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C H A P T E R

Design,
produce and
evaluate
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
5.3.1 Justifies responsible practices and ethical use of information
and software technology.
5.3.2 Acquires and manipulates data and information in an ethical
manner.
5.5.1 Applies collaborative work practices to complete tasks.
5.5.2 Communicates ideas, processes and solutions to a targeted
audience.

Overview
The first section of this chapter introduces students to project work
and the four stages in project development. The remainder of this
chapter provides a detailed explanation of each stage. You will
learn the problem solving processes and techniques involved in the
development of a solution.
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1.1 Project work


Students are required to complete a series of projects in this course.
A project is an organised series of activities to design, produce and
evaluate technology solutions to solve a problem. Projects are a
fundamental part of this course.

Project development
The development of an information technology solution is not
haphazard. It requires a logical and organised approach to ensure
that the most suitable solution is obtained. There are four stages in
developing a solution (see Figure 1.1). The acronym DDPE can be
used to remember the four stages:
Defining and analysing the problem involves identifying the
problem to be solved. The exact requirements of the problem
need to be determined and whether it can be solved using
information technology. All factors need to be identified, such
as technical, operational, time, financial and ethical.
Designing possible solutions involves generating different
solutions to the problem. It may require investigating solutions
to similar problems. It often involves using application software.
However, if the problem requires a specific solution, then the
solution may involve programming.
Producing the solution involves
Defining and building the solution to solve the
analysing the
problem problem. It involves applying the
Change in requirements application software to the
problem or writing software.
Evaluating the solution involves
Designing
possible checking the results of the
solutions solution and making sure it solves
all aspects of the problem. It can
Change in design
be used to highlight and improve
any part of the solution.
Producing
the solution Project development aims to produce
a solution that is as efficient and
error-free as possible. There are three
Change in solution
important features:
Evaluating Each stage has certain tasks to
the solution be completed. It builds on the
decisions of the previous stages.
Figure 1.1 Stages in project development However, in the development

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of a solution there is often a good reason to return to the


previous stage.
Each stage is not always separate and distinct. People involved
in the development of a solution often switch between stages.
The extent of each stage depends on the complexity and size of
the project. In a small project, some of the stages can be
simplified and completed very quickly. However, in a large
project all the stages will be more involved.

Management
The most efficient way of solving a problem is through careful
planning and making the best use of your available resources.
A project plan describes what is to be done, who will do it, when
it will be done and how it will be done. It outlines the resources that
will be needed and the expected results of each stage in the project.
When developing a project plan you need to be aware of the overall
stages of the project and the tasks that have to be completed. The
project plan should effectively use the talents of each member of the
group. Different tasks are assigned to each member and the
workload spread across the group. A journal and diary entries are
used to record and monitor the progress of the project. A project
plan is prepared by a project leader. A project leader is responsible
for the project from the beginning to the end. They ensure the
project is meeting its goals and resolve any conflicts.
A Gantt chart provides a quick method of determining if the
project is on time. Gantt charts are used in meetings to review
progress and identify problems. A Gantt chart is a bar chart with
each bar representing a task. The vertical axis of a Gantt chart lists
the tasks and the horizontal axis shows the time frame (see Figure
1.2). The success of a project depends on accurate time estimates
for each task. Tasks can be concurrent or dependent. Concurrent
tasks are tasks performed at the same time. A dependent task
requires another task to be completed before it can begin.
File management is an important but often neglected part of
project planning. If an efficient file structure and naming system is
implemented time will not be wasted. The importance of backing
up your project cannot be overstressed. Unfortunately there have
been group members who have lost all their work the day before
the project was to be completed. This problem is avoidable. Group
members need to implement a process for backing up their project
on a regular basis.

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Figure 1.2 A Gantt chart

Resources are the tools needed to complete all the tasks of a


project. The type of problem and the size of project have an effect
on the resources. Resources can include the group members,
hardware, software, consumables (paper, ink cartridges, CDs),
access to the Internet, data, finances and time. Identifying resource
requirements early in the project will save time and resources later.
Is the available information technology suitable for the project?
How can the data be collected? What training is required to
complete the project?

Communication techniques
Communication techniques include a variety of strategies and skills
for dealing with other people. Strategies for effective
communication are categorised as verbal, written and graphical:
Verbal communication is the use of the spoken word. It involves
not only the words themselves but also the tone and the
loudness of the voice. For example, this has been a great day
could have a negative or a positive meaning depending the way
Tutorial
the words are spoken. Effective verbal communication skills
allow you to inform, persuade and motivate others. You should
choose your words carefully and practise any major speeches.
When conducting an interview the questions should be
thoroughly prepared before the interview.
Written communication involves creating something for others
to read. It could involve writing a letter, poem, newspaper
article, text on a website or a manual. When producing a
written document you should consider the appropriateness of
the solution. Figure 1.3 shows two documents that are not
appropriate solutions. The first document is a formal document
that is inappropriate to remind Rebecca to clean her room. On
the other hand, the second document is an informal document
that is an inappropriate request to purchase a business. When

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Rebecca Hi Davo
It has become apparent on I like your department stores and
numerous occasions, that you have love to spend time in them. I will
not made the necessary effort to give you heaps of money to buy
clean your room. Let this document your business.
serve as a notice to remind you to What do you think mate? Ripper
clean your room. of an idea.

Yours sincerely Your buddy


The Parent Gracie

Figure 1.3 Two documents that are inappropriate for their purpose

using written communication consider the purpose and the


target audience.
Graphical communication is the use of a graphic such as a
drawing, painting, diagram, photograph or chart. We are
influenced by images from newspapers, magazines, television,
CDs, billboards, the Internet and advertising material. Society is
increasing its dependence on graphics as a means of
communication. Our use of graphics is reflected in the saying a
picture is worth a thousand words. Graphics are created using
painting and drawing programs. Most software applications
contain basic graphic tools and a range of clip art to include
relevant graphics.

Collaboration and group work


Collaboration is the process of working with another person. Most
people in the workforce are required to work in groups and
collaborate with other group members. The ability to work with
other people to solve a problem is an important skill.
The formation of a group for a project is based on criteria such
as expertise and group dynamics. It is also important to have
answers to these questions: How big is the project? What is the
appropriate size of the group? Does the group have the skills to
complete the project? What resources are available? What is the
time frame for the project? Formation of groups at school may be
decided by the teacher. When a group is chosen it is important to
assess the skills and abilities of each group member. This allows
decisions to be made based on each group members strengths and

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limitations. The group can then take full advantage of their


strengths in a project and learn from each other.
Roles and responsibilities of group members are determined by
the type of project and the skills of each group member. The
official role of each group member in the organisation is also a
factor. For example, a graphic artist will not be writing a report and
a writer will not be creating images. At the beginning of the project
all roles and responsibilities must be identified and negotiated. All
group members have a responsibility to complete their task on
time, communicate with other group members and maintain
A skills audit
defines the major appropriate standards.
skills and abilities Effective collaboration strategies make possible the sharing of
of group members. information and lead to a genuine understanding. Some of the
It is completed at
the beginning of strategies for effective collaboration are:
the project. positive attitudeinvolves valuing the contribution made by
other group members; praising and encouraging every member
of the group
active listeninginvolves restating, reflecting and summarising
the persons major ideas and feelings; active listeners understand
and appreciate the point of view of other group members
conflict resolutionsolves arguments and disputes; it involves
listening to the other persons views and looking at the conflict
as a problem to be solved (see Figure 1.4)

Figure 1.4 Conflict resolution

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negotiation skillsdiscussing a problem and arriving at a


consensus; it involves listening to different views and
compromising to reach a solution
group buildinggetting a group of people working together;
each group member negotiates a role in the group with specific
responsibilities and, as a result, conflict and confusion are
avoided.

Exercise 1.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ is an organised series of activities to design, produce
and evaluate technology solutions to solve a problem.
b In the development of a solution there is often a good reason
to _______ to the previous stage.
c A Gantt chart is a quick method of determining if the project is
on _______.
d When using written communication consider the _______ and
the target audience.
2 True or false?
a There are five stages in developing a solution.
b Each stage is always separate and distinct
c File management is not a neglected part of project planning.
d Inactive listeners understand and appreciate the point of view
of other group members.
3 At what stage in developing a solution is each of the following
tasks undertaken?
a Building the solution
b Identifying the problem
c Checking the result
d Generating different solutions
4 a What is a project plan?
b Describe a Gantt chart.
c Explain the difference between a concurrent and a dependent
task.
d Why is it important to create a backup of a project?
e How are the roles and responsibilities of a group determined?
f List five strategies for effective collaboration.

Development
5 Writing a letter to a friend is a simple problem solved using a
computer. Classify the tasks in writing the letter using the four
stages of project development.

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6 If each stage in project development is completed correctly there is


no need to return to the previous stage. Do you agree with this
statement? Give reasons for your answer.
7 Ng is travelling from Sydney to Port Macquarie for a holiday. He
has estimated the following time for these tasks: packing bags2
hours; checking the car1 hour; driving from Sydney to
Newcastle2 hours; lunch1 hour; driving from Newcastle to Port
Macquarie2 hours. Draw a Gantt chart for these tasks.

1.2 Defining and analysing


the problem
Defining and analysing the problem is the first stage in developing a
solution. It involves identifying the problem and determining
whether it can be solved using information technology.

Identification of the problem


Identifying the problem is an essential step in developing a
solution. It is often a mistake to quickly start producing a solution
without a full understanding of the problem. A great deal of time
might be wasted by solving a problem that does not exist. A
thorough analysis of the problem is critical. It involves specifying
the:
problem statementa clear definition of the problem, which
may involve breaking the problem into parts and identifying the
important elements
aims and objectivesidentifying what is to be achieved by the
solution, because it is essential that a decision is made on what
information needs to be produced and the data required to
produce this information.
Defining and analysing the problem is based on the collection of
data. It is very important that the data is collected in an organised
way to ensure nothing is omitted. There are several methods to
collect data, such as interviews, surveys, printed text and the
Internet.
Interview is a face-to-face meeting where specific questions are
asked to determine the opinions of the interviewee. The
questions need to be carefully planned ahead of time. They
should not discriminate on the basis of gender, religion, age, or
political preferences. There are three types of questions:
open-ended: What do you think ?

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closed: Which alternative in this list would you choose?


probe: Why do you ?
Survey (or questionnaire) is a series of questions to gather
specific information. The interviewee may be given time to
complete the survey or it could be carried out face-to-face or
online. Surveys may contain open-ended and closed questions.
Surveys allow data to be collected from a large number of
people quickly and with little expense.
Printed text has been the source of data since the beginning of
the seventeenth century. It can take many different forms, such
as books, magazines, newspapers, newsletters, reports and
journals.
The Internet is a major source of data. Websites present
information on a range of topics. The Internet also allows data to
be downloaded. It is possible to download files containing text,
graphics, animation, video, audio and software (see Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Searching the Internet

Data must be carefully interpreted to ensure that the resulting


information is valid. For example, can the results of a survey be
generalised to a larger group of people? The reliability of the data is
also an issue. If a similar research were conducted at another time
and place would the results be the same? It is important to use only
accurate data when developing a solution.
After the data is collected and checked for accuracy it must be
carefully analysed. Entering the data into a table is a good way to
examine the data. It enables totals to be easily calculated and
comparisons between different results to be made. Tables can be
created using word processors, database management systems and
spreadsheets. Spreadsheets are also useful in constructing charts of
numerical data.

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The results of this stage are summarised in a requirement


report. A requirement report is an overview of the solution and how
A contingency
plan outlines the it will solve the problem. The requirement report contains the
actions to be problem statement, the aim of the solution, data/information to be
taken if a
used and possible information technology requirements. It is used
particular event
occurs. For to develop potential solutions to the problem.
example, if data is
lost, then the most
recent backup will
Factors that affect the solution
be used to restore A constraint is a factor that affects the solution. There are different
the data. types of constraints, such as technical, operational, schedule,
financial and ethical.
Technical determines the information technology requirements
of the solution. Is there hardware and software readily available?
Is there enough knowledge and skill to use the technology?
Operational determines whether the solution will fit into the
current operations of the organisation. Will the new solution be
supported within the organisation? Will users be able to cope
with the changes?
Schedule determines if time is available to produce the new
solution. Does the quality of the solution have to be modified
given the time restriction?
Financial compares the costs of developing the solution with the
expected benefits. Does this project have a higher priority
compared to other projects that might use the same resources?
Ethical determines if the solution maintains an ethical standard.
Would the solution be an invasion of privacy or are there
concerns about the accuracy of the data?

Exercise 1.2
1 What am I?
a A clear definition of the problem.
b An overview of the solution and how it will solve the problem.
c A factor that affects the solution.
d A series of questions to gather specific information.
2 True or false?
a A great deal of time can be wasted by solving a problem that
does not exist.
b Surveys only contain closed questions.
c Operational constraints determine the information technology
requirements of the solution.
d Schedule constraints determine if time is available to produce
the new solution.

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3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in


brackets with a suitable term:
Defining and (a) the problem is based on the (b) of data. There are
several methods to collect data, such as (c), surveys, printed text
and the (d).
4 a Describe the first stage in developing a
solution.
b Why is it important to determine the aims
and objectives of the problem?
c List three types of questions that could be
asked in an interview.
d Describe a good way to examine data after
it has been collected.
e Outline the contents of a requirement
report.
f Explain the difference between a technical
constraint and a financial constraint.

Development
5 Research printed text or the Internet to find
examples of different surveys. Construct a
survey to collect data on an interesting topic
based on your research. Ask members of your
class to complete the survey. Analyse the
results and draw some conclusions.
6 Peter, Kerry and Alice have been asked to work in a group to
produce a report on their businesss financial performance. They
decide to divide the document into three parts and meet in two ICT 1.1
weeks to join the parts together. What are some of the potential
problems with their strategy? Outline a more effective plan to
solve the problem.

1.3 Designing possible


solutions
Designing possible solutions is the second stage in developing a
solution. The first task is to generate one or more potential
solutions to the problem. It is important to focus on what is to be
achieved by the solution. This will ensure that time and effort is not
wasted. Designing a solution may require investigating solutions to
similar problems. For example, if your project requires an
advertising brochure, then analyse professional brochures to get
some ideas. This stage often requires more data to be collected,
such as researching the Internet.

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Design techniques
There are many different techniques that can be used to design
possible solutions. The following are some common design
techniques.
Concept mapping is a technique for representing knowledge
using diagrams (see Figure 1.6). It consists of nodes and links.
The nodes represent the concepts and the links the relationship
between the concepts. Concept mapping is used to generate
ideas, communicate complex ideas and design complex
structures such as websites.

Brainstorming Observation

Concept mapping Design techniques Research

Storyboard Prototype

IPO table

Figure 1.6 A concept map for design techniques

Brainstorming involves generating ideas to solve the problem.


You should try to be creative with your ideas. All ideas are
equally valid. There are no judgements or criticism of ideas.
Try to build on all ideas. Set a time limit when brainstorming.
Observation means watching somebody or something. It may
involve looking at the teacher demonstrating a piece of software
or recording some measurements on Internet speed. Observing
other people with expertise in designing solutions is a quick
way to developing your skills.
Research requires investigation into a subject to gain knowledge
and understanding. Designing solutions may involve using
research tools such as textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopaedias,
newspapers and the Internet. It is good practice to obtain the
information from more than one source. There is no guarantee
that the data collected will be accurate. Do not break copyright
laws. Make sure you cite any sources.

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A prototype is a working model of the solution. It is built to help


design the best possible solution. A prototype allows the user to
identify both good and bad features of the proposed solution.
After a review, improvements are suggested and another version
of the prototype is built. The process is repetitive. Clearly, the
later versions of a prototype are more detailed and accurate. A
prototype might be an outline of a written report, a design of a
web page or a sample database with dummy data.
Inputprocessoutput table (IPO table) is a technique to describe
the solution. It consists of three columns with the headings
Input, Process, and Output (see Table 1.1). It specifies the input
or data needed, the processing that changes the data to produce
information, and the output or information that is produced.
Table 1.1 An example of an IPO table

Input Process Output


Problem statement Research the Design of a possible
Aims and objectives Internet solution

Factors affecting the Investigate solutions Specifications


problem to similar problems
Brainstorm to
generate ideas
Draw a concept map
Construct a
prototype

A storyboard is a series of frames each representing a screen


image. It is based on the traditional cartoonist storyboard where
the cartoonist sketches each frame of the cartoon. Storyboards
should describe the general layout of text, graphics and any
buttons. The links between the screens is indicated by the use of
arrows. Storyboards are popular because they are simple to
construct, easy to read and can be modified at every stage.

Feasibility study
Deciding on the most appropriate solution is an important part of
this stage. A feasibility study is an analysis of potential solutions and
a recommendation on the best solution. The constraints outlined in
the first stage of developing a solution form a set of criteria to make
the recommendation. The recommendation is based on technical,
operational, financial, schedule or ethical constraints. Once the

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feasibility study is completed a report is written. A feasibility report


contains the following sections:
It is advisable to
get a clients title pagereport title, project name, authors and date
acceptance of a contentsa list of sections in the feasibility study and their page
preferred solution
numbers
before proceeding
to produce the problem statementclear definition of the problem
solution. aim of the solutionidentifies what is to be achieved by the
solution
summary of the investigationoverview of the research
undertaken and the design techniques used to generate possible
solutions such as prototypes and storyboards
possible solutionsbrief description of each possible solution
recommendationmost appropriate solution and reasons for
the decision
project plandescribes what is to be done, who will do it, when
it will be done and how it will be done; it also outlines the
resources that will be needed
appendixadditional material such as completed surveys.
When the most appropriate solution has been decided the
specifications of the solution are determined.

Specifications
Specifications are a detailed description of the solution. It is
common for specifications to be divided into external and internal.
External specifications outline the appearance of the solution. The
format and layout of each document, screen, menu or report must
be specified. It may also involve choosing data types and the format
of those data types. Internal specifications provide the technical
information to build the solutionthe hardware and software that
is required to produce the solution. The software requirements of
the solution may be satisfied by using a software package. However,
the solution may require writing software to meet the particular
demands of the problem.

