Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Establishing communication with oil and gas zones involves more than shooting
Modern perforating is inseparable from other the mid-1980s, conveyance choices were expand-
holes in steel casing by choosing guns and conveyance methods from a service
services that improve well productivity, such as ing. Since that time, tubing-conveyed perforating
catalog. Perforating based on average formation properties and shaped-charge fracturing, acidizing and sand control or preven- (TCP) grew from limited use in a small niche mar-
tion.2 In addition to being conduits for oil and gas ket to an essential element of many well comple-
performance is being replaced by a more tailored approach. Perforation design is
inflow, perforations provide uniform points of tions and an important perforating tool.4
now an integral, often customized, element of completion planning that addresses injection for water, gas, acid, proppant-laden In addition to coiled tubing, slickline and
gels for hydraulic fracture stimulations and fluids snubbing units, systems are now available to run
reservoir conditions, formation characteristics and specific well requirements.
that place gravel to control sand in weak or long gun strings in live wells under pressure.
unconsolidated formations.3 In other sand-man- These perforating and conveyance systems also
agement applications, perforating provides the perform other functions that fulfill completion
required number, orientation and size of stable needs of varying complexity, such as releasing
holes to prevent sand production. and dropping guns, setting packers and opening
Larry Behrmann Perforated completions play a crucial role in hydro- Among the many advances in perforating Conveyance methods have also kept pace or closing valves. In the future, charges may be
James E. Brooks carbon production. From well testing for reservoir technology are new deep-penetrating charges that with perforating technology and practices. In incorporated in and run directly with completion
Simon Farrant evaluation to completion and remedial interven- increase well productivity by shooting beyond the late 1970s and early 1980s, perforating equipment during well construction.
Alfredo Fayard tion, perforating is a key to successful exploration, invasion, and big-hole charges for gravel packing. strategies were limited to smaller This article reviews key aspects of perforat-
Adi Venkitaraman economic oil and gas production, long-term well Increased performance per unit of explosive through-tubing or larger casing guns ing, including basic physics, new charges and
Rosharon, Texas, USA
productivity and efficient hydrocarbon recovery. makes these high-performance charges more conveyed primarily by wireline. manufacturing, perforation damage mitigation,
The perforating process instantaneously generates efficient. In the past two years, improved charges Charges for each gun size and optimized perforation parameters, perforating
Andrew Brown
Charlie Michel holesperforationsin steel casing, surrounding have yielded penetration depths and flow areas type were designed for practices for natural, stimulated or sand-man-
Alwyn Noordermeer cement and the formation (next page). that are many times greater than those achieved either maximum hole agement completions, safety and conveyance
BP Amoco Both well productivity and injectivity depend using prior technology. Other developments con- size or deep pen- methods. We also discuss the reasons for con-
Sunbury on Thames, England primarily on near-wellbore pressure drop, com- trol debris, especially in high-angle or horizontal etration. By sidering specific formation, well and comple-
monly referred to as skin, which is a function of wells, by reducing debris size or retaining debris tion requirements when selecting perforating
Phil Smith completion type, formation damage and perfora- inside charge carriersguns. techniques. Examples show how perforation
BP Amoco tion parameters. In the past, perforations often Perforating is the only way to establish con- designs customized for specific reservoir and
Houston, Texas were characterized simply as holes in steel casing ductive tunnels that link oil and gas reservoirs to perforation interactions can maximize
made by mechanical cutters (before 1932), shoot- steel-cased wellbores which lead to surface. well performance.
David Underdown
ing bullets (since 1932), pumping abrasives (since However, perforating also damages formation
>
Chevron Production & Technology Company Modern perforating. Controlled
1958) or more commonly, by detonating special permeability around perforation tunnels. This detonation of specially designed
Houston, Texas
shaped-charge explosives made specifically for damage and perforation parametersformation and manufactured explosive
oilfield perforators (since 1948).1 Far from simple, penetration, hole size, number of shots and the shaped-charges creates path-
ways from well to formation
perforating is a complex element of well comple- angle between holeshave a significant impact through steel casing, cement and
tions brought into better focus by contemporary on pressure drop near a well and, therefore, on reservoir rock so fluids can flow
research and an understanding of basic principles. production. Optimizing these parameters and or be lifted to surface.
Deviation from symmetry reduces shaped- mitigating induced damage are important
charged performance. In terms of penetration aspects of perforating. Ongoing research con-
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jim
and hole size, optimized designs and precision firms that underbalancea wellbore pressure 1. Behrmann L, Huber K, McDonald B, Cout B, Dees J,
Almaguer, Bobby Carroll, John Corben, Janet Denney, manufacturing are improving shaped charges. before perforating that is less than the formation Folse R, Handren P, Schmidt J and Snider P:
Brenden Grove, Brad Hoffman, Manish Kothari, Jason Mai, Quo Vadis, Extreme Overbalance? Oilfield Review 8,
Sam Musachia, Bob Parrott, Mark Vella, Ian Walton and
Strict quality-control and aggressive quality- pressureis essential to partially or, in some no. 3 (Autumn 1996): 18-33.
Wenbo Yang, Rosharon, Texas, USA; and Andy Martin, assurance further ensure charge reliability. As a cases, completely remove damage and debris 2. Martin A: Choosing The Right Gun, Petroleum Engineer
Aberdeen, Scotland.
result, perforating test results are more consis- from perforations. International 71, no. 10 (October 1998): 59-72.
Bigshot, CIRP (Completion Insertion and Removal under 3. Naturally occurring or resin-coated sand and high-
Pressure equipment), CleanSHOT, Enerjet, FIV (Formation tent and translatable to downhole conditions for strength bauxite or ceramic synthetics, sized by screen-
Isolation Valve), GunStack, HSD (High Shot Density gun performance projections and productivity esti- ing according to standard U.S. mesh sieves, are used
system), HyperJet, IRIS (Intelligent Remote Implementation as proppants.
System), NODAL, PERFPAC, Pivot Gun, PowerFlow, mates.
Gravel consists of extremely clean, round and carefully
PowerJet, QUANTUM, S.A.F.E. (Slapper-Actuated Firing
sized sand that is small enough to act as a filter and
Equipment), Secure, SPAN (Schlumberger Perforating
prevent production of formation particles, but large
Analysis), UltraJet, UltraPack and X-Tools are marks of
enough to be held in place across productive intervals
Schlumberger.
by a slotted-screen assembly.
4. Cosad C: Choosing a Perforation Strategy,
Oilfield Review 4, no. 4 (October 1992): 54-69.
70 microseconds
> A fraction of a second. In a process that lasts microseconds, millions of dollars and months, if not
years, of preparation culminate when perforating clears a tunnel for hydrocarbons to flow into a well.
Shaped charges, with a capability to instantaneously release energy in an explosive, use a cavity
effect and metal liner to maximize penetration (lower left). Shaped charges consist of four basic
componentsprimer, main explosive, conical liner and case (top left). An explosive wave travels down
the detonating cord, initiating the primer and detonating the main explosive. A detonation advances
spherically, reaching pressures of 7.5 million psi [50 Gpa] before arriving at the liner apex. The charge
case expands and the liner collapses to form a high-velocity jet of fluidized metal particles that is pro-
pelled along the charge axis (right).
54 Oilfield Review
Deep penetrationDrilling and completion
fluid invasion can range from several inches to a
few feet. When formation damage is severe and
1.15 perforations do not extend beyond the invaded
PowerJet charges zone, pressure drop, or skin, is high and produc-
UltraJet charges tivity is reduced.5 Perforations that reach beyond
Productivity ratio, perforated completion
Spring 2000 55
To improve production, a three-phase approach pressure of 2000 psi [13.8 MPa] and gas rates not fall to bottom in deviated wells or may reach
was used. Drilling fluids were reformulated to above 2 million m3/day [70.6 million scf/D]. After the surface and damage production equipment.
reduce invasion and damage, the number of per- reperforating, sand-free gas rates of 2.5 million Two strategies are used to control debris.
forations was doubled and custom charges were m3/day at a surface pressure of 2700 psi [18.6 The conventional approach uses zinc cases
designed to increase penetration. The first MPa] were achieved. Efficiency is important not that break up into small particles which are acid
redesign changed only the liner geometry, which only for producing wells, but also for injectors. soluble or can be circulated out. A possible short-
increased penetration from 12.6 to 14 in. [32 to Gas injectivity was improved nine fold, from 17.6 coming of zinc is formation damage.9 Laboratory
36 cm]. However, this was short of the 16-in. to 159 million scf/D [500,000 to 4.5 million m3/d] tests indicate that chloride-rich fluids and gas
[40-cm] objective. Penetration was then by reperforating an injection well in the North percolating into an idle well may combine to pre-
increased to 15.9 in. by optimizing the explosive Sea Norwegian sector with PowerJet charges. cipitate a solid from zinc debris that can stick
pellet design. In field trials, custom charges Big holes, less debris and optimized casing guns. Another disadvantage is additional gun
improved production and injection performance. strengthProprietary liner geometry is also the shocks from energy released when zinc is par-
In one case, a gas-injector perforated at four basis of PowerFlow slug-free big-hole shaped tially consumed during charge detonation.
