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Perforating Practices That Optimize Productivity

Establishing communication with oil and gas zones involves more than shooting
Modern perforating is inseparable from other the mid-1980s, conveyance choices were expand-
holes in steel casing by choosing guns and conveyance methods from a service
services that improve well productivity, such as ing. Since that time, tubing-conveyed perforating
catalog. Perforating based on average formation properties and shaped-charge fracturing, acidizing and sand control or preven- (TCP) grew from limited use in a small niche mar-
tion.2 In addition to being conduits for oil and gas ket to an essential element of many well comple-
performance is being replaced by a more tailored approach. Perforation design is
inflow, perforations provide uniform points of tions and an important perforating tool.4
now an integral, often customized, element of completion planning that addresses injection for water, gas, acid, proppant-laden In addition to coiled tubing, slickline and
gels for hydraulic fracture stimulations and fluids snubbing units, systems are now available to run
reservoir conditions, formation characteristics and specific well requirements.
that place gravel to control sand in weak or long gun strings in live wells under pressure.
unconsolidated formations.3 In other sand-man- These perforating and conveyance systems also
agement applications, perforating provides the perform other functions that fulfill completion
required number, orientation and size of stable needs of varying complexity, such as releasing
holes to prevent sand production. and dropping guns, setting packers and opening
Larry Behrmann Perforated completions play a crucial role in hydro- Among the many advances in perforating Conveyance methods have also kept pace or closing valves. In the future, charges may be
James E. Brooks carbon production. From well testing for reservoir technology are new deep-penetrating charges that with perforating technology and practices. In incorporated in and run directly with completion
Simon Farrant evaluation to completion and remedial interven- increase well productivity by shooting beyond the late 1970s and early 1980s, perforating equipment during well construction.
Alfredo Fayard tion, perforating is a key to successful exploration, invasion, and big-hole charges for gravel packing. strategies were limited to smaller This article reviews key aspects of perforat-
Adi Venkitaraman economic oil and gas production, long-term well Increased performance per unit of explosive through-tubing or larger casing guns ing, including basic physics, new charges and
Rosharon, Texas, USA
productivity and efficient hydrocarbon recovery. makes these high-performance charges more conveyed primarily by wireline. manufacturing, perforation damage mitigation,
The perforating process instantaneously generates efficient. In the past two years, improved charges Charges for each gun size and optimized perforation parameters, perforating
Andrew Brown
Charlie Michel holesperforationsin steel casing, surrounding have yielded penetration depths and flow areas type were designed for practices for natural, stimulated or sand-man-
Alwyn Noordermeer cement and the formation (next page). that are many times greater than those achieved either maximum hole agement completions, safety and conveyance
BP Amoco Both well productivity and injectivity depend using prior technology. Other developments con- size or deep pen- methods. We also discuss the reasons for con-
Sunbury on Thames, England primarily on near-wellbore pressure drop, com- trol debris, especially in high-angle or horizontal etration. By sidering specific formation, well and comple-
monly referred to as skin, which is a function of wells, by reducing debris size or retaining debris tion requirements when selecting perforating
Phil Smith completion type, formation damage and perfora- inside charge carriersguns. techniques. Examples show how perforation
BP Amoco tion parameters. In the past, perforations often Perforating is the only way to establish con- designs customized for specific reservoir and
Houston, Texas were characterized simply as holes in steel casing ductive tunnels that link oil and gas reservoirs to perforation interactions can maximize
made by mechanical cutters (before 1932), shoot- steel-cased wellbores which lead to surface. well performance.
David Underdown
ing bullets (since 1932), pumping abrasives (since However, perforating also damages formation

>
Chevron Production & Technology Company Modern perforating. Controlled
1958) or more commonly, by detonating special permeability around perforation tunnels. This detonation of specially designed
Houston, Texas
shaped-charge explosives made specifically for damage and perforation parametersformation and manufactured explosive
oilfield perforators (since 1948).1 Far from simple, penetration, hole size, number of shots and the shaped-charges creates path-
ways from well to formation
perforating is a complex element of well comple- angle between holeshave a significant impact through steel casing, cement and
tions brought into better focus by contemporary on pressure drop near a well and, therefore, on reservoir rock so fluids can flow
research and an understanding of basic principles. production. Optimizing these parameters and or be lifted to surface.
Deviation from symmetry reduces shaped- mitigating induced damage are important
charged performance. In terms of penetration aspects of perforating. Ongoing research con-
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jim
and hole size, optimized designs and precision firms that underbalancea wellbore pressure 1. Behrmann L, Huber K, McDonald B, Cout B, Dees J,
Almaguer, Bobby Carroll, John Corben, Janet Denney, manufacturing are improving shaped charges. before perforating that is less than the formation Folse R, Handren P, Schmidt J and Snider P:
Brenden Grove, Brad Hoffman, Manish Kothari, Jason Mai, Quo Vadis, Extreme Overbalance? Oilfield Review 8,
Sam Musachia, Bob Parrott, Mark Vella, Ian Walton and
Strict quality-control and aggressive quality- pressureis essential to partially or, in some no. 3 (Autumn 1996): 18-33.
Wenbo Yang, Rosharon, Texas, USA; and Andy Martin, assurance further ensure charge reliability. As a cases, completely remove damage and debris 2. Martin A: Choosing The Right Gun, Petroleum Engineer
Aberdeen, Scotland.
result, perforating test results are more consis- from perforations. International 71, no. 10 (October 1998): 59-72.
Bigshot, CIRP (Completion Insertion and Removal under 3. Naturally occurring or resin-coated sand and high-
Pressure equipment), CleanSHOT, Enerjet, FIV (Formation tent and translatable to downhole conditions for strength bauxite or ceramic synthetics, sized by screen-
Isolation Valve), GunStack, HSD (High Shot Density gun performance projections and productivity esti- ing according to standard U.S. mesh sieves, are used
system), HyperJet, IRIS (Intelligent Remote Implementation as proppants.
System), NODAL, PERFPAC, Pivot Gun, PowerFlow, mates.
Gravel consists of extremely clean, round and carefully
PowerJet, QUANTUM, S.A.F.E. (Slapper-Actuated Firing
sized sand that is small enough to act as a filter and
Equipment), Secure, SPAN (Schlumberger Perforating
prevent production of formation particles, but large
Analysis), UltraJet, UltraPack and X-Tools are marks of
enough to be held in place across productive intervals
Schlumberger.
by a slotted-screen assembly.
4. Cosad C: Choosing a Perforation Strategy,
Oilfield Review 4, no. 4 (October 1992): 54-69.

52 Oilfield Review Spring 2000 53


Shaped-Charge Dynamics A detonating cord initiates the primer and Perforating jets act like high-velocity, rapidly-
Perforations are created in less than a second by detonates the main explosive. The liner collapses expanding rods. Rather than by blasting, burning,
shaped charges that use an explosive cavity to form a high-velocity jet of fluidized metal par- drilling or abrasive wearing, penetration is
effect, which is based on military weapons tech- ticles that is propelled along the charge axis. This achieved by extremely high impact pressures
nology, with a metal liner to maximize penetra- high-energy jet consists of a faster tip and slower 3 million psi [20 GPa] on casing and 300,000 psi
tion (below). Perforating charges consist of a tail. The tip travels at about 4.4 miles/sec [2 GPa] on formations. These enormous jet
primer, outer case, high explosive and conical [7 km/sec], but the tail moves more slowly, less impact pressures cause steel, cement, rock and
metal liner connected to a detonating cord. Each than 0.6 miles/sec [1 km/sec]. This velocity gradi- pore fluids to flow plastically outward. Elastic
component must be made to exact tolerances. At ent stretches the jet so that it penetrates casing, rebound leaves shock-damaged rock, pulverized
the Schlumberger Reservoir Completions Center cement and formation. Perforating jets erode formation grains and debris in the newly created
(SRC) in Rosharon, Texas, USA, these charges are until all energy is expended at the end of a per- perforation tunnels.
designed, manufactured and tested to meet strict foration tunnel.
quality standards. Charge Design and Performance
Shaped charges are designed to generate opti-
mal combinations of hole size and penetration
Shaped charge Charge detonation
using a minimum of explosive material.
Asymmetric, or crooked, jets reduce charge per-
Detonating cord formance, so perforating jets must form exactly
according to design specifications. Consequently,
Case shaped-charge effectiveness depends on charge
5 microseconds symmetry and jet characteristics. Penetration
Conical liner
depends on consistently achieving long jets with
Primer
optimal velocity profiles. A velocity profile must
be established from tip to tail, and perforating
Main explosive jets need to travel as fast as possible. Incorrect
velocity profiles decrease penetration.
Hole size is related to jet shape. Initially, solid-
25 microseconds metal liners, often copper, were used to generate
high-density jets and big holes, but this created
Explosive cavity effects
undesirable metal slugs, or carrots, that plug per-
Explosive Steel target forations. This plugging was believed to be offset
Metallic liner by large-diameter holes and the high permeability
of formations where big-hole charges are used.
Lined cavity
Technology that eliminates slugs and maximizes
40 microseconds
effect area open to flow (AOF) has revised this approach.
Although solid copper liners are still used in some
big-hole charges, recent designs generate jets
without a solid-metal slug.
5. Klotz JA, Krueger RF and Pye DS: Effect of Perforation
Unlined Damage on Well Productivity, Journal of Petroleum
cavity effect Technology 26 (November 1974): 1303.
50 microseconds
6. On November 25, 1998, a gun loaded with new deep-
penetrating PowerJet charges averaged 54.1 in. [137 cm]
of penetration when fired into an API target.
7. Smith PS, Behrmann LA and Yang W: Improvements in
Perforating Performance in High Compressive Strength
Rocks, paper SPE 38141, presented at the SPE
Flat-end European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997.

70 microseconds

> A fraction of a second. In a process that lasts microseconds, millions of dollars and months, if not
years, of preparation culminate when perforating clears a tunnel for hydrocarbons to flow into a well.
Shaped charges, with a capability to instantaneously release energy in an explosive, use a cavity
effect and metal liner to maximize penetration (lower left). Shaped charges consist of four basic
componentsprimer, main explosive, conical liner and case (top left). An explosive wave travels down
the detonating cord, initiating the primer and detonating the main explosive. A detonation advances
spherically, reaching pressures of 7.5 million psi [50 Gpa] before arriving at the liner apex. The charge
case expands and the liner collapses to form a high-velocity jet of fluidized metal particles that is pro-
pelled along the charge axis (right).

54 Oilfield Review
Deep penetrationDrilling and completion
fluid invasion can range from several inches to a
few feet. When formation damage is severe and
1.15 perforations do not extend beyond the invaded
PowerJet charges zone, pressure drop, or skin, is high and produc-
UltraJet charges tivity is reduced.5 Perforations that reach beyond
Productivity ratio, perforated completion

1.0 the damage increase effective wellbore radius


HyperJet charges
and intersect more natural fractures if these are
versus undamaged openhole

present. Deeper penetration also reduces the


0.85
pressure drop across perforated intervals to pre-
vent or reduce sand production. Designed and
manufactured to outperform other charges by at
0.7
least 20 to 30% in high-strength sandstone
cores, PowerJet charges are the latest and most
0.55 efficient perforators available (left).
New liner designsmaterial and geometry
provide improved penetration performance
0.4 (below left). Liners for PowerJet charges are
4 8 12 16 20 24
made of high-density powdered materials which
Damaged-zone thickness, in.
yield maximum jet length and impact pressures
> High-performance perforating. This graph shows the productivity that maximize penetration.6
ratio of perforated completion versus undamaged openhole for It is well known that high-density liners pro-
various depths of formation invasion. For a damaged zone of 16 in., duce deeper penetration, however, working
perforating with a 33 8-in. HSD High Shot Density gun and PowerJet
charges results in more than twice the productivity of older
with these materials is difficult. Improvements
HyperJet and UltraJet deep-penetrating charges. in manufacturing capabilities now allow high-
density liners to be produced consistently.
Manufacturing improvements include strict and
consistent procedures, precision tooling and
stringent quality control (see Charge Manufac-
turing and Testing, page 62).
Charges are also test fired in different mate-
rialshigh-strength sandstone cores, standard
concrete and API Section 1 concreteso that
performance does not become optimized just for
concrete targets.
In high-strength rock, penetration is reduced
by up to 75% compared to API Section I concrete
data. However, charges can be customized for
specific formations.7 During PowerJet charge
development, a project was initiated to optimize
well completion efficiency in hard sandstone for-
mations of South America. The objective was to
increase perforation penetration in sandstones
with 25,000-psi [172-MPa] compressive strengths.
These high-permeability reservoirs have moder-
ate porosity and corresponding large pore throats
that contribute to fluid damage. A combination of
reduced penetration and deep invasion resulted
in low productivity from perforations that did not
extend beyond the damage.
Deep penetration. To ensure performance opti-
>

mization for targets other than concrete, shaped


charges are now tested in different materials
high-strength sandstone, standard concrete
and API Section 1 concrete. However, improved
designs and materials provide most of the
increase in perforation penetration. Compared
with previous deep-penetrating charges (top),
new PowerJet high-density powdered liners and
geometry yield optimal jet velocity and length as
well as extremely high impact pressures (bottom).