Exercise 1.3
1 True or false?
a Brainstorming is a working model of the solution.
b An IPO table consists of three columns.
c The nodes in a concept map show the relationship between the
concepts.
d Specification is a detailed description of the solution.

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2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in


brackets with a suitable term:
Designing possible (a) is the second stage in developing a solution.
There are many (b) techniques that can be used. A (c) map
represents knowledge using diagrams. In consists of (d) and links.
3 Unjumble these words:
a picaetisocifn
b siindegng
c oypprtote
d aitornbrsm
4 a List seven design techniques used to design possible solutions.
b Why is it good practise to obtain information from more than
one source?
c Why are later versions of a prototype more detailed and
accurate?
d Why are storyboards popular?
e What is a feasibility study?
f Explain the difference between internal and external
specifications.

Development
5 Your family would like to create a yearly newsletter that contains
the major achievements of each family member. Create a prototype
using a word processor or desktop publishing program. Discuss the
prototype with your family and make any changes.
6 Draw a storyboard that represents between five and ten pages of a
website. It should describe the layout of text, graphics and any
buttons. The storyboard should include the home page and
indicate links between the pages.

1.4 Producing the solution


Producing the solution is the third stage in developing a solution. It
involves building the solution to solve the problem. Producing the
solution may involve using application software or writing
software. Software development is examined later in the book.

Application software
Application software (or simply, an application) is a computer
program used for a specific task. It can be used to solve many
different types of problems. A brief description of the common
types of application software follows:
Word processing allows the user to enter characters and create
documents. It is used to write letters, reports, assignments,

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articles or books. Word processing is an important skill for


anyone who communicates in writing. It allows the user to
easily edit text and to apply different formats to change the
appearance of the document.
Desktop publishing is the use of specialised software to combine
text and graphics to create a document. The specialised software
enables you to have greater control on the page. In desktop
publishing you design the page before you type or import a
single word. In a word processor the document layout is usually
completed after the text is written.
Spreadsheet uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and
columns to organise and store data that requires some type of
calculation. A spreadsheet is an excellent tool to help solve
problems that require many calculations. It can present data in
tables and charts, and make predications based on trends (see
Figure 1.7).
Database management
system (DBMS) allows
a user to enter,
maintain and provide
access to a database. A
database is an
organised collection of
data. Some examples of
databases are library
catalogue systems,
student records and
census data.
A DBMS is a tool that
allows the user to
choose which data is
Figure 1.7 A sample spreadsheet required and how to
display that information
in a meaningful way.
Paint programs create a graphic by telling the computer how to
display each pixel. The graphics created are called bit-mapped
graphics. Bit-mapped graphics produce good quality images
when shading and detail are required.
Draw programs create a graphic by dividing the picture into a
number of objects, such as straight lines, curves and shapes.
Each object is defined by its characteristics, such as position,
line width and pattern. The graphics created by draw programs

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are called vector graphics. Vector graphics can be resized


without reducing quality. They are suitable for line drawings,
logos and diagrams that do not use much shading.
Web browsers allow users to find, read and display web pages.
A web browser will display a website if the address (or location)
is entered directly into the browser. Web browsers also link to
other web pages and download information to your computer.
Video editing software allows the user to edit a video into a
multimedia product. A video is made up of frames that contain
individual images. When the video is played, the frames are
displayed in sequence. Editing a video may involve deleting
part of the video or adding text, audio and graphics to a
particular frame.
Animation software allows the user to create an animation.
An animation is the movement of an object. It is the result of a
series of frames presented in rapid succession. Animation
software makes the task of creating these frames very simple.
Presentation software allows the user to make a professional
presentation to a group of people. It improves the communication
of information. A presentation consists of a series of slides. A slide
is an individual screen or page of the presentation.
Authoring software allows the user to combine text, graphics,
animation, audio and video into a multimedia product. The
software allows the user to bring together the separate media
types. Authoring software allows the user to create interactivity.
It assigns relationships and actions for the different media
elements using a script language.
It is useful to have some knowledge and skills in each of the above
applications. This will allow you to select the best application for
each particular task. When choosing an application you need to
ask: What do I need to do? What type of application meets this
need? What applications are available? Each of the above
applications are very powerful programs. However, it is not
necessary to understand and use every feature in each application.
It is possible to complete a task with a small amount of training.
Moving data between applications is a common task. Importing
is the action taken to receive data produced by another program.
Exporting is the action taken to send data to another program.
These actions depend on the applications you are using. For
example, you may be able to export data from a spreadsheet and
import it into a database. When importing and exporting the two
programs must be able to recognise the data format. However, there

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are standard formats that most applications understand. Most word


processors can read and write RTF (rich text format). Graphics are
easy to move between applications by using JPG or GIF files. Copy
and paste commands can be used to move data if the software
applications recognise their formats.

Testing
Testing ensures that the solution is working correctly. It is a good
Moving the goal
posts refers to a idea to test the solution throughout its development. The early
change in the detection of an error reduces the amount of work required to fix
definition of the the error. If the solution involves implementing a system then both
problem after
producing a the hardware and the software need to be tested:
solution. Hardware testingdiagnostic software is used to test whether
the processor is operating efficiently (see Figure 1.8).
Peripheral devices are tested to ensure they are working
appropriately. Networks are tested to ensure transmission
speeds have been achieved.

Figure 1.8 Norton is one company producing diagnostic software

Software testingtest data is used to identify and eliminate any


potential problems in the use of the software. It should cover a
wide range of values to ensure that the solution can deal with
unexpected data. For example, to test the structure of a database
enter some sample data and check the solution.
When producing the solution it is often necessary to write
documentation. Documentation is a written description to explain

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the development and operation of the solution. It may explain


how to use the solution or the steps taken to build the solution.
User documentation provides directions for any person using the
solution. It must be user-friendly. Screen dumps are useful to explain
important procedures. Documentation is helpful to train people to
use the solution and for making minor improvements to the solution.

Exercise 1.4
1 What type of application software is being described?
a Allows the user to enter characters and create documents.
b Uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to
organise and store data that requires some type of calculation.
c Creates a graphic by dividing the picture into a number of
objects, such as straight lines, curves and shapes.
d Allows users to combine text graphics, animation, audio and
video into a multimedia product.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Producing the solution involves _______ what has been
designed.
b A DBMS allows the user to enter, maintain and provide access
to a _______.
c A web browser will display a website if the _______ is entered
directly into the browser.
d Testing ensures the _______ is working correctly.
3 Explain the difference between:
a a desktop publishing program and a word processor
b importing and exporting.
4 a What is application software?
b Compare bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics.
c What is the purpose of presentation software?
d How do you test software?
e What is documentation?

Development
5 Use a word processor to write a letter urging people to donate
blood. Draw a first aid sign using a graphic program. Use the copy
and paste commands to import the first aid sign into the letter.
6 Create the spreadsheet in Figure 1.7. Enter appropriate formulas in
the range of cells H7:I9 and B11:G12. Modify the July sales by
doubling the quantities sold.
7 The presentation of the information is just as important as the
content. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your
answer.

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1.5 Evaluating the solution


Evaluating the solution is the last stage in developing a solution. It
occurs after the solution has been produced and minor problems
have been fixed. Evaluating the solution involves checking the
results of the solution and making sure it solves all aspects of the
problem. Evaluation of the solution can be an ongoing process if
the solution is continually being used. Systems in organisations are
in constant process of evaluation, analysis and development to
improve their efficiency. If the solution is unsatisfactory another
solution is developed. Evaluating the solution can be used to
highlight and improve any part of the project. For example, it could
streamline the processes for the next project or suggest ways of
improving the communication within the group. Evaluating the
solution involves using criteria and a method of evaluation.

Evaluation criteria
Evaluation criteria are
accepted standards used to
make judgements about
solutions. Criteria are
dependent on the type of
problem and the size of the
project. The following
criteria are commonly used
for evaluation:
Functionality of the
solution is whether the
solution works. The
solution must solve the
problem in an
appropriate way. Does it
do what it is supposed
to do? Was an
advertising brochure
part of the solution?
Did the solution
contain images on the
topic? Was a website
created and do all the
links work?

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Functionality of the solution evaluates the basics of the


solution.
Quality of information is an important part of any solution.
If the information presented lacks quality then the solution is
worthless. The quality of the information is judged by the
following characteristics:
accuracyverified to ensure it is correct
relevanceappropriate to the requirements of the problem
timelinessage of the information is appropriate to the task
integritycomplete and does not contain any unnecessary
information.
Ethical information is a requirement of any solution.
Information must not break copyright, invade privacy or
contain offensive material. The solution also needs to be free
from bias. Secondary sources of the data need to be correctly
cited.
Environment of the solution. Does the solution affect or is it
affected by outside influences? Is the solution environmentally
friendly?
Presentation of the information. Information that is presented
in the wrong format may be difficult to understand. Is it more
effective to present this information as a graph? Are the
background colours on this website appropriate?

Methods of evaluation
The method of evaluation is the way the evaluation is carried out.
It should be completed according to a plan in a systematic way.
Evaluations are carried out by an individual or a group. The group
could be peers, the end user of the solution or a specific target
group, such as the students in Year 9. There are three common
types of evaluation methods:
Testingchecking every part of the solution. For example,
testing a website would involve accessing each web page and
checking the links.
Inspectionusing an expert to complete an examination of the
solution. For example, a professional web designer would
complete an inspection of a website.
Inquirygathering information from users of the solution. This
information is collected using surveys, interviews or simply
observing the operation of the solution. For example, an
inquiry of a website would involve asking questions of people
who have accessed the site.

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Project: Sydney Childrens


Hospital
The student representative council (SRC) has decided to submit a
proposal to the school executive to raise money for the Sydney
Childrens hospital (see Figure 1.9). A team from Year 9 was appointed
by the SRC to complete the project. The problem was solved using the
four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: The solution required an effective
method to raise money, a detailed budget, proposed dates and a
presentation to the school executive. A project plan was written
and some initial ideas investigated. A survey was completed to
gather student and teacher views.
Design possible solutions: Three possible solutions were examined
in a feasibility study. The team recommended that a raffle be used
to raise money at the beginning of term 2. Prototypes for tickets
and certificates were constructed. A proposed budget was
developed using a spreadsheet program. Microsoft PowerPoint was
used to present the solution to the school executive for approval.

Figure 1.9 Sydney Childrens Hospital

Produce the solution: Tickets, certificates and forms to record


donations were constructed. Local businesses donated prizes for
the raffle. The raffle was completed, prizes drawn and certificates
presented.
Evaluate the solution: Donations were totalled and a final budget
submitted to the school executive. The school executive provided
a positive evaluation of the project. However, they did raise some
concerns in regard to timing of the fund raising. A cheque for
money raised was presented to the Sydney Childrens Hospital.

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Tasks
1 Design tickets and certificates that could be used if your school
was completing the project.
2 Do research into the features of the latest presentation software. ICT 1.2
Write a brief report that summarises your investigation.

Exercise 1.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Evaluating the solution involves _______ the results of the
solution.
b Evaluating the solution can be used to highlight and _______
any part of the project.
c _______ of the solution is whether the solution works.
d _______ information has been verified to ensure that it is
correct.
2 True or false?
a Systems in organisations are in a constant process of evaluation,
analysis and development.
b Ethical information must not break copyright, invade privacy or
contain offensive material.
c There are two common types of evaluation methods: testing
and inspection.
d Functionality of the solution is a method of evaluation.
3 What am I?
a The last stage in developing a solution.
b An accepted standard used to make a judgement about the
solution.
c Information that is appropriate to the requirements of the
problem.
4 a Why can evaluation of a solution be an ongoing process?
b List five different evaluation criteria.
c Describe the functionality of a solution.
d What characteristic of information refers to the age of the
information?
e Explain the difference between testing and completing an
inspection of a solution.

Development
5 Create a concept map for the information presented in the case
study. Each key concept should be represented as a node.
6 What evaluation method was completed in the case study? How
would you evaluate the solution in the case study? Construct an
evaluation criteria that could be used in the case study.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.

1 Which stage in developing a solution 6 Designing a possible solution


involves generating different involves which of the following?
solutions? a Investigating solutions to similar
a Defining and analysing the problem problems
b Designing possible solutions b Checking the functionality of the
c Producing the solution solution
d Evaluating the solution c Applying the solution to the
problem
2 A plan of a project is part of which of d Assessing information technology
these alternatives? requirements
a Defining and analysing the
problem 7 Producing the solution may involve
b Designing possible solutions which of the following?
c Project management a Completing a feasibility study
d File management b Writing a requirement report
c Writing specifications of the
3 Which of the following is not a solution
responsibility of group members? d Using application software
a Complete their task on time
b Communicate with other group 8 Which type of application software
members provides greater control in the layout
c Maintain appropriate standards of text and graphics?
d Judge the skills of other group a Desktop publishing
members b Paint programs
c Word processing
4 Which of the following is a factor d Presentation software
that affects the solution involving
information technology 9 Which of the following is not an
requirements? evaluation criterion?
a Operational a Testing
b Financial b Quality of information
c Ethical c Ethical information
d Technical d Environment

5 Which of the following is a design 10 Evaluating a solution involves which


technique that uses a series of of the following?
frames each representing a screen a Checking the solution
image? b Producing the solution
a Concept map c Implementing the solution
b Storyboard d Maintaining the solution
c Prototype
d IPO table

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Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms
(a to j) the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 A quick method of determining if the 6 A technique for representing
project is on time. knowledge using diagrams.
2 What is to be done, who will do it, 7 A detailed description of the
when it will be done and how it will solution.
be done. 8 Third stage in developing a solution.
3 First stage in developing a solution. 9 An accepted standard used to make
4 A factor that impacts on the solution. a judgement about the solution.
5 A working model of the solution. 10 Fourth stage in developing a
solution.
Terms
a Concept mapping f Gantt chart
b Constraint g Producing the solution
c Defining and analysing the problem h Project plan
d Evaluating the solution i Prototype
e Evaluation criteria j Specification

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Resources are an important factor in 4 Explain the use of the following tools
planning a project. What are in the design of a solution:
resources? When should they be a concept map
identified? b prototype
c storyboard.
2 Conflict resolution and negotiation
skills are effective collaboration 5 Why is it important to gain some
strategies. Describe three more knowledge and skills in different
strategies. types of applications?

3 Explain the difference between the 6 Briefly outline five commonly used
first and the second stage in evaluation criteria.
developing a solution.

e Tester

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Project development
Create at least five forms that could be used in project development. A form is a
document with blank spaces for information to be inserted. Examine this chapter
to determine possible forms. For example, you might decide to create a form for a
project plan by constructing a table with the headings What, Who, When and
How. The forms you create in this project can be used for project development
throughout the course.

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2
2
C H A P T E R

Past, current
and emerging
technologies
Syllabus outcome
5.4.1 Analyses the effects of past, current and emerging
information and software technologies on the individual
and society.

Overview
This chapter provides an overview of past, current and emerging
technologies. It explores the impact of these technologies on
individuals and society. You will also learn about the effect of these
technologies on the environment.
313 ISTech Chapt 02.3pp 23/9/04 11:24 AM Page 28

2.1 Past technologies


The computer we know today has existed for about sixty years.
However, this remarkable machine is built on centuries of
intellectual effort. It developed from our need to count and
perform calculations.

Early computing devices


Blaise Pascal is credited as the person who built the first mechanical
calculator. In 1642, at only 19, he invented a machine made of gears,
wheels and cylinders that could be used to add and subtract. He
called it the Pascaline. There were only fifty Pascalines built because
accountants feared the machines might do away with their jobs.
Joseph-Marie Jacquard sought to automate the repetitive work
on looms by weavers. In 1805 he perfected an automatic looming
machine that used a stiff card with a series of holes, called a punch
card. The Jacquard loom met with opposition from workers who
feared losing their jobs. A group of people called the Luddites
smashed new textile machinery in 1812.
Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of the modern
computer. He was born in 1791. During the 1820s he designed a
machine called the Difference Engine to calculate mathematical
tables to twenty decimal places. In 1834 he designed the first digital
computer called the Analytical Engine (see Figure 2.1). It consisted
of a storage unit that could hold 1000 figures of fifty digits each,
and an arithmetic calculator. It was controlled by punched cards, an
idea he took from the
Jacquard loom.
Charles Babbage
thought of almost
everything that was ever
needed for a computer
input data, process and
store data, and produce
output. Unfortunately it
was too advanced for the
engineers of the end of
the nineteenth century
and only part of this
machine was ever
completed. It was not
Figure 2.1 Charles Babbages Analytical Engine

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until his writings were rediscovered in 1937 that his great genius
was appreciated.
Ada Augusta Byron (or Countess Lovelace) was one of the great
women of computing. She helped Babbage to adjust and correct
some of the problems in his work and her notes on Babbages
works were accepted for publication in the book Taylors Scientific
Memoirs. Ada Augusta Byron is dubbed the worlds first
programmer because she developed the idea to repeat a set of
instructions over and over again, in what is now called a loop.
Herman Hollerith worked for the United States census bureau.
In 1886 Hollerith developed a tabulating device based on Charles
Babbages punch card system. It collected and tabulated data using Ada Augusta
Byron was the
80-column punched cards and was first used in the 1890 census. only legitimate
Hollerith continued to develop tabulating machines and his daughter of the
Tabulating Machine Company became a division of the company poet Lord Byron.
Her relationship
later re-named IBM. with Charles
Howard Aiken worked with IBM. In 1939 he constructed a fully Babbage was
automatic calculator called the Mark I. It was 17 metres by 2.5 regarded as
controversial.
metres and contained three million electrical connections and 805
kilometres of wire. The Mark I was an electromechanical machine
and could perform four basic operations. Input was entered on
punched cards and output recorded on an electric typewriter. It
could perform three calculations per second and could store up to
seventy-two numbers.