holes per foot using optimized charges outper- charges, which generate large holes without a Because of these disadvantages, operators are
formed other injectors with 12 holes per foot solid-metal slug (below). A large flow area moving away from charges with zinc cases that
made by conventional charges. improves gravel placement for sand control and produce small debris. The Schlumberger patented
In Australia, production from two wells with reduces turbulent pressure-drop restrictions in packing method, which causes steel cases to frag-
7-in. casing that were reperforated using 21 8-in. high-rate wells, especially gas producers. In a ment into large pieces that remain in the carrier, is
through-tubing guns with PowerJet charges unique packing arrangement patented by becoming the preferred option (next page, top).
increased from 300 to 780 BOPD [48 to 124 m3/d] Schlumberger, PowerFlow shaped charges provide Recent guns with increased AOF, optimized
and 470 to 1550 BOPD [75 to 246 m3/d]. In the largest area open to flow available, highest perforated casing strength and reduced debris
another example, an operator in Europe reperfo- remaining casing strength and reduced debris.8 are examples of customized solutions for perfo-
rated wells with PowerJet charges to improve A hazard to well integrity and production, per- rating high flow-rate and gravel-packed wells. In
productivity and reduce sand production. Prior to forating debris should be minimized. Gun and 1998, Conoco requested a larger AOF than was
reperforating, more than 20 liters [2.7 gal] of shaped-charge debris increase the risk of stuck currently available from any commercial guns for
sand were produced each day at a wellhead pipe, collect at the bottom of vertical wells, may projects around the world that require high pro-
duction rates to ensure commercial viability.
To address this need, Schlumberger developed a
7-in. PowerFlow gun for 95 8-in. casing that pro-
duces a 47% greater casing AOF than previous
Solid metal slug
big-hole guns and 31% more than that of the
nearest competitor.
By ensuring adequate casing strength after
perforating, the newest PowerFlow guns also
address an increasingly important aspect of
completion designformation compaction as
reservoir pressure depletes that can collapse
casing. Finite-element calculations for 95 8-in.
casing perforated with the above record-
breaking AOF 7-in. gun indicate that casing
collapse strength is 78% of the original value for
casing that is not perforated.
Fluidized particles
8. Brooks JE, Lands JF, Lendermon GM, Lopez de Cardenas
JE and Parrott RA: Perforating Gun Including a Unique
High Shot Density Packing Arrangement, U.S. Patent
No. 5,673,760 (October 7, 1997).
On October 8, 1999, a 7-in. gun loaded with PowerFlow
charges at 18 shots per foot created 1.14-in. [2.89-cm]
diameter holes and a world record 18.5 in.2/ft [391.6
cm2/m] of casing area open to flow.
9. Javora PH, Ali SA and Miller M: Controlled Debris
Perforating Systems: Prevention of an Unexpected
Source of Formation Damage, paper SPE 58758,
> Big holes. Previously, solid liners that generated residual slugs were presented at the SPE International Symposium on
used to produce big holes. Perforation plugging was believed to be offset Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
by large-diameter holes and high formation permeability. Technology that February 23-24, 2000.
eliminates solid slugs, or carrots, and maximizes hole size, or flow area, has 10. Behrmann LA, Pucknell JK, Bishop SR and Hsia T-Y:
Measurement of Additional Skin Resulting From
revised this approach. Proprietary liners are the basis of these PowerFlow
Perforation Damage, paper SPE 22809, presented at the
charges. X-ray photography shows perforating jet formation in UltraPack 66th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
big-hole shaped charges (top) and PowerFlow (bottom) charges. The solid Dallas, Texas, USA, October 6-9, 1991.
slug from an UltraPack charge is conspicuous. The PowerFlow charge
generates only a fluidized jet of metal particles.
56 Oilfield Review
Damaged Permeability as was believed previously. In addition to explo-
An undesirable side effect of perforating is addi- sive by-products, another possible damage
tional damage in the form of a low-permeability mechanism is transient injection of well fluids
zone around perforations. Single-shot flow and that may cause relative permeability problems.
radial permeameter laboratory results confirmed In extremely hard rocks, microfractures cre-
and quantified this induced perforation skin.10 ated during perforating may serve as pathways
Perforating damage can consist of three ele- that are actually more permeable than the
mentsa crushed zone, migration of fine forma- formation and bypass perforation damage. With
tion particles and debris inside perforation 3000-psi [20.7-MPa] underbalance, negative
tunnels. Shock-wave pressures from the rock face skins equivalent to a stimulation treatment have
to perforation tips shatter adjacent rock and frac- been measured in some high-strength reservoir
ture matrix grains, which damages in-situ perme- and outcrop rock cores.14 Shock-induced damage,
ability primarily by reducing pore-throat size however, most often contributes to total skin,
(below). Migration of small particles from grain restricts well performance and may offset pro-
fragmentation, clay debonding and charge debris duction gains related to other perforation param-
that block pore throats and further reduce perme- eters such as number of shots, hole size, angle
ability also has been observed in the laboratory. between perforations and penetration.
Studies show that induced damage increases The crushed zone can limit both productivity
for larger explosive charges.11 The extent of per- and injectivity. Fines and debris restrict injectivity
foration damage is a function of lithology, rock and increase pump pressure, which decreases
strength, porosity, pore fluid compressibility, clay injection volumes and impairs placement or dis-
content, formation grain size and shaped-charge tribution of gravel and proppants for sand control
designs.12 Research in conjunction with numeri- or hydraulic fracture treatments.15 Erosion of the
cal modeling is providing a better understanding crushed zone as well as removal of debris from
of permeability damage in perforated wells that perforations by surge flow are essential to miti-
can be used to improve completion designs.13 gate perforating damage and ensure well suc-
Crushed-zone porosity is generally unaffected cess in all but the most prolific reservoirs.
by perforating. At least in saturated rocks, den-
sity and porosity around perforations are about
> Controlling debris. A patented packing the same as in the undamaged matrix. Although
arrangement decreases the risk of debris perforating changes rock stresses and mechani-
exiting the gun (top). Shaped charges are
placed in the closest possible arrangement cal properties, it does not compact the formation
for a particular gun size and shot density so
that they cannot expand. Tight confinement
causes cases to break into large pieces that
Casing
remain in the gun (bottom). Small carrier exit
holes also minimize the amount of debris that Cement
can escape.
Undamaged rock
Perforation tunnel
Spring 2000 57
Mitigating Perforation Damage
Casing Undamaged formation Balanced perforating
At one time, perforating was performed with mud
Cement Perforation debris
or high-density fluids in wellsbalanced or over-
balanced conditions. Today, underbalance is more
common to minimize or remove perforation dam-
age. Underbalanced, balanced, overbalanced and Formation Crushed and compacted
extreme overbalance (EOB) describe the pressure damage low-permeability zone
differential between a wellbore and reservoir
before perforating. An underbalance exists when Casing Undamaged formation
3000-psi underbalance perforating
pressure inside a well is less than the formation Cement
pressure. Balanced conditions occur when these
pressures are equal. An overbalance occurs when
well pressure is greater than reservoir pressure.
Extreme overbalance means that well pressure Formation Low-permeability zone and
damage perforation debris expelled
greatly exceeds rock strengthfracture initia- by surge of formation fluid
tion, or breakdown, pressure. Both EOB and frac-
> Underbalanced perforating. In an overbalanced or balanced perforation without cleanup and
turing attempt to bypass damage.16
before flow, the tunnel is plugged by shattered rock and debris (top). Production flow may remove
The potential of underbalance perforating some debris, but much of the low-permeability crushed zone remains. The initial surge flow gener-
was recognized in the 1960s. Wells perforated ated by using an adequate underbalance during perforating helps remove debris and erode the
with underbalance tended to show production crushed zone (bottom).
increases. In the 1970s and early 1980s,
researchers recognized that the flow efficiency of From these data, minimum and maximum crushed-zone damage. Instantaneous flow mini-
perforated completions increased when higher underbalance pressures based on potential sand mizes fluid invasion, loosens damaged rock and
underbalance pressures were used. They con- production were calculated from sonic velocities sweeps away rock debris in perforation tunnels
cluded that post-shot flow was responsible for for gas wells in 1989.19 The original Amoco study (above). The degree to which material is loosened
perforation cleanup and recommended general as well as new data were reanalyzed.20 To is primarily a function of underbalance pressure
underbalance criteria.17 Since then, various account for permeability, fluid viscosity and fluid differential. The high-velocity surge is followed by
aspects of perforating have been investigated density, equations for minimum underbalance pseudosteady-state flow, which is less effective
using field and laboratory data. These studies were based on fluid velocity and turbulent flow because rates and associated drag forces are less
consistently reinforce the advantages of an initial through perforations. The disadvantage was that than those generated during an initial transient
surge to erode perforation crushed zones and this model required knowledge of damage-zone surge. Fluid volume and flow that occur later are
flush out perforating debris. thickness, tunnel diameter in rock and fluid vis- believed to be secondary.
