can be derived from the rate of change of
transmitted power, line current or system frequency, indicating the angular change of the
disturbed machine.

5.a)Explain the working of TSC with relevant wave forms.

Diagram-3M

Explanation -3M

Ans. A single-phase thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in Figure 5(a). It consists of a
capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a relatively small surge current limiting reactor.
This reactor is needed primarily to limit the surge current in the thyristor valve under abnormal
operating conditions (e.g., control malfunction causing capacitor switching at a "wrong time,"
when transient free switching conditions are not satisfied); it may also be used to avoid
resonances with the ac system impedance at particular frequencies.
Steady-state conditions,when the thyristor valve is closed and the TSC branch is connected to a
sinusoidal ac voltage source. v = Vsinwt the current in the branch is given by

Figure (5). Basic thyristor-switched capacitor (a) and associated waveforms (b).

The amplitude of the voltage across the capacitor is Vc,=Vn2/(n2-1).

The TSC branch can be disconnected ("switched out") at any current zero by prior removal of the
gate drive to the thyristor valve. At the current zero crossing, the capacitor voltage is at its peak
value,Vc,i=0=Vn2/(n2-1).The disconnected capacitor stays charged to this voltage and,
consequently, the voltage across the non conducting thyristor valve varies between zero and the
peak-to-peak value of the applied ac voltage, as illustrated in Figure 5.(b).
b) Explain the functional control scheme for the FC-TCR.

Diagram-3M

Explanation -3M

Ans. The control of the thyristor-controlled reactor in the FC-TCR type var generator needs to
provide four basic functions, as shown in Figure 6(a).

One functions synchronous timing. This function is usually provided by a phase locked loop
circuit that runs in synchronism with the ac system voltage and generates appropriate timing
pulses with respect to the peak of that voltage. (In a different approach, the ac voltage itself may
be used for timing. However, this seemingly simple approach presents difficult problems during
system faults and major disturbances when the voltage exhibits wild fluctuations and large
distortion.)

The second function is the reactive current (or admittance) to firing angle conversion. This can
be provided by a real time circuit implementation of the mathematical relationship between the
amplitude of the fundamental TCR current ILF() and the delay angle given by equation (1)
Several circuit approaches are possible. One is an analog function generator producing in each
half-cycle a scaled electrical signal that represents the ILF() versus relationship.
Figure 6.Functional control scheme for the FC-TCR type static var generator (a), and
associated waveforms illustrating the basic operating principles (b).

The third function is the computation of the required fundamental reactor current IFL, from the
requested total output current IQ(sum of the fixed capacitor and the TCR currents) defined by the
amplitude reference input IQRef to the var generator control. This is simply done by subtracting
the (scaled) amplitude of the capacitor current, Ic from IQRef (Positive polarity for IQRef means
inductive output current, and negative polarity means capacitive output current.)

The fourth function is the thyristor firing pulse generation. This is accomplished by the firing
pulse generator (or gate drive) circuit which produces the necessary gate current pulse for the
thyristors to turn on in response to the output signal provided by the reactive current to firing
angle converter. The gate drive circuits are sometimes at ground potential with magnetic
coupling to the thyristor gates; more often, however, they are at the (high) potential level of the
thyristors. In the latter case, in order to provide sufficient insulation between the ground level
control and the gate drive circuits, the gating information is usually transmitted via optical fibers
("light pipes"). The operation of the FC-TCR type var generator is illustrated by the waveforms
in Figure 6.(b).
 UNIT III

6.a) Explain in detail,the basic operating control scheme of TSSC.

Diagram-3M

Explanation -3M

Ans. The basic circuit arrangement of the thyristor-switched series capacitor is shown in
Figure(7). It consists of a number of capacitors, each shunted by an appropriately rated bypass
valve composed of a string of reverse parallel connected thyristors, in series but its operation is
different due to the imposed switching restrictions of the conventional thyristor valve.

Figure(7).Basic Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor scheme.

The operating principle of the TSSC is straightforward: the degree of series compensation is
controlled in a step-like manner by increasing or decreasing the number of series capacitors
inserted. A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and it is bypassed by turning on the
corresponding thyristor valve.