Early electronic computers


The first electronic digital computer was the Colossus. It was built in
England by a team of mathematicians headed by Alan Turing.
Colossus was operational
in 1943 and successfully
broke German military
codes. It contained 1500
vacuum tubes. A vacuum
tube is a glass tube that
surrounds an empty space
or vacuum with an
electric current flowing
through it.
ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and
Calculator) was completed
in 1946 by John Presper Figure 2.2 ENIAC was completed in 1946

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Eckert and John William Mauchly (see Figure 2.2). It was 30 metres
long, 3 metres high and contained 18 000 vacuum tubes. ENIAC
was a great success for its time and was used by the military for
calculations relating to rockets. It was able to perform over 5000
operations per second. However, the vacuum tubes created very
large amounts of heat. This resulted in a malfunction every 15
minutes.
Another great pioneer of computing was John von Neumann
who, in 1946, led the development of EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer). It could store both instructions and
data in its memory. Von Neumann then went on to find new
applications for computers and he helped scientists such as Robert
Oppenheimer and Edward Teller at Los Alamos apply them to
atomic bomb research.
In 1951, UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was
designed by Eckert and Mauchly and delivered to the United States
of America Bureau of Census. It was the first commercially
available electronic computer. It could process both numerical and
alphabetical calculations with ease.
Grace Hopper developed the first compiler in 1952. She also
conceived the idea of a programming language based on English
that led to the development of COBOL. Grace Hopper is regarded
as one of the great pioneers of programming.
Computers in the
future may weigh Jim Backus of IBM developed a high-level language called
no more than FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation) in 1954. It resembles the
1.5 tons. A science symbolism used in mathematics and has undergone continued
magazine
predicting the
development.
rapid developments William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain from Bell
in technology Laboratories developed the first transistor in 1947. In 1958 the
in 1949.
transistor was used in a computer, and greatly increased the
computers processing speed to 10 000 operations per second, as
well as reducing the size of the computer.
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a
high-level programming language designed by John Kemeny and
Thomas Kurtz in 1964. It is a useful language to teach
programming concepts.
The integrated circuit consists of hundreds of electronic
components such as transistors, resistors and capacitors packed on
a small piece of silicon wafer. Computers made after 1966 that used
this technology were smaller, more reliable, cheaper and able to
work at high speed (100 million calculations per second).

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The programming language called C was created at Bell


Laboratories in the United States by Dennis Ritchie in 1972. It was
designed for structured programming and use with the UNIX
operating system.
In 1975 the first popular personal computer called the Altair
was advertised in Popular Electronics for $395. The machine had no
memory, no keyboard, no display, and no printer. Input was via a
bank of switches on the front panel and output was via a row of
light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
The first personal computer to grab the publics imagination
was the Apple. It was put together by Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs
in a garage to show to members of their computer club (see Figure
2.3). The Apple was made at home, but unlike any other personal
computer at that time it contained everything in the one package.
In 1977 the Apple II was produced and it is described as the first
personal computer that almost anyone could use. It contained the
6502 8-bit microprocessor, with 4 kilobytes of RAM and a cassette
recorder for secondary storage. In 1983, the Apple IIe was released
offering 128 kilobytes of RAM.
In 1981 IBM released the first high-powered personal computer.
It was called the IBM PC and had an open architecture, which
meant that others could copy its method of operation. It offered 16
kilobytes of RAM expandable to 64 kilobytes
and was based on the Intel 8088
microprocessor. Microsoft was
commissioned to design the operating
system that became known as MS-DOS. In
1984, IBM introduced the AT based on the
Intel 80286 microprocessor and a 16-bit
data bus. In 1986, Intel introduced the
80386 microprocessor with a 32-bit data bus
and the ability to address 4 gigabytes of
RAM. In 1989, Intel produced the 80486
microprocessor with over a million
transistors.
The Macintosh computer was first released
by Apple in 1984. It was one of the first
personal computers to feature a graphical user
interface (GUI) and use a mouse. The first
Macintosh model used a Motorola 68000 32-
bit microprocessor and 128 kilobytes of RAM. Figure 2.3 Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs
built the first Apple computer

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More successful models were the Macintosh 512, Macintosh SE,


featuring a hard disk, and the Macintosh II, which offered open
architecture.

Exercise 2.1
1 What am I?
a First mechanical calculator.
b First electronic digital computer.
c First commercially available
electronic computer.
d First popular personal computer.
2 Copy and complete the following
sentences:
a Joseph-Marie Jacquard
invented the _______.
b _______ developed a tabulating
device that was used in the
1890 census.
c EDVAC could store both _______
and data in its memory.
d Microsoft designed an operating system
called _______ for the IBM PC.
3 What person invented these computers?
a Analytical Engine
b Mark I
c ENIAC
d Apple II
4 a What contribution did Ada Augusta Byron make to the
development of computers?
b Describe the effect on computers that the invention of the
integrated circuit had.
c Describe the specifications of the IBM PC released in 1981.
d Describe the difference between the 80286 and 80386 processors.
e What is the importance of the Macintosh computer in the
history of computers?

Development
5 Charles Babbage is regarded as the father of the modern computer.
Do research to find more information about Charles Babbage.
Write a report that describes Charles Babbages contribution to the
modern computer.
ICT 2.1
6 Construct a table that summarises the history of the computer. The
table should consist of two columns. One column for the year of
the invention and another column describing the invention. Sort
the table chronologically on year.

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2.2 Current technologies


Current technology is an essential tool in todays information
society. It is a digital revolution. All types of information, such as
text, graphics, audio, video or animation, are represented in the
form of digits or numbers. This data is converted to binary digits
and transmitted using different technological devices over global
networks. Advances in compression techniques have allowed
computers to find, store and transmit massive amounts of
information. Broadband and the use of optical fibres have vastly
increased the speed and volume of information transmission.
The digital revolution has resulted in a merging of technologies.
Computer and communication technology have joined together.
Most people purchase a computer with the intention of connecting
to the Internet. Mobile phones may connect to the Internet and
perform many of the functions of a computer (see Figure 2.4).
Radio, television and the Internet are converging.
There are an increasing number of websites on the
Internet that provide radio and video broadcasts.
Digital television merges communication, television
and computer technologies.
We are also experiencing a network revolution. A
network is a number of computers and their
peripheral devices connected together in some way.
Networks are classified as local area networks or wide
area networks:
Local area networks (LANs) connect computers
within a building or group of buildings on one
site. LANs are in a small geographical area and
the computers are linked together by coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable or a wireless hub. They
improve communication and allow the sharing of
hardware and software.
Wide area networks (WANs) connect computers
over hundreds or thousands of kilometres. The
Internet is a WAN that links computers all over
the world. The World Wide Web (www) and
email are services provided by the Internet that
have massively changed to our lives. These
Figure 2.4 Some mobile phones
changes are so wide-ranging that it is difficult to can now be used to connect to the
imagine our society without the Internet. Internet

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Impact of information technology


Information technology is having a fundamental impact on our
society. There can be little doubt that it has made our society more
efficient and raised the standard of living of most people.
Organisations have used information technology to save time,
reduce effort, increase output, develop new products and,
ultimately, save money. Individuals have benefited in many different
ways. For example, technology has provided better goods and
services, improved the range and quality of health care and
expanded the types of recreational activities. Information
technology has impacted in a wide range of areas and jobs, such as
those briefly described below:
Banking has been enhanced by the means of plastic cards,
automatic teller machines (ATMs) and electronic funds transfer at
point of sale (EFTPOS). Internet banking allows customers to view
Tutorial their account balances and transaction histories, transfer money
between accounts and pay bills using BPAY (see Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 The Internet has revolutionised banking for many people

Shops use a point of sale (POS) system to efficiently process


transactions. A bar code reader is used to enter data. Product
description and price is displayed on the cash register and
receipt. The system also maintains a stock inventory.
Electronic commerce (e-commerce) allows commercial
transactions to be carried out electronically using a credit or
debit card. Internet shopping allows organisations to sell their
goods and services on a global scale.
Offices use a range of software applications such as word
processors, spreadsheets and databases. People are expected to
be proficient with these software tools.
Printing and publishing industries are dependent on desktop
publishing programs. Technology has revolutionised the way
documents are published.

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Electronic newspapers can email subscribers a page of news


headlines on the areas they nominate. Each item of text is
linked to the full story on a website.
Education has made widespread use of information technology.
Teachers and students have access to current information from
the Internet and a range of software to improve learning.
Governments store and analyse huge amounts of information
using information technology. It allows them to provide services
to the community and plan for the future.
Communication involves the widespread use of voice mail,
facsimile, mobile phones, pagers, email and videoconferencing.
Information is accessed from the Internet.
Scientists use information technology to automatically collect
experimental data and develop possible solutions to
environmental problems.
Designers use computer aided design (CAD) software to
produce drawings of products. It allows them to visualise the
product in many different ways.
Electrical engineers use sophisticated programs to quickly
design circuits for appliances and for integrated circuits.
Technology not only helps them draw the circuits but also
calculates the currents and voltages at key points in the circuit.
Pilots use flight control systems to guide
aircraft to their destinations (see Figure
2.6). Sensors are used to monitor the
aircrafts position, speed and other
information needed by the pilot.
Managers are dependent on
information technology to provide
data about purchasing materials,
stock inventory, sales, payroll, orders,
or budgets.
Travel agents use travel booking Figure 2.6 Pilots use flight control systems to
software to check availability and to provide vital information
book holidays for customers.
Doctors use expert systems to help diagnose a patients illness
and recommend possible treatment. Robotic devices are used in
surgery and three-dimensional computer images target specific
parts in the body.
Farmers use stock management systems to keep detailed records
of animals. They often make use of portable computers to
collect data in the field.

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Issues
When new information technology is introduced the impact is not
always positive. There are often benefits for some people and negative
effects for others. For example, ATMs are a convenient technology for
many people, however, there are some groupssuch as the elderly
who may have difficulty with the technology. Some people do not
enjoy using the technology and prefer a more personal service. ATMs
have also changed the way bank employees work.
Information technology benefits society but it may be a
disadvantage for an individual. For example, if the new information
technology increases productivity it often leads to staff redundancies.
It has forced people to learn new skills. Individuals need access to
information and to be proficient in the latest technologies. If people are
incapable or not given access to information they will be disadvantaged.
We need to ensure all parts of society, including Aboriginal and
indigenous people, have the same access to information technology
as other Australians. Satellite technology has enabled some
Aboriginals in remote communities to communicate with each
other. However, many Aboriginal and indigenous people have not
had the opportunity to learn or use information technology.
Information technology has heightened a range of ethical issues
for people directly or indirectly involved with the technology. These
issues include copyright, piracy, privacy, security, accuracy of data,
changing nature of work, appropriate information use, equity and
health concerns. These issues present society with huge challenges
and will be discussed throughout this book.

Project: Efragrance
Efragrance is a new business that sells perfume on the Internet. It
currently has eighty brands and a database of 1000 potential
customers. The owner of Efragrance requires an advertising campaign
to promote the business. Jackson Hughes is a consultant who has been
contracted to solve the problem. The problem was solved using the
four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Jackson discussed advertising
ideas for Efragrance with the owner. He investigated all current
methods of selling perfume. Customers were surveyed on the
current level of service. A project plan was written and submitted
to the owner.
Design possible solutions: Jackson wrote a feasibility report that
recommended increased advertising on the Web, newsletters with
discounts for regular customers and a warehouse to process the

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increased number of perfume brands. A recommendation to


use banner advertisement was approved by the owner.
Produce the solution: An advertising banner was created
and published on Yahoo! and ninemsm. A warehouse
was leased to store the perfume, package it and
send orders to customers. Additional brands were
added to the database. Customers were targeted
each month with offers relevant to their
preferred perfume using email, free delivery and
discounts.
Evaluate the solution: Efragrance has grown
to over 20 000 customers and a turnover in
excess of a million dollars. It now sells 350
different brands including many perfumes
that are not available in department stores
or are yet to be released in Australia.
Perfumes are kept to a minimum by
maintaining an accurate inventory.

Tasks
1 Design a banner advertisement that would be appropriate for this
project.
2 Create a prototype of a newsletter that could be used by Efragrance.

Exercise 2.2
1 True or false?
a Broadband and the use of optical fibres have decreased the
speed and volume of information transmission.
b Computer and communication technology have joined
together.
c Internet banking allows customers to view their account
balances and transaction histories.
d The impact of information is always positive.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Shops use a (a) system to efficiently process transactions. Printing
and publishing industries are dependent on (b). Designers use (c)
software to produce drawings of products. Doctors use (d) to help
diagnose a patients illness and recommend a possible treatment.
3 Unjumble these words:
a ildtaig
b gimnerg
c twnrkeo

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4 a Describe some of the ways computer and communication


technologies are merging.
b Explain the difference between a LAN and a WAN.
c What is electronic commerce?
d How do scientists use information technology?
e What is a flight control system?
f How can information technology be a disadvantage for an
individual?

Development
5 Information technology and the use of the Internet will produce
the paperless office. Do research into the paperless office. Describe
the concept of the paperless office. Do you agree with this
ICT 2.2 statement? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Collect ten news articles in the next two weeks on the impact of
information technology. Categorise the articles as positive or
negative. Briefly summarise one positive and one negative article.

2.3 Emerging technologies


Emerging technologies consist of ideas that have just started to
appear. Embedded intelligence is an emerging technology that will
be further developed in the next few years. It has already been
included in most consumer devices such as cameras, DVD players,
microwaves and motor vehicles. Embedded intelligence effectively
puts a computer into a device. The device performs its specialised
function but hides the technology from the user. Researchers are
designing new products with improved embedded intelligence. For
example, an artificial passenger is being developed for a motor
vehicle. It carries on conversations and watches for signs of fatigue.
If it senses tiredness the passenger changes the music, opens a
window or sprays the driver with cold water.
Researchers are including computers everywhere. People will be
equipped with intelligent devices. These devices could be part of
Research is your clothing. Wearable computers will have a central processing
underway to
unit (CPU) and keyboard stitched into the garment and an
develop plastic
chips that are eyeglass-monitor for display. In addition to current tasks, wearable
stronger and more computers will be able to open doors, have rooms greet people by
energy efficient
their name, automatically forward telephone calls and provide
than silicon chips.
continuous access to the Internet.
Nanotechnology is an emerging technology that has resulted
from the ongoing trend in miniaturisation. Miniaturisation is the
process of making a product smaller. For example, improvements

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in integrated circuits are the


result of increasing the
number of smaller
components.
Nanotechnology takes
miniaturisation to another
level. It is able to build
machines that are only a few
billionths of a metre (see
Figure 2.7). Nanomachines
are constructed atom by
atom using processes drawn
from molecular biology. If
successful, computers built Figure 2.7 Nanotechnology will mean much faster computers in
using nanotechnology would the future
be billions of times faster
than todays computers.

Environmental considerations
It is argued by many people that we need to look after our
environment if we are going to survive in the next century.
Information technology is having an impact on the environment by
increasing the consumption of fossil fuels, building mountains of
waste and producing toxic chemicals in the manufacture of
integrated circuits. We have limited natural resources and must take
steps to preserve our environment for the next generation.

Recycling
Consumers have demanded that manufacturers build computers
that are energy efficient and recyclable. They want a green PC that
is quiet, made of recycled plastics and can operate on less power
than a light bulb. The green PC should be designed with the aim
of reducing waste and chemical emissions. Some ways of making
the green PC include:
packaging it from recycled cardboard that is CFC
(chlorofluorocarbon) free
ensuring that the plastic casing is easily removable so that it can
be recycled into roof tiles or new PCs
providing instruction manuals made from the minimum
amount of recycled paper or using onscreen manuals
developing the PC using products that are water-based and CFC
free

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using recyclable paper and


cartridges for printers
using recyclable batteries.
Personal computers are green
if they use power schemes (see
Figure 2.8). Standby mode is a
state in which the computer
consumes less power when it
is idle, but remains available
for immediate use. It shuts
down the devices that use the
most power, such as the
monitor and the disk drive.
Standby mode starts
automatically at a
predetermined time interval
or is selected using the
Standby command.
Portable computers are the
ideal green machine. They are
Figure 2.8 Power schemes
engineered to use as little
energy as possible so that battery time is maximised. Portable
computers also use LCD screens. LCD screens use far less power
and are much cleaner to manufacture than CRT screens commonly
used in personal computers.
The introduction of computers has yet to produce the paperless
office. Paper consumption from printers is destroying forests and
increasing consumption of fossil fuels. We need to reduce our
dependence on paper and, where appropriate, only use the
electronic version of a document. Many people predicted that the
use of email and the Internet would reduce paper consumption.
Unfortunately this has not been the reality.
In addition to building green PCs, consumers are demanding
that their software be environmentally friendly. Software companies
can use recycled paper for their packaging, documentation,
manuals, disk labels, brochures and envelopes. Furthermore, there
is no need for software packages to come in huge boxes containing
padding and cardboard. Online help has replaced the need for large
printed manuals.

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Exercise 2.3
1 True or false?
a Most consumer devices have embedded intelligence.
b Information technology is decreasing the consumption of fossil
fuels.
c Portable computers are the ideal green machine.
d Computers have resulted in the paperless office.
2 What am I?
a Emerging technology that puts a computer into a device.
b The process of making a product smaller.
c Machines that are constructed atom by atom using the
processes drawn from molecular biology.
d The state in which the computer consumes less power when it is
idle.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ computers will have a CPU and keyboard stitched into
the garment.
b Consumers are demanding computers that are more energy
efficient and _______.
c LCD screens use far less power than _______ screens.
d Paper consumption from _______ is destroying our forests.
4 a Describe some of the tasks performed by wearable computers.
b Compare the speed of todays computer with a computer built
with nanotechnology.
c Describe the effect of information technology on the
environment.
d List some of the ways of making the green PC.
e How can software be environmentally friendly?