A 1985 Amoco study evaluated 90 wells that cosity. In addition, recent test results do not sup- The underbalance pressures required to effec-
were acidized after being perforated with tubing- port the viscosity dependence of underbalance. tively clean perforations and reduce permeability
conveyed guns in underbalance conditions and These models imply that flow after early-tran- damage have been measured in single-shot perfo-
correlated productivity with permeability to sient surge, including pseudosteady-state flow or rate and flow tests that provide a basic understand-
establish minimum underbalance criteria.18 surging wells after perforating, is less critical for ing of damage mitigation.22 Immediately after
Results did not suggest that there was no perfo- perforation cleanup. However, post-shot flow may perforating in underbalanced conditions, there is
ration damage, only that acid was not needed or sweep some fines into the well and further clean instant decompression of reservoir fluids around a
as effective if underbalance was sufficient. This up perforations.21 In some cases, this accounts for perforation. The dynamic forcespressure differ-
study was the main source of field data for limited sand production when wells come on line. ential and dragthat mitigate permeability dam-
correlating underbalance with reservoir perme- Magnitude and duration of an initial pressure age by eroding and removing fractured formation
ability and perforation performance. surge are believed to dominate cleanup of grains from tunnel walls are highest at this time.
16. Behrmann et al, reference 1. 21. Hsia T-Y and Behrmann LA: Perforating Skins as a 23. Behrmann et al, reference 10.
17. Bell WT: Perforating UnderbalancedEvolving Function of Rock Permeability and Underbalance, Mason JN, Dees JM and Kessler N: Block Tests Model
Techniques, Journal of Petroleum Technology 36 paper SPE 22810, presented at the 66th SPE Annual the Near-Wellbore in a Perforated Sandstone, paper
(October 1984): 1653-1652. Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, SPE 28554, presented at the 69th SPE Annual Technical
October 6-9, 1991. Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana,
18. King GE, Anderson A and Bingham M: A Field Study of
Underbalance Pressures Necessary to Obtain Clean 22. Behrmann et al, reference 10. USA, September 25-28, 1994.
Perforations Using Tubing-Conveyed Perforating, paper Hsia and Behrmann, reference 21. 24. Behrmann LA: Underbalance Criteria for Minimum
SPE 14321, presented at the 60th SPE Annual Technical Pucknell and Behrmann, reference 11. Perforation Damage, paper SPE 30081, presented at
Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, the 1995 SPE European Formation Damage Conference,
Behrmann LA, Pucknell JK and Bishop SR: Effects
September 22-25, 1985. The Hague, The Netherlands, May 15-16, 1995; also in
of Underbalance and Effective Stress on Perforation
19. Crawford HR: Underbalanced Perforating Design, SPE Drilling & Completion (September 1996): 173-177.
Damage in Weak Sandstone: Initial Results, paper
paper SPE 19749, presented at the 64th SPE Annual SPE 24770, presented at the 67th Annual Technical
Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Conference and Exhibition, Washington DC, USA,
Texas, USA, October 8-11, 1989. October 4-7, 1992.
20. Tariq SM: New, Generalized Criteria for Determining the Bartusiak R, Behrmann LA and Halleck PM: Experimental
Level of Underbalance for Obtaining Clean Perforations, Investigation of Surge Flow Velocity and Volume Needed
paper SPE 20636, presented at the 65th SPE Annual to Obtain Perforation Cleanup, paper SPE 26896,
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, presented at the SPE Eastern Regional Conference
Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, 1990. and Exhibition, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, November
2-4, 1993. Also in Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering 17 (1997): 19-28.
58 Oilfield Review
Optimum underbalance versus permeability
10,000
Underbalance criteria. Underbalance
>
1500-psi underbalance
is widely accepted as the most efficient
method to obtain clean perforations.
Transient surge-flow velocities are dependent perforation cleanup. Underbalance requirements and other completion operations under downhole
on underbalance and formation permeability. The calculated using this method are two to four conditions with overburden stress as well as
pressure differential required to create clean, effec- times greater than previous criteria (above). pore and wellbore pressure (below).
tive perforations is a function of permeability, Because underbalance impacts perforation This setup allows researchers to shoot and
porosity and rock strength in addition to charge type performance and well productivity, it is essential flow through a single perforation in outcrop or
and size. For example, deep-penetrating charges to understand the fluid dynamics involved. reservoir cores oriented from horizontal to verti-
are less damaging than big-hole charges. Less than Knowledge about perforating shocks, pressures cal with any perforating system. Oil and water
optimal underbalance results in variable perforation and fluid flow is helpful in selecting an optimal two-phase flow and dry-gas flow can be evalu-
damage and flow rate per perforation, and most underbalance and designing downhole tools. The ated at constant rates with a continuous record
data suggest that higher underbalance pressures advanced flow laboratory at SRC includes two of absolute and differential pressure measure-
than those often used in the field are needed to test vessels for investigating perforation flow ments. Perforations can be examined with a color
minimize or eliminate perforating damage.23
Although turbulent flow does occur at early
times with low-viscosity fluids, test results indi-
cate that turbulence is not required for perfora-
tion cleanup. Instead cleanup of permeability
damage around a perforation has now been
related to viscous drag.24 The key factors are
pressure differential and subsequent transient,
slightly compressible radial flow, either laminar
or turbulent, which was the starting point for
obtaining semi-empirical underbalance and skin
Advanced flow laboratory
equations with historic data sets. for core perforation-flow studies
The resulting combined theoretical and
empirical equations provide a way to calculate
optimal underbalance for zero perforation dam- Micrometer valve
Wellbore-pore
age or perforation skin if less than optimal under-
pressure differential
balance is used. Single-perforation skin can be
used in flow simulators to obtain total perfora- Wellbore pressure
tion skin and evaluate or compare perforating Shooting plate simulating
casing and cement
options. Now the most widely accepted criteria
Shooting Gun with shaped charge
for estimating underbalance to obtain zero-skin leads
perforations, this methodology was the result of Core sample
more than a decade of research on optimizing Simulated wellbore
Confining chamber
>
connected to wellbore
tions (top). One vessel is for cores up to 7-in.
Confining fast data
Spring 2000 59
> Flow lab video. Perforation flow can be examined visually with a color video probe while cores are under hydrostatic stress. A perforation filled with
pulverized formation material and surrounded by fragmented quartz grains is shown on the left. A perforation without fragmentation is shown in the middle,
but pulverized material remains along the bottom of the tunnel. A clean perforation with no fill is shown on the right.
video probe during flow through the core while a short period of injection into the perforation Optimizing Perforation Parameters
under hydrostatic stress (above). Other opera- associated with a transient overbalance due to Damage removal and perforation cleanup are
tions, like gravel injection and acidizing also can injection of detonation gases from the gun. The important elements of perforating design and job
be evaluated. Wellbore dynamics can be simu- magnitude of the pressure differential driving this execution, but consideration must also be given
lated to measure transient pressures, surge flow fluid injection depends on charge size and rock- to tunnel diameter and length in the formation,
and perforating shocks. sample permeability. shot density, or number of holes specified in
Surge-flow rate and duration are controlled by Underbalance perforating has evolved as the shots per foot (spf), perforation orientation, or
initial underbalance pressure, formation perme- result of research that concentrates on predicting phasingangle between holesand entrance-
ability, perforation damage, depth of near-well- the pressure differential to minimize perforation hole size in the casing and cement (next page,
bore formation damage, and the nature of skin. However, the likelihood of sand production, bottom left). Pressure drop from perforating dam-
wellbore and reservoir fluids. Fast transient data, casing collapse, gun movement and stuck tools age, or total perforation skin, is a function of
not acquired previously due to the cost and must be weighed against potential benefits. these key perforation parameters, formation per-
difficulty of obtaining these measurements, are Design guidelines include minimum underbal- meability and crushed-zone thickness.