Spring 2000 55
To improve production, a three-phase approach pressure of 2000 psi [13.8 MPa] and gas rates not fall to bottom in deviated wells or may reach
was used. Drilling fluids were reformulated to above 2 million m3/day [70.6 million scf/D]. After the surface and damage production equipment.
reduce invasion and damage, the number of per- reperforating, sand-free gas rates of 2.5 million Two strategies are used to control debris.
forations was doubled and custom charges were m3/day at a surface pressure of 2700 psi [18.6 The conventional approach uses zinc cases
designed to increase penetration. The first MPa] were achieved. Efficiency is important not that break up into small particles which are acid
redesign changed only the liner geometry, which only for producing wells, but also for injectors. soluble or can be circulated out. A possible short-
increased penetration from 12.6 to 14 in. [32 to Gas injectivity was improved nine fold, from 17.6 coming of zinc is formation damage.9 Laboratory
36 cm]. However, this was short of the 16-in. to 159 million scf/D [500,000 to 4.5 million m3/d] tests indicate that chloride-rich fluids and gas
[40-cm] objective. Penetration was then by reperforating an injection well in the North percolating into an idle well may combine to pre-
increased to 15.9 in. by optimizing the explosive Sea Norwegian sector with PowerJet charges. cipitate a solid from zinc debris that can stick
pellet design. In field trials, custom charges Big holes, less debris and optimized casing guns. Another disadvantage is additional gun
improved production and injection performance. strengthProprietary liner geometry is also the shocks from energy released when zinc is par-
In one case, a gas-injector perforated at four basis of PowerFlow slug-free big-hole shaped tially consumed during charge detonation.
holes per foot using optimized charges outper- charges, which generate large holes without a Because of these disadvantages, operators are
formed other injectors with 12 holes per foot solid-metal slug (below). A large flow area moving away from charges with zinc cases that
made by conventional charges. improves gravel placement for sand control and produce small debris. The Schlumberger patented
In Australia, production from two wells with reduces turbulent pressure-drop restrictions in packing method, which causes steel cases to frag-
7-in. casing that were reperforated using 21 8-in. high-rate wells, especially gas producers. In a ment into large pieces that remain in the carrier, is
through-tubing guns with PowerJet charges unique packing arrangement patented by becoming the preferred option (next page, top).
increased from 300 to 780 BOPD [48 to 124 m3/d] Schlumberger, PowerFlow shaped charges provide Recent guns with increased AOF, optimized
and 470 to 1550 BOPD [75 to 246 m3/d]. In the largest area open to flow available, highest perforated casing strength and reduced debris
another example, an operator in Europe reperfo- remaining casing strength and reduced debris.8 are examples of customized solutions for perfo-
rated wells with PowerJet charges to improve A hazard to well integrity and production, per- rating high flow-rate and gravel-packed wells. In
productivity and reduce sand production. Prior to forating debris should be minimized. Gun and 1998, Conoco requested a larger AOF than was
reperforating, more than 20 liters [2.7 gal] of shaped-charge debris increase the risk of stuck currently available from any commercial guns for
sand were produced each day at a wellhead pipe, collect at the bottom of vertical wells, may projects around the world that require high pro-
duction rates to ensure commercial viability.
To address this need, Schlumberger developed a
7-in. PowerFlow gun for 95 8-in. casing that pro-
duces a 47% greater casing AOF than previous
Solid metal slug
big-hole guns and 31% more than that of the
nearest competitor.
By ensuring adequate casing strength after
perforating, the newest PowerFlow guns also
address an increasingly important aspect of
completion designformation compaction as
reservoir pressure depletes that can collapse
casing. Finite-element calculations for 95 8-in.
casing perforated with the above record-
breaking AOF 7-in. gun indicate that casing
collapse strength is 78% of the original value for
casing that is not perforated.
Fluidized particles
8. Brooks JE, Lands JF, Lendermon GM, Lopez de Cardenas
JE and Parrott RA: Perforating Gun Including a Unique
High Shot Density Packing Arrangement, U.S. Patent
No. 5,673,760 (October 7, 1997).
On October 8, 1999, a 7-in. gun loaded with PowerFlow
charges at 18 shots per foot created 1.14-in. [2.89-cm]
diameter holes and a world record 18.5 in.2/ft [391.6
cm2/m] of casing area open to flow.
9. Javora PH, Ali SA and Miller M: Controlled Debris
Perforating Systems: Prevention of an Unexpected
Source of Formation Damage, paper SPE 58758,
> Big holes. Previously, solid liners that generated residual slugs were presented at the SPE International Symposium on
used to produce big holes. Perforation plugging was believed to be offset Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
by large-diameter holes and high formation permeability. Technology that February 23-24, 2000.
eliminates solid slugs, or carrots, and maximizes hole size, or flow area, has 10. Behrmann LA, Pucknell JK, Bishop SR and Hsia T-Y:
Measurement of Additional Skin Resulting From
revised this approach. Proprietary liners are the basis of these PowerFlow
Perforation Damage, paper SPE 22809, presented at the
charges. X-ray photography shows perforating jet formation in UltraPack 66th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
big-hole shaped charges (top) and PowerFlow (bottom) charges. The solid Dallas, Texas, USA, October 6-9, 1991.
slug from an UltraPack charge is conspicuous. The PowerFlow charge
generates only a fluidized jet of metal particles.

56 Oilfield Review
Damaged Permeability as was believed previously. In addition to explo-
An undesirable side effect of perforating is addi- sive by-products, another possible damage
tional damage in the form of a low-permeability mechanism is transient injection of well fluids
zone around perforations. Single-shot flow and that may cause relative permeability problems.
radial permeameter laboratory results confirmed In extremely hard rocks, microfractures cre-
and quantified this induced perforation skin.10 ated during perforating may serve as pathways
Perforating damage can consist of three ele- that are actually more permeable than the
mentsa crushed zone, migration of fine forma- formation and bypass perforation damage. With
tion particles and debris inside perforation 3000-psi [20.7-MPa] underbalance, negative
tunnels. Shock-wave pressures from the rock face skins equivalent to a stimulation treatment have
to perforation tips shatter adjacent rock and frac- been measured in some high-strength reservoir
ture matrix grains, which damages in-situ perme- and outcrop rock cores.14 Shock-induced damage,
ability primarily by reducing pore-throat size however, most often contributes to total skin,
(below). Migration of small particles from grain restricts well performance and may offset pro-
fragmentation, clay debonding and charge debris duction gains related to other perforation param-
that block pore throats and further reduce perme- eters such as number of shots, hole size, angle
ability also has been observed in the laboratory. between perforations and penetration.
Studies show that induced damage increases The crushed zone can limit both productivity
for larger explosive charges.11 The extent of per- and injectivity. Fines and debris restrict injectivity
foration damage is a function of lithology, rock and increase pump pressure, which decreases
strength, porosity, pore fluid compressibility, clay injection volumes and impairs placement or dis-
content, formation grain size and shaped-charge tribution of gravel and proppants for sand control
designs.12 Research in conjunction with numeri- or hydraulic fracture treatments.15 Erosion of the
cal modeling is providing a better understanding crushed zone as well as removal of debris from
of permeability damage in perforated wells that perforations by surge flow are essential to miti-
can be used to improve completion designs.13 gate perforating damage and ensure well suc-
Crushed-zone porosity is generally unaffected cess in all but the most prolific reservoirs.
by perforating. At least in saturated rocks, den-
sity and porosity around perforations are about
> Controlling debris. A patented packing the same as in the undamaged matrix. Although
arrangement decreases the risk of debris perforating changes rock stresses and mechani-
exiting the gun (top). Shaped charges are
placed in the closest possible arrangement cal properties, it does not compact the formation
for a particular gun size and shot density so
that they cannot expand. Tight confinement
causes cases to break into large pieces that
Casing
remain in the gun (bottom). Small carrier exit
holes also minimize the amount of debris that Cement
can escape.
Undamaged rock
Perforation tunnel

11. Pucknell JK and Behrmann LA: An Investigation of the Crushed-zone damage


Damaged Zone Created by Perforating, paper SPE
22811, presented at the 66th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, Formation damage
October 6-9, 1991.
12. Swift RP, Behrmann LA, Halleck P and Krogh KE:
Micro-Mechanical Modeling of Perforating Shock
Damage, paper SPE 39458, presented at the SPE > Perforating damage. A zone of reduced permeability is
International Symposium on Formation Damage Control,
Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February 18-19, 1998.
created around perforation tunnels by shaped-charge jets.
Shock-wave pressures pulverize adjacent rock, fracture
13. Behrmann LA, Li JL, Venkitaraman A and Li H:
Borehole Dynamics During Underbalanced Perforating, matrix grains, break down intergranular cementation and
paper SPE 38139, presented at the SPE European debond clay particles. Shattering of the formation around
Formation Damage Control Conference, The Hague, perforations damages in-situ permeability primarily by
The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997. reducing pore-throat size. Photomicrographs show
14. Blosser WR: An Assessment of Perforating Performance undamaged rock (top insert) compared to microfracturing
for High Compressive Strength Non-Homogeneous in a perforation crushed zone (bottom insert).
Sandstones, paper SPE 30082, presented at the SPE
European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
The Netherlands, May 15-16, 1995.
15. Behrmann LA and McDonald B: Underbalance or
Extreme Overbalance, paper SPE 31083, presented at
the SPE International Symposium on Formation Damage
Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February 14-15, 1996;
also in SPE Production & Facilities (August 1999):
187-196.