Development
5 New technology is constantly
emerging. Do research to find
two recent technological
developments. Outline these
developments. Predict the
impact of this technology
on our society.
6 Information technology is
a major environmental
problem. Do research to find
any recent improvements or
concerns regarding the
impact of information
technology on the environment.
Write a summary of your research.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions 6 Which of the following statements is


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) incorrect?
that best answers the question. a Information technology has had a
negative impact for some people
1 Who built the first mechanical b Governments store and analyse
calculator? huge amounts of information
a Howard Aiken c Farmers often make use of
b Blaise Pascal portable computers to collect data
c Joseph Jacquard in the field
d Herman Hollerith d EFTPOS is used by pilots to guide
aircraft to their destination
2 Who was responsible for developing
a loop? 7 Which of the following is an ethical
a Charles Babbage issue that has not been heightened
b John von Neumann by information technology?
c Ada Augusta Byron a Piracy
d William Shockley b Security
c Copyright
3 Which of the following is a major d Digital
development that used a small piece
of silicon wafer? 8 Which of the following is software
a Integrated circuit that has revolutionised the way
b Transistor documents are published?
c Vacuum tubes a Desktop publishing
d Electronic integrator b Database
c CAD software
4 Which of these alternatives is d Electronic newspapers
described as the first personal
computer that almost anyone could 9 Which of the following does not
use? have a positive impact on the
a IBM PC environment?
b Altair a Using CRT screens
c MS-DOS b Using recyclable plastic casing
d Apple II c Using LCD screens
d Using onscreen manuals
5 Which of the following allows
organisations to sell their goods and 10 Reducing paper consumption would
services on a global scale? do which of the following?
a Internet banking a Increase our consumption of fossil
b Internet shopping fuels
c Website b Preserve our forests
d Web browser c Have minimal impact on the
environment
d Build a mountain of waste

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Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 First commercially available electronic 6 Computers connected over hundreds
computer or thousands of kilometres
2 First electronic digital computer 7 Current technology used by banks
3 First popular personal computer 8 Current technology used by shops
4 One of the first personal computers 9 Emerging technology that uses
to feature a GUI processes developed from molecular
5 Computers that are connected within biology
a building or group of buildings on 10 Emerging technology that effectively
one site puts a computer into a device

Terms
a Altair f Macintosh
b ATM g Nanotechnology
c Colossus h POS
d Embedded technology i UNIVAC
e LAN j WAN

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following.

1 ENIAC was an important 4 Describe some of the recent changes


development in the history of in banking that have resulted from
computers. Describe the appearance information technology.
of ENIAC. What was one of the major 5 Embedded intelligence is an
problems with this computer? emerging technology. What is
2 Outline the contribution made by embedded technology? Describe
Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs to the some of the new products
history of computers. researchers are designing that use
3 Our society is involved in a digital embedded technology.
revolution. What is the digital 6 How can information technology be
revolution? Give some examples to made more environmentally friendly?
explain your answer.

e Tester

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Project: Computer history


Create a display on a prominent person in computing history or an important
computer development. The display should contain:
a brief description of the contribution of the particular person or development
in computing
reasons for the particular invention
any limitations it may have.
Students are expected to research their topic from a number of different sources
and summarise their results. The display can take a variety of forms, such as a word
document, poster or Microsoft PowerPoint presentation. However, it must be
developed using appropriate software and should contain relevant graphics.

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3
3
C H A P T E R

Data
handling
Syllabus outcomes
5.3.2 Acquires and manipulates data and information in an
ethical manner.

Overview
The emphasis in this chapter is on data handling. You will learn
about data and information, data coding, data sources and data
types. The storage of data, both primary and secondary, is
examined. The chapter concludes by outlining data transmission,
data compression and data security.
313 ISTech Chapt 03.3pp 23/9/04 11:26 AM Page 46

3.1 Data and information


Data is the raw material entered into a computer system. This raw
material could be text, numbers, graphics, audio, animation or
video. Data can be thought of as unorganised facts that mean little
by themselves, such as the letters typed into a word processor.
Information is data that has been ordered and given some meaning
by people, such as a word processed document that we can read
and understand.
There are many different ways of converting data into information,
such as combining data, displaying data in an understandable way or
Classifying data as
deleting irrelevant data. Information depends on the data entered.
information is not For example, data might be measurements, survey results, a document,
always clear and or photograph. By itself, this data would not mean much, but when it
absolute. It is a
personal measure.
is transformed in an appropriate way it can provide useful information.
What is information This distinction between data and information is important. It explains
to one person may why people can collect huge amounts of data but not satisfy their
be data to another
person.
information needs.
Information is valuable if it is relevant, accurate, current and
appropriately presented. Information must be attractive and easy to
use. An appropriate format needs to be chosen. This often depends
on the users of the information and how the information will be
presented. Some people will understand information more completely
if it is presented graphically, while others will understand it better
in a table. Information is displayed using a range of hardware devices
such as a screen, printer, or speaker. Data is represented in analog
or digital form.

Analog
Analog data is represented by using
continuous variable physical quantities such
as voltages. For example, an analog clock
shows a second hand continually sweeping
around the clock face, measuring small units
of time. At any moment the clock will give
you an instant measure of the exact time,
since you can estimate parts of a second as
the second hand moves. Most natural events
in the real world, such as temperature, light
and pressure change smoothly and slowly
Figure 3.1 An analog device like the hands of the clock (see Figure 3.1).
Sounds, images and video are naturally in

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analog form. Analog signals are pulses, usually electrical or optical,


in the form of continuous waves.

Digital
Digital data is represented using discrete measurements in the form
of digits or numbers. For example, a digital clock shows the time as
a certain number of hours and minutes. Here the time does not
change continuously, but in a series of steps, jumping from second
to second and minute to minute. Data is not represented
continuously, but in discrete quantities using digits. Numbers, text
and other characters are naturally in digital form.
Information technology uses data in digital form using only two
digits: 0 and 1. Two digits are easily represented electronically by
circuits in the computer being off or on. The digit 0 is used to
represent the electronic state of off and the digit 1 is used to
represent the electronic state of on. Each on or off digit is called a
bit (BInary digiT). A bit is the smallest unit of data stored in a
computer. A group of eight bits is called a byte (see Section 3.2 for
more information).
Data is processed in words. A word (or word size) is the number
of bits processed by the computer at one time.
When the computer moves bits from one place to another it
takes one word at a time. Most computers use word sizes of 8, 16,
32 or 64 bits. The bigger the word size, the faster the computer.

Exercise 3.1
1 True or false?
a Information must be attractive and easy to use.
b Sounds, images and video are naturally in digital form.
c Information technology works with data in analog form.
d A bit is a binary digit.
e A group of eight bytes is called a bit.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Data can be thought of as _______ facts that mean little by
themselves.
b Information is _______ using a range of hardware devices.
c _______ data is not represented continuously, but in a series of
steps.
d A _______ is the number of bits processed by the computer at
one time.

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3 Explain the difference between:


a data and information
b analog and digital
c bit and byte.
4 a Describe some of the ways of converting data into information.
b Why does an appropriate format need to be chosen for
information?
c Why are most natural events represented using analog data?
d How are the digits 0 and 1 represented in the computer?

Development
5 Some countries have the knowledge and finance to take advantage
of the digital revolution. Do you think these countries will share
the wealth generated from the digital revolution? Will the rich get
richer and the poor get poorer? Justify your answer.
6 A modem is a device that enables the transmission of data from
one computer to another. It works with data in both analog and
digital form. Do research to find more information on a modem.
Write a summary of your research.

3.2 Data coding


The binary number system is used to represent digital data in a
computer system.

Decimal and binary


The decimal system is an arithmetic system using a base of ten. It
consists of ten digits (0 to 9). The decimal system uses
place value headings of 1 (100), 10 (101), 100 (102),
1000 (103), and so on. The position of the digit
determines the worth of a digit. For example,
the decimal number 6543 represents 6
1000 + 5 100 + 4 10 + 3 1. The
binary system uses place value like the
decimal system.
The binary system (or binary code)
is an arithmetic system using a base of
two. It consists of two digits, 0 and 1.
The decimal system uses powers of ten
for its place value and the binary system
uses powers of two. The place value of a
binary number starts at 1 (or 20), the next
heading is a 2 (or 21), then a 4 (or 22) and

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continues to double in value for each additional place value. These


place headings continue indefinitely like the decimal system.
However, data in a computer is usually grouped using only 8 place
value headings or 8 bits (0s or 1s)and, as noted above, a group
of 8 bits is called a byte and it represents a single unit. The word byte is
To change a binary number into a decimal number, add the an abbreviation
appropriate powers of two or place values (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1). from the words
BinarY digiT Eight
Example: Convert 010011102 into a decimal number (the subscript
indicates the number is in base two):
Powers of two 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary number 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
010011102 = 0 128 + 1 64 + 0 32 + 0 16
+ 18 + 14 + 12 + 01
= 64 + 8 + 4 + 2
= 7810
Binary number 010011102 equals 78, as a decimal number.
To change a decimal number into a binary number, divide the place
values for binary (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, and 1) into the decimal
number. The result of the division is the binary digit, and the
remainder is divided by the next place value. This process is
repeated for all place values.
Example: Convert 109 into a binary number:
Powers of two 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary number 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
10910 = 0 128 + 1 64 + 1 32 + 0 16
+ 18 + 14 + 02 + 11
= 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1
= 011011012
Decimal number 109 equals 011011012 in binary code.
Many calculations are performed on the binary code. Addition
using the binary system is the same as addition in the decimal
system. It is important to keep the numbers under each other to
maintain their correct place value. Start by adding the units column
and remember that 1 plus 1 in binary is 10.
Example: Add 011011012 and 001001102:
01101101
00100110
10010011

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ASCII
ASCII (pronounced ass-kee) is a code that represents letters,
numbers, and symbols as binary code. It is the standard method
used by personal computers and stands for the American Standard
Code for Information Interchange. A standard 7-bit ASCII was
designed when computers were not extensively used outside of the
US and UK. It only allows 128 different characters (27). This was
not large enough to handle all the characters used in the languages
of western Europe.
Extended ASCII was developed using an 8-bit
binary code to extend the character set. It is now
the most widely used code. The 8-bit ASCII
code allows for 256 different characters (28),
starting with 00000000 and going through to
11111111. There are 96 keyboard characters
including 26 upper case letters, 26 lower
case letters, 10 digits, and 34 symbols. The
8-bit ASCII code also contains 32 control
characters that are used to control computer
functions such as a carriage return and a
form feed.
To change a character into its ASCII binary
code you need to refer to the ASCII table in the
appendix. For example, the letter K is the decimal
number 75 and its ASCII binary code is 01001011. The computer
uses the binary number 01001011 to represent the letter K.
It should be remembered that computers work with other data
types besides text. However, a group of bits can also represent every
other data type such as graphic, audio and video. We will examine
data coding for these data types in later chapters.

Bits and bytes


A bit is the smallest unit of data stored in a computer. A byte is a
group of 8 bits that represents a single unit. If the data is text then a
byte would represent a character, such as a letter, a number, a
Nibble (Nybble) is punctuation mark or a space. The prefixes kilo, mega, giga, and tera
half the length of are then added and more commonly used to measure data storage
a standard byte. (see Table 3.1). The lowercase b is used to represent a bit while the
It is usually 4 bits.
uppercase B is used to represent a byte. However, it is common in
speech for the byte to be omitted so that a gigabyte is simply a gig
or G.

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Table 3.1 Units of measurement

Approximate
Unit Symbol Meaning value Exact value

Byte B 1 1 (20)
Kilobyte KB Thousand 1000 1024
bytes (210)
Megabyte MB Million 1 000 000 1 048 576
bytes (220)
Gigabyte GB Billion 1 000 000 000 1 073 741 824
bytes (230)
Terabyte TB Trillion 1 000 000 000 000 1 099 511 627 776
bytes (240)

Exercise 3.2
1 What am I?
a An arithmetic system using a base of two.
b The ASCII code for full stop character.
c A code that changes letters, numbers and symbols into an 8-bit
binary code.
d Another name for the binary system.
2 True or false?
a The place value in the binary system doubles in value for each
additional place.
b An 8-bit ASCII code can represent at most 255 different
characters.
c The binary number 10 represents the same amount as the
decimal number 10.
d ASCII stands for the American Standard Code Interchange
Information.
3 Convert these measurements to the units indicated (approximate
value only):
a 80 GB = ? B
b 4 TB = ? B
c 140 000 000 B = ? MB
d 3 000 000 000 B = ? GB
4 a List the first twenty binary numbers from 0.
b What is the next binary number after 10011110?
c What is the ASCII code for the per cent symbol?
d What is the character that is represented by the ASCII code
00100001?

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5 Copy and complete the following table:


Binary Decimal
code 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 number
a 00001011 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 11
b 01000000
c 01010111
d 11001001
e 01100001
f 00011111
g 11110001
h 01111101
i 01000010
j 01111111
6 Copy and complete the following table:
Decimal Binary
number 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 code
a 65 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 01000001
b 19
c 40
d 47
e 101
f 78
g 119
h 58
ICT 3.1 i 98
j 167

Development
7 Write a sentence for a friend in
your class. Convert this sentence
into ASCII code. Swap and
decode your sentences.
8 Perform the following calculations.
a Add 001010012 and
101011002.
b Add 100101012 and
000101002.
9 Hexadecimal is an arithmetic
system used by computers.
Do research to find
information on hexadecimal.
Write a brief report that
summarises the results of
your investigation.

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3.3 Data sources and


data types
In this section we examine different sources of data and describe
some of the different data types.

Primary sources
Primary source is when data is
collected first hand. Many
organisations prefer to generate
their own primary data because
they consider it meaningful and
reliable, although it is time
consuming and costly.
Surveys and interviews are a
common method of acquiring
primary data. These involve
collecting sample characteristics,
attitudes, behaviours and opinions.
A survey is delivered by mail, face-
Figure 3.2 These people are completing a survey
to-face or online. An interview is a
meeting of people face-to-face. Specific questions are asked to
determine the interviewees opinions and feelings (see Figure 3.2).
A predesigned form or table is often used to collect primary
data. A form is a document with blank spaces for information to be
GIGO (garbage in
collected. For example, an online registration form is used to collect garbage out)
primary data for mailing lists. Forms and tables for data collection means that when
need to be carefully designed. It is often necessary to try to inaccurate data is
entered into a
anticipate answers that people may give to individual questions or system, the resulting
possible results for an event. information will
also be inaccurate.
However, it is
Secondary sources sometimes taken
Secondary source is the use of data collected or created by someone to mean garbage
else. Secondary data is available as printed text and on the Internet. in gospel out. In
other words,
Printed text has been the main medium for spreading people always
knowledge since the beginning of the seventeenth century. It can believe that the
take many different forms, such as books, magazines, newspapers, information
displayed is true!
newsletters, reports and journals. The sheer quantity of printed
information means that an individual can absorb only a very
small proportion. Searching for particular information from
printed text involves using tables of contents, summaries and

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indexes. Printed material may be accurate at the time of printing


but it can quickly become out of date as society changes.
The Internet has become a major source of data. It allows
someone on the computer to access data stored on another
computer. Websites present information on a particular topic
(see Figure 3.3). Each single document is called a web page. In
addition to the World Wide Web (www), data can be collected
from newsgroups. A newsgroup is a discussion group on a
specific topic. People
access newsgroups each
day and they provide a
large diversity of
opinion and knowledge.
The Internet also allows
data to be downloaded.
It is possible to
download files
containing text,
graphics, animation,
video, sound and
Figure 3.3 A website on the Internet provides secondary information
software.

Data types
Data exists in several different forms. The data type is the sort of
data such as text and hypertext, graphics, audio, video and
animation.
Text is data in the form of letters, numbers and other special
characters. A word processor allows text to be entered and
documents to be created (see Figure 3.4). It is used to write letters,
reports, assignments, articles and books. Text is also entered into
most software applications. Text is edited in many different ways such
as deleting, inserting, moving and copying. The meaning of the text
is determined by reading the text. Text is stored as an ASCII code.
Some common file extensions for text include DOC, TXT and RTF.
The data type in some applications, such as a database, needs to
be detailed. It requires the user to specify the exact nature of the data:
alphanumericall keyboard characters
numericnumbers only
alphabeticletters only
Booleantrue or false
currencymoney
dateday, month, year.

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Figure 3.4 A word processor is used to produce a text data type

Numeric data is often used to perform calculations in a database


and a spreadsheet.
Hypertext is a system that allows documents to be cross-linked in
such a way that the user can move from one document to another
by clicking on text that is linked to that document. Hypertext links
are usually identified using an underlined character and/or a
different text colour. It is a common method of navigation used on
the Internet. File extensions include HTM or HTML.
Graphics are pictures such as drawings, paintings or photographs.
They can be stored, edited and transferred in similar ways to text.
Graphics are created using graphics programs or captured using
scanners, digital cameras or video cameras. All graphics are made up
of tiny dots called pixels. A pixel (picture element) is the smallest part
of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. Graphics are
edited using graphic software. A graphic can be positioned anywhere
on a page and can be cropped, resized or distorted.
There are two types of
graphics: bit-mapped graphics
and vector graphics. Editing
objects in a bit-mapped graphic
at an object level is often a
problem. When you enlarge a
bit-mapped graphic, you also
enlarge each pixel within the
image and you may create a
staircase pattern called aliasing.
Vector graphics are easily edited
using a drawing program. The
meaning of a graphic is
determined by looking at the Figure 3.5 Clip art is a graphic

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image and interpreting it. Some


common file extensions for graphics
include BMP, JPG, GIF and TIF.
Audio is sound that has been
digitised or represented in the form of
digits or numbers. It may be a noise to
get the participants attention or a voice
to explain the operation of the software.
Sounds are edited in many different
ways, such as deleting sounds, changing
the speed, adding an echo, overlaying
Figure 3.6 MP3 player connected to a computer
(mixing) sound files and altering the
quality of the sound file. The meaning
of audio data is determined by listening to and interpreting the
sounds (see Figure 3.6). Some common file extensions for sound
include MP3, WAV and MIDI.
Video is made up of frames that contain individual images.
When the video is played, the frames are displayed in sequence.
Video editing software is used to edit a video (see Figure 3.7). It
involves obtaining the required video clip and adding text, audio
and graphics. The meaning of a video is determined by watching
and listening over a period of time. Some common file extensions
for video include MPG, AVI and MOV.
Animation is the movement of an object. It is the result of a series
of graphics or frames presented in rapid succession. Sometimes
animations can present information more effectively than text or
graphics. For example, an
animation that shows the
movement of blood
through the body or the
eruption of a volcano would
be more effective than a
graphic. The meaning of an
animation is determined by
watching it over a period of
time. Some common file
extensions for animation
include SWF, MOV and
animated GIF.