helping researchers understand underbalanced ance pressure for perforation cleanup, maximum Well completions have different perforating
perforating (below).25 Wellbore pressure, reser- underbalance pressure to avoid sanding, and requirements. Some wells produce commercial
voir-wellbore pressure differential and surge-flow fluid cushionsa gas or liquid columnor volumes naturally after perforating and do not
data recorded at millisecond resolutions indicate mechanical anchors to minimize tool movement. require stimulation or sand management during
completion. These natural completions are asso-
Wellbore pressure Underbalance pressure Surge-flow rate
ciated with permeable, high-porosity, high-
6000 80 strength sandstones and carbonates with little
formation damage and adequate matrix conduc-
4500 60 tivity. Perforation length and shot density are the
dominant perforating parameters that dictate
3000 40 productivity in these applications. Perforations
Flow rate, cc/sec
Pressure, psi
60 Oilfield Review
Although useful for estimating well produc- retical maximum well productivity ratio is defined High shot density is particularly effective if
tivity and assessing trade-offs between different by an ideal gun with infinite shot density that deep penetration is not possible. In natural com-
guns, computer analysis sometimes obscures the enlarges the wellbore radius by a distance equal pletions, tunnel diameter in the formation is the
interaction and relative importance of competing to the perforation penetration (below, top right). least important of the perforation parameters
parameters. Grouping parameters together reveals This establishes the theoretical productivity that and increasing hole size usually occurs at the
underlying dependencies. This type of analysis can be obtained for a perforated natural comple- expense of penetration. A 10% increase in diam-
helped develop a simple method to estimate the tion and defines a maximum productivity effi- eter sacrifices about 20% of the penetration
productivity of perforated natural completions.26 ciency for perforating systems in terms of a and reduces the dimensionless factor by 15%.
Combining perforation and formation parameters dimensionless factor. Practical application of this Another reason not to emphasize hole size when
in a single dimensionless group gives quick pro- method lies in determining trade-offs between selecting guns for natural completions is that
ductivity estimates over a range of variables that perforation parameters, underbalance, productivity perforating jets that make big holes may also
agree with the established analytical estimates improvement and economics. cause additional damage.
of commercially available computer programs. Penetration and shot density clearly are Reduced flow from high anisotropy, perforat-
Applicable for perforations that extend important for natural completions. Penetration ing damage or formation damage can be partially
beyond formation damage in a spiral phasing has an increasing proportional effect as perfora- overcome by selecting a gun with the highest
pattern, this method assumes that perforation tions extend farther beyond formation damage. dimensionless factor, whether by deep penetra-
length, shot density, perforation tunnel diameter, Shot density has a 1.5 exponential power effect. tion, high shot density, underbalance damage
wellbore diameter, local formation damage In addition, because perforation damage is mitigation or a combination of these factors. The
around a well, perforating-induced permeability inversely proportional to the dimensionless fac- best perforating strategies are defined as those
damage and permeability anisotropy are the pri- tor, it should be minimized by perforating with an that provide productivity efficiencies close to
mary variables governing productivity. The theo- appropriate underbalance pressure differential. 100% (bottom right).
(continued on page 64)
25. Behrmann et al, reference 13.
26. Brooks JE: A Simple Method for Estimating Well
Productivity, paper SPE 38148, presented at the SPE
European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
Ideal perforating gun
The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997. 2P + D
Damaged-zone diameter D
P
Openhole diameter
N=4 N=8 N=
Perforation
Productivity efficiency, %
80
length
60
40 P = penetration
N = shot density
d = perforation diameter
20 = anisotropy ratio
Phase angle
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
> Perforation parameters. To be effective, perforations must overcome Dimensionless factor, 0 = PN3/2d1/2-5/8
drilling-induced damage and fluid invasion around a well. Shaped-
> Productivity efficiency versus dimensionless perforating factor.
charge performance is defined by casing entrance-hole size and tunnel
length. Well productivity, however, is governed by formation damage,
perforation length, shot density, perforation damage that remains after
underbalance surge and the ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability
anisotropy. Shot density is the number of holes specified in shots per
foot (spf). Phasing is the angle between holes.
Spring 2000 61
Charge Manufacturing and Testing
Mixtures of metal powders, corrosion inhibitors must meet strict quality standards and be fabri-
and lubricants that help the powders flow have cated to exact tolerances to ensure that perfo-
replaced solid liners in most Schlumberger rating jets form exactly according to design
charges. At the Schlumberger Reservoir Comple- specifications. A nonuniform liner collapse will
tions Center (SRC) in Rosharon, Texas, liners create heterogeneous jet densities, shapes and
and charges are produced in a series of pressing velocity profiles that adversely affect hole size
operations (below). Powdered components are and shape, and drastically reduce performance.
shaped into a cone using a mechanical punch. To maintain proper tolerances, precision manu-
Copper, tungsten, tin, zinc and lead powders are facturing tools are built and maintained in-house
commonly used to produce required jet density using a state-of-the-art machine shop (right). > Manufacturing tools. To maintain proper
and velocity, properties critical to perforating Computerized pressing operations ensure high tolerances, Schlumberger produces and maintains
precision mechanical dies, punches and equipment
performance. The main explosive is poured into quality and minimize variations. using an in-house, state-of-the-art tool shop.
a case, levelled and pressed to optimal density Charge manufacturing is computer-controlled,
under a high load. A liner is then pressed into but there is human intervention to handle liners a single area facilitates efficient manufactur-
the explosive to complete the charge. and check for cracks, make visual inspections ing and helps optimize charge performance.
Although conceptually simple, shaped-charge and clean die tools. Technicians manufacture Multiple-bay work areas speed manufacturing
manufacturing requires great precision. Charge and package millions of charges each year. and provide flexibility to meet changing well
componentscase, primer, explosive and liner A team approach with functions located in completion requirements (next page, top).
Manufacturing parameters are displayed in real
time to detect process deviations.
Quality control is maintained on all materials
used to manufacture charges, from cases and
powdered-liner metals to explosives. A database
with serial numbers, history cards, associated
drawings and historical information tracks all
charges (next page, bottom left). These records
allow day-to-day oversight of shaped-charge pro-
duction quality and highlight manufacturing
improvements that impact charge performance.
Liner fabrication For example, procedures that were initiated
while developing new deep-penetrating charges
Pressing force
Completed were implemented for other charges, resulting
Liner liner
punch in further performance improvement.
Explosive
powder Case Perforating systems are tested according to
Liner Liner Liner Liner
diebody powder diebody the American Petroleum Institute (API) RP 43,
5th Edition, Section 1.1 New RP 19B procedures
Liner Liner Loading Case are compatible with RP 43, except for a major
ejector ejector diebody ejector
1 2 3 4 revision to prevent target inconsistencies.2 The
Liner powder placed Liner pressed with Completed liner ejected Explosive powder
in ejector high force from diebody placed in charge case Shaped-charge manufacturing. Today, most liners
>
62 Oilfield Review
sand used in concrete targets is specified as
16/30 U.S. mesh. This change, which was
recently approved to address discrepancies in
penetration-depth tests that result from large
variations in the sand grain sizes used to make
concrete targets, is being implemented.3
Schlumberger API tests are performed in
large concrete targets at SRC (right). Tests
include certification of new charges as well as
periodic recertification to ensure that published
data represent charges currently being pro-
duced. The API test site is also used for special Casing
client tests involving API Section 1-type targets. Gun
Of particular interest are custom tests involving
Water
multiple casing or completion geometry other
Test
than the standard API RP 43 configuration. briquette
At the beginning of a new production run,
a minimum of two charges is shot in targets
built to Schlumberger standards using actual gun
28-day concrete
carriers in a water standoff that simulates down-
hole conditions. These concrete targets have
a minimum compressive strength of 5000 psi
[34.5 MPa]. Expected penetration in these
> Manufacturing functions. Teams of trained techni-
quality-control targets is calculated based on Steel
cians assemble and package millions of charges culvert
each year. To facilitate high-quality, efficient fabri- API Section I, and a minimum penetration
cation and optimal charge performance, liner-press- requirement for manufacturing is set. Full pro-
ing operations and charge loading are located in a > Shaped-charge testing. Schlumberger API tests
duction begins once test results indicate that
single area (top). Multiple-bay work areas provide are performed in large concrete targets at SRC
flexibility and the capability to respond quickly to minimum requirements have been surpassed. (top). Tests include certification of new charges
changing perforating needs. A special weighing Repeated measurements of total target penetra- as well as periodic charge recertification. The API
room is used to carefully control the explosive con- tion and minimum and maximum entrance-hole test site is used for special client tests involving API
tent of shaped charges (bottom). size are used to check charge quality. Section 1-type targets and testing that involves mul-
tiple casing or well-completion configurations other
During a manufacturing run, periodic tests than a standard API RP 43 configuration (bottom).
are performed to confirm compliance with estab- Oil companies routinely use the API test site and
lished performance specifications for penetration other facilities at SRC for customized testing.