Spring 2000 57
Mitigating Perforation Damage
Casing Undamaged formation Balanced perforating
At one time, perforating was performed with mud
Cement Perforation debris
or high-density fluids in wellsbalanced or over-
balanced conditions. Today, underbalance is more
common to minimize or remove perforation dam-
age. Underbalanced, balanced, overbalanced and Formation Crushed and compacted
extreme overbalance (EOB) describe the pressure damage low-permeability zone
differential between a wellbore and reservoir
before perforating. An underbalance exists when Casing Undamaged formation
3000-psi underbalance perforating
pressure inside a well is less than the formation Cement
pressure. Balanced conditions occur when these
pressures are equal. An overbalance occurs when
well pressure is greater than reservoir pressure.
Extreme overbalance means that well pressure Formation Low-permeability zone and
damage perforation debris expelled
greatly exceeds rock strengthfracture initia- by surge of formation fluid
tion, or breakdown, pressure. Both EOB and frac-
> Underbalanced perforating. In an overbalanced or balanced perforation without cleanup and
turing attempt to bypass damage.16
before flow, the tunnel is plugged by shattered rock and debris (top). Production flow may remove
The potential of underbalance perforating some debris, but much of the low-permeability crushed zone remains. The initial surge flow gener-
was recognized in the 1960s. Wells perforated ated by using an adequate underbalance during perforating helps remove debris and erode the
with underbalance tended to show production crushed zone (bottom).
increases. In the 1970s and early 1980s,
researchers recognized that the flow efficiency of From these data, minimum and maximum crushed-zone damage. Instantaneous flow mini-
perforated completions increased when higher underbalance pressures based on potential sand mizes fluid invasion, loosens damaged rock and
underbalance pressures were used. They con- production were calculated from sonic velocities sweeps away rock debris in perforation tunnels
cluded that post-shot flow was responsible for for gas wells in 1989.19 The original Amoco study (above). The degree to which material is loosened
perforation cleanup and recommended general as well as new data were reanalyzed.20 To is primarily a function of underbalance pressure
underbalance criteria.17 Since then, various account for permeability, fluid viscosity and fluid differential. The high-velocity surge is followed by
aspects of perforating have been investigated density, equations for minimum underbalance pseudosteady-state flow, which is less effective
using field and laboratory data. These studies were based on fluid velocity and turbulent flow because rates and associated drag forces are less
consistently reinforce the advantages of an initial through perforations. The disadvantage was that than those generated during an initial transient
surge to erode perforation crushed zones and this model required knowledge of damage-zone surge. Fluid volume and flow that occur later are
flush out perforating debris. thickness, tunnel diameter in rock and fluid vis- believed to be secondary.
A 1985 Amoco study evaluated 90 wells that cosity. In addition, recent test results do not sup- The underbalance pressures required to effec-
were acidized after being perforated with tubing- port the viscosity dependence of underbalance. tively clean perforations and reduce permeability
conveyed guns in underbalance conditions and These models imply that flow after early-tran- damage have been measured in single-shot perfo-
correlated productivity with permeability to sient surge, including pseudosteady-state flow or rate and flow tests that provide a basic understand-
establish minimum underbalance criteria.18 surging wells after perforating, is less critical for ing of damage mitigation.22 Immediately after
Results did not suggest that there was no perfo- perforation cleanup. However, post-shot flow may perforating in underbalanced conditions, there is
ration damage, only that acid was not needed or sweep some fines into the well and further clean instant decompression of reservoir fluids around a
as effective if underbalance was sufficient. This up perforations.21 In some cases, this accounts for perforation. The dynamic forcespressure differ-
study was the main source of field data for limited sand production when wells come on line. ential and dragthat mitigate permeability dam-
correlating underbalance with reservoir perme- Magnitude and duration of an initial pressure age by eroding and removing fractured formation
ability and perforation performance. surge are believed to dominate cleanup of grains from tunnel walls are highest at this time.
16. Behrmann et al, reference 1. 21. Hsia T-Y and Behrmann LA: Perforating Skins as a 23. Behrmann et al, reference 10.
17. Bell WT: Perforating UnderbalancedEvolving Function of Rock Permeability and Underbalance, Mason JN, Dees JM and Kessler N: Block Tests Model
Techniques, Journal of Petroleum Technology 36 paper SPE 22810, presented at the 66th SPE Annual the Near-Wellbore in a Perforated Sandstone, paper
(October 1984): 1653-1652. Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, SPE 28554, presented at the 69th SPE Annual Technical
October 6-9, 1991. Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana,
18. King GE, Anderson A and Bingham M: A Field Study of
Underbalance Pressures Necessary to Obtain Clean 22. Behrmann et al, reference 10. USA, September 25-28, 1994.
Perforations Using Tubing-Conveyed Perforating, paper Hsia and Behrmann, reference 21. 24. Behrmann LA: Underbalance Criteria for Minimum
SPE 14321, presented at the 60th SPE Annual Technical Pucknell and Behrmann, reference 11. Perforation Damage, paper SPE 30081, presented at
Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, the 1995 SPE European Formation Damage Conference,
Behrmann LA, Pucknell JK and Bishop SR: Effects
September 22-25, 1985. The Hague, The Netherlands, May 15-16, 1995; also in
of Underbalance and Effective Stress on Perforation
19. Crawford HR: Underbalanced Perforating Design, SPE Drilling & Completion (September 1996): 173-177.
Damage in Weak Sandstone: Initial Results, paper
paper SPE 19749, presented at the 64th SPE Annual SPE 24770, presented at the 67th Annual Technical
Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Conference and Exhibition, Washington DC, USA,
Texas, USA, October 8-11, 1989. October 4-7, 1992.
20. Tariq SM: New, Generalized Criteria for Determining the Bartusiak R, Behrmann LA and Halleck PM: Experimental
Level of Underbalance for Obtaining Clean Perforations, Investigation of Surge Flow Velocity and Volume Needed
paper SPE 20636, presented at the 65th SPE Annual to Obtain Perforation Cleanup, paper SPE 26896,
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, presented at the SPE Eastern Regional Conference
Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, 1990. and Exhibition, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, November
2-4, 1993. Also in Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering 17 (1997): 19-28.

58 Oilfield Review
Optimum underbalance versus permeability
10,000
Underbalance criteria. Underbalance
>
1500-psi underbalance
is widely accepted as the most efficient
method to obtain clean perforations.

Optimum underbalance, psi


Optimal underbalance pressure
criteria have increased substantially
over the past decade as a result of
hundreds of laboratory tests. Field 1000
observations by King et al developed 1000-psi underbalance
criteria based on the efficiency of
sandstone acidizing. Behrmann
Behrmann (1995)
correlated laboratory data with the
viscous drag force to remove fine King (1985)
particles (left). Laboratory tests confirm 100
1 10 100 1000 10,000
that higher underbalance is needed to
clean perforations (right). Permeability, mD

Transient surge-flow velocities are dependent perforation cleanup. Underbalance requirements and other completion operations under downhole
on underbalance and formation permeability. The calculated using this method are two to four conditions with overburden stress as well as
pressure differential required to create clean, effec- times greater than previous criteria (above). pore and wellbore pressure (below).
tive perforations is a function of permeability, Because underbalance impacts perforation This setup allows researchers to shoot and
porosity and rock strength in addition to charge type performance and well productivity, it is essential flow through a single perforation in outcrop or
and size. For example, deep-penetrating charges to understand the fluid dynamics involved. reservoir cores oriented from horizontal to verti-
are less damaging than big-hole charges. Less than Knowledge about perforating shocks, pressures cal with any perforating system. Oil and water
optimal underbalance results in variable perforation and fluid flow is helpful in selecting an optimal two-phase flow and dry-gas flow can be evalu-
damage and flow rate per perforation, and most underbalance and designing downhole tools. The ated at constant rates with a continuous record
data suggest that higher underbalance pressures advanced flow laboratory at SRC includes two of absolute and differential pressure measure-
than those often used in the field are needed to test vessels for investigating perforation flow ments. Perforations can be examined with a color
minimize or eliminate perforating damage.23
Although turbulent flow does occur at early
times with low-viscosity fluids, test results indi-
cate that turbulence is not required for perfora-
tion cleanup. Instead cleanup of permeability
damage around a perforation has now been
related to viscous drag.24 The key factors are
pressure differential and subsequent transient,
slightly compressible radial flow, either laminar
or turbulent, which was the starting point for
obtaining semi-empirical underbalance and skin
Advanced flow laboratory
equations with historic data sets. for core perforation-flow studies
The resulting combined theoretical and
empirical equations provide a way to calculate
optimal underbalance for zero perforation dam- Micrometer valve
Wellbore-pore
age or perforation skin if less than optimal under-
pressure differential
balance is used. Single-perforation skin can be
used in flow simulators to obtain total perfora- Wellbore pressure
tion skin and evaluate or compare perforating Shooting plate simulating
casing and cement
options. Now the most widely accepted criteria
Shooting Gun with shaped charge
for estimating underbalance to obtain zero-skin leads
perforations, this methodology was the result of Core sample
more than a decade of research on optimizing Simulated wellbore
Confining chamber
>

Single-perforation flow tests. The advanced


flow laboratory at SRC includes two vessels for
investigating perforation flow under downhole 5-gallon accumulator 30-gallon accumulator
overburden, pore and wellbore pressure condi-
Wellbore fast data

connected to wellbore
tions (top). One vessel is for cores up to 7-in.
Confining fast data

diameter and 18 in. long; the other accommo-


dates cores as large as 11.5-in. diameter and
24 in. long. This setup allows flow tests through
outcrop or reservoir cores that can be oriented
from horizontal to vertical (bottom). Fast quartz gauges Simulated reservoir core samples

Spring 2000 59
> Flow lab video. Perforation flow can be examined visually with a color video probe while cores are under hydrostatic stress. A perforation filled with
pulverized formation material and surrounded by fragmented quartz grains is shown on the left. A perforation without fragmentation is shown in the middle,
but pulverized material remains along the bottom of the tunnel. A clean perforation with no fill is shown on the right.

video probe during flow through the core while a short period of injection into the perforation Optimizing Perforation Parameters
under hydrostatic stress (above). Other opera- associated with a transient overbalance due to Damage removal and perforation cleanup are
tions, like gravel injection and acidizing also can injection of detonation gases from the gun. The important elements of perforating design and job
be evaluated. Wellbore dynamics can be simu- magnitude of the pressure differential driving this execution, but consideration must also be given
lated to measure transient pressures, surge flow fluid injection depends on charge size and rock- to tunnel diameter and length in the formation,
and perforating shocks. sample permeability. shot density, or number of holes specified in
Surge-flow rate and duration are controlled by Underbalance perforating has evolved as the shots per foot (spf), perforation orientation, or
initial underbalance pressure, formation perme- result of research that concentrates on predicting phasingangle between holesand entrance-
ability, perforation damage, depth of near-well- the pressure differential to minimize perforation hole size in the casing and cement (next page,
bore formation damage, and the nature of skin. However, the likelihood of sand production, bottom left). Pressure drop from perforating dam-
wellbore and reservoir fluids. Fast transient data, casing collapse, gun movement and stuck tools age, or total perforation skin, is a function of
not acquired previously due to the cost and must be weighed against potential benefits. these key perforation parameters, formation per-
difficulty of obtaining these measurements, are Design guidelines include minimum underbal- meability and crushed-zone thickness.
helping researchers understand underbalanced ance pressure for perforation cleanup, maximum Well completions have different perforating
perforating (below).25 Wellbore pressure, reser- underbalance pressure to avoid sanding, and requirements. Some wells produce commercial
voir-wellbore pressure differential and surge-flow fluid cushionsa gas or liquid columnor volumes naturally after perforating and do not
data recorded at millisecond resolutions indicate mechanical anchors to minimize tool movement. require stimulation or sand management during
completion. These natural completions are asso-
Wellbore pressure Underbalance pressure Surge-flow rate
ciated with permeable, high-porosity, high-
6000 80 strength sandstones and carbonates with little
formation damage and adequate matrix conduc-
4500 60 tivity. Perforation length and shot density are the
dominant perforating parameters that dictate
3000 40 productivity in these applications. Perforations
Flow rate, cc/sec
Pressure, psi

must overcome drilling-induced damage and


1500 20 fluid invasion. As a rule of thumb, deep penetra-
tion, at least 50% beyond damage, is needed to
0 0
effectively connect with undamaged rock.
Shot density and phasing also play important
-1500 -20
roles. Increasing shot density reduces perforation
-3000 -40
skin, and wells produce at lower pressures. If for-
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 mations are laminated or have high anisotropy
Time, sec significantly different vertical and horizontal
> Typical underbalance perforating pressure responses and flow rates versus time. Data were permeabilitiesshot density needs to be high.
obtained at 2000 samples/sec in single-perforation flow tests under simulated downhole conditions As skin approaches zero, shot density is impor-
of effective stress, well and reservoir pressure. After detonation, well pressure (red) increases and tant. Phased charges reduce pressure drop near a
underbalance (blue) declines, allowing some flow (green) into the perforation. As detonation gases go well by providing flow conduits on all sides of a
into solution and the empty gun fills with fluid, wellbore pressure again falls causing transient surge
flow into a well. This initial flow is believed to mitigate damage and permeability reduction in the well. For naturally fractured formations, multiple
crushed zone. High-velocity transient surge flow is followed by pseudosteady-state surge flow, phasing of deep-penetrating charges helps inter-
which may sweep loose rock and charge debris into the well and clean perforations. Surge flow sect more fractures. If the natural fractures are
continues until well and reservoir pressures equalizezero underbalance, or balance. These same
parallel, oriented perforations are best.
responses occur in balanced and overbalanced pressures, except there is no surge flow in balanced
perforating and flow is from well to formation in overbalanced conditions.