Figure 3.7 Video editing software is used to edit video data

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Exercise 3.3
1 State the data type of the following files:
a photo.bmp
b music.mp3
c film.mpg
d data.doc
e cartoon.gif.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The (a) has become a major source of data. Websites present (b) on
a particular topic. Each single document is called a (c). In addition
to the World Wide Web, data is collected from (d).
3 True or false?
a Primary source is when data is collected or created by someone else.
b There are two types of graphics: BMP and JPG.
c A word processor allows text to be entered and documents to
be created.
d Video is made up of frames that contain individual images.
4 a Describe some of the different products that use printed text.
b What is hypertext?
c How are graphics created?
d How are sounds edited?
e What is animation?

Development
5 Choose a recent event that has been widely reported in
newspapers and on television, radio and the Internet. Compare and
contrast three different data sources on the event in terms of
accuracy, currency and organisation.
6 The amount of information available in printed form and on the
Internet is increasing at a very fast rate. Will the amount of
information continue to increase in the future? Why? Many people
are suffering from information overload. Outline some strategies
that people could adopt to reduce information overload.

3.4 Primary storage


Data storage involves receiving and retaining data over a period of
time. The amount of data storage is very important in determining
the capabilities of a computer. Data storage is classified as primary
storage or secondary storage.
Primary storage stores data and programs that need to be
instantly accessible to the central processing unit (CPU). It is internal
storage as it uses integrated circuits (silicon chips) located on the

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motherboard. Primary storage is also


known as main memory, primary
memory, main storage or, simply,
memory. It consists of RAM, cache
and ROM.

RAM
RAM (random access memory) is
where data and instructions are held
temporarily. It depends on a supply of
electricity to maintain data storage.
When the power to the computer is
shut off, everything in RAM is lost. In
Figure 3.8 DRAM chips can be easily slotted into the
motherboard other words, RAM is volatile memory.
The data in RAM can be accessed
randomly. That is, a byte of memory is accessed without touching
any of the other bytes. There are two main types of RAM:
dynamic RAM (DRAM, pronounced dee-ram) is memory that
must be constantly refreshed
static RAM (SRAM, pronounced ess-ram) is memory that does
not have to be updated or refreshed.
RAM is regarded as the working memory of the computer.
Programs and files currently in use are stored in RAM. RAM is one
A buffer is a
of the factors that affects the computers performance. For this
temporary data reason RAM manufacturers are continually inventing new designs
storage area. It to provide the fastest possible access times at the lowest possible
allows two parts of
cost. This has resulted in different types of DRAM and SRAM
a computer system
to work at chips. Memory is upgraded by inserting DRAM chips into special
different speeds. slots on the motherboard (see Figure 3.8)
For example, a
print buffer
temporarily stores Cache
data to be sent to Cache (pronounced cash) is a temporary storage area used to store
the printer because
the printer does
data that the computer can access quickly. There are two common
not operate at types of cache:
the same speed as Cache memory is high-speed memory located between the CPU
the processor.
Therefore, part of
and RAM. It improves performance by using SRAM and
the cache may be reduces the need for the CPU to access the slower DRAM chip.
used as a print Disk cache works the same way as cache memory. It stores the
buffer.
most recent data from the disk in RAM and when the CPU
needs access to data from the disk, it first checks the disk cache.
Disk caching improves the performance because accessing the
data from RAM is a thousand times faster than accessing a disk.

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ROM
ROM (read only memory) holds data and instructions that are fixed
at the time of production and cannot be changed by the computer. It
is permanent memory that only allows data to be retrieved (read)
and not entered into storage (write). The software that is stored in
ROM is called firmware. Storage of software within the ROM protects
it from being damaged or changed. Most personal computers contain
a small amount of ROM that stores important programs such as
booting the computer and checking for input and output devices.
The instructions that allow the computer to communicate with input
and output devices are called the ROM BIOS (Basic Input/Output
System). The computer manufacturer sets the actual contents of
ROM and it is non-volatile. Non-volatile memory does not lose its
contents when the power to the computer is turned off.

Exercise 3.4
1 What am I?
a The receiving and retaining of data over a period of time.
b A temporary storage area used to store frequently requested
data and instructions.
c The software that is stored in ROM.
d Data and instructions that are fixed at the time of production
and cannot be changed by the computer.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
(a) storage is internal storage as it uses (b) circuits located on the
motherboard. It consists of RAM, (c) and ROM. RAM is an
abbreviation for (d) access memory.
3 Explain the difference between:
a dynamic RAM and static RAM
b RAM and ROM
c cache memory and disk cache
d volatile and non-volatile memory.
4 a List some other terms for primary storage.
b Why is RAM described as volatile memory?
c How is memory upgraded?
d What is ROM BIOS memory?

Development
5 How much RAM is on your computer? Count the number of characters
on a page of text (including spaces) and estimate the number of bytes
required for this page. How many pages of text can be stored in your
RAM? (Assume all the RAM is available to store the text.)

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6 RAM is only a temporary storage and depends on a supply of


electricity to maintain data storage. Design a poster to remind
users about the importance of frequently saving their work.
7 The amount of primary storage is a determining factor in the speed
of your computer. However, primary storage is more expensive than
secondary storage. Some people argue that primary storage is more
important than secondary storage. Do you agree with this
statement? Give reasons for your answer.

3.5 Secondary storage


Secondary storage involves the use of a storage device not located on
the computers motherboard. A storage device is any device that
can store data and then allow it to be retrieved when required. It
involves devices such as magnetic tape, magnetic disks, optical disks
and flash memory.

Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a very long, thin strip of plastic, coated with a thin
layer of magnetic material. Modern tape is wound on two reels
inside a cartridge. Data is read from and written to tape using a
tape drive that winds the tape from one reel to the other reel
causing it to pass a readwrite head. A magnetic tape can store large
quantities of data in a small space at a relatively low cost. Magnetic
tape is often used as a backup or copy of data (see Figure 3.9).
The main disadvantage
with magnetic tape is that it
uses sequential access to
retrieve data. This form of
access starts at the beginning
of the tape and reads all of the
data until the required item is
found. Sequential access to
data is slow, making magnetic
tapes unsuitable for data that
is often updated. Magnetic
tapes have a variety of sizes
and formats such as QIC
tapes, DAT cartridges and 8
Figure 3.9 Magnetic tape is used for storage
mm cartridges.

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Magnetic disks
A magnetic disk is a circular piece of metal or plastic, the surface of
which has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material.
Magnetic disks use random access (or direct access) to retrieve data.
This form of access allows data to be found directly without
accessing all the previous data. Random access allows data to be
retrieved much faster than sequential access used on magnetic tapes.
A disk drive is a device on which a magnetic disk is mounted. The
disk drive spins the disk and uses one or more heads to read and
write data. If the disk is permanently attached to the drive it is called
a fixed disk (hard disk).
A floppy disk (diskette) is a magnetic disk made of flexible
plastic and covered with magnetic material. Even though floppies
do not have a large storage capacity (1.4 MB) and are slower to
access data than a hard drive, they are portable and cheap. The
most common size of floppy disk is the 3.5 inch (9 cm). It is fully
enclosed in a rigid plastic casing and is used for storing small files.
To be used, a floppy disk must be inserted into the disk drive that is
usually built into the system unit.
A hard disk is a magnetic
disk made of metal or glass
and covered with magnetic
material (see Figure 3.10). It is
rigid and not flexible like a
floppy disk. This rigid
construction allows it to be
rotated ten to 100 times faster
than a floppy disk, giving it
faster access to data. Hard
disks store more data than
floppy disks because the data
is stored more densely. A hard
disk has a storage capacity Figure 3.10 A hard disk is a large storage medium
measured in GB with larger
capacities coming on the market regularly.
Removable cartridges are hard disks encased in a metal or plastic
cartridge that are removed like a floppy disk. Removable cartridges
are fast, though usually not as fast as fixed hard disks. They
combine the best aspects of hard and floppy disks. There are two
common types of removable cartridges used with personal
computers called zip disks and jaz disks:

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Zip disks (or cartridges) are


slightly larger than the 3.5-inch
floppy disk and about twice as
thick (see Figure 3.11). They can
store 100 MB or 250 MB of data.
Zip disks are popular for backing
up hard disks and transporting
files because they are relatively
inexpensive.
Jaz disks (or cartridges) are an
upgrade of the zip disks.
They store up to 2 GB of data. Jaz
disks are suited to store large files for
Figure 3.11 A zip disk is a large capacity removable multimedia, graphics and sound.
storage device

Optical media
An optical disk is a storage medium in which data is read and
written using laser technology. Optical disks have the capacity to
store large amounts of data and are very reliable.
A compact disc (CD) is a polycarbonate disk, the surface of
which is coated with a reflective layer of metal. The data is written
to the CD by a high-powered laser that burns millions of tiny holes
on the disks surface, called pits. The standard CD is 12 centimetres
wide and can store up to 800 MB. CDs use random access to
retrieve data. There are many kinds of CDs such as CD-ROM, CD-
R, and CD-RW:
CD-ROM (compact discread only memory) contains data
that cannot be changed. A CD-ROM drive is needed to read
data. The larger the drive speed, the faster it can transfer data.
CD-ROMs are convenient for storing data that remains
CD-Rs are called constant.
WORM disks. The CD-R (compact discrecordable) allows data to be recorded
acronym WORM
stands for write
(or burned) but users cannot remove the information. CD-Rs
once read many. require a CD-R drive to burn the data. They have become a
popular storage medium. A CD-R drive allows users to create
CD-ROMs and audio CDs.
CD-RW (compact discrewritable) allows the user to write,
erase and rewrite data. Erasing the disk is achieved by heating
the surface and quickly cooling it. CD-RW is slower than a hard
disk and after frequent use areas of the disk may become
inaccessible.

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DVDs (digital versatile disks) are optical disks that can store large
amounts of data. DVDs are the same size as the standard CD but
can store in excess of 17 GB. There are many kinds of DVDs such
as DVD-ROM, DVD-RAM, DVD-R and DVD-RW. Each of these
DVDs works in a similar way to CDs (discussed above) except that
they can store more data. DVD-ROM drives can play DVD movies,
read DVD data disks, read computer CDs, and play audio CDs.

Flash memory
Flash memory is an erasable memory chip
used in portable computers, mobile phones,
digital cameras and a range of other devices
(see Figure 3.12). It retains data when the
power is removed. The device is similar to a
memory chip except it can be electrically
erased. Flash memory is erased and written in
fixed blocks ranging from 512 bytes to 256
KB. Flash chips are replacing the ROM BIOS
chips so that the BIOS can be updated. It is
often called flash BIOS. A flash memory card
looks similar to a credit card and comes in a
variety of formats, such as PC card,
CompactFlash and SmartMedia. Figure 3.12 Flash memory card
Another type of flash memory device is a
memory stick. A memory stick is a portable storage device that is
connected using the USB port. It is compact, light, reliable and easy
to handle. A memory stick allows easy transfer of image, audio and
other data between computers and peripheral devices. Memory
sticks are available in a range of different sizes including 1 GB.

Exercise 3.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Magnetic tape is often used as a _______ or copy of the data.
b A _______ is a circular piece of metal or plastic, the surface of
which has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material.
c A floppy disk does not have a large storage capacity and is
_______ to access data than a hard drive.
d Zip disks are slightly larger than a _______ and about twice as thick.

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2 What am I?
a Magnetic disk made of metal or glass and covered with
magnetic material.
b A type of removable cartridge that is suited to store large files.
c A compact disc that allows the user to write, erase and rewrite data.
d A hard disk encased in a metal or plastic cartridge that is
removed like a floppy disk.
3 Unjumble these words:
a fplypo idks
b izp kdsi
c afhls emyomr
d sdki rdiev
4 a What is magnetic tape?
b Explain the difference between sequential access and random
access.
c List three different types of magnetic disks.
d Outline the advantages of using a memory stick for secondary
storage.
e Why are optical disks used for secondary storage?
f What is a DVD?
g Describe the appearance of flash memory.

Development
5 Formatting prepares a disk to accept data by organising it into
sectors and tracks. It destroys any data that is currently on the disk.
Is it appropriate to delete a file by formatting a disk? Give a
reason. When is it appropriate to reformat a disk?
6 Do research into the experience offered by some museums and art
galleries using the Internet and optical disks. Is it appropriate for
artwork to be reproduced using information technology? Justify
your argument by using some examples.

3.6 Data transmission and


data compression
In this section we examine two methods for data transmission and
explain some of the techniques used to compress data.

Data transmission
Data is transferred between computers and devices in two ways:
serial transmission or parallel transmission. Serial transmission is
the transmission of data one bit at a time through a single line. It is
used to transmit data to peripheral devices, such as a keyboard and

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mouse. Serial transmission is used on


networks using either twisted-pair, coaxial
or fibre optic cables (see Figure 3.13). Serial
transmission has the advantage of being
cheaper than parallel transmission as it uses
only a single line. However, it has the
disadvantage of being slower than parallel
transmission. Serial transmission can be
either synchronous or asynchronous.
Synchronous transmission requires all the
data to be sent at the same rate. The Figure 3.13 Coaxial cable uses serial
same number of bits is sent each transmission
second. This is synchronised by
each device using a clock.
Synchronous transmission is
faster and more efficient than
asynchronous transmission as
there are no extra bits. It is used
on larger computer systems.
Asynchronous transmission is the
sending of data by identifying
each byte with special start and
stop bits, and it has become the
standard for personal computers.
It uses an extra bit to check for
errors in transmission.
Figure 3.14 Ribbon uses parallel transmission to
Parallel transmission involves sending connect a disk drive to the motherboard
more than one bit at a time (usually
8 bits) simultaneously using separate lines (see Figure 3.14). It is
much quicker than serial transmission because it can send more
than one bit at a time. Parallel transmission is used only for distances
less than a few metres, otherwise errors occur in transmitting the
data and the cabling is too expensive. It is used inside the system
unit and for connecting peripheral devices such as disk drives.

Data compression
Data compression
Data compression reduces the number of bits required to represent
results in a smaller
the information. It allows the user to store more data and makes file. However, it
data transmission faster. Compressed data must be decompressed takes more
computing power
to extract the original data. The amount a file is compressed is
to use a
measured by the compression ratio. The compression ratio compares compressed file.
how much larger the uncompressed file is to the compressed file.

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If a compressed file is half the size of the


uncompressed file, the compression ratio
is 2 to 1 (2:1). That is, two units of data
in the uncompressed file equals one unit
of data in the compressed file. A higher
compression ratio indicates greater
compression of data. For example, a
compression ratio of 3:1 means the file is
compressed smaller than a compression
Figure 3.15 StuffIt is a lossless compression ratio of 2:1. A file compression ratio of
system for Macintosh 1:1 indicates the file has not been
compressed.
Lossy compression permanently removes a number of bits from
the file. The resulting file is smaller in size but not always identical
to the original. However, audio and video files can be compressed
using high compression ratios, with no noticeable change to the
human ear or eye. JPEG and MPEG are common lossy compression
formats for graphic and video files. An MPEG file can provide a
compression ratio up to 200:1. This is only a fraction of the size of
an uncompressed video file.
Tutorial Lossless compression allows the original file to be recovered
without loss of information. It works by replacing repeated data
with something that takes up less room. For example, in this book
the word and appears many times. If you replace each and with a
one character symbol or token you save two-thirds of the space.
Lossless compression is used mainly on text files such as word
processing, spreadsheets and database files. Each file of a given type
can have a different compression ratio depending on the contents
of the file. A text file usually has a compression ratio of 3:1. Popular
lossless compression systems include ZIP/PKZIP (Windows) and
StuffIt (Macintosh).

Exercise 3.6
1 True or false?
a Serial transmission is much quicker than parallel transmission.
b Parallel transmission is used inside the system unit for
connecting disk drives.
c Asynchronous transmission is faster and more efficient than
synchronous transmission.
d Lossy compression is used to compress audio and video files.
e Lossless compression results in a file that is not always identical
to the original file.

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2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in


brackets with a suitable term:
Data (a) reduces the number of bits required to represent
information. The amount a file is compressed is measured by the
(b). A compression ratio of (c) results in a file half the size of the
original file. The higher the compression ratio the (d) the
compression of data.
3 Unjumble these words:
a allpreal
b roatmnssisin
c coonresmpsi
4 a Explain the difference between serial and parallel transmission.
b Describe synchronous transmission.
c What is lossy compression?
d How does lossless compression work?
e List some of the popular lossless compression systems.

Development
5 A method for detecting errors in the asynchronous transmission is
to attach an additional bit to the binary code. This additional bit is
called a parity bit. Do research into parity checking. How does it
work? Give an example.
6 Data compression is important for download times. Explain this
statement. Examples should be used to illustrate your answer.
7 Construct a table to compare text, graphic, audio and video data
types. For each data type consider the typical file size, file format
and software program to edit the data.

3.7 Data security


Data security is a series of safeguards to protect data. It has become
a major issue for governments and organisations. The cost of
replacing data that is deliberately or accidentally damaged or lost
can be enormous. The war against terrorism has highlighted the
need for data security.