and hole-size standards. Samples are tested every
240 charges for large runs, and every 120 charges
for the small runs associated with high-tempera- bunkers and test fired at regular intervals to
ture charges. Case and liner integrity are verified check for aging effects. Internal audits also verify
by a shock, or drop, test, and ballistic transfer proper charge performance.
sensitivity is checked. For random batches of Test facilities at SRC, while used extensively
charges, detailed measurements are made on all to evaluate new charges and qualify perforating
components. A few charges from each manufac- equipment, are also available for oil company
turing run are stored for audit purposes. During use in completion planning and analysis of diffi-
this period, charges are pulled from storage cult well conditions. In addition to improving
1. The American Petroleum Industry (API) consults with the
perforating performance, standardized and
> Quality assurance. Control is maintained on all oil and gas industry, considers advice and input from ser- custom testing helps researchers and clients
vice companies, operators and scientific organizations,
materials from steel cases and metal powders to
and recommends procedures that balance industry
address confidence in perforating practices and
explosives and the mechanical tools used to fabri- needs, technology and service-provider opinions. operations by verifying that perforating systems
cate charges. A real-time display helps technicians 2. API RP 19R, 1st Edition is a revised version of RP 19B in
identify manufacturing deviations quickly and a
perform consistently at rated temperatures and
which tests are scheduled and registered with the API,
database tracks each shaped charge. These and can be witnessed by third parties. The advantages of pressures for the duration of operations.
records are used to oversee daily operations and RP 19R are that manufacturing companies make a com-
help quantify process improvements so that new mitment to schedule and register tests, which carry
greater credibility than those under RP 43.
procedures that impact perforating performance
can be implemented across the manufacturing 3. Brooks JE, Yang W and Behrmann LA: Effect of Sand-
Grain Size on Perforator Performance, paper SPE 39457,
processes of other charges. presented at the SPE International Symposium on
Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
February 18-19, 1998.
Spring 2000 63
Stimulated Completions 10
Fracture and acid treatments, alone and in com- 9
bination, stimulate well productivity.27 Effective
64 Oilfield Review
Full-scale laboratory tests on fracture initia- results in higher treating pressures, premature When well inclination is greater than 30 and
tion through actual perforations show generic screenout and the possibility of multiple or asym- a wellbore lies in or near the PFP, the recommen-
fracture initiation sites at the base of perfora- metric fractures. dation is to use guns with 180 phasing oriented
tions and the PFP intersection with a borehole.32 Perforation phasing and orientation also are to shoot up and down. The Wireline Oriented
The fracture initiation site depends on perfora- important in fracturing. Tortuosity from a curved Perforating Tool (WOPT) may be used to orient
tion orientation in relation to the PFP. Typically, if fracture path results from misalignment between wireline-conveyed guns in vertical and nonverti-
this angle is greater than 30, fractures occur gun phasing and the PFP. Phased perforations cal wells. Several methods are also available to
where no perforation exists. If a fracture does not tend to create multiple competing fractures. Both orient TCP guns. As wellbores turn away from the
initiate at the perforations, fluid and proppant these factors increase fracturing pressures.33 PFP, perforated intervals should be decreased,
must travel around the cement-sandface inter- Vertical wells with inclinations less than 30 and 60 rather than 180 phasing may be more
face to communicate with a fracture, which should be perforated with 180-phased carrier effective (below).
30. Behrmann LA and Nolte KG: Perforating Requirements guns oriented within 10 of the PFP to increase For high-angle and horizontal wells where the
for Fracture Stimulations, paper SPE 39453, presented the number of perforations open to a fracture, angle between wellbore and PFP is greater than
at the SPE International Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February maximize fracture width near the well and about 75, perforations should be clustered over
18-19, 1998. reduce fracture initiation, or breakdown, pres- a few feet at maximum shot density and with
31. Brie A, Endo T, Hoyle D, Codazzi D, Esmersoy C, Hsu K,
Denoo S, Mueller MC, Plona T, Shenoy R and Sinha B:
sure. If PFP direction is not known or orientation is phasing angles that optimize communication
New Directions in Sonic Logging, Oilfield Review 10, not possible, 60 or 120 phasing is recommended. with one dominant fracture per interval.
no. 1 (Spring 1998): 40-55.
32. Behrmann LA and Elbel JL: Effect of Perforations on
Fracture Initiation, paper SPE 20661, presented at the
65th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, 1990.
33. Romero J, Mack MG and Elbel JL: Theoretical Model
and Numerical Investigation of Near-Wellbore Effects
in Hydraulic Fracturing, paper SPE 30506, presented
at the 70th SPE Annual Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995.
60
Minimum
stress
Spring 2000 65
Sand management
(cased and perforated wells)
Quantification of
sand-production risk
Sand Management: Control or Prevention? Perforating for sand control assumes that the
Depending on formation strength, perforation production of sand is unavoidable and gravel pack-
stresses, flow rate and fluid type, sand may be ing, fracture packs or other mechanical techniques
produced with oil, gas and water when flow is that exclude sand from production flow are
sufficiently high, and there are unconsolidated or needed. Perforating must address adequate
loose formation grains in and around the perfora- underbalance to minimize pressure drop, or skin,
tions. Changes in flow rate related to pressure and remove loose sand to clean out perforation
drawdown, increasing effective stress due to tunnels for optimal gravel placement and efficient
depletion and increasing water production with gravel packing. In sand prevention, perforations
time are the main factors in sand production. are designed to avoid sand production over the life
Sand control utilizes mechanical methods to of a well. Making the right decision impacts initial
exclude sand from produced fluids. Sand pre- costs, production rate and ultimate recovery.
vention incorporates techniques to minimize or
eliminate the amount of sand produced and Sand-Control Requirements
also to reduce the impact of produced sand with- In weak, unconsolidated formations, the conven-
out mechanical exclusion methods. Choosing tional belief is that there are no open perfora-
between these options is a function of perfora- tions in the formation. The only opening for
tion and formation stability and whether per- placing gravel is the hole through casing and
foration failure can be predicted. The essence of cement. This general theory proposes that if for-
sand management is quantification of sand pro- mations are incompetent and sand is produced
duction risk, which helps operators decide if, with hydrocarbons, there is little chance that
how and when sand control or sand prevention open tunnels exist. Single- and multiple-shot per-
should be implemented (above). forating tests have not shown this to be true in
Several methods help predict perforation tun- all cases. Instead, research indicates that perfo-
nel stability over the life of a well. Theoretical ration definition in weak sands depends primarily
borehole stability models adapted to perforations on rock strength, but also on other factors,
are useful in predicting perforation stability as including effective stress, underbalance, distance
stress conditions change due to pressure draw- between adjacent perforations and fluids in the
down and depletion.34 Experimental methods pore spaces and wellbore.
involve testing reservoir cores or outcrop rocks When perforation tunnels are not defined, the
with similar properties.35 Sand-prediction criteria objective of perforating for conventional gravel-
based on production history, by far the most pack operations is to minimize pressure drop
widely used technique, rely on experience from across the gravel-filled hole in casing and cement. > Perforating for sand control. Perforation tunnels
other wells and correlation of rock strength to This pressure drop is dictated by total AOFthe are assumed to be undefined and have little or
calibrate theoretical models and help choose area of individual holes multiplied by the total no opening in weak formations (top). An ideal
between sand control and sand prevention.36 perforation cleaned out by hand in the laboratory
has no perforating-induced rock debris and there
is little intermingling of debris and placed gravel
as shown in scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images (middle). In an actual single-shot test,
perforation debris mixes with gravel and plugs
the pack (bottom).
66 Oilfield Review
number of shotsgravel permeability and flow
rate per perforation. Tests on core samples show
that when tunnels are defined, perforating debris
and formation fines can impair gravel permeability
(previous page, right). The objective is to minimize
induced damage and gravel-pack impairment.
Perforation damage, formation fines and
charge debris should be removed before gravel
packing. Underbalanced perforating and flow
before gravel packing are the best methods to
achieve this objective. The maximum underbal-
ance pressure must be selected to avoid perfora-
tion collapse and catastrophic sand production
during perforating. Perforating with the surface
choke open ensures post-shot flow to transport
debris into the wellbore. Provisions need to be
made to handle transient, finite sand production
at surface until the perforations are clean. When
pressure drop and flow rate per perforation are
low, deep-penetrating charges can be used.
Deep-penetrating charges cause less localized
damage and debris, and provide a larger effec-
tive wellbore radius that reduces pressure drop.
As in fracturing applications, perforation diame-
ter needs be 8 to 10 times the gravel diameter.