60 Oilfield Review
Although useful for estimating well produc- retical maximum well productivity ratio is defined High shot density is particularly effective if
tivity and assessing trade-offs between different by an ideal gun with infinite shot density that deep penetration is not possible. In natural com-
guns, computer analysis sometimes obscures the enlarges the wellbore radius by a distance equal pletions, tunnel diameter in the formation is the
interaction and relative importance of competing to the perforation penetration (below, top right). least important of the perforation parameters
parameters. Grouping parameters together reveals This establishes the theoretical productivity that and increasing hole size usually occurs at the
underlying dependencies. This type of analysis can be obtained for a perforated natural comple- expense of penetration. A 10% increase in diam-
helped develop a simple method to estimate the tion and defines a maximum productivity effi- eter sacrifices about 20% of the penetration
productivity of perforated natural completions.26 ciency for perforating systems in terms of a and reduces the dimensionless factor by 15%.
Combining perforation and formation parameters dimensionless factor. Practical application of this Another reason not to emphasize hole size when
in a single dimensionless group gives quick pro- method lies in determining trade-offs between selecting guns for natural completions is that
ductivity estimates over a range of variables that perforation parameters, underbalance, productivity perforating jets that make big holes may also
agree with the established analytical estimates improvement and economics. cause additional damage.
of commercially available computer programs. Penetration and shot density clearly are Reduced flow from high anisotropy, perforat-
Applicable for perforations that extend important for natural completions. Penetration ing damage or formation damage can be partially
beyond formation damage in a spiral phasing has an increasing proportional effect as perfora- overcome by selecting a gun with the highest
pattern, this method assumes that perforation tions extend farther beyond formation damage. dimensionless factor, whether by deep penetra-
length, shot density, perforation tunnel diameter, Shot density has a 1.5 exponential power effect. tion, high shot density, underbalance damage
wellbore diameter, local formation damage In addition, because perforation damage is mitigation or a combination of these factors. The
around a well, perforating-induced permeability inversely proportional to the dimensionless fac- best perforating strategies are defined as those
damage and permeability anisotropy are the pri- tor, it should be minimized by perforating with an that provide productivity efficiencies close to
mary variables governing productivity. The theo- appropriate underbalance pressure differential. 100% (bottom right).
(continued on page 64)
25. Behrmann et al, reference 13.
26. Brooks JE: A Simple Method for Estimating Well
Productivity, paper SPE 38148, presented at the SPE
European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
Ideal perforating gun
The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997. 2P + D

Damaged-zone diameter D
P
Openhole diameter

N=4 N=8 N=

> A simple method to estimate well productivity. Maximum well productivity


Crushed-zone is defined by an ideal perforator with infinite shot density, which enlarges
diameter the effective wellbore diameter (D) by the perforation length, or depth of
penetration (P). In natural completions, this theoretical flow limit is used to
Perforation define perforating system efficiency for perforations that extend beyond
tunnel
Perforation diameter formation damage in a spiral pattern.
spacing
(dependent on
shot density) 100

Perforation
Productivity efficiency, %

80
length

60

40 P = penetration
N = shot density
d = perforation diameter
20 = anisotropy ratio
Phase angle
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
> Perforation parameters. To be effective, perforations must overcome Dimensionless factor, 0 = PN3/2d1/2-5/8
drilling-induced damage and fluid invasion around a well. Shaped-
> Productivity efficiency versus dimensionless perforating factor.
charge performance is defined by casing entrance-hole size and tunnel
length. Well productivity, however, is governed by formation damage,
perforation length, shot density, perforation damage that remains after
underbalance surge and the ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability
anisotropy. Shot density is the number of holes specified in shots per
foot (spf). Phasing is the angle between holes.

Spring 2000 61
Charge Manufacturing and Testing

Mixtures of metal powders, corrosion inhibitors must meet strict quality standards and be fabri-
and lubricants that help the powders flow have cated to exact tolerances to ensure that perfo-
replaced solid liners in most Schlumberger rating jets form exactly according to design
charges. At the Schlumberger Reservoir Comple- specifications. A nonuniform liner collapse will
tions Center (SRC) in Rosharon, Texas, liners create heterogeneous jet densities, shapes and
and charges are produced in a series of pressing velocity profiles that adversely affect hole size
operations (below). Powdered components are and shape, and drastically reduce performance.
shaped into a cone using a mechanical punch. To maintain proper tolerances, precision manu-
Copper, tungsten, tin, zinc and lead powders are facturing tools are built and maintained in-house
commonly used to produce required jet density using a state-of-the-art machine shop (right). > Manufacturing tools. To maintain proper
and velocity, properties critical to perforating Computerized pressing operations ensure high tolerances, Schlumberger produces and maintains
precision mechanical dies, punches and equipment
performance. The main explosive is poured into quality and minimize variations. using an in-house, state-of-the-art tool shop.
a case, levelled and pressed to optimal density Charge manufacturing is computer-controlled,
under a high load. A liner is then pressed into but there is human intervention to handle liners a single area facilitates efficient manufactur-
the explosive to complete the charge. and check for cracks, make visual inspections ing and helps optimize charge performance.
Although conceptually simple, shaped-charge and clean die tools. Technicians manufacture Multiple-bay work areas speed manufacturing
manufacturing requires great precision. Charge and package millions of charges each year. and provide flexibility to meet changing well
componentscase, primer, explosive and liner A team approach with functions located in completion requirements (next page, top).
Manufacturing parameters are displayed in real
time to detect process deviations.
Quality control is maintained on all materials
used to manufacture charges, from cases and
powdered-liner metals to explosives. A database
with serial numbers, history cards, associated
drawings and historical information tracks all
charges (next page, bottom left). These records
allow day-to-day oversight of shaped-charge pro-
duction quality and highlight manufacturing
improvements that impact charge performance.
Liner fabrication For example, procedures that were initiated
while developing new deep-penetrating charges
Pressing force
Completed were implemented for other charges, resulting
Liner liner
punch in further performance improvement.
Explosive
powder Case Perforating systems are tested according to
Liner Liner Liner Liner
diebody powder diebody the American Petroleum Institute (API) RP 43,
5th Edition, Section 1.1 New RP 19B procedures
Liner Liner Loading Case are compatible with RP 43, except for a major
ejector ejector diebody ejector
1 2 3 4 revision to prevent target inconsistencies.2 The
Liner powder placed Liner pressed with Completed liner ejected Explosive powder
in ejector high force from diebody placed in charge case Shaped-charge manufacturing. Today, most liners
>

are mixtures of metal powders, corrosion inhibitors


Explosive loading and lubricants that help the powders flow (top).
In a series of pressing operations, these powders
Pressing force Pressing force Pressing force are shaped into a cone using a mechanical punch
and die (middlesteps 1-3). Assembling a shaped-
Final Liner charge involves placing a primer at the base of a
Preform Explosive form Explosive insertion Liner Completed
punch pellet punch pellet punch charge case and pouring in the main explosive (middle
step 4). The main explosive is then levelled and
pressed to optimal density under high loads
(bottomsteps 5 and 6). A charge is completed
by pressing a liner onto the explosive (bottom
5 6 7 8 steps 7 and 8).
Preform explosive Form explosive powder Liner inserted and pressed Completed charge ejected
powder for density into conical shape into explosive from diebody

62 Oilfield Review
sand used in concrete targets is specified as
16/30 U.S. mesh. This change, which was
recently approved to address discrepancies in
penetration-depth tests that result from large
variations in the sand grain sizes used to make
concrete targets, is being implemented.3
Schlumberger API tests are performed in
large concrete targets at SRC (right). Tests
include certification of new charges as well as
periodic recertification to ensure that published
data represent charges currently being pro-
duced. The API test site is also used for special Casing
client tests involving API Section 1-type targets. Gun
Of particular interest are custom tests involving
Water
multiple casing or completion geometry other
Test
than the standard API RP 43 configuration. briquette
At the beginning of a new production run,
a minimum of two charges is shot in targets
built to Schlumberger standards using actual gun
28-day concrete
carriers in a water standoff that simulates down-
hole conditions. These concrete targets have
a minimum compressive strength of 5000 psi
[34.5 MPa]. Expected penetration in these
> Manufacturing functions. Teams of trained techni-
quality-control targets is calculated based on Steel
cians assemble and package millions of charges culvert
each year. To facilitate high-quality, efficient fabri- API Section I, and a minimum penetration
cation and optimal charge performance, liner-press- requirement for manufacturing is set. Full pro-
ing operations and charge loading are located in a > Shaped-charge testing. Schlumberger API tests
duction begins once test results indicate that
single area (top). Multiple-bay work areas provide are performed in large concrete targets at SRC
flexibility and the capability to respond quickly to minimum requirements have been surpassed. (top). Tests include certification of new charges
changing perforating needs. A special weighing Repeated measurements of total target penetra- as well as periodic charge recertification. The API
room is used to carefully control the explosive con- tion and minimum and maximum entrance-hole test site is used for special client tests involving API
tent of shaped charges (bottom). size are used to check charge quality. Section 1-type targets and testing that involves mul-
tiple casing or well-completion configurations other
During a manufacturing run, periodic tests than a standard API RP 43 configuration (bottom).
are performed to confirm compliance with estab- Oil companies routinely use the API test site and
lished performance specifications for penetration other facilities at SRC for customized testing.
and hole-size standards. Samples are tested every
240 charges for large runs, and every 120 charges
for the small runs associated with high-tempera- bunkers and test fired at regular intervals to
ture charges. Case and liner integrity are verified check for aging effects. Internal audits also verify
by a shock, or drop, test, and ballistic transfer proper charge performance.
sensitivity is checked. For random batches of Test facilities at SRC, while used extensively
charges, detailed measurements are made on all to evaluate new charges and qualify perforating
components. A few charges from each manufac- equipment, are also available for oil company
turing run are stored for audit purposes. During use in completion planning and analysis of diffi-
this period, charges are pulled from storage cult well conditions. In addition to improving
1. The American Petroleum Industry (API) consults with the
perforating performance, standardized and
> Quality assurance. Control is maintained on all oil and gas industry, considers advice and input from ser- custom testing helps researchers and clients
vice companies, operators and scientific organizations,
materials from steel cases and metal powders to
and recommends procedures that balance industry
address confidence in perforating practices and
explosives and the mechanical tools used to fabri- needs, technology and service-provider opinions. operations by verifying that perforating systems
cate charges. A real-time display helps technicians 2. API RP 19R, 1st Edition is a revised version of RP 19B in
identify manufacturing deviations quickly and a
perform consistently at rated temperatures and
which tests are scheduled and registered with the API,
database tracks each shaped charge. These and can be witnessed by third parties. The advantages of pressures for the duration of operations.
records are used to oversee daily operations and RP 19R are that manufacturing companies make a com-
help quantify process improvements so that new mitment to schedule and register tests, which carry
greater credibility than those under RP 43.
procedures that impact perforating performance
can be implemented across the manufacturing 3. Brooks JE, Yang W and Behrmann LA: Effect of Sand-
Grain Size on Perforator Performance, paper SPE 39457,
processes of other charges. presented at the SPE International Symposium on
Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
February 18-19, 1998.