A thyristor valve commutates "naturally," that is, it turns off when the current crosses zero. Thus
a capacitor can be inserted into the line by the thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of the
line current. Since the insertion takes place at line current zero,a full half-cycle of the line current
will charge the capacitor from zero to maximum and the successive, opposite polarity half-cycle
of the line current will discharge it from this maximum to zero, as illustrated in Figure 8. As can
be seen, the capacitor insertion at line current zero, necessitated by the switching limitation of
the thyristor valve, results in a dc offset voltage which is equal to the amplitude of the ac
capacitor voltage. In order to minimize the initial surge current in the valve, and the
corresponding circuit transient, the thyristor valve should be turned on for bypass only when the
capacitor voltage is zero. With the prevailing dc offset, this requirement can cause a delay of up
to one full cycle, which would set the theoretical limit for the attainable response time of the
TSSC.

The TSSC can control the degree of series compensation by either inserting or bypassing series
capacitors but it cannot change the natural characteristic of the classical series capacitor
compensated line. This means that a sufficiently high degree of TSSC compensation could cause
sub synchronous resonance just as well as an ordinary capacitor. In principle, the TSSC
switching could be modulated to counteract sub synchronous oscillations. However, considering
the relatively long switching delays encountered, the modulation is likely to be ineffective, if not
counterproductive, except for the very low end of the sub synchronous frequency band.
Therefore, the pure TSSC scheme of Figure 7. would not be used in critical applications where a
high degree of compensation is required and the danger of sub synchronous resonance is present.
Nevertheless, the TSSC could be applied for power flow control and for damping power
oscillation where the required speed of response is moderate.

Figure (8). Illustration of capacitor offset voltage inserting at zero line current.

b) Discuss the functional system control scheme for the SSSC.

Diagram-3M

Explanation -3M

Ans. A possible structure of the external control is illustrated in Figure 9. The main power flow
control is executed by a (slow) closed loop, which is operated from one of the selectable
references, XqRef or VqRef or I Ref or P Ref The corresponding network variable (Xq, or Vq, or I,
or P) is derived by the voltage and current processor and compared to the selected reference. The
amplified error at the output of the PI controller provides the reference, Xq, or Vq, for the
internal control.

The auxiliary control signals to improve transient and dynamic stability, and to damp
subsynchronous oscillations, are derived from the relevant system variables. such as system
frequency variation, power flow variation, or, for subsynchronous oscillation damping, from
torsional speed variation, when available, or synthesized from locally measurable voltages and
currents, by the power oscillation damping, transient stability enhancement and subsynchronous
oscillation damping auxiliary control circuits and fed directly, as references, to the internal
control. These auxiliary control circuits may also control or inhibit the operation of the main
power flow regulation loop in order to avoid contradictory reference requirements and maintain
an operational set point appropriate under the particular system contingency.
 Figure 9. Functional external (system) control scheme for the SSSC.

(OR)

7.Explain in detail, the basic operating control scheme of TCVR and TCPAR.

Diagram-6M

Explanation -6M

Ans. There are two main reasons for the application of Thyristor-Controlled Voltage and Phase
Angle Regulators instead of mechanical on-load tap changers: One is the elimination of the
expensive regular maintenance and the other is to provide the high speed of response necessary
for dynamic system control.

TCVR: This arrangement can give continuous voltage magnitude control by initiating the onset
of thyristor valve conduction. Consider Figure 10.and assume that a resistive load is connected to
the output terminals of the thyristor tap changer. This load of course could be the line current in
phase with the terminal voltage. The two voltages obtainable at the upper and lower taps, V2 and
V1, respectively, are shown in Figure 10(a). The gating of the thyristor valves is controlled by
the delay angle a with respect to the voltage zero crossing of these voltages. For example, Figure
10(b) shows that at = 0, at which, in the present case of a resistive load, the current crosses zero
and thus the previously conducting valve turns off, valve ,Sw1 turns on to switch the load to the
lower tap. At =1, valve sw2 is gated on, which commutates the current from the conducting
thyristor valve sw1 by forcing a negative anode to cathode voltage across it and connecting the
output to the upper tap with voltage V2. valve sw2 continues conducting until the next current
zero is reached (in the present case, the next current zero coincides with the voltage zero
crossing, = 0), where upon the previous gating sequence continues, as shown by the load
voltage waveform in Figure 10(b).Inspection of this waveform indicates that, by delaying the
turn-on of sw2 from zero to , any output voltage between V2 and V1 can be attained.

Figure 10.Output voltage waveform of the delay angle controlled thyristor tap changer supplying
a resistive load.

Fourier analysis of the output voltage waveform for an idealized continuously controlled
thyristor tap changer, operating between voltages V1 and V2 with resistive load and delay angle
with respect to zero crossing of the voltage, can be easily carried out, yielding the following
expressions for the fundamental component
Figure 11.Variation of the amplitude and phase-angle of the fundamental output voltage
obtained with a delay angle controlled thyristor tap changer supplying a resistive load.