Exposing formations to damaging completion
fluids or lost circulation material (LCM) and
> Single-trip gravel packing. A typical PERFPAC assembly includes a TCP gun with an automatic
chemicals during hydrostatic well-control opera-
explosive release, a bottom packer, sand-control screens, a gravel-pack packer with a flapper
tions should be avoided. Damage to open perfo- valve, pressure gauges and recorders, firing head and a dual-drillstring test valve. The TCP guns
rations was observed in tests on Berea are positioned, fired, released and dropped (left). The assembly is then repositioned so that the
sandstone blocks that were perforated, opened screens are across the perforated interval (right). The upper QUANTUM gravel-pack packer is set
and gravel is injected behind the screen. The workstring is then disengaged, leaving the packed
to flow, plugged by LCM and then reopened to
screens in place. Operations take place in a controlled environment so formations are not exposed
flow.37 If a well must be killed, nondamaging to overpressure, LCM or damaging fluids.
brines or mutual solvents are best.
For conventional gravel packing inside casing, and 60 or 45 phasing maximize flow area and are more like conventional hydraulic fracturing
three steps are necessary: set a bottom packer, prevent proppant screenout, or bridging, in the stimulations. The length of perforated interval
perforate and circulate gravel behind gravel-pack perforations. should be limited. Perforations that do not commu-
screens. Disadvantages include long duration of In screenless gravel packs, the formation is nicate with the fracture may produce sand and
operations, and potential formation damage from consolidated with resin and then fractured. need to be eliminated or minimized. Hole diameter
fluid loss or LCM. Perforating guns and gravel- Proppant injected in the fracture prevents the pro- needs to be 8 to 10 times greater than the proppant
pack hardware can now be run in one step. The duction of formation sand. Because proppant does diameter and perforations with 0 or 180 phasing
PERFPAC system is a single-trip sand-control not fill the perforations, perforating requirements should be oriented to within 30 of the PFP.
method that limits fluid loss, reduces formation 34. Bruce S: A Mechanical Stability Log, paper SPE 19942, 36481, presented at the 71st SPE Annual Technical
damage and saves time (above right). presented at the 1990 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, USA,
Houston, Texas, USA, February 27-March 2, 1990. October 6-9, 1996.
In addition to internal gravel packs, perforat-
Weingarten J and Perkins T: Prediction of Sand 35. Behrman L, Willson SM, de Bree P and Presles C:
ing plays an important role in external sand-con- Production in Gas Wells: Methods and Gulf of Mexico Field Implications from Full-Scale Sand Production
trol applications like fracture packing and Cast Studies, paper SPE 24797, presented at the 67th Experiments, paper SPE 38639, presented at the 72nd
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
screenless gravel packs.38 Perforating require- Washington, DC, USA, October 4-7, 1992. San Antonio, Texas, USA, October 5-8, 1997.
ments for fracture packing are the same as for van den Hoek PJ, Hertogh GMM, Kooijman AP, de Bree P, Presles C and Cruesot M: A Sand Failure Test Can Cut
Kenter CJ and Papamichos E: A New Concept of Both Completion Costs and the Number of Development
internal gravel packs because it is more important Sand Production Prediction: Theory and Laboratory Wells, paper SPE 38186, presented at the SPE European
to minimize pressure drop through the pack and Experiments, paper SPE 36418, presented at the 71st Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997.
control sand production than to create long frac- Denver, Colorado, USA, October 6-9, 1996. 36. Venkitaraman A, Li H, Leonard AJ and Bowden PR:
tures. However, efficient proppant placement is Kooijman AP, van den Hoek PJ, de Bree P, Kenter CJ, Experimental Investigation of Sanding Propensity for
required to create an external pack. Big holes Zheng Z and Khodaverdian M: Horizontal Wellbore the Andrew Completion, paper SPE 50387, presented
Stability and Sand Production in Weakly Consolidated at the SPE International Conference on Horizontal
with high shot density12, 16, 18 or 21 spf Sandstones, paper SPE 36419, presented at the 71st Well Technology, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, November
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 1-4, 1998.
Denver, Colorado, USA, October 6-9, 1996. 37. Mason et al, reference 23.
Blok RHJ, Welling RWF, Behrmann LA and Venkitaraman 38. Behrmann and Nolte, reference 30.
A: Experimental Investigation of the Influence of
Perforating on Gravel-Pack Impairment, paper SPE
Spring 2000 67
Preventing Sand Production
Sand production in unconsolidated and some weak 4000
>
Perforation stability. For sand
consolidated formations results from tunnel col-
68 Oilfield Review
The effectiveness of optimal phasing was mation properties. With detailed log permeability
demonstrated in the BP Amoco Magnus field in data, numerous simulations were carried out to
Brae
the North Sea. The original perforating strategy Piper
evaluate guns, charges, shot densities and perfo-
Claymore
used guns with 6 spf at 60 phasing (below left). rating strategies. Based on these simulations, final
In 1997, this was changed to 99 optimal phasing Beatrice Britannia completion designs included specific charge
Buchan
while maintaining the same shot density and Forties designs and shot densities for various formation
charge type. Wells perforated with the new guns Montrose Lomond sections instead of using average properties to
had fewer sand-related production problems. The Aberdeen Erskine determine perforating parameters.42
increase in perforation spacing for an optimum Fulmar
In general, four key aspects of perforating
gun phasing can be substantial compared with have a major impact on productivity and play an
standard gun phasing. For Magnus field, assum- important role in determining well completion
ing a centralized gun, minimum perforation spac- N successperforation dimensions (length and
ing was increased from 4.88 to 7.61 in. [12.4 to diameter), shot density, phasing angles and
19.4 cm], a 56% increase, by changing from 60 to degree of perforation damage. The choice of gun
UK
99 phasing. system parameters to optimize a completion was
Optimal underbalance and phasing in carried out using theoretical analysis of comple-
> Britannia field location.
conjunction with deep-penetrating charges are tion efficiency using inflow, or NODAL, analysis
preferred in sand-prevention applications. programs. For the Britannia study, lithology varia-
Ultrahigh-shot density guns with deep penetra- An Overall Perforating Strategy tions also were taken into account. Log and core
tion also have been used to prevent sanding in Operated by Chevron and Conoco, the North Sea data were used to determine the productivity of
weak, but consolidated rocks. However, even Britannia field is a gas reservoir (above). Before various individual layers based on conductivity
with perforating techniques for sand prevention, the wells were completed, potential sand produc- and formation damage. For each layer, numerical
production flow may transport limited volumes of tionperforation stabilityand optimal under- productivity simulations were carried out to deter-
debris from perforation crushed zones and tun- balance pressure during perforating to minimize or mine the optimal perforation parameters of shot
nels. As in the case of sand control, transient eliminate perforation skin were major concerns. density, penetration and underbalance conditions
sand production at surface needs to be dealt with Theoretical models were used to predict optimal (below). An acceptable gun phasing was fixed.
until perforations are completely cleaned up. underbalance conditions based on log-derived for-
42. Underdown DR, Jenkins WH, Pitts A, Venkitaraman A
and Li H: Optimizing Perforating Strategy in Well
Completions to Maximize Productivity, paper SPE 58772, X300
presented at the SPE International Symposium on
Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
February 23-24, 2000.
X200
Depth, ft
X100
Increasing
stress
X000
1000 10,000 0 300
Underbalance, psi Permeability, mD
Spring 2000 69
Current underbalance guidelines lead to large Gun and Conveyance Choices charges and most of the debris are contained in
pressure differential requirements in high- Shaped charges are placed in guns and conveyed hollow steel carriers that are retrieved or released
strength, low-permeability zones. This issue was downhole to the correct depth by wireline, slick- and dropped to bottom after perforating.
addressed during the Britannia study in single- line, tubing or drillpipe, and coiled tubing. There Casing and through-tubing guns, both capsule
shot perforate and flow tests on reservoir and are two types of guns, capsule and carrier (below). and carrier, were initially run on wireline; tubing-
outcrop rocks conducted in the advanced flow Capsule guns, like the Enerjet and Pivot Gun sys- conveyed perforating (TCP) with HSD High Shot
laboratory at SRC in Rosharon, Texas. Another tems, are used in through-tubing electric wireline Density guns became popular in the early 1980s.