Spring 2000 63
Stimulated Completions 10
Fracture and acid treatments, alone and in com- 9
bination, stimulate well productivity.27 Effective

Injection rate per perforation, bbl/mln


8 25- psi pressure drop
well stimulation requires communication through 50- psi pressure drop
7
as many perforations as possible. This objective 100- psi pressure drop
200- psi pressure drop
is achieved by perforating with optimal underbal- 6
ance, limited-entry techniques or by using ball 5
sealers or straddle packers that mechanically
4
divert stimulation fluids to ensure that perfora-
tions are open.28 Rather than create long 3
hydraulic fractures in a formation, EOB is also 2
an option to enhance communication between
1
perforations and reservoir. Extreme overbalance
perforating can be used before a fracture stimu- 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
lation to reduce breakdown pressure.29
Because hydraulic fracturing is often per- Perforation diameter, in.
formed in low-permeability zones, minimum > Injection rate versus perforation diameter for a water-based fractur-
underbalance to remove perforation damage can ing fluid. The minimum hole size and shot density for fracture stimula-
be extremely high. Maximum underbalance is tion designs are a function of required injection rate per perforation,
surface pressure limitations, fluid properties, completion tubular sizes,
required to ensure removal of perforation damage acceptable perforation friction loss and entrance-hole diameter.
and debris. If damage is not removed, residual
debris may form a filter cake in perforations that
limits injectivity. Inflow is often not affected, but Perforations are the point where pressure If a microannulus is present or might be
the restriction may create high pressures during contacts a formation and fractures initiate. induced by perforating, various factors need to be
injection. An acid job may be needed when perfo- Except for limited-entry and diversion tech- considered.30 To minimize pinch points and reduce
ration damage is not removed before fracturing. niques, it is important to design perforations that flow-path tortuosity, wells with inclinations less
Trade-offs between penetration and hole size minimize pressure drop across the perforations than 30 should be perforated with 180-phased
have to be balanced when selecting shaped during pumping and subsequent production, carrier guns oriented within 10 of the preferred
charges for fracturing applications. While perfo- including perforation friction, microannulus pinch fracture plane (PFP). The PFP direction can be
rations that penetrate more than six inches into a points and tortuosity caused by curved fractures inferred from local geology or well logs.31
formation may not be necessary, adequate size and multiple competing fractures.
holes are needed to avoid screenoutproppant Fluid injection rates directly affect surface
bridgingin or near perforations. Premature pump and fracture initiation pressures. High Microannulus
screenout limits the fracture length and proppant rates and pressures promote fracture initiation at
volumes that can be placed. At moderate to high single sites. At low rates, injection pressure is Pinch point > 30
proppant concentrations, perforation diameter reduced and multiple fractures may initiate from
must be at least six times the average particle perforations and discrete points around a well. Preferred
diameter to prevent screenout. A perforation Shot density is calculated during fracture design. fracture plane
diameter of 8 to 10 times the average particle Minimum shot density depends on required injec-
(PFP)
diameter is preferred to allow for variations in tion rate per perforation, surface pressure limita-
charge performance and gun position. tions, fluid properties, completion tubular sizes,
27. In hydraulic fracturing, fluid is injected at pressures
acceptable perforation friction pressure and
> Pinch points. A microannulus is caused by
above the formation breakdown stress to create a crack, entrance-hole diameter (above).
or fracture, extending in opposite directions from a well. weakening of the hydraulic bond between cement
These fracture wings propagate perpendicular to the
A microannulus is often present after cement- and formation. Because of accompanying tortu-
least rock stress in a preferred fracture plane (PFP). ing, casing pressure-integrity testing, displacing osity, flow restriction and increased pressure, a
Held open by a proppant, usually sand, these conductive
pathways increase effective well radius, allowing linear
drilling or completion fluids, establishing an microannulus and associated pinch point should
flow into a fracture and to the well. In matrix treatments, underbalance, or after perforating and pumping be avoided. If the angle between perforations and
acid is injected below fracturing pressures to dissolve the PFP is greater than 30, a fracture initiates
natural or induced damage that plugs pore throats. Acid
operations that weaken the hydraulic bond from the sandface.
fracturing, most often without proppants, establishes between cement and formation (right). Because
conductivity by differentially etching uneven surfaces
in carbonates that keep fractures open.
of the resulting pinch points, or flow restrictions,
28. Limited entry involves low shot densities1 spf or less a microannulus should be avoided.
across one or more zones with different strengths and
permeability to ensure uniform acid or proppant place-
ment by limiting the pressure differentials between per-
forated intervals. The objective is to maximize stimulation
results. Rubber ball sealers can be used to seal open
perforations and isolate intervals once they are stimu-
lated so that the next interval can be treated. Because
perforations must seal completely, hole diameter and
uniformity are important.
29. Behrmann et al, reference 1.

64 Oilfield Review
Full-scale laboratory tests on fracture initia- results in higher treating pressures, premature When well inclination is greater than 30 and
tion through actual perforations show generic screenout and the possibility of multiple or asym- a wellbore lies in or near the PFP, the recommen-
fracture initiation sites at the base of perfora- metric fractures. dation is to use guns with 180 phasing oriented
tions and the PFP intersection with a borehole.32 Perforation phasing and orientation also are to shoot up and down. The Wireline Oriented
The fracture initiation site depends on perfora- important in fracturing. Tortuosity from a curved Perforating Tool (WOPT) may be used to orient
tion orientation in relation to the PFP. Typically, if fracture path results from misalignment between wireline-conveyed guns in vertical and nonverti-
this angle is greater than 30, fractures occur gun phasing and the PFP. Phased perforations cal wells. Several methods are also available to
where no perforation exists. If a fracture does not tend to create multiple competing fractures. Both orient TCP guns. As wellbores turn away from the
initiate at the perforations, fluid and proppant these factors increase fracturing pressures.33 PFP, perforated intervals should be decreased,
must travel around the cement-sandface inter- Vertical wells with inclinations less than 30 and 60 rather than 180 phasing may be more
face to communicate with a fracture, which should be perforated with 180-phased carrier effective (below).
30. Behrmann LA and Nolte KG: Perforating Requirements guns oriented within 10 of the PFP to increase For high-angle and horizontal wells where the
for Fracture Stimulations, paper SPE 39453, presented the number of perforations open to a fracture, angle between wellbore and PFP is greater than
at the SPE International Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February maximize fracture width near the well and about 75, perforations should be clustered over
18-19, 1998. reduce fracture initiation, or breakdown, pres- a few feet at maximum shot density and with
31. Brie A, Endo T, Hoyle D, Codazzi D, Esmersoy C, Hsu K,
Denoo S, Mueller MC, Plona T, Shenoy R and Sinha B:
sure. If PFP direction is not known or orientation is phasing angles that optimize communication
New Directions in Sonic Logging, Oilfield Review 10, not possible, 60 or 120 phasing is recommended. with one dominant fracture per interval.
no. 1 (Spring 1998): 40-55.
32. Behrmann LA and Elbel JL: Effect of Perforations on
Fracture Initiation, paper SPE 20661, presented at the
65th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 23-26, 1990.
33. Romero J, Mack MG and Elbel JL: Theoretical Model
and Numerical Investigation of Near-Wellbore Effects
in Hydraulic Fracturing, paper SPE 30506, presented
at the 70th SPE Annual Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995.

Fracturing vertical and high-angle wells.


>

For vertical intervals and wellbore inclina-


tions less than 30, guns with 180 phasing
oriented within 10 of the preferred fracture
plane (PFP) are recommended (top left). If
PFP direction is not known, 60 phasing at
higher shot densities should be used (bottom
left). If well inclination is greater than 30
and the wellbore lies in or near the PFP, guns PFP
with 180 phasing oriented to shoot up and
down should be used (top right). As well-
bores turn away from the PFP, perforated
intervals should be decreased and 60 or Perforations
Maximum
lower phasing may be more effective than stress
180 (bottom right). Perforations should be
clustered over short intervals of a few feet Effective
perforations
with maximum shot density and phasing to
optimize communication with one dominant
fracture per interval. Fracture

60
Minimum
stress

Spring 2000 65
Sand management
(cased and perforated wells)

Quantification of
sand-production risk

Unacceptable risk Acceptable risk

Sand control Sand prevention


(exclusion methods)

Identify and minimize sources of Perforating methods to minimize


productivity impairment sand-production risk

Increasing sand strength


Increasing cost

> Sand-management decision tree.

Sand Management: Control or Prevention? Perforating for sand control assumes that the
Depending on formation strength, perforation production of sand is unavoidable and gravel pack-
stresses, flow rate and fluid type, sand may be ing, fracture packs or other mechanical techniques
produced with oil, gas and water when flow is that exclude sand from production flow are
sufficiently high, and there are unconsolidated or needed. Perforating must address adequate
loose formation grains in and around the perfora- underbalance to minimize pressure drop, or skin,
tions. Changes in flow rate related to pressure and remove loose sand to clean out perforation
drawdown, increasing effective stress due to tunnels for optimal gravel placement and efficient
depletion and increasing water production with gravel packing. In sand prevention, perforations
time are the main factors in sand production. are designed to avoid sand production over the life
Sand control utilizes mechanical methods to of a well. Making the right decision impacts initial
exclude sand from produced fluids. Sand pre- costs, production rate and ultimate recovery.
vention incorporates techniques to minimize or
eliminate the amount of sand produced and Sand-Control Requirements
also to reduce the impact of produced sand with- In weak, unconsolidated formations, the conven-
out mechanical exclusion methods. Choosing tional belief is that there are no open perfora-
between these options is a function of perfora- tions in the formation. The only opening for
tion and formation stability and whether per- placing gravel is the hole through casing and
foration failure can be predicted. The essence of cement. This general theory proposes that if for-
sand management is quantification of sand pro- mations are incompetent and sand is produced
duction risk, which helps operators decide if, with hydrocarbons, there is little chance that
how and when sand control or sand prevention open tunnels exist. Single- and multiple-shot per-
should be implemented (above). forating tests have not shown this to be true in
Several methods help predict perforation tun- all cases. Instead, research indicates that perfo-
nel stability over the life of a well. Theoretical ration definition in weak sands depends primarily
borehole stability models adapted to perforations on rock strength, but also on other factors,
are useful in predicting perforation stability as including effective stress, underbalance, distance
stress conditions change due to pressure draw- between adjacent perforations and fluids in the
down and depletion.34 Experimental methods pore spaces and wellbore.
involve testing reservoir cores or outcrop rocks When perforation tunnels are not defined, the
with similar properties.35 Sand-prediction criteria objective of perforating for conventional gravel-
based on production history, by far the most pack operations is to minimize pressure drop
widely used technique, rely on experience from across the gravel-filled hole in casing and cement. > Perforating for sand control. Perforation tunnels
other wells and correlation of rock strength to This pressure drop is dictated by total AOFthe are assumed to be undefined and have little or
calibrate theoretical models and help choose area of individual holes multiplied by the total no opening in weak formations (top). An ideal
between sand control and sand prevention.36 perforation cleaned out by hand in the laboratory
has no perforating-induced rock debris and there
is little intermingling of debris and placed gravel
as shown in scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images (middle). In an actual single-shot test,
perforation debris mixes with gravel and plugs
the pack (bottom).