UNIT IV

8.State the salient features of UPFC and explain the operation with a neat sketch.

Features -4M

Diagram-4M

Explanation -4M

Ans. Salient features of UPFC:

1)UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or selectively, all the parameters affecting power
flow in the transmission line (i.e., voltage, impedance, and phase angle), and this unique
capability is signified by the adjective "unified" in its name.

2) UPFC was devised for the real-time control and dynamic compensation of ac
transmission systems, providing multifunctional flexibility required to solve many of the
problems facing the power delivery industry.
3) UPFC can independently control both the real and reactive power flow in the line.
4) The control of real power is associated with similar change in reactive power, i.e.,
increased real power flow also resulted in increased reactive line power.
 Operation of UPFC:
UPFC consists of two voltage sourced converters, as shown in Figure 12.These back-to-back
converters, labeled "Converter 1" and "Converter 2" in the figure, are operated from a common
dc link provided by a dc storage capacitor. this arrangement functions as an ideal ac-to-ac power
converter in which the real power can freely flow in either direction between the ac terminals of
the two converters, and each converter can independently generate (or absorb) reactive power at
its own ac output terminal.
Converter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting a voltage Vpq with controllable
magnitude Vpq and phase angle in series with the line via an insertion transformer. This
injected voltage acts essentially as a synchronous ac voltage source.
The transmission line current flows through this voltage source resulting in reactive and real
power exchange between it and the ac system. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal
(i.e., at the terminal of the series insertion transformer) is generated internally by the converter.
The real power exchanged at the ac terminal is converted into dc power which appears at the dc
link as a positive or negative real power demand.
The basic function of Converter 1 is to supply or absorb the real power demanded by Converter 2
at the common dc link to support the real power exchange resulting from the series voltage
injection. This dc link power demand of Converter 2 is converted back to ac by Converter 1 and
coupled to the transmission line bus via a shunt connected transformer. In addition to the real
power need of Converter 2, Converter 1 can also generate or absorb controllable reactive power,
if it is desired, and thereby provide independent shunt reactive compensation for the line. It is
important to note that whereas there is a closed direct path for the real power negotiated by the
action of series voltage injection through Converters 1 and 2 back to the line, the corresponding
reactive power exchanged is supplied or absorbed locally by Converter 2 and therefore does not
have to be transmitted by the line. Thus, Converter 1 can be operated at a unity power factor or
be controlled to have a reactive power exchange with the line independent of the reactive power
exchanged by Converter 2. Obviously, there can be no reactive power flow through the UPFC dc
link.
Figure 12.Implementation of the UPFC by two back-to-back voltage-sourced converters.

(OR)
9. a) Explain in detail,the basic operating control scheme of IPFC.
Diagram-3M

Explanation -3M

Ans.

Figure 13. Interline Power Flow Controller comprising n converters.

 Interline Power Flow Controller employs a number of dc-to-ac converters each providing series
compensation for a different line. In other words, the IPFC comprises a number of Static
Synchronous Series Compensators. However, within the general concept of the IPFC, the
compensating converters are linked together at their dc terminals, as illustrated in Figure 13.
With this scheme, in addition to providing series reactive compensation, any converter can be
controlled to supply real power to the common dc link from its own transmission line. Thus, an
overall surplus power can be made available from the underutilized lines which then can be used
by other lines for real power compensation. In this way, some of the converters, compensating
overloaded lines or lines with a heavy burden of reactive power flow, can be equipped with full
two-dimensional, reactive and real power control capability, similar to that offered by the UPFC.
Evidently, this arrangement mandates the rigorous maintenance of the overall power balance at
the common dc terminal by appropriate control action, using the general principle that the under
loaded lines are to provide help, in the form of appropriate real power transfer, for the
overloaded lines.

b) Give the comparison of UPFC with other FACTS devices.

Comparison -6M
Ans. UPFC with series controller
1.UPFC has superior power flow control characteristics compared to the TSSC
,GCSC,TCSC,and SSSC.
2.UPFC can control independently both real and reactive power .
3.UPFC can control both real and reactive power flow in either direction at zero (or at small )
transmission angle.
4.UPFC can control individually or in combination all three effective transmission
parameters(voltage, impedance and angle)
5. IPFC is able to transfer real power between lines.
6. IPFC can facilitate a comprehensive overall real and reactive power management for a
multiline transmission system.