concern during underbalance perforating is and slickline perforating. Charges in capsule guns Through-tubing guns, including casing and HSD
potential sand production from perforation col- are exposed to well conditions and must be encap- guns, are limited in gun size and length by well
lapse, which was also addressed in the single- sulated in separate pressure-proof containers. completion design and surface pressure control
shot studies that simulated downhole stress and Debris from these expendable guns is left in a well equipment. The use of underbalance is also lim-
flowing conditions. after firing. Carrier guns are conveyed on wireline ited when guns are run on electric line. Guns
Laboratory tests confirmed theoretical under- or slickline, tubing or drillpipe run by drilling and deployed on tubing offer a wide variety of
balance predictions and perforation stability. workover rigs or snubbing units, and on coiled tub- choices and allow for simultaneous underbal-
Reservoir and outcrop cores were perforated ing with or without an electric line. In these guns, ance perforating of long intervals.43
using simulated downhole conditions and under-
balance pressures determined from simulations. Capsule guns Tubing
The perforation strategy for this field was Casing
selected based on results from this study. Flow
performance of perforated reservoir cores veri-
fied earlier conclusions about formation sensitiv-
ity to aqueous wellbore fluidsbrineand
confirmed perforation stability at high underbal-
ance cleanup conditions. A 1000-psi [6.9-MPa]
underbalance in outcrop sample tests resulted in
low perforation skin. Analysis of performance
after completion indicated low to negative skin in
12 wells. In addition to determining the best per-
forating design for each completion application,
this approach emphasized the need to study opti-
mal underbalance, especially in gas formations,
to optimize overall completion strategies.
capsule or carrier. A few examples are shown at Retrievable Standard Expendable 111/16 -in. 3.79-in.
right. Capsule guns are conveyed by wireline or Enerjet Enerjet Enerjet OD running OD deployed
slickline in through-tubing operations. Detonating
cords are exposed to downhole conditions, so Carrier guns
the charges are encapsulated in pressure-proof
containers. Expendable through-tubing capsule
guns generate debris, which remains in a well
after perforating. Carrier, or casing, guns are
conveyed by wireline, tubing and coiled tubing
and can be designed to retain debris inside the
carrier. Detonation occurs inside the carrier
Patented charge
under atmospheric pressure. packing
1.56-in. HSD gun 2.0-in. HSD gun 2.25-in. HSD gun 5.85-in. Bigshot 6 5/8-in. Bigshot
4 spf zero phasing 6 spf, 60 spiral 6 spf, 60 spiral 18 spf, 120/60 18 spf, 120/60
phasing phasing phasing phasing
70 Oilfield Review
Today, perforating often encompasses more
than traditional running and firing of guns. Timing of perforating events
Perforating systems are an integral part of well after charge detonation
ll
we
ns
completion equipment and completion opera-
gu
lve ion
en
d
m
lui
op
va ct
tions that are designed to perform multiple oper-
fro
Gu of xits us p ore f
ol ea
re
To r r
Re id
llb
su
X- rvoi
ations in permanent completions, such as setting
flu
Fluid column
n o pen gu res
we
se
re
response
Je um s ith
bo
packers, pressure testing, perforating one or
o w ion
ell
im rm w
pe et n
l
En ail nnu
n t rat
ax fo n
Reservoir
M tail actio
more intervals and initiating tool functions, all in
a
response
d e
t r
Je inte
a single operation. The timing of perforating
tt
t
Je
events, such as charge detonation, resulting
shocks and gun release, are used to help ensure 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
that perforating TCP guns release and drop, even microseconds milliseconds
in high-angle wells (right). Guns have been Time
released and dropped successfully in well pro- > The timing of perforating events. Todays perforating systems do more
files up to about 84. than just deploy and fire gun strings. These systems often set packers,
Downhole operationsA family of X-Tools initiate pressure tests, perforate more than one interval and initiate
downhole tool functions, all in a single operation. For example, the timing
perforating gun-actuated completion tools of charge detonation, resulting shocks, reservoir response and tool functions
wireline/coiled tubing explosive-type automatic are coordinated to ensure that guns drop to the bottom of wellbores.
release (WXAR), superfast explosive-type auto-
matic gun release (SXAR), monobore anchor with
explosive-type release (MAXR), superfast explo- allows underbalanced perforating of long inter- for dropping guns or the need to kill wells after
sive-type production valve (SXPV) and superfast vals in one descent. The system can be deployed perforating. The CIRP system is used with gun
explosive-type vertical shock absorber (SXVA) and retrieved by slickline, electric wireline or diameters from 2 to 4.5 in. Gun lengths of 2000 ft
are designed to perform specific functions like coiled tubing. When necessary, gun sections can [610 m] with up to 60 connectors have been run.
fast release and dropping of gun strings after be retrieved without killing the well. This system The completion FIV Formation Isolation Valve
perforating and opening valves. These functions can be used to perforate wells without interrupt- tool, integrated into the permanent completion
are initiated by an explosive on the same ballis- ing production. In combination with techniques design, allows long strings of perforating guns to
tic chain as the perforating guns. Actuation of like WXAR or MAXR, the GunStack, or CDAD, be run in and out of wells without hydrostatic
these explosive devices after guns are fired system also allows guns to be run in sections overbalance control. A fullbore completion valve
greatly increases the versatility of perforating according to available lubricator length and that is normally run below a permanent packer,
completion operations. weight capacity of the conveyance method. the FIV tool acts as a downhole lubricator valve
Gun length and perforating without killing The first gun section is run and latched onto a and isolates perforated intervals from the pro-
wellsTotal weight of long gun strings and downhole anchor, bridge plug or packer set by duction string above. The gun length per run is
running or retrieving guns under pressure restrict wireline for precise depth control. The gun string limited only by weight restrictions of the con-
wireline, coiled tubing and tubing-conveyed also can be landed against the bottom of a well. veyance method used.
perforating. However, these limitations are In this configuration, the string is not anchored. After perforating, guns are pulled above the
overcome by permanent completion perforating Consecutive sections are assembled and con- FIV tool, which is closed by a shifting tool on the
(PCP) systems. nected on top of each other until the required gun end of the gun string. Well pressure is bled off
The GunStack stackable perforating gun sys- length is achieved. Rather than simply stacking and the guns are retrieved. The FIV tool then is
tem, also known as Completions Downhole or latching, the connectors solidly connect each opened for production by applying a predeter-
Assembly and Disconnect (CDAD), allows down- gun section to the next. Guns can be discon- mined sequence of pressure cycles. The FIV tool
hole assembly of multiple gun sections to any nected mechanically at any time. The connectors also can be opened and closed an indefinite num-
length with or without a rig. This equipment disconnect automatically after a delay that fol- ber of times with a mechanical shifting tool. This
43. In June 1999, the longest gun to date, a special tapered
lows gun detonation. This prevents gun sections valve system was developed for the BP Amoco
HSD gun, was successfully fired in Well M-16 at the from moving uphole during detonation and under- Andrew field in the North Sea.44
BP Amoco Wytch Farm field in southern England. This
world record gun string was 8583 ft [2616 m] long from
balance surge flow, and allows wells to be perfo- Success of the FIV tool was the basis for
top to bottom and shot with more than 25,000 CleanSHOT rated with maximum underbalance. design of a liner top isolation valve (LTIV) that
deep-penetrating charges.
The CIRP Completion Insertion and Retrieval operates on the same principles. The LTIV is a
44. Patel D, Kusaka, Mason J and Gomersall S: The Develop-
ment and Application of the Formation Isolation Valve, under Pressure perforating system was designed fullbore ball valve that isolates formations from
presented at the Offshore Mediterranean Conference so gun strings could be assembled at surface, completion fluid after a zone is completed with
and Exhibition, Ravenna, Italy, March 19-21, 1997.
Kusaka K, Patel D, Gomersall S, Mason J and Doughty P:
inserted in wells, extracted and disassembled an uncemented liner. The LTIV tool is run directly
Underbalance Perforation in Long Horizontal Well in the without killing the wells. The CIRP system facili- below a liner-hanger packer and can be opened
Andrew Field, paper OTC 8532, presented at the 1997
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, USA,
tates running long guns in and out of wells under and closed as many times as required. Once the
May 5-6, 1997. pressure using wireline or coiled tubing. This ball is closed, the formation is isolated from com-
Mason J and Gomersall D: Andrew/Cyrus Horizontal allows an entire interval to be perforated at one pletion fluid until the well is ready for production.