66 Oilfield Review
number of shotsgravel permeability and flow
rate per perforation. Tests on core samples show
that when tunnels are defined, perforating debris
and formation fines can impair gravel permeability
(previous page, right). The objective is to minimize
induced damage and gravel-pack impairment.
Perforation damage, formation fines and
charge debris should be removed before gravel
packing. Underbalanced perforating and flow
before gravel packing are the best methods to
achieve this objective. The maximum underbal-
ance pressure must be selected to avoid perfora-
tion collapse and catastrophic sand production
during perforating. Perforating with the surface
choke open ensures post-shot flow to transport
debris into the wellbore. Provisions need to be
made to handle transient, finite sand production
at surface until the perforations are clean. When
pressure drop and flow rate per perforation are
low, deep-penetrating charges can be used.
Deep-penetrating charges cause less localized
damage and debris, and provide a larger effec-
tive wellbore radius that reduces pressure drop.
As in fracturing applications, perforation diame-
ter needs be 8 to 10 times the gravel diameter.
Exposing formations to damaging completion
fluids or lost circulation material (LCM) and
> Single-trip gravel packing. A typical PERFPAC assembly includes a TCP gun with an automatic
chemicals during hydrostatic well-control opera-
explosive release, a bottom packer, sand-control screens, a gravel-pack packer with a flapper
tions should be avoided. Damage to open perfo- valve, pressure gauges and recorders, firing head and a dual-drillstring test valve. The TCP guns
rations was observed in tests on Berea are positioned, fired, released and dropped (left). The assembly is then repositioned so that the
sandstone blocks that were perforated, opened screens are across the perforated interval (right). The upper QUANTUM gravel-pack packer is set
and gravel is injected behind the screen. The workstring is then disengaged, leaving the packed
to flow, plugged by LCM and then reopened to
screens in place. Operations take place in a controlled environment so formations are not exposed
flow.37 If a well must be killed, nondamaging to overpressure, LCM or damaging fluids.
brines or mutual solvents are best.
For conventional gravel packing inside casing, and 60 or 45 phasing maximize flow area and are more like conventional hydraulic fracturing
three steps are necessary: set a bottom packer, prevent proppant screenout, or bridging, in the stimulations. The length of perforated interval
perforate and circulate gravel behind gravel-pack perforations. should be limited. Perforations that do not commu-
screens. Disadvantages include long duration of In screenless gravel packs, the formation is nicate with the fracture may produce sand and
operations, and potential formation damage from consolidated with resin and then fractured. need to be eliminated or minimized. Hole diameter
fluid loss or LCM. Perforating guns and gravel- Proppant injected in the fracture prevents the pro- needs to be 8 to 10 times greater than the proppant
pack hardware can now be run in one step. The duction of formation sand. Because proppant does diameter and perforations with 0 or 180 phasing
PERFPAC system is a single-trip sand-control not fill the perforations, perforating requirements should be oriented to within 30 of the PFP.
method that limits fluid loss, reduces formation 34. Bruce S: A Mechanical Stability Log, paper SPE 19942, 36481, presented at the 71st SPE Annual Technical
damage and saves time (above right). presented at the 1990 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, USA,
Houston, Texas, USA, February 27-March 2, 1990. October 6-9, 1996.
In addition to internal gravel packs, perforat-
Weingarten J and Perkins T: Prediction of Sand 35. Behrman L, Willson SM, de Bree P and Presles C:
ing plays an important role in external sand-con- Production in Gas Wells: Methods and Gulf of Mexico Field Implications from Full-Scale Sand Production
trol applications like fracture packing and Cast Studies, paper SPE 24797, presented at the 67th Experiments, paper SPE 38639, presented at the 72nd
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
screenless gravel packs.38 Perforating require- Washington, DC, USA, October 4-7, 1992. San Antonio, Texas, USA, October 5-8, 1997.
ments for fracture packing are the same as for van den Hoek PJ, Hertogh GMM, Kooijman AP, de Bree P, Presles C and Cruesot M: A Sand Failure Test Can Cut
Kenter CJ and Papamichos E: A New Concept of Both Completion Costs and the Number of Development
internal gravel packs because it is more important Sand Production Prediction: Theory and Laboratory Wells, paper SPE 38186, presented at the SPE European
to minimize pressure drop through the pack and Experiments, paper SPE 36418, presented at the 71st Formation Damage Conference, The Hague,
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997.
control sand production than to create long frac- Denver, Colorado, USA, October 6-9, 1996. 36. Venkitaraman A, Li H, Leonard AJ and Bowden PR:
tures. However, efficient proppant placement is Kooijman AP, van den Hoek PJ, de Bree P, Kenter CJ, Experimental Investigation of Sanding Propensity for
required to create an external pack. Big holes Zheng Z and Khodaverdian M: Horizontal Wellbore the Andrew Completion, paper SPE 50387, presented
Stability and Sand Production in Weakly Consolidated at the SPE International Conference on Horizontal
with high shot density12, 16, 18 or 21 spf Sandstones, paper SPE 36419, presented at the 71st Well Technology, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, November
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 1-4, 1998.
Denver, Colorado, USA, October 6-9, 1996. 37. Mason et al, reference 23.
Blok RHJ, Welling RWF, Behrmann LA and Venkitaraman 38. Behrmann and Nolte, reference 30.
A: Experimental Investigation of the Influence of
Perforating on Gravel-Pack Impairment, paper SPE

Spring 2000 67
Preventing Sand Production
Sand production in unconsolidated and some weak 4000

>
Perforation stability. For sand
consolidated formations results from tunnel col-

Wellbore pressure, psi


prevention, stability analysis
lapse or formation failure between perforations. To 3000 can determine a safe operating
avoid subsequent problems that adversely affect Safe envelope for pressure draw-
productivity and profitability, and limit well-inter- 2000 drawdown down during production that
will prevent perforation failure
vention options, sand prevention must address and the interlinking of failure
1000
changes in producing rates, formation stress and Formation failure zones around adjacent
water production. Once formation stability and per- 0 perforations.
foration failure thresholds are determined by mod- 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
eling, laboratory testing or analysis of historical Reservoir pressure, psi
data, perforating methods are available to mini-
mize sand production.39 Prevention implies an down below the critical level of formation failure. bate transport of failed formation material and
acceptably low risk of sand production. Single-shot perforation and flow tests on cores may lead to sand production.
More powerful big-hole charges, phase angle can confirm underbalance values that prevent A method for designing guns with optimal
and excessive underbalance contribute to perfo- sand transport, quantify the impact of increasing phasing and maximum distance between holes
rating damage and potential interperforation fail- water production and generally verify formation was developed to further reduce the risk of for-
ure. To prevent sand production, perforation and perforation stability (above right). mation collapse between perforations (below).41
designs should minimize hole size in the forma- In addition to single-perforation instability, By adjusting phase angle for a given wellbore
tion, pressure drawdown across perforated inter- interlinking of failure zones around adjacent per- radius and shot density, the distance between
vals and flow rate per perforation. Perforations forations, which is dictated by the distance perforations can be increased to avoid interac-
also should be as far apart as possible. When a between perforations, leads to formation collapse tion between adjacent perforations. Optimized
large stress contrast exists in the formation and and sand production. Smaller holes and decreased phasing minimizes interference and interlinking
stress directions are known, oriented perforating shot density increase perforation spacing, but this of adjacent damaged zones, which reduces the
using various systems can increase tunnel stabil- has the undesirable effect of increasing flow rate risk of formation failure without compromising
ity by taking advantage of minimum stress direc- and pressure drop per perforation, which exacer- flow rate per perforation.
tions.40 Selective perforating can avoid weak
zones or formations altogether.
Because small-diameter perforations are
more stable than those created by big-hole
charges, deep-penetrating charges are recom-
mended for sand prevention. This also minimizes
perforation damage, provides more stability
during drawdown and depletion, and increases
the distance between perforations. Higher shot
densities keep drawdown, flow rate and drag
L3
forces through each perforation below a critical
value and minimize formation erosion.
Optimal underbalance perforating reduces L1
perforation damage and avoids sanding from L2
catastrophic tunnel failure that could stick guns.
Perforation stability models help determine
underbalance limits that keep pressure draw-
39. Venkitaraman A, Behrmann LA and Noordermeer AH:
Perforating Requirements for Sand Prevention,
paper SPE 58788, presented at the SPE International
Symposium on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette,
Louisiana, USA, February 23-24, 2000.
40. Sulbaran AL, Carbonell RS and Lpez-de-Crdenas JE:
Oriented Perforating for Sand Prevention, paper SPE 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
57954, presented at the 1999 SPE European Formation
Conference, The Hague, The Netherlands, May 31-
June 1, 1999. > Optimal phasing for sand prevention. The actual perforation phasing in
41. Behrmann LA: Apparatus and Method for Determining the formation depends on wellbore radius and shot density. A new method
an Optimum Phase Angle for Phased Charges in a developed and patented by Schlumberger helps design guns with a phase
Perforating Gun to Maximize Distances Between
Perforations in a Formation, U.S. Patent No. 5,392,857
angle that maximizes the distances (L1, L2 and L3) between holes. The goal
(February 28, 1995). for a given shot density is to preserve the intervening formation as much as
possible without compromising flow rate per perforation.

68 Oilfield Review
The effectiveness of optimal phasing was mation properties. With detailed log permeability
demonstrated in the BP Amoco Magnus field in data, numerous simulations were carried out to
Brae
the North Sea. The original perforating strategy Piper
evaluate guns, charges, shot densities and perfo-
Claymore
used guns with 6 spf at 60 phasing (below left). rating strategies. Based on these simulations, final
In 1997, this was changed to 99 optimal phasing Beatrice Britannia completion designs included specific charge
Buchan
while maintaining the same shot density and Forties designs and shot densities for various formation
charge type. Wells perforated with the new guns Montrose Lomond sections instead of using average properties to
had fewer sand-related production problems. The Aberdeen Erskine determine perforating parameters.42
increase in perforation spacing for an optimum Fulmar
In general, four key aspects of perforating
gun phasing can be substantial compared with have a major impact on productivity and play an
standard gun phasing. For Magnus field, assum- important role in determining well completion
ing a centralized gun, minimum perforation spac- N successperforation dimensions (length and
ing was increased from 4.88 to 7.61 in. [12.4 to diameter), shot density, phasing angles and
19.4 cm], a 56% increase, by changing from 60 to degree of perforation damage. The choice of gun
UK
99 phasing. system parameters to optimize a completion was
Optimal underbalance and phasing in carried out using theoretical analysis of comple-
> Britannia field location.
conjunction with deep-penetrating charges are tion efficiency using inflow, or NODAL, analysis
preferred in sand-prevention applications. programs. For the Britannia study, lithology varia-
Ultrahigh-shot density guns with deep penetra- An Overall Perforating Strategy tions also were taken into account. Log and core
tion also have been used to prevent sanding in Operated by Chevron and Conoco, the North Sea data were used to determine the productivity of
weak, but consolidated rocks. However, even Britannia field is a gas reservoir (above). Before various individual layers based on conductivity
with perforating techniques for sand prevention, the wells were completed, potential sand produc- and formation damage. For each layer, numerical
production flow may transport limited volumes of tionperforation stabilityand optimal under- productivity simulations were carried out to deter-
debris from perforation crushed zones and tun- balance pressure during perforating to minimize or mine the optimal perforation parameters of shot
nels. As in the case of sand control, transient eliminate perforation skin were major concerns. density, penetration and underbalance conditions
sand production at surface needs to be dealt with Theoretical models were used to predict optimal (below). An acceptable gun phasing was fixed.
until perforations are completely cleaned up. underbalance conditions based on log-derived for-
42. Underdown DR, Jenkins WH, Pitts A, Venkitaraman A
and Li H: Optimizing Perforating Strategy in Well
Completions to Maximize Productivity, paper SPE 58772, X300
presented at the SPE International Symposium on
Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
February 23-24, 2000.

X200
Depth, ft

X100

Increasing
stress

X000
1000 10,000 0 300
Underbalance, psi Permeability, mD

Zone Formation Permeability, Unconfined Porosity, % Drawdown, psi (rate, MMscf/D)


thickness, ft mD stress, psi Rate 1 Rate 2 Rate 3 Rate 4
B 10.5 98.56 8928 15.77 227 (20) 822 (40) 1739 (60) 3401 (80)
Formation
C 10 20.3 9346 13.54 259 (5) 643 (10) 1181 (15) 1935 (20)
failure

Thickness of near- Productivity index, MMscf/D/100psi


wellbore damage, Zone B (98.56 mD) Zone C (20.3 mD)
60 phasing 99 phasing in. 5 spf, charge A 12 spf, charge X 5 spf, charge A 12 spf, charge X
2 not applicable not applicable 0.796 0.897
> Optimal phasing. Optimal phasing was used 4 4.91 4.99 0.646 0.711
successfully in the BP Amoco Magnus field in 6 4.38 4.40 0.573 0.619
the North Sea to prevent failure of the formation 8 4.03 3.71 0.526 0.527
between perforations. The original perforating 10 3.68 3.12 not applicable not applicable
strategy used 33 8-in. guns with 6 spf at 60
phasing (left). In 1997, this was changed to 99 > Optimizing perforating strategies. For the Britannia field, lithology variations were taken into
optimal phasing while maintaining the same account instead of just using average reservoir properties. Zone B had greater formation damage
shot density (right). Wells perforated with the new depth than zone C. Charge A at 5 spf was used for zone B, resulting in about a 15% productivity
guns had fewer sand-related production problems. increase. Charge X at 12 spf was used for zone C, resulting in about a 10% productivity increase.