Need for data security


Data security is needed to prevent the following threats:
information theftstealing data from one organisation and
selling it to another organisation
financial theftillegal transfer of money from one account to
another
information alterationchanging or deleting existing data

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unlawful access
unauthorised access to data
in a computer system
burglarystealing a
computer with its data
vandalismintentional
damage to a computer
system
virusescreating or
introducing computer
viruses
software piracyillegal
copying of software
natural disasterevents
such as a fire or flood that
could destroy data
accidentalunintentional loss or damage to data.
All of these threats, except accidental or natural disaster, involve a
person committing a computer crime. A computer crime is any
Hacker was
originally used to illegal activity that involves the use of computer technology. People
describe someone who gain illegal access to data in computer systems are called
who wrote hackers. Hackers and computer crime are a growing problem that
computer
programs. It was
present our society with some difficult issues.
derived from Even though hundreds of cases of computer crimes are reported
hack writer, each year, many crimes go unreported. There are several reasons for
which described
pulp fiction writers
this: organisations are reluctant to face adverse publicity,
in the 1920s. publicising the event could give others ideas, and in some cases the
crime is not discovered. Are organisations encouraging computer
crime by not reporting it? Are organisations that do not report
computer crime guilty of a crime themselves?
A second issue is that computer crime is not held in the same
One way people light by the community as other criminal activities such as armed
online keep track of robbery. Whereas the community holds an armed robber in fear or
you is to use your contempt, a hacker is often regarded as clever and the crime is not
Internet service
provider (ISP) regarded as dangerous or threatening. If a burglar and a hacker stole
address to follow $300 000 from a business, does it make any difference how the
your activities. money was taken? Should the penalties for both crimes be the same?
Whenever you use
your browser, your Computer criminals have stolen peoples personal data and
ISP address is effectively become that person. They have obtained credit card
available to others. numbers, drivers licence numbers, phone numbers and even birth
details. People often provide this data by completing online forms.
However, computer criminals have obtained sensitive information

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by searching through peoples rubbish. Unfortunately an increase in


e-commerce has resulted in an increase in online fraud. People
need to be cautious when providing personal details.

Basic security methods


Data security is a series of safeguards to protect data. Some of the
basic security methods include the following:
Passwords are secret words or numbers that are typed on the
keyboard to gain access to the system. It is important to choose
a password that is not obvious. Good data protection systems
change passwords often, so that only authorised persons can
have access to certain data.
Personal objects carried to gain access to the information
system such as a key, plastic card, or badge. They are often used
together with a personal identification number (PIN).
Biometric devices are used to verify personal characteristics
such as fingerprints, hand size, signature, eye and voice.
Data encryption is used to prevent data from being intercepted
during transmission. Encryption is the process of coding data
and decryption the process of changing it back. It is the most
effective way to achieve data security during the transmission of
data. Data is coded, transmitted, and then converted back to its
original form.
Firewalls are used on the
Internet or any network to
check all incoming data for Direct Internet connection:
modem, DSL or cable modem
the purpose of verification Internet
and authentication (see Figure
3.16). A firewall aims to Instant firewall
protect a computer system on this computer

from hackers trying to access


sensitive information. On Firewall
large systems more than one
firewall is necessary because
barriers need to be placed at Hub
all critical points.
Waste is secured, since Computer

discarded printouts are


sources of information to
unauthorised persons. This Laptop
kind of waste can be secured
by using a shredder. Figure 3.16 A firewall is used to protect data

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The weakest link in the security of any computer system is the


people in it. Employees need to be carefully screened. This is
difficult, as well-respected and generally honest employees can
commit computer crimes.
Backup procedures need to be secure and reliable. A regular
plan of copying and storing data will guard against data loss.
Organisations should keep backup copies in a fireproof safe
or offsite.
A certificate or digital signature is an encrypted code that
identifies a particular person or website. It aims to ensure that
unauthorised persons cannot access data.

Project: DataProtect
DataProtect is a business that specialises in the security of data. It
protects organisations from viruses, disk crashes and system bombs. An
employee of DataProtect has been asked to write a brief document on
simple precautions to avoid data loss on a PC. The problem was solved
using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: The employee discussed the size
and format of the document with the manager. Each employee was
surveyed on possible content for the document. A project plan was
written and submitted for approval to the manager.
Design possible solutions: Three draft solutions to the problem
were completed. Each solution contained an overview for data
security but emphasised a different aspect of data security. Each
solution was discussed with the manager who preferred the
solution that emphasised backup procedures.
Produce the solution: The document was created using Microsoft
Word. It contained simple precautions on protecting passwords,
regular backups, use of anti-virus software, sharing data, installing
a firewall, downloading data and opening unknown emails. A draft
copy of the document was printed and checked. The final copy was
presented to the manager.
Evaluate the solution: The manager was pleased with the
document. It will be part of the documentation given to customers
of DataProtect. Customers will be asked for feedback on the
document as part of the evaluation.

Tasks
1 Do research into current precautions for data security on a PC.
ICT 3.2 Write a brief report that summarises your investigation.
2 Create a document that would be appropriate for this project.

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Exercise 3.7
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is the stealing of data from one organisation and
selling it to another organisation.
b People who gain illegal access to data in a computer system are
called _______.
c _______ are used to verify personal characteristics such as
fingerprints.
d The opposite process to encryption is called _______.
2 True or false?
a The cost of replacing data that is deliberately or accidentally
damaged or lost can be enormous.
b Information alteration is the illegal transfer of money from one
account to another.
c The weakest link in the security of any computer system is the
people in it.
3 What am I?
a The illegal copying of software.
b An illegal activity that involves the use of computer technology.
c Security method that prevents data from being intercepted
during transmission.
d Secret words or numbers that are typed on the keyboard to
gain access to the system.
4 a What is data security?
b Why are computer crimes often not reported?
c What is the purpose of a firewall?
d Do you think a hacker and an armed robber who stole the
same amount of money should receive the same penalties for
their crimes? Explain your answer.

Development
5 The Internet is basically insecure. It was originally designed for
communication between people who were trusted. Any
unprotected computer system accessing the Internet is completely
vulnerable. A firewall is an essential tool for all Internet users.
Investigate the protection offered by three firewall programs. How
would you rate the protection offered by these programs? Write a
report of your investigation.
6 A survey on Internet and network security found more than 36 per
cent of local IT departments had experienced severe breaches. Do
research into computer crime. Describe some examples of security
breaches. What penalties have been imposed?
7 Websites keep a record of your visits and may be able to identify
you by name. Anonymisers hide your identity and also encrypt the
addresses you visit so your ISP cannot keep a record of them.
Research the Internet for more information on anonymisers.
Summarise your investigation.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 What is data that is represented in 6 Which of the following is not a
the form of digits or numbers called? secondary storage device?
a Information a Disk cache
b Binary b Floppy disk
c Analog c Removable cartridge
d Digital d Memory stick

2 Which of the following binary 7 What is an optical disc called that


numbers represents the decimal allows the user to write, erase and
number 97? rewrite data?
a 01100001 a CD-A
b 01100010 b CR-ROM
c 00110001 c CD-R
d 10100010 d CD-RW

3 Which of the following is not a data 8 What type of transmission involves


type? sending more than one bit at a time?
a Text a Parallel
b Photograph b Serial
c Video c Asynchronous
d Audio d Synchronous

4 How many bytes is a gigabyte? 9 What is data compression called that


a Trillion bytes allows the original file to be
b Billion bytes recovered?
c Thousand bytes a WINZIP
d Million bytes b Recapture
c Lossy
5 What is primary storage called where
d Lossless
data and instructions are held
temporarily? 10 Which of the following is not a basic
a RAM security method?
b Hard disk a Password
c ROM b Firewall
d Motherboard c Virus
d Backup

Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.
Statements
1 Data that is represented by using 2 A standard code that changes
continuous variable physical letters, numbers and symbols into
quantities. an 8-bit code.

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3 Data type in the form of letters, 7 Secondary storage that uses


numbers and other special characters. sequential access to retrieve data.
4 Data type that is the result of a series 8 A polycarbonate disk whose surface is
of graphics presented in rapid coated with a reflective layer of metal.
succession. 9 A type of data compression that
5 Primary storage that is fixed at the removes a number of bits from the file.
time of production. 10 It is used on the Internet or any
6 Volatile memory that can be accessed network for data security.
randomly.

Terms
a Animation f Lossy
b Analog g Magnetic tape
c ASCII h RAM
d CD i ROM
e Firewall j Text

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 People can collect huge amounts of 5 Why is magnetic tape still used for
data but not satisfy their information secondary storage? How is data
needs. Explain this statement. stored on this medium?
2 How does a personal computer 6 Data transmission between
represent the letter Z? Your computers and devices is completed
explanation should refer to binary in two ways. Describe the differences
code and ASCII. in the two methods of data
3 Construct a table that lists, defines transmission.
and gives an example of the five 7 Why has data security become an
data types. important issue? List six basic
4 Explain the difference between security methods.
primary and secondary storage. What
is the meaning of the acronyms RAM
and ROM? e Tester

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Project: Data handling


Investigate the latest information technology used in data handling. Work in teams
and write a report to summarise one recent development in data handling. The
report should contain relevant graphics and follow good design principles. Suggested
topics include the latest RAM or ROM chips, modern devices used for secondary
storage, popular data compression techniques or recent data security measures.

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4
4
C H A P T E R

Hardware
Syllabus outcomes
5.1.2 Selects, maintains and appropriately uses hardware for a
range of tasks.
5.3.1 Justifies responsible practices and ethical use of information
and software technology.

Overview
This chapter outlines the hardware used in a computer system.
Hardware is classified according to its function and specific
hardware devices are examined. Hardware systems are also classified
according to their capabilities. You will learn troubleshooting
procedures when dealing with hardware problems and the basic
procedures for the care and maintenance of a computer.
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4.1 Functions of hardware


The hardware is the physical units that make up the computer, such as
the system unit, keyboard and monitor. It is the computer equipment
that you can see and hold. There are five functions of hardware:
Input involves accepting data into the computer for processing
into information. The data is the raw facts used by the
computer, such as text and images. Information is data that has
been ordered and given some meaning. Input devices include
keyboards and pointing devices.
Process changes data to produce information by following a
The five functions
series of instructions. Processing is performed by the central
of hardware are: processing unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of the computer.
Input, Process, It takes the data entered from an input device, changes it to
Storage, Control
and Output
produce information and sends it to an output device to be
remember IPSCO. presented to the user.
Storage involves receiving and retaining data over a period of
time. Storage is classified as primary storage (memory) or
secondary storage. Primary storage stores data and programs
that need to be instantly accessible to the CPU. Secondary
storage stores data more permanently and uses media such as
hard disks and CDs.
Control coordinates the operations of the input, processing,
output and storage. The control unit is part of the CPU. The
control unit is the organiser that directs the flow of data in the
computer in the same way as traffic lights control the flow of
cars at an intersection.
Output involves
sending information
from the computer.
Process
It includes the
transfer of data from
primary storage to
an output device
Input Control Output
such as a screen,
printer or speakers.
The information
presented is the
Storage
result of the users
work on the
computer.
Figure 4.1 The five functions of hardware

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All the functions of hardware work together. Data is entered


using an input device and processed in some way before being
presented using an output device. If necessary, the data can be
retained on a storage device for later use (see Figure 4.1). Input,
The system unit in
output and storage devices are often referred to as peripheral devices a desktop PC is
(pronounced peh-RIHF-er-uhl). sometimes referred
to as the pizza
box, comparing
Hardware components the rectangular
The system unit is the box that contains the computers main shape of one to
hardware components such as the motherboard. Most personal the other.
However, it is said
computers have a system unit based on the following designs: that some pioneers
tower systemvertical box that is often kept under the desk; in the computing
towers usually have more expansion slots and bays compared to field also survived
on a diet of pizza!
the other designs
desktop systemhorizontal box designed to sit under the
monitor like a platform
all-in-one systemcombine the monitor and system unit into
a single casing such as the iMac.
There are many hardware components in the system unit.
The motherboard is the main circuit board that contains the
computers vital components (see Figure 4.2). It contains the CPU,
memory, expansion slots, buses and other electronic components.
The motherboard is also called the main board or system board.
Motherboards are continually being improved to increase the
performance of the computer. With major developments in the
CPU it often requires the motherboard to be upgraded.
An integrated circuit (IC) is
a single chip of silicon that has
replaced millions of transistors
and other electrical
components. Integrated circuits
are referred to as silicon chips
or just chips. There are many
integrated circuits on the
motherboard. The CPU is the
largest integrated circuit. There
are also numerous memory
chips for RAM and ROM, and
often co-processor chips. A co-
processor is a dedicated chip
that works with the main CPU Figure 4.2 A motherboard
to increase the speed of the

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computer. A graphics co-processor allows images to be displayed


much faster. It performs the graphics processing allowing the CPU
to perform other tasks.
The power supply transforms mains voltage to a lower level that
can be used by the computer. It supplies power to all internal
components such as the CPU and primary storage. The
electromagnetic field generated by the power supply can damage
data stored on magnetic tapes and disks. For this reason, disks and
tapes should be stored away from the power supply. The power
supply also generates the most heat and this can lead to component
failure.
Peripheral devices are linked to the CPU using expansion slots
and ports. An expansion slot is an opening where a circuit board
PCMCIA stands
can be inserted into the motherboard to extend the capabilities of
for Personal
Computer Memory the computer. The circuit board is called an expansion card or
Card International expansion board. There are many different types of expansion cards
Association. Some
for different purposes such as to connect a monitor, hard disk or
writers suggested
the acronym stood any peripheral device. Expansion cards are also used to extend
for People memory. In a portable computer a PC card (originally called a
Cant Memorise PCMCIA card) is used instead of an expansion card. A PC card is
Computer Industry
Acronyms. the size of a thick credit card that provides an additional function
such as extra memory or a modem.
A bus is a pathway of wires on the motherboard that connects
various components. Data travels through a bus. The size of the bus
is called its width. The larger the width the more data that can be
transmitted at the one time. For example, a 64-bit bus has 64 lanes
and can transmit data 64
bits at a time compared to
a 32-bit bus that moves 32
bits at a time. The speed
of the bus is an important
factor in the performance
of the computer. A bus
with more width will
make the applications run
faster.
A port is a socket used
to connect peripheral
devices. It is located at the
back of the system unit.
Ports have different
Figure 4.3 USB cables are becoming standard connectors that are used

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to attach cables to the peripheral devices. Most connectors are


available in two types called male or female. Male connectors have
one or more exposed pins like the end of a power cord. Female
connectors have matching holes like a power point. Some of the
ports, such as the mouse and the keyboard, are connected directly to
the motherboard.
USB (universal serial bus) has become a standard method of
connecting peripheral devices (see Figure 4.3). It allows fast transfer
of data and connects a range of devices such as digital cameras,
scanners and storage devices.

Exercise 4.1
1 What am I?
a The brain of the computer.
b Main circuit board that contains the computers vital components.
c A dedicated chip that works with the main CPU to increase the
speed of the computer.
d A pathway of wires on the motherboard that connects various
components.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the
letter in brackets with a suitable term:
Data is entered using an (a) device and
processed in some way before being (b)
using an output device. If necessary the
(c) can be retained on a (d) device for
later use.
3 Explain the difference between:
a input and output
b a tower and a desktop computer
c expansion slot and expansion
card
d a male and a female connector.
4 a What are the five functions of
hardware?
b List four components found on
a motherboard.
c What is an integrated circuit?
d What is the purpose of an
expansion card?
e Describe a PC card.
f Why has the USB become the standard
method for connecting peripheral devices?

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Development
5 Examine the contents of the system unit. Find the motherboard,
power supply unit, CPU, memory chips, buses, ports and expansion
slots. Identify each expansion card and secondary storage device.
6 Identify a peripheral device that is connected to a computer using
an expansion card. Investigate a popular example of this expansion
card. Briefly explain how this expansion card works.
7 There are different types of buses on the motherboard, such as the
expansion bus. Do research to find more information on different
types of buses. Write a summary of your research.

4.2 Processing Processing changes data to produce information by following a


series of instructions. Processing is performed by the CPU and
microprocessors.

Central processing unit


The central processing unit (CPU) or processor performs the
transformation of data into information. It is the brain of the
computer (see Figure 4.4). The CPU accepts the data from any input
device, changes this data according to the instructions given by the
user and then sends the results to an output device. There are
several different types of chips including those from Intel (Pentium),
AMD (Athlon) and Motorola (PowerPC). Each of these companies
is constantly improving its CPUs to make them more powerful. The
CPU consists of the control unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and
registers.
The control unit directs and
coordinates the entire hardware
system. It is the organiser that
directs the flow of data in the
computer in the same way as
traffic lights control the flow of
cars at an intersection. The
control unit selects and retrieves
instructions from storage in
sequence, interprets them and
starts the required operation.
The arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) is part of the CPU that
Figure 4.4 An Intel Pentium processor performs data calculations and

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comparisons. Arithmetical calculations include addition,


subtraction, multiplication and division. Comparisons have a true
or a false answer and include relational operators (>, <, =, >=, <=,
and <>) and logical operators (AND, OR and NOT). When using
logical operators the AND operator results in a true answer only if
all comparisons are true, while the OR operator results in a true
answer if any of the comparisons are true. Logical operators can
also be used to link relational comparisons such as a>5 AND b<7.
The ALU contains several types of registers. A register is a
temporary storage area for small amounts of data or instructions
before and after processing. It provides fast access to data. Some of
the different registers are the:
accumulator registerstores the data to be processed
buffer registerstores data coming from or being sent to
primary storage
address registerstores the location of data in primary storage
instruction registerstores the address of the next instruction
to be processed.

Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a CPU contained on one integrated circuit.
Microprocessors are used in personal computers and many
consumer devices such as cameras, digital watches, toys, game
machines, DVD players, microwaves and motor vehicles. Most of
the worlds microprocessors are hidden from view in these
electronic devices. These devices are special-purpose, with
programs etched in the silicon that cannot be altered.

Project: Buying a PC
Adel Manning is a university student who needs to purchase a new PC
within a tight budget. She has decided to develop criteria for buying a
PC. Adel wants to ensure she does not purchase unnecessary equipment.
The problem was solved using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Adel asked friends and family
about the type of system and software they purchased. She read
computer magazines and accessed relevant Internet sites for the
latest information on equipment and prices.
Design possible solutions: Adels research resulted in a huge amount
of data. Much of the information was written using technical
language. Adels criteria needed to focus on the tasks the PC will be
performing and the applications required to complete those tasks.

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She also wanted the criteria to consider her needs in the foreseeable
future. She wrote a draft of the criteria and discussed them with
some friends.
Produce the solution: Adels final criteria compared hardware with
the same configuration in terms of price, reliability and performance.
Additional memory, peripherals and software were included.
She was not tempted to copy software. Software piracy is theft.
Compatibility with her current PC was also one of the criteria.
Evaluate the solution: Adel used her criteria to purchase a new PC.
She has been very happy with the performance of her new PC. Adel
will be able to upgrade the PC when required it the future.

Tasks
1 Create criteria for
buying a PC that
would be
appropriate for
this project.
2 Describe any
social and ethical
issues that would
ICT 4.1 be a concern in
this project.

Figure 4.5 Buying a PC

Exercise 4.2
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Processing changes _______ to produce information by
following a series of instructions.
b The CPU stands for the central _______ unit.
c The _______ directs and coordinates the entire hardware system.
d The AND operator is an example of a _______ operator.
e A _______ is a CPU contained on one integrated circuit.
2 True or false?
a Motorola makes the Pentium processor.
b ALU is part of the CPU that performs data calculations and
comparisons.
c Registers provide fast access to data.
d The address register stores the data to be processed.

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3 Unjumble these words:


a iesgetrr
b otrclno niut
c icromrsoroepcs
4 a Describe the role of the CPU.
b List the three parts of the CPU.
c What is the purpose of the control unit?
d What is a register?
e What is the purpose of the buffer register?
f Where are microprocessors used?

Development
5 Microprocessors are used in personal computers as well as in
consumer devices. List the microprocessor devices that you have
used in the past two days. Do research into three microprocessor
devices. Describe these devices in terms of input, output, storage,
process and control.
6 Parallel processing is the simultaneous processing of instructions
using multiple processors or CPUs. Investigate parallel processing.
Outline some of the advantages of parallel processing.

4.3 Input devices


To make the computer work it has to be given instructions and data
has to be entered. Input involves accepting data into the computer
for processing into information. A device designed to assist the
entry of data is called an input device. There are many types of
input devices used for different purposes.

Keyboard
A keyboard is an input device consisting of a series of keys in a
standard layout. It allows the entry of text, numbers, instructions The QWERTY
keyboard is a very
and commands. There are many different types of keyboards, each inefficient layout.
designed to meet a particular need. For example, the keyboard on It was originally
an automatic teller machine (ATM) contains special keys that allow designed to slow
typists down. The
the withdrawal of money. Each type of keyboard has a different most commonly
arrangement of letters, numbers and symbols, which is called its typed letters
layout. The most common keyboard layout for personal computers (A, O, E, T, N, and
S) are away from
is the QWERTY keyboard.
the typists index
The QWERTY keyboard is divided into four major areas: fingers.
Alphanumeric keysletters and numbers on the keyboard.
A numeric keypad is located on the right-hand side of the
keyboard. It is for quick entry of numbers.

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Cursor control keysallows the cursor to be moved and includes


the arrow keys, page down, page up, home and end.
Special keysinclude enter/return, tab, space, caps lock,
backspace, delete and esc (escape). Modifier keys (such as shift,
control, alternate, option and command) are used in
combination with other keys.
Function keys (F1, F2 to F12)allow instructions to be given to
the computer and depend on the software.
There are variations to the standard keyboard, such as the wireless
keyboard, a folding keyboard for palm computers, a miniature
keyboard built into pocket-sized devices and a one-handed
keyboard.

Pointing devices
Pointing devices are input devices that control an onscreen symbol
called a pointer. They are good at giving commands to the
computer and for creating certain images. However, pointing
devices are not effective for entering large amounts of text. There
are many different types of pointing devices:
A mouse is a small hand-held input device that is moved over a
flat surface to control the movement of a pointer. The bottom
of the mouse is usually a ball that senses the movement of the
Tutorial mouse. If a button on the mouse is pressed or clicked, it allows
a character or command to be selected from the screen. There
are a large variety of mice using different types of technology to
improve their tracking, resolution and ease of use. A mouse
may have one or more buttons and a scroll wheel.
A trackball is a pointing device
that is similar to a mouse except
that the ball is on top of the
device instead of the bottom. It
allows the cursor to be moved by
rotating the ball in the desired
direction.
A pointing stick or trackpoint is a
small device shaped like a pencil
eraser. It moves the pointer by
sensing the direction and amount
of pressure applied to the device.
A pointing stick is located in the
keyboard on many portable
Figure 4.6 A graphics tablet computers.

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A touchpad or trackpad, is a
flat rectangular surface that
senses the movement of a
finger. When you move your
finger on the touchpad it
makes a corresponding
movement of the pointer.
A graphics tablet is an input
device that consists of a
special electronic pad and a
pen called a stylus (see Figure
4.6). The stylus performs the
same point-and-click
Figure 4.7 A PocketPC with pen input
functions as a mouse.
Graphics tablets are used by artists and designers.
A joystick is a pointing device consisting of a small base unit
with a rod that can be tilted in all directions to move the
pointer on the screen. Joysticks are frequently used to provide
fast and direct input for moving characters and symbols in
computer games.
A light pen is a pointing device consisting of a small rod that
looks like a pen. The tip of the pen has a light detector that
senses the intensity of light on a screen and emits signals so that
the computer can calculate its position. A light pen is used to
select information or draw directly on the screen.
A touch screen enters data by detecting the touch of your finger.
The users finger interrupts a matrix of infrared light beams
shining horizontally and vertically across the screen.
A pen input device uses special hardware and software to
interpret the movement of a pen. Pen input devices are
becoming increasingly popular (see Figure 4.7). They are used
in most personal digital assistants (PDA) and palm computers.
Scanners use a
software standard
Digital input devices called TWAIN.
Some people
Data must be digitised before it is used by a computer. There are a suggest this is an
range of input devices that capture and digitise data. acronym that
Scanners are input devices that make a digital representation of stands for
Technology
any printed image. The digital data can be printed, edited or Without An
merged into another document. They may be single-pass scanners Interesting Name.
that scan only once or multiple-pass scanners that scan for each
colour. There are three common types of scanners:

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flatbed scanners look similar
to a small photocopier with
the document remaining
flat and stationary during
the scanning (see Figure
4.8)
pen scanners are wireless
devices that look like a
highlighterwhen the pen
scanner is dragged across a
line of printed text it creates
a text file
drum scanners are high
Figure 4.8 A flatbed scanner
quality scanners used in
publishing applications.
Digital cameras are input devices that capture and store images in
digital form rather than on film. Digital photos are limited by the
amount of memory in the camera, the quality of the lens and the
output device. The main advantage of digital cameras is that
making the photos is both inexpensive and fast because there is no
film processing. Most digital cameras compress and save their
images in standard JPEG or FlashPix format.
Digital video cameras are input devices that capture video in a
digital format (see Figure 4.9). The video files are initially captured
onto a tape and then transferred directly to a computer for editing.
Video editing software is used to edit the video including titles,
sound and special effects. There is an increasing range of video
effects that can be achieved using
this software on a personal
computer.
Microphones are input
devices that capture sound.
Sound travels through the air in
waves and is analog data. Audio
is sound that has been digitised.
A sound card is an expansion
card that allows the PC to accept
microphone input, play music
and other sounds through
speakers or headphones (see
Figure 4.9 A digital video camera Figure 4.10). Sound cards are

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capable of recording and playing


digital audio at CD-quality sound.
Voice recognition converts voice
signals into digital data. Basic voice
recognition systems are restricted to
narrow vocabularies because of the
difficulty of understanding the
grammatical meaning of many
words and phrases. Natural
language voice recognition
interprets the data and makes an
appropriate response.
Optical character recognition
(OCR) devices are scanners that
read typed text and, in some cases, Figure 4.10 A sound card is capable of recording and
handwritten text. First a scanner playing digital audio
produces a digital image of the text
then the character recognition software matches this image to the
shapes of individual characters. Characters are read and stored
using ASCII codes and can be used in word processing programs.
Characters that cannot be read are usually indicated with a tilde (~)
as this symbol does not appear in normal English. When text is
scanned, it should be immediately spell checked to find any errors
in character recognition.
Barcode readers are used extensively in retail industries to input
product identification at point of sale. Supermarkets use a laser to
read barcodes and many firms use handheld barcode readers. Product
information (description, price and code) is held on a central
computer linked to the point of sale computer. Items passing the
barcode reader are entered quickly and accurately. The description
and price of the item is displayed on the cash register and printed on
the receipt. Libraries and many industries use barcode readers to keep
track of stock movement. Portable barcode readers are used in the
field and the data can be downloaded on return to the office.
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR, pronounced miker) is
widely used by banks to print serial numbers on cheques. Characters
are recognised using magnetic ink that contains magnetised particles.
The system was designed to quickly and accurately read pre-recorded
data on cheques and deposit slips. MICR readers process the cheques
at speeds up to 2000 cheques per minute.

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Exercise 4.3
1 True or false?
a The QWERTY keyboard is the only keyboard layout for personal
computers.
b A mouse has one button and a scroll wheel.
c Touch screens enter data by detecting the touch of your finger.
d Most digital cameras compress and save their images in
standard JPEG or FlashPix format.
e A flatbed scanner is a high quality scanner used in publishing
applications.
2 What am I?
a A pointing device that is similar to a mouse except that the ball
is on top of the device instead of the bottom.
b A common type of scanner that looks like a highlighter.
c Input device that captures video in a digital format.
d An expansion card that allows the PC to accept microphone
input, play music and other sounds through speakers.
e Input device used extensively in retail industries to input
product identification at point of sale.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Scanners are (a) devices that make a (b) representation of any
printed (c). The digital data can be printed, (d) or merged into
another document.
4 a List the four major areas of the QWERTY keyboard.
b What is one advantage and one disadvantage of a pointing
device?
c How does a light pen work?
d What type of pointing device is popular in most PDAs and palm
computers?
e What is the main advantage of a digital camera?

Development
5 The QWERTY keyboard is the most common keyboard layout. Do
research into the QWERTY keyboard. How was it named? Who
designed this keyboard? Why does the QWERTY remain the most
popular keyboard layout when it is very inefficient?
6 The Dvorak keyboard is a very efficient keyboard. Do research into
the Dvorak keyboard. Describe the layout of the Dvorak keyboard.

4.4 Output devices


Output involves sending information from the computer.
Information is presented as text, image, audio or video. A device

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designed to assist the output of data is called an output device.


There are many types of output devices used for different purposes.

Screens
A screen is a display surface that provides immediate feedback
about what the computer is doing. It can display text, numeric,
image and video data. All images on the screen are made up of tiny
dots called pixels. A pixel or picture element is the smallest part of
the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total
number of pixels on the screen is called its resolution. For example,
an image described as 1024 (columns) 768 (rows) has 786 432
pixels. Resolution is also measured by the number of dots per inch
(dpi). For example, an image described as 300 dpi refers to a square
inch grid with 300 pixels on each side.
A monitor is a screen that can display text and graphics. It uses
cathode-ray tube (CRT) technology similar to a television. Images
are produced by firing a beam of electrons onto the inside of the
screen containing a coating of phosphor. The electron beam usually
starts in the upper left-hand corner and moves left to right and top
to bottom in a series of zigzag lines called a raster scan. Colour
monitors use three beams to strike red, green and blue phosphor.
The raster scan is repeated to maintain the image as the phosphor
only glows for a short time. This is called refreshing. Monitors come
in all shapes and sizes. The most
widely used monitors are 15 to 21
inches diagonally, but the actual
viewable area is usually smaller.
Monitors are capable of displaying
millions of colours. The number of
colours depends on the amount of
memory installed on the graphics
card.
LCD screens are flat-panel displays
that use liquid crystal display (LCD)
technology (see Figure 4.11). They
consist of a backplane and any
number of segments or dots. A voltage
is applied between a segment and the
backplane causing a segment to
darken. LCD technology provides
displays that are very light, take up less
room, produce no heat, have no glare, Figure 4.11 An LCD screen

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and create no radiation. Furthermore, LCDs require less power


than CRTs, allowing them to run on batteries. At present LCD
technology does not produce the same picture quality as CRT and
larger displays are more expensive. Data projectors use LCD
technology to project images onto a larger screen.

Printers
A printer is an output device that produces a paper copy of any
required data. The paper containing the data is called a hard copy
or printout. Printers are classified as impact and non-impact
printers. Impact printers make an image on the paper by using
Printing the some sort of physical contact, while non-impact printers make an
contents of the image using some other method. Impact printers include dot
screen including
any text and matrix printers, and non-impact printers include laser and inkjet
graphics to a printers.
printer is called A dot matrix printer transfers ink to the page by the impact
a screen dump.
between a pin, a printer ribbon and the paper. Dot matrix printers
are reliable and cheap, however, they are noisy and do not produce
the highest quality output. Dot matrix printers have resolutions
from 60 dpi to 180 dpi. They are useful when duplicate copies are
needed from one print job such as credit card receipts.
Inkjet printers produce text and images by spraying very fine
drops of ink onto the paper (see Figure 4.12). The print head of an
inkjet contains a nozzle with anywhere from fifty to several
hundred small holes. The ink is
propelled through a combination of
nozzle holes to form the characters.
Inkjet printers produce high-quality
output in either colour or black and
white. They are quiet, light and
relatively cheap, although the ink
cartridges are reasonably expensive.
The quality of inkjet output is often
600 dpi or greater. Inkjet printers
use standard weight paper for most
tasks. High-quality images can be
printed on coated paper,
photographic glossy paper and
overhead transparencies.
Laser printers use a rotating disk
Figure 4.12 An inkjet printer works by spraying to reflect laser beams onto the
fine drops of ink onto the surface to be printed paper to produce text and images.

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A laser printer converts data from the computer into movements of


a laser beam that are directed to a positively charged revolving
drum. When the drum is touched by the laser beam it attracts toner
(powdered ink). The toner is transferred onto the paper and fused
using heat and pressure to form the image. Laser printers print a
complete page at a time.
Laser printers are fast printers that obtain high quality output
to rival normal printing processes. Speed is measured in pages per
minute. Laser printers used with a personal computer print from
four to twenty pages per minute while high-speed laser printers can
print over one hundred pages per minute. Most laser printers offer
600 to 1200 dpi, monochrome (print in black and white) and use
standard size paper.

Speakers
Sounds are produced using speakers. A small speaker is usually
located in most personal computers inside the system unit.
However, high quality stereo speakers are often connected to the
computer using a port and a sound card
(see Figure 4.13). The speakers are
sometimes built into the sides of the
monitor. In addition to sounds and music,
speakers work with voice. Voice output is
achieved in two ways:
A person talks into a voice input device
such as a microphone. The words are
converted and stored as digital data. This
digital data is changed back to voice so
that the user can hear the words.
Voice synthesis is the artificial production
of human speech. The words in memory
are analysed and sounds generated for
letter combinations. Rules are applied
for intonation to make the voice Figure 4.13 Speakers can be added to the
realistic. computer

Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce high-quality drawings
such as maps, charts and building plans (see Figure 4.14). The
drawings are often larger than the available paper sizes of a
standard printer. Plotters operate with commands from the
computer and can draw an amazing array of shapes and figures.
There are two different types of plotters:
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Pen plotters produce
images using coloured
ink pens over the
surface of the paper.
Depending on the
output, pen plotters
are either flatbed or
drum. A flatbed plotter
looks like a drafting
table with pens
suspended over it. The
pens are instructed by
the software onto the
paper and then moved
in a certain direction.
Most flatbed plotters
have different coloured
Figure 4.14 Plotters
pens with different
widths. They are used in engineering and drafting applications.
A drum plotter works the same way except the paper is rolled
around a drum or cylinder. The pens only move to the left or
right with drum rotating. The drawings from a drum plotter are
restricted to the width of the printer but are unlimited in
length.
Electrostatic plotters create images by moving paper under a row
of wires. When the wires are given an electrostatic charge they
touch the paper and create the drawing. Electrostatic plotters
produce high quality output and are faster than pen plotters.

Exercise 4.4
1 Explain the difference between:
a a raster scan and refreshing
b an impact and a non-impact printer
c a flatbed plotter and a drum plotter.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A monitor uses _______ technology similar to a television.
b An _______ is a flat-panel display that uses liquid crystal display
technology.
c Sounds are produced using a _______.
d A _______ is an output device used to produce high-quality
drawings.

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3 True or false?
a A pixel is the smallest part of the screen that can be controlled
by the computer.
b A 17-inch monitor has a width of 17 inches.
c Dot matrix printers produce the highest quality output.
d Inkjet printers are quiet, light and relatively cheap.
e High-speed laser printers can print over one hundred pages per
minute.
4 a What is the resolution of a screen?
b How does CRT technology produce an image?
c List some of the advantages of LCD technology.
d How does an inkjet printer produce text and images?
e What are the advantages of buying a laser printer?
f What is voice synthesis?
g List two different types of plotters.

Development
5 There have been great improvements in the resolution of screens.
Investigate the standard resolutions that were widely used in the
past. Write a report on your investigation.
6 Do research into laser printers. Compare and contrast three different
laser printers. Your answer should focus on speed, quality and cost.