Well Completions, paper SPE 38183, presented at
the SPE European Formation Damage Conference, time with an appropriate underbalance. The valve holds pressure from above and below,
The Hague, The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997. Retrieving and disassembling guns under pres- which makes it suitable as a long-term barrier.
sure eliminate the need to drill deeper to allow
Spring 2000 71
High-angle wellsIn high-angle and horizon- Reservoir Economics Technique
tal wells, wireline may not allow guns to descend
unless a tractor is used. Coiled tubing is the pre-
l
r s ne u eanu rfor wel
ferred conveyance method, unless a horizontal
e
ns
un
siz
)
Ne ay z ion c all p lling
d
er
ati
ole
ire
section is so long that helical buckling occurs
on
i
ing ell
t p orat rge g (k
qu
,h
in
rfo e) re
on
e
su llin
ed
the
before the perforating interval is reached.
ati
p
ro
nc
e
to atho
etr
dit hile ling
um val cont
rat
-an n we bala
en
rig al d odu
Tractors have also been used successfully to
kil
(r
l
W al w pf, p
t
er
Ne qui ling
Op n re thou
pe
pr
No rate out
to
nd
ll
s
extend the maximum reach of coiled tubing. In
il
lls
ith
wi
ers s
r
e,
red
ell
we
w
tim mo
siz
st uns
rf
Ho n _
Re ate
on
pe
many of todays high-angle and extended-reach
Hi hut
Re gle
g
Be ell
i
re
r
t
ve
rfo
rfo
ov
gu
on
w
gu
ad
mo
ork
ve
oo
pe
pe
riz
w
wells, there may be no alternative to TCP or PCP.
gh
st
No
Re
Sh
Fa
If mechanical pulling or pushing force must Through-tubing
be exerted on a gun system, TCP, snubbing, 1
SXAR
coiled tubing and tractors offer more versatility 1 2
MAXR
than electric line and slickline. For long guns like
WXAR
those used in horizontal wells, gun-string design 3 1
FIV
must consider tensile strength. High-strength 3
Wireline CIRP
adapters and tapered gun strings have been 3
used successfully. Gun bending must also be Coiled Tubing CIRP
3 4 4 4
modeled and addressed. GunStack (CDAD)
Perforating-deployment technology has Advantage 1
Rig required for installation, but not for perforating 3
Guns are in place impeding cleanup
evolved from early electric line and tubing-, or ( ) Limitations 2
Best in monobores 4
Requires suitable conveyor
drillstring-, conveyed guns, and now includes
coiled tubing with or without electric line, snub- > Conveyance choices. To optimize perforating operations, the advantages, disadvantages and limita-
bing units, slickline and downhole tractors on tions of all gun systems that are considered for a specific completion must be weighed. This table lists
wireline and coiled tubing. Each conveyance reservoir, economic and technical benefits of equipment that is used to perforate without killing a well.
method has advantages and disadvantages
related to performing downhole operations, gun
length and pressure control, perforating without A Wireline Perforator Anchoring Tool (WPAT) Duration of operationsThe timing of opera-
killing wells, mechanical strength and wellbore device was developed to anchor guns in slimhole tions varies for each well. If intervals are vertical
angle, depth correlation, rigless intervention and monobore completions and prevent guns from and shortless than 40 ft [12 m]and perfo-
gun type. To optimize perforation designs, these moving after detonation. The WPAT device, now rated in balanced or overbalanced conditions,
pros and cons must be weighed for all gun available in two sizes, one for 2-in. guns in 27 8- wireline perforating usually can be performed in
systems being considered for a specific comple- in. tubulars and another for 21 4-in. or 21 2-in. guns a few hours and may be the most efficient
tion (above right). Other considerations include in 31 2-in. completions, counteracts potentially method. If the interval is longer or has multiple
underbalanced perforating and timing or duration large forces generated by flowing fluids that can sections, wireline operations require more than
of operations. force guns uphole with disastrous consequences. one trip, which prevents use of underbalance
UnderbalanceOptions for perforating with The main application of the WPAT anchor is to during subsequent gun runs. As well deviation
underbalance have reached a high degree of perforate with extremely high underbalance. increases, operating time increases, especially if
sophistication as a result of hardware for TCP or Another application is to protect cable weak the gun-string weight is low and surface pres-
PCP and wireline anchoring devices. Whatever points from high-tensile loads. sure-control equipment is used. When well devi-
the conveyance method, it is usually possible to The tool has positive anchoring and releasing ation exceeds about 65, other conveyance
perforate with sufficient underbalance. Practical mechanisms. Mechanical slips are designed to be methods like TCP and PCP that require a longer
exceptions when optimal underbalance cannot nondamaging and can be retracted by jarring running-in time must be used. If perforating inter-
be achieved are depleted reservoirs, shallow upward if guns become stuck after perforating. vals become significantly longer, the overall dura-
wells or wells with existing open perforations. A calibrated orifice that meters oil at a spe- tion of TCP is shorter than wireline operations
For certain conditions, a high underbalance is cific rate provides the holding period, which can and the entire interval can be perforated with
needed to clean out perforations and generate be set for up to an hour. This allows sufficient underbalance for optimal perforation cleanup.
post-shot flow. With wireline-conveyed guns, this time to establish an underbalance, perforate and 45. Huber KB and Pease JM: Safe Perforating Unaffected
is possible only if anchoring devices are used conduct a pressure drawdown test. The tool by Radio and Electric Power, paper SPE 20635, pre-
sented at the 65th Annual SPE Technical Conference
while shooting to prevent guns from being blown releases automatically after the programmed and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
uphole. Anchoring devices are also recom- time elapses. The tool may be configured in two September 23-26, 1990.
ways; one operates on well pressure and the Huber et al: Method and Apparatus for Safe Transport
mended when the level of underbalance is Handling Arming and Firing of Perforating Guns Using a
unknown and guns are exposed to a sudden fluid other, for a dry hole, operates on pressure supplied Bubble Activated Detonator, U.S. Patent No. 5,088,413
by a gas bottle that is part of the system. (February 18, 1992).
influx, as for example, when perforating new
Lerche et al: Firing System for a Perforating Gun
intervals in formations with differentially depleted Including an Exploading Foil Initiator and an Outer
producing intervals. Housing for Conducting Wireline Current and EFI
Current, U.S. Patent No. 5,347,929 (September 20, 1994).
72 Oilfield Review
1.5
Spring 2000 73
Standard
Reservoir equipment
Research considerations Custom
Smart limitations solutions
perforating
Perforating- Single-trip
induced gravel Optional
Orientation Sand High shot
damage packing phasing prevention density
Well High-angle
Shot wells
density productivity Phase High-rate
Underbalance angle wells
Formation Low-debris
Hard rocks Deep- damage Natural Big-hole
penetrating guns charges
fractures
charges
> Fitting together the pieces of the puzzle. The many perforating options and a myriad
of well-completion factors exponentially increase the number of decisions that must be
made before perforating. A smart perforating systems approach helps operators realize
more benefit from perforating solutions that are available to overcome the technical
dilemmas associated with perforated completions.
Smart Perforating and can be packed with gravel to keep the for- cated to developing customized solutions. Many
Every cased well must have perforations to mation particles out of the perforation and the of these new developments eventually become
produce hydrocarbons, but different reservoir wellbore. Perforations also can be designed to standard products and services that extend
and completion combinations have different per- prevent tunnel and formation failure associated the range of options available to operators. The
forating requirements. Because perforating is with sand production. best perforation designs are based on specific
such a critical element of well productivity, the In the past, integrating formation and perfo- well requirements to optimize production. This
requirements of each well should be optimized rating considerations, including underbalance, total-systems approachsmart perforating
based on specific formation properties. The best was an exception rather than a rule. Theory and emphasizes practices that maximize well produc-
way to achieve this is to understand how reser- software were available to analyze perforation tivity and helps operators realize the most benefit
voirs respond to natural, stimulated and sand- performance, but completion decisions were from the perforating solutions that are available
management completions. Factors that need to often based on average formation properties or to overcome dilemmas associated with perfo-
be taken into account include formation com- perforating limitations unrelated to productivity. rated well completions (above).
pressive strength and stress, reservoir pressure Today, thinking in terms of whats best for a By adapting perforation designs to specific
and temperature, zone thickness and lithology, reservoir is the predominant approach. Operators reservoirs, perforating technology can be inte-
porosity, permeability, anisotropy, damage and consider what a particular field development grated with geology, formation evaluation and
fluid typegas or oil. requires and then select the best completion completion techniques to determine the right
Hardhigh-strengthformations and reser- techniques and hardware that are available. equipment, shaped charge, carrier system, con-
voirs damaged by drilling fluids benefit the most Standard off-the-shelf equipment and ser- veyance method and pressure condition for per-
from deep-penetrating perforations that extend vices sometimes do not meet those needs. New forming efficient and effective perforating
beyond the formation damage and increase the tools, procedures and servicesshaped charges, operations. Computer simulations can be used to
effective wellbore radius. Low-permeability completion equipment, conveyance alternatives compare performance versus design expecta-
reservoirs that need hydraulic-fracture stimula- and applications for underbalance, overbalance tions. Existing tools and methods can then be
tion to produce economically require appro- or extreme overbalanceoften need to be devel- improved and used more effectively. The ultimate
priately spaced and oriented perforations. oped. As a result, significant Schlumberger goal is to design custom perforating solutions for
Unconsolidated formations that may produce research and engineering resources are dedi- each well to maximize productivity. MET
sand need big holes which reduce pressure drop
74 Oilfield Review