Spring 2000 69
Current underbalance guidelines lead to large Gun and Conveyance Choices charges and most of the debris are contained in
pressure differential requirements in high- Shaped charges are placed in guns and conveyed hollow steel carriers that are retrieved or released
strength, low-permeability zones. This issue was downhole to the correct depth by wireline, slick- and dropped to bottom after perforating.
addressed during the Britannia study in single- line, tubing or drillpipe, and coiled tubing. There Casing and through-tubing guns, both capsule
shot perforate and flow tests on reservoir and are two types of guns, capsule and carrier (below). and carrier, were initially run on wireline; tubing-
outcrop rocks conducted in the advanced flow Capsule guns, like the Enerjet and Pivot Gun sys- conveyed perforating (TCP) with HSD High Shot
laboratory at SRC in Rosharon, Texas. Another tems, are used in through-tubing electric wireline Density guns became popular in the early 1980s.
concern during underbalance perforating is and slickline perforating. Charges in capsule guns Through-tubing guns, including casing and HSD
potential sand production from perforation col- are exposed to well conditions and must be encap- guns, are limited in gun size and length by well
lapse, which was also addressed in the single- sulated in separate pressure-proof containers. completion design and surface pressure control
shot studies that simulated downhole stress and Debris from these expendable guns is left in a well equipment. The use of underbalance is also lim-
flowing conditions. after firing. Carrier guns are conveyed on wireline ited when guns are run on electric line. Guns
Laboratory tests confirmed theoretical under- or slickline, tubing or drillpipe run by drilling and deployed on tubing offer a wide variety of
balance predictions and perforation stability. workover rigs or snubbing units, and on coiled tub- choices and allow for simultaneous underbal-
Reservoir and outcrop cores were perforated ing with or without an electric line. In these guns, ance perforating of long intervals.43
using simulated downhole conditions and under-
balance pressures determined from simulations. Capsule guns Tubing
The perforation strategy for this field was Casing
selected based on results from this study. Flow
performance of perforated reservoir cores veri-
fied earlier conclusions about formation sensitiv-
ity to aqueous wellbore fluidsbrineand
confirmed perforation stability at high underbal-
ance cleanup conditions. A 1000-psi [6.9-MPa]
underbalance in outcrop sample tests resulted in
low perforation skin. Analysis of performance
after completion indicated low to negative skin in
12 wells. In addition to determining the best per-
forating design for each completion application,
this approach emphasized the need to study opti-
mal underbalance, especially in gas formations,
to optimize overall completion strategies.

Gun types. Perforating guns are classified as Pivot Gun


>

capsule or carrier. A few examples are shown at Retrievable Standard Expendable 111/16 -in. 3.79-in.
right. Capsule guns are conveyed by wireline or Enerjet Enerjet Enerjet OD running OD deployed
slickline in through-tubing operations. Detonating
cords are exposed to downhole conditions, so Carrier guns
the charges are encapsulated in pressure-proof
containers. Expendable through-tubing capsule
guns generate debris, which remains in a well
after perforating. Carrier, or casing, guns are
conveyed by wireline, tubing and coiled tubing
and can be designed to retain debris inside the
carrier. Detonation occurs inside the carrier
Patented charge
under atmospheric pressure. packing

1.56-in. HSD gun 2.0-in. HSD gun 2.25-in. HSD gun 5.85-in. Bigshot 6 5/8-in. Bigshot
4 spf zero phasing 6 spf, 60 spiral 6 spf, 60 spiral 18 spf, 120/60 18 spf, 120/60
phasing phasing phasing phasing

70 Oilfield Review
Today, perforating often encompasses more
than traditional running and firing of guns. Timing of perforating events
Perforating systems are an integral part of well after charge detonation

ll
we
ns
completion equipment and completion opera-

gu

lve ion
en
d

m
lui

op
va ct
tions that are designed to perform multiple oper-

fro
Gu of xits us p ore f

ol ea
re

To r r
Re id
llb

su

X- rvoi
ations in permanent completions, such as setting

flu
Fluid column

n o pen gu res
we

se
re
response

Je um s ith

bo
packers, pressure testing, perforating one or

o w ion
ell
im rm w

pe et n
l
En ail nnu

n t rat
ax fo n
Reservoir

M tail actio
more intervals and initiating tool functions, all in

a
response

d e
t r
Je inte
a single operation. The timing of perforating

tt
t
Je
events, such as charge detonation, resulting
shocks and gun release, are used to help ensure 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
that perforating TCP guns release and drop, even microseconds milliseconds
in high-angle wells (right). Guns have been Time
released and dropped successfully in well pro- > The timing of perforating events. Todays perforating systems do more
files up to about 84. than just deploy and fire gun strings. These systems often set packers,
Downhole operationsA family of X-Tools initiate pressure tests, perforate more than one interval and initiate
downhole tool functions, all in a single operation. For example, the timing
perforating gun-actuated completion tools of charge detonation, resulting shocks, reservoir response and tool functions
wireline/coiled tubing explosive-type automatic are coordinated to ensure that guns drop to the bottom of wellbores.
release (WXAR), superfast explosive-type auto-
matic gun release (SXAR), monobore anchor with
explosive-type release (MAXR), superfast explo- allows underbalanced perforating of long inter- for dropping guns or the need to kill wells after
sive-type production valve (SXPV) and superfast vals in one descent. The system can be deployed perforating. The CIRP system is used with gun
explosive-type vertical shock absorber (SXVA) and retrieved by slickline, electric wireline or diameters from 2 to 4.5 in. Gun lengths of 2000 ft
are designed to perform specific functions like coiled tubing. When necessary, gun sections can [610 m] with up to 60 connectors have been run.
fast release and dropping of gun strings after be retrieved without killing the well. This system The completion FIV Formation Isolation Valve
perforating and opening valves. These functions can be used to perforate wells without interrupt- tool, integrated into the permanent completion
are initiated by an explosive on the same ballis- ing production. In combination with techniques design, allows long strings of perforating guns to
tic chain as the perforating guns. Actuation of like WXAR or MAXR, the GunStack, or CDAD, be run in and out of wells without hydrostatic
these explosive devices after guns are fired system also allows guns to be run in sections overbalance control. A fullbore completion valve
greatly increases the versatility of perforating according to available lubricator length and that is normally run below a permanent packer,
completion operations. weight capacity of the conveyance method. the FIV tool acts as a downhole lubricator valve
Gun length and perforating without killing The first gun section is run and latched onto a and isolates perforated intervals from the pro-
wellsTotal weight of long gun strings and downhole anchor, bridge plug or packer set by duction string above. The gun length per run is
running or retrieving guns under pressure restrict wireline for precise depth control. The gun string limited only by weight restrictions of the con-
wireline, coiled tubing and tubing-conveyed also can be landed against the bottom of a well. veyance method used.
perforating. However, these limitations are In this configuration, the string is not anchored. After perforating, guns are pulled above the
overcome by permanent completion perforating Consecutive sections are assembled and con- FIV tool, which is closed by a shifting tool on the
(PCP) systems. nected on top of each other until the required gun end of the gun string. Well pressure is bled off
The GunStack stackable perforating gun sys- length is achieved. Rather than simply stacking and the guns are retrieved. The FIV tool then is
tem, also known as Completions Downhole or latching, the connectors solidly connect each opened for production by applying a predeter-
Assembly and Disconnect (CDAD), allows down- gun section to the next. Guns can be discon- mined sequence of pressure cycles. The FIV tool
hole assembly of multiple gun sections to any nected mechanically at any time. The connectors also can be opened and closed an indefinite num-
length with or without a rig. This equipment disconnect automatically after a delay that fol- ber of times with a mechanical shifting tool. This
43. In June 1999, the longest gun to date, a special tapered
lows gun detonation. This prevents gun sections valve system was developed for the BP Amoco
HSD gun, was successfully fired in Well M-16 at the from moving uphole during detonation and under- Andrew field in the North Sea.44
BP Amoco Wytch Farm field in southern England. This
world record gun string was 8583 ft [2616 m] long from
balance surge flow, and allows wells to be perfo- Success of the FIV tool was the basis for
top to bottom and shot with more than 25,000 CleanSHOT rated with maximum underbalance. design of a liner top isolation valve (LTIV) that
deep-penetrating charges.
The CIRP Completion Insertion and Retrieval operates on the same principles. The LTIV is a
44. Patel D, Kusaka, Mason J and Gomersall S: The Develop-
ment and Application of the Formation Isolation Valve, under Pressure perforating system was designed fullbore ball valve that isolates formations from
presented at the Offshore Mediterranean Conference so gun strings could be assembled at surface, completion fluid after a zone is completed with
and Exhibition, Ravenna, Italy, March 19-21, 1997.
Kusaka K, Patel D, Gomersall S, Mason J and Doughty P:
inserted in wells, extracted and disassembled an uncemented liner. The LTIV tool is run directly
Underbalance Perforation in Long Horizontal Well in the without killing the wells. The CIRP system facili- below a liner-hanger packer and can be opened
Andrew Field, paper OTC 8532, presented at the 1997
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, USA,
tates running long guns in and out of wells under and closed as many times as required. Once the
May 5-6, 1997. pressure using wireline or coiled tubing. This ball is closed, the formation is isolated from com-
Mason J and Gomersall D: Andrew/Cyrus Horizontal allows an entire interval to be perforated at one pletion fluid until the well is ready for production.
Well Completions, paper SPE 38183, presented at
the SPE European Formation Damage Conference, time with an appropriate underbalance. The valve holds pressure from above and below,
The Hague, The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997. Retrieving and disassembling guns under pres- which makes it suitable as a long-term barrier.
sure eliminate the need to drill deeper to allow

Spring 2000 71
High-angle wellsIn high-angle and horizon- Reservoir Economics Technique
tal wells, wireline may not allow guns to descend
unless a tractor is used. Coiled tubing is the pre-

l
r s ne u eanu rfor wel
ferred conveyance method, unless a horizontal

e
ns

un

siz
)
Ne ay z ion c all p lling

d
er
ati

ole
ire
section is so long that helical buckling occurs

on
i

ing ell
t p orat rge g (k

qu

,h
in

rfo e) re

on
e
su llin

ed

the
before the perforating interval is reached.

ati
p
ro

nc

e
to atho

etr
dit hile ling
um val cont

rat
-an n we bala

en
rig al d odu
Tractors have also been used successfully to

kil

(r
l

W al w pf, p
t

er

Ne qui ling
Op n re thou

pe
pr
No rate out
to

nd

ll

s
extend the maximum reach of coiled tubing. In

il
lls

ith
wi

ers s
r

e,
red

ell
we

w
tim mo

siz
st uns

rf

Ho n _
Re ate

on
pe
many of todays high-angle and extended-reach

Hi hut

Re gle
g

Be ell
i
re
r

t
ve

rfo

rfo

ov
gu

on
w
gu

ad
mo

ork
ve
oo

pe

pe

riz
w
wells, there may be no alternative to TCP or PCP.

gh

st
No
Re

Sh
Fa
If mechanical pulling or pushing force must Through-tubing
be exerted on a gun system, TCP, snubbing, 1
SXAR
coiled tubing and tractors offer more versatility 1 2
MAXR
than electric line and slickline. For long guns like
WXAR
those used in horizontal wells, gun-string design 3 1
FIV
must consider tensile strength. High-strength 3
Wireline CIRP
adapters and tapered gun strings have been 3
used successfully. Gun bending must also be Coiled Tubing CIRP
3 4 4 4
modeled and addressed. GunStack (CDAD)
Perforating-deployment technology has Advantage 1
Rig required for installation, but not for perforating 3
Guns are in place impeding cleanup
evolved from early electric line and tubing-, or ( ) Limitations 2
Best in monobores 4
Requires suitable conveyor
drillstring-, conveyed guns, and now includes
coiled tubing with or without electric line, snub- > Conveyance choices. To optimize perforating operations, the advantages, disadvantages and limita-
bing units, slickline and downhole tractors on tions of all gun systems that are considered for a specific completion must be weighed. This table lists
wireline and coiled tubing. Each conveyance reservoir, economic and technical benefits of equipment that is used to perforate without killing a well.
method has advantages and disadvantages
related to performing downhole operations, gun
length and pressure control, perforating without A Wireline Perforator Anchoring Tool (WPAT) Duration of operationsThe timing of opera-
killing wells, mechanical strength and wellbore device was developed to anchor guns in slimhole tions varies for each well. If intervals are vertical
angle, depth correlation, rigless intervention and monobore completions and prevent guns from and shortless than 40 ft [12 m]and perfo-
gun type. To optimize perforation designs, these moving after detonation. The WPAT device, now rated in balanced or overbalanced conditions,
pros and cons must be weighed for all gun available in two sizes, one for 2-in. guns in 27 8- wireline perforating usually can be performed in
systems being considered for a specific comple- in. tubulars and another for 21 4-in. or 21 2-in. guns a few hours and may be the most efficient
tion (above right). Other considerations include in 31 2-in. completions, counteracts potentially method. If the interval is longer or has multiple
underbalanced perforating and timing or duration large forces generated by flowing fluids that can sections, wireline operations require more than
of operations. force guns uphole with disastrous consequences. one trip, which prevents use of underbalance
UnderbalanceOptions for perforating with The main application of the WPAT anchor is to during subsequent gun runs. As well deviation
underbalance have reached a high degree of perforate with extremely high underbalance. increases, operating time increases, especially if
sophistication as a result of hardware for TCP or Another application is to protect cable weak the gun-string weight is low and surface pres-
PCP and wireline anchoring devices. Whatever points from high-tensile loads. sure-control equipment is used. When well devi-
the conveyance method, it is usually possible to The tool has positive anchoring and releasing ation exceeds about 65, other conveyance
perforate with sufficient underbalance. Practical mechanisms. Mechanical slips are designed to be methods like TCP and PCP that require a longer
exceptions when optimal underbalance cannot nondamaging and can be retracted by jarring running-in time must be used. If perforating inter-
be achieved are depleted reservoirs, shallow upward if guns become stuck after perforating. vals become significantly longer, the overall dura-
wells or wells with existing open perforations. A calibrated orifice that meters oil at a spe- tion of TCP is shorter than wireline operations
For certain conditions, a high underbalance is cific rate provides the holding period, which can and the entire interval can be perforated with
needed to clean out perforations and generate be set for up to an hour. This allows sufficient underbalance for optimal perforation cleanup.
post-shot flow. With wireline-conveyed guns, this time to establish an underbalance, perforate and 45. Huber KB and Pease JM: Safe Perforating Unaffected
is possible only if anchoring devices are used conduct a pressure drawdown test. The tool by Radio and Electric Power, paper SPE 20635, pre-
sented at the 65th Annual SPE Technical Conference
while shooting to prevent guns from being blown releases automatically after the programmed and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
uphole. Anchoring devices are also recom- time elapses. The tool may be configured in two September 23-26, 1990.
ways; one operates on well pressure and the Huber et al: Method and Apparatus for Safe Transport
mended when the level of underbalance is Handling Arming and Firing of Perforating Guns Using a
unknown and guns are exposed to a sudden fluid other, for a dry hole, operates on pressure supplied Bubble Activated Detonator, U.S. Patent No. 5,088,413
by a gas bottle that is part of the system. (February 18, 1992).
influx, as for example, when perforating new
Lerche et al: Firing System for a Perforating Gun
intervals in formations with differentially depleted Including an Exploading Foil Initiator and an Outer
producing intervals. Housing for Conducting Wireline Current and EFI
Current, U.S. Patent No. 5,347,929 (September 20, 1994).

72 Oilfield Review
1.5

Productivity ratio, perforated competion versus undamaged openhole


1.2
Safety Gun 2
Gun 5
Two types of detonators are used in perforating Gun 1
guns: electrical detonators, or blasting caps, and 0.9 Gun 4
percussion detonators. Conventional electrical
detonators are susceptible to accidental applica-
Gun 3
tion of power from electric potential differences
0.6
(EPD), which constitutes a safety hazard.
Percussion detonators that are used in TCP sys-
tems actuate mechanically when a firing pin
strikes a pressure-sealed membrane and deto- 0.3
nates a primary high explosive.
The S.A.F.E. Slapper-Actuated Firing Equip-
ment system was developed to be immune from 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
potential differences created by radio-frequency
Crushed-zone versus formation permeability, Kc/K
(RF) radiation, impressed current from corrosion
cathodic protection, electric welding, high- Gun Description Phase spf
1 4 1/2-in. HSD UltraJet 135 12
tension power lines and induction motors such as 2 4 1/2-in. HSD PowerJet 72 5
topdrives on drilling rigs. This system eliminates 3 1 11/16-in. Enerjet 0 4
the need to shut down vital radio communications 4 2 1/8-in. Power Enerjet 0 6
5 4 1/2-in. HSD UltraJet 72 5
and equipment during perforating operations.45
The detonating mechanism in the S.A.F.E. sys-
Ratio of damaged-zone versus
tem is an Exploding Foil Initiator (EFI) rather than Anisotropic ratio: 10 formation permeability, K d /K: 0.5
a primary high explosive. To fire a gun, a capaci- Damaged-zone thickness: 4 in. Crushed-zone thickness: 1 in.
tor in the downhole electronic cartridge is
SPAN Version 6.0
charged and then allowed to discharge abruptly. Copyright 1999 Schlumberger
The heat produced by this discharge vaporizes a
section of metal foil, which slaps an adjacent > Perforation design and analysis. The SPAN Schlumberger Perfo-
explosive pellet with sufficient energy to deto- rating Analysis program is used to predict completion efficiency
and select the best gun system. Underbalance calculations are
nate it. This detonation shears a small aluminum based on the most current criteria. If the actual pressure differen-
flyer that impacts a booster that fires the gun. A tial is less than the minimum underbalance for zero damage, skin
major advantage of S.A.F.E. equipment is that due to residual damage is calculated to show how productivity is
wellsite assembly is quicker than for conven- reduced. Here well productivity is calculated for five gun types at
different shot densities and phase angles.
tional electrical detonators. Disadvantages of the
S.A.F.E. detonator are cost and size, which takes
up lubricator space. Perforation Design and Analysis In design mode, this software helps select
The Secure detonator is a third-generation Perforated completions can be designed using gun systems based on specific well parame-
S.A.F.E.-type device that also uses an EFI. It does the SPAN Schlumberger Perforating Analysis terscompletion geometry, fluids and under-
not contain primary high explosives or a down- software, which predicts perforating efficiency balance (above). When actual underbalance is
hole electronic cartridge. A microcircuit performs under downhole conditions.46 The program less than the minimum required for zero damage,
the same functions as the electronic cartridge and combines modules that estimate downhole pen- perforation skin due to residual damage is calcu-
EFI together in a package that is similiar in size to etration, calculate productivity and determine lated to show how productivity is reduced.
a conventional electric detonator. The Secure sys- optimal underbalance. In the first module, pene- The SPAN program also can be used to
tem has all the technical advantages of S.A.F.E. tration depth and hole size are estimated for use analyze production after wells are completed or
detonators, but is more reliable, fully expendable in a second module, which calculates well pro- recompleted. If actual production data match
and smaller so that gun strings can be shorter. ductivity. Optimal underbalance for zero-skin SPAN program calculations, a perforated comple-
46. Carnegie A: Application of Computer Models to perforations is determined by using algorithms in tion is considered successful. When production
Optimise Perforating Efficiency, paper SPE 38042, the third module for currently accepted underbal- objectives are not realized, the reasonsdeep
presented at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, April 14-16, 1997. ance criteria.47 When calculations cannot be formation invasion, incomplete damage removal
47. Behrmann and Elbel, reference 32. made algorithmically, as in the case of correcting or incorrect assumptionsneed to be deter-
48. de Araujo PF and Coelho de Souza Padilha TC: surface-test penetration for in-situ environmen- mined. Because the SPAN program incorporates
Integrating Geology and Perforating, World Oil 218,
no. 2 (February 1997): 128-131. tal conditions like rock strength and formation geological aspects, it is helpful for integrating
stress, an extensive database of perforating reservoir descriptions in perforation designs.48
performance in Berea sandstone cores or slabs,
API data and other test results is used.

Spring 2000 73
Standard
Reservoir equipment
Research considerations Custom
Smart limitations solutions
perforating

Formation Wireline Well


requirements No-kill Gun-activated anchor requirements
perforating tools

Hydraulic TCP and


Hole size fracture Capsule guns Sand Carrier guns PCP
stimulation control conveyance

Perforating- Single-trip
induced gravel Optional
Orientation Sand High shot
damage packing phasing prevention density

Well High-angle
Shot wells
density productivity Phase High-rate
Underbalance angle wells

Formation Low-debris
Hard rocks Deep- damage Natural Big-hole
penetrating guns charges
fractures
charges

> Fitting together the pieces of the puzzle. The many perforating options and a myriad
of well-completion factors exponentially increase the number of decisions that must be
made before perforating. A smart perforating systems approach helps operators realize
more benefit from perforating solutions that are available to overcome the technical
dilemmas associated with perforated completions.

Smart Perforating and can be packed with gravel to keep the for- cated to developing customized solutions. Many
Every cased well must have perforations to mation particles out of the perforation and the of these new developments eventually become
produce hydrocarbons, but different reservoir wellbore. Perforations also can be designed to standard products and services that extend
and completion combinations have different per- prevent tunnel and formation failure associated the range of options available to operators. The
forating requirements. Because perforating is with sand production. best perforation designs are based on specific
such a critical element of well productivity, the In the past, integrating formation and perfo- well requirements to optimize production. This
requirements of each well should be optimized rating considerations, including underbalance, total-systems approachsmart perforating
based on specific formation properties. The best was an exception rather than a rule. Theory and emphasizes practices that maximize well produc-
way to achieve this is to understand how reser- software were available to analyze perforation tivity and helps operators realize the most benefit
voirs respond to natural, stimulated and sand- performance, but completion decisions were from the perforating solutions that are available
management completions. Factors that need to often based on average formation properties or to overcome dilemmas associated with perfo-
be taken into account include formation com- perforating limitations unrelated to productivity. rated well completions (above).
pressive strength and stress, reservoir pressure Today, thinking in terms of whats best for a By adapting perforation designs to specific
and temperature, zone thickness and lithology, reservoir is the predominant approach. Operators reservoirs, perforating technology can be inte-
porosity, permeability, anisotropy, damage and consider what a particular field development grated with geology, formation evaluation and
fluid typegas or oil. requires and then select the best completion completion techniques to determine the right
Hardhigh-strengthformations and reser- techniques and hardware that are available. equipment, shaped charge, carrier system, con-
voirs damaged by drilling fluids benefit the most Standard off-the-shelf equipment and ser- veyance method and pressure condition for per-
from deep-penetrating perforations that extend vices sometimes do not meet those needs. New forming efficient and effective perforating
beyond the formation damage and increase the tools, procedures and servicesshaped charges, operations. Computer simulations can be used to
effective wellbore radius. Low-permeability completion equipment, conveyance alternatives compare performance versus design expecta-
reservoirs that need hydraulic-fracture stimula- and applications for underbalance, overbalance tions. Existing tools and methods can then be
tion to produce economically require appro- or extreme overbalanceoften need to be devel- improved and used more effectively. The ultimate
priately spaced and oriented perforations. oped. As a result, significant Schlumberger goal is to design custom perforating solutions for
Unconsolidated formations that may produce research and engineering resources are dedi- each well to maximize productivity. MET
sand need big holes which reduce pressure drop

74 Oilfield Review

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