4.5 Classification of
hardware systems
A computer is classified according to its power and capabilities. To
measure the power of a computer, many different criteria are used,
such as its storage capacity and the speed of the CPU. It is common
to divide computers into supercomputers, mainframes, personal
computers, and portable computers. However, with advances in
technology the differences have become blurred and the criteria are
constantly changing. In fact, personal computers now have the
capabilities that were only available in mainframes a few years ago.

Supercomputers
A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive
type of computer (see Figure 4.15). Supercomputers are used for IBM is the largest
hardware company
applications that demand maximum power, such as aerodynamics
in the world. Big
design and simulation, and processing geological, genetic and Blue is an informal
weather data. A supercomputer generates so much heat that it name for IBM.

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requires an air-conditioned room and fluid to be circulated around


its circuitry to protect it from heat damage.
A supercomputer can communicate with several users through
a technique called timesharing. People access the supercomputer
using a terminal. A terminal is an input and output deviceusually
a keyboard and monitor. In a
timesharing environment, the
CPU gives its attention to only
one terminal at a time, for a
short period of time, and then
switches to the next terminal. It
switches so quickly that it
appears to people using a
terminal that the CPU is
processing only their data.
Timesharing also makes it
possible for users such as
Figure 4.15 A supercomputer takes up an enormous research scientists to share
amount of space expensive computing equipment.

Mainframes
A mainframe computer is an expensive computer about the size of a
refrigerator that is used for large computing jobs (see Figure 4.16).
It is very powerful and capable of processing vast amounts of data
very quickly, but is slower, less powerful, and less expensive than a
supercomputer. When you withdraw money from a bank account
or buy a product using EFTPOS the transaction involves a
mainframe computer. These
computers are installed in a special
room where environmental factors
such as temperature, humidity and
dust are closely monitored. Users
generally access a mainframe using
terminals in a similar way to
supercomputers.

Personal computers
A personal computer or PC is a
relatively low cost computer that is
Figure 4.16 Mainframe computers are used for intended for home and light business
large computing tasks use. It is a desktop computer with a

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CPU contained on one integrated circuit (silicon chip) called a


microprocessor. A personal computer, as the name suggests, is
dedicated to serving a single user. However, with increases in
computing power PCs are being used as servers. A server is a
computer designed to provide software and other resources to
other computers over a network. Many businesses use networks to
share data among employees.
PCs are the most common type of computer. They range in
price from less than $1000 to several thousand dollars for the
powerful systems with all the peripheral equipment and software.
Millions of personal computers are in use throughout the world
because they are useful, inexpensive, easy to use, and offer
something for almost everyone.

Portable computers
Portable computers are compact self-contained computers that can
be carried around and used with a battery pack or mains electricity
(see Figure 4.17). Laptops, notebooks and handheld computers are
referred to as portable computers. These computers are light (1 or 2
kilograms), compact and easily transported. Many portable
computers compare favourably to powerful desktop PCs. Portable
computers are usually contained in a single case with a screen,
trackball or touch pad, hard disk and optical drive. They easily
allow a range of peripherals and
networks to be connected.
Portable computers generally
cost more than PCs with the
same capabilities and are also
more difficult to upgrade.
Handheld computers are small
enough to store in the pocket of
a jacket. They are sometimes
referred to as personal digital
assistants (PDAs) or palmtop
computers. Handheld
computers are used by people
who value mobility over a full-
sized keyboard and screen.
Figure 4.17 Portable computers are more expensive
than PCs

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Exercise 4.5
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The (a) of the CPU and its (b) are often used to measure the speed
of a computer. It is common to divide computers into (c),
mainframes, (d) and portable computers.
2 Unjumble these words:
a pesomurcpeutr
b lmptoap
c estingmarhi
d abprotel
3 What am I?
a The fastest and most expensive type of computer.
b An input and output device, usually a keyboard and a monitor.
c A computer small enough to store in the pocket of a jacket.
d An acronym for the most common type of computer.
e A computer designed to provide software and other resources
to other computers over a network.
4 a What are the applications completed by a supercomputer?
b Describe a mainframe computer.
c What is timesharing?
d Why are millions of personal computers used throughout the
world?
e List some of the names for a portable computer.
f Describe a portable computer.

Development
5 A personal computer
has the same
capabilities that were
only available in
mainframes a few years
ago. Is this statement
correct? What is the
current speed of the
CPU for personal
computers? What was
the processing speed
of mainframes and
supercomputers a few
years ago?
6 Handheld computers such
as palmtops have become very
popular. Do research into
handheld computers. Describe the
latest features for these devices. Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of a handheld computer compared to a PC.

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4.6 Troubleshooting and


maintenance
Computer users need to perform basic troubleshooting procedures
when dealing with hardware problems. It is also important that
users adopt procedures for the care and maintenance of their
computer.

Troubleshooting
Computers and their peripheral devices will not last forever. It is
important to be able to locate the fault so that it can be repaired.
Peer checking is a common method of determining whether a piece
of equipment is faulty. It involves swapping the device with another
device that is working. For example, a monitor is checked by
replacing it with another monitor and keeping all the same cables.
Peer checking is a useful method of troubleshooting for keyboards,
mice, screens, hard disks and most peripheral devices.
Common operating faults are overcome by carefully analysing
the situation. Some of the basic problems involve:
Starting up: Turn the power off and check the power chord
connections. Press the button to turn on the system unit and
the screen.
Blank screen: Check that the screen is turned on and that the
monitor cable is connected to the computer. Check the settings
for brightness and contrast.
Not reading data: Check that
the disk drive is connected to
the computer. The drive cable
needs to be firmly connected. If
you cannot read a CD or DVD
it is usually the disk that is
causing the problem. Clean the
disk and check for scratches
(see Figure 4.18).
Not printing: Check that the
printer is turned on and
correctly connected to the
system unit. Ensure there is
paper in the printer and that
the operating system recognises Figure 4.18 Cleaning CDs is an important
troubleshooting task
the printer.

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Mouse not working: Check that the mouse is being used on a flat
surface that is dust free. Remove the mouse ball and gently clean
it to remove any dust. Ensure that the operating system
recognises the mouse in use.

Care and preventative maintenance


The following tasks need to be completed on a regular basis to
prevent problems with your PC:
Turn the computer off when working inside the system unit.
A PC toolkit provides the necessary tools to connect any
peripheral device (see Figure 4.19). Check that you do not have
any static electricity that could damage internal components by
wearing an anti-static wrist strap or by touching an unpainted
metal surface such as the power supply. Use a surge protector to
stop voltage increases affecting your system. Unplug the
computer during thunderstorms.
Do not eat or drink near
the computer. Ensure that
your work area is free of
dust and small objects such
as staples. If dust builds up
inside the system unit,
remove it carefully with a
small vacuum cleaner. Be
careful around circuit
boards as a vacuum cleaner
can remove components
and jumpers. Small pieces
of rubbish in your keyboard
can be removed by turning
Figure 4.19 A PC toolkit is useful for connecting peripheral the keyboard up-side down
devices and shaking it gently.
Clean the screen with a soft and slightly damp cloth or paper
towel. Commercial cleaners can damage the surface of the
screen and may enter the electrical system.
Ensure that the computer is not exposed to direct sunlight or
any other heat source for long periods of time. Check that the
cables are in perfect working condition. Replace any cables that
have deteriorated or are frayed. It is good practice to securely
bundle large numbers of cables.
Turn off the printer using the power button as this prevents the
print head from drying out. Be careful cleaning inside the printer.

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Use water or rubbing alcohol as a cleaning solution. Check the


printer for small pieces of paper that may cause jamming.
Delete unnecessary folders and files. Defragging your hard disk
will reorganise your files and make disk operations faster.
Regularly backup data files to another hard disk, CD or tape. If
your main storage device is damaged then you are able to access
the backup files to retrieve data. Protect your system from
viruses by installing an up-to-date anti-virus program.
Complete and send all warranty documents and register each
A blackout occurs
piece of software. Most warranties become void if an
when there is a
unauthorised person tries to repair the product. complete loss of
It is good preventative maintenance to complete an annual service power. A brown-
out occurs when
and maintain a file that contains all the information about your
there is a power
system. Each time you make a change to your system, such as failure with a low
adding or removing hardware or software, you should update this voltage level. An
file and obtain a hard copy. This file should contain the following uninterruptible
power supply (UPS)
information: can give you time
date and retailer where you purchased your computer to properly close
equipment down and avoid
data loss when a
serial numbers of all hardware and software purchased blackout or
telephone numbers and addresses of any businesses that will brownout occurs.
provide support under warranty
chronological history of problems and their solutionsthis
information is helpful for discussions with support people.

Exercise 4.6
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a If the mouse is not working remove the _______ and gently
clean it to remove any dust.
b A PC toolkit provides the necessary tools to connect any _______
device.
c Use a vacuum cleaner carefully near _______ as it can remove
components and jumpers.
d Protect your system from viruses by installing an up-to-date
_______ program.
e Most warranties become void if an _______ person tries to
repair the product.
2 True or false?
a If the PC is not reading data it is usually a problem with the CD.
b Commercial cleaners should be used to clean the surface of the
screen.
c Defragging your hard disk will make disk operations faster.

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3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets


with a suitable term:
Swapping a device with another device that is working is called (a).
This is a useful method of troubleshooting for (b), mice, (c), hard
disks and most peripheral devices.
4 Describe the steps to overcome these common operating faults:
a not starting up
b blank screen
c not printing.
5 a What is the purpose of a surge protector?
b How should you clean the screen?
c Describe the care that should be taken with a printer.
d List the information that should be maintained about your
system.

Development
6 Write a checklist that a person could use to ensure that they are
correctly setting up a PC. Your checklist should contain information
to prevent any damage to the PC.
7 Create a table to store information on your PC. The information
should contain purchase details, serial numbers, warranties and
a history of problems. Complete the table with
data relevant to your computer.
ICT 4.2

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d)
6 Which of the following is not an
that best answers each question.
input device?
1 Which of the following is not a a CPU
function of hardware? b Keyboard
c Mouse
a ALU
d Digital camera
b Input
c Output 7 Which type of fast printer produces
d Storage high quality output?
2 What is the name of the socket used a Inkjet
to connect peripheral devices? b Dot matrix
c Laser
a Port
d Plotter
b Bus
c IC 8 Which of the following technology
d Expansion slot involves firing a beam of electrons
3 What is a microprocessor? onto the inside of a screen
a A CPU contained on one containing a coating of phosphor?
integrated circuit a DPI
b Part of the CPU that performs b CRT
data calculations and comparisons c LCD
c Temporary storage area for small d RGB
amounts of data
9 Which of the following is an
d Another name for a personal
expensive computer about the size of
computer
a refrigerator that is used for large
4 What is an input device that consists computing jobs?
of a special electronic pad and a pen? a Supercomputer
a Light pen b Mainframe
b Graphics tablet c Personal computer
c Pointing stick d Portable computer
d Touch screen
10 Which of the following help to
5 Scanners are input devices that prevent problems with your PC?
perform what function? a Do not eat or drink near the
a Capture and store images in computer.
digital form rather than on film b Clean the screen with a slightly
b Use a light source to read damp cloth or paper towel.
characters and barcodes c Turn the computer off when
c Capture sound working inside the system unit.
d Make a digital representation of d All of the above.
any printed image

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Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.
Statements
1 A pathway of wires on the 6 An input device that captures video
motherboard that connects various in a digital format.
components. 7 It uses LCD technology to project
2 An expansion card that allows the PC images onto a larger screen.
to accept microphone input and play 8 A display surface that provides
music. immediate feedback about what the
3 It directs and coordinates the entire computer is doing.
hardware system. 9 A handheld computer that is small
4 A pointing device consisting of a enough to store in the pocket of a
small rod that looks like a pen. jacket.
5 A small handheld input device that is 10 A common method of determining
moved over a flat surface to control whether a piece of equipment is
the movement of a pointer. faulty.
Terms
a Bus f Mouse
b Control unit g PDA
c Data projector h Peer checking
d Digital video camera i Screen
e Light pen j Sound card

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Identify the hardware components 4 Describe three common output
found in the system unit. What is a devices.
co-processor? 5 Briefly describe the four common
2 Is the CPU always contained on one classifications of hardware systems.
integrated circuit? Explain your 6 Your computer is not working. List
answer. some of the possible reasons for this
3 How do OCR devices read typed text? fault.

e Tester
Project: Personal computers
Buying a personal computer can be a very costly investment, particularly if you
buy a computer that does not meet your needs. What reasons do you have for
purchasing a computer? Put these reasons for buying a computer in order.
Examine the current prices of hardware for a personal computer. Construct a table
that compares the hardware that could be purchased for $1000, $3000 and $5000.
For each price scenario state the hardware component, its specifications and price.
Ensure that the prices quoted are in Australian dollars. Do the computers you
have specified meet your needs?

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5
5
C H A P T E R

Issues
Syllabus outcomes
5.3.1 Justifies responsible practice and ethical use of
information technology.

Overview
It is important to consider the ways in which information
technology is affecting people and some of the issues that are
causing concern. In this chapter we categorised issues as legal,
ethical, social and industrial. This topic includes issues such as
copyright, piracy, privacy, nature of work and ergonomics.
313 ISTech Chapt 05.3pp 23/9/04 11:33 AM Page 104

5.1 Legal issues


Society uses laws to ensure the correct use of information
technology. Legal issues include copyright, software piracy and
computer viruses.

Copyright and licensing


Copyright is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors
and artists, including software developers. It is often indicated by
the symbol. Copyright is protected by law. It is against the law to
use or copy the work of another person without their permission.
There are some exceptions. For example, you are allowed to
reproduce a small amount of someones work for the purposes of
study, criticism or review. However, it is always necessary to
acknowledge the creator of the work.
Information published on the Internet is protected by copyright.
However, it presents a problem. Websites are available for people all
over the world to view and copy. It is important that writers and web
publishers are rewarded for their efforts. Text and images obtained
from a website should not be reproduced without acknowledgement.
Images should not be downloaded and used for other purposes
without permission. When citing an Internet source it is important
to include the following information (see Figure 5.1):
the authors surname and initial or organisations name
the title of the completed work or web page
the URL of the web pagein this case www.hi.com.au
the date of document or web page publication
the download date.

Figure 5.1 Information from hi.com.au

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The copyright issue is particularly highlighted with music files.


It is legal to transfer songs from standard audio to MP3 music from
your own CDs provided that it is for your own personal use. It is
also legal to download music from websites where the artists own
the rights. However, playing or distributing any other music files is
breaking the copyright law. The copyright law aims to protect the
original artist for creating the piece of music.
When you are buying a piece of software you are actually
purchasing a software licence not the software itself. A licence is a
legal document written by the software company that defines how
you can use the software. It usually appears on the screen during
installation. Most licences include limitations on your right to copy
disks, install software on hard drives, and transfer information to
other users.
Site licences permit an organisation to use the software on any
number of computers on the same site. A site can refer to a
number of buildings, such as a school.
Network licences allow people to use a program on a network
for a specified number of users.
Shareware is software that is provided free and can be copied
and distributed, but the licence agreement requires users to pay
for the shareware they use. It is much cheaper than commercial
software packages as there are fewer costs associated with
marketing, and it is not always rigorously tested.
Freeware or public domain software can be freely distributed
and used. Shareware and freeware are often distributed using
the Internet or through computer magazines. However, the code
may not be altered and used for personal gain.

Piracy
Software piracy (or pirating) is the illegal copying and/or It is estimated that
more than one-
distribution of software. Software piracy costs software developers third of all
billions of dollars each year and results in higher prices for software. software in use is
Software developers are protected by copyright so that they receive illegally copied.

money for their time, effort and investment spent in developing a


program. Software developers are using many different methods to
reduce software piracy. It is common for software applications to be
purchased with a code. Software is locked and cannot be used until
the user has entered the code.
Software piracy is also an ethical issue. Is it right to copy software
without the permission of the author? Software piracy is a computer
crime. Software authors spend hundreds of hours developing the

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software and deserve returns for their efforts. The fact that it is
relatively easy for anyone with a computer to make copies of
software is irrelevant. If people infringe copyright, authors are not
getting royalties and they will be reluctant to spend time developing
and maintaining good software.
On the other hand, some people argue that they are forced to
copy software. They believe software is too expensive and they
cannot afford to buy it. If software companies reduced their prices,
people would not infringe copyright and they would increase their
sales. This would result in a greater return to the software authors.
Software authors are not losing royalties because they would not
buy the software in the first place. Has the cost of software
decreased in recent years? Has there been a corresponding decrease
in software piracy?

Intellectual property
Intellectual property is the original creative work of a person that can
be legally protected. It includes the ideas developed by writers,
musicians, film-makers, scientists and inventors. Intellectual
property laws aim to reward and encourage people with innovative
ideas (see Figure 5.2). Ideas are easy to copy. Most existing copyright
and patent laws that evolved in the age of print and mechanical
inventions are inadequate for current information technology. The
legal system is updating intellectual property laws. It is struggling
with difficult issues about innovation, property, freedom and the
rate of change in
information
technology. Is a
teenager who
copies music
files from the
Internet a
computer
criminal? What
about a student
who posts a
video file
containing part
of a movie on
their website?
How about a
Figure 5.2 World Intellectual Property Organization website musician who

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takes a 30 second sample from another recording artist and adds


another instrument? It is not always easy to define and protect
intellectual property.

Security and protection


Organisations are collecting data about you everyday. Can you be
sure that this data is secure? In Chapter 3 we outlined the need for
data security and some basic security methods. Computer crime is
increasing. Law enforcement is finding it difficult to keep computer
crime under control. One example of this problem is the spread of
computer viruses.
Viruses are a serious threat. They have caused a great deal of
damage, such as deleting personal data, removing system files and
blocking email. Viruses have cost organisations billions of dollars in
lost productivity. The Internet is a great environment for a virus to
spread as emailing and exchanging files is common practice. There
are many types of infection:
A virus is a small program that attaches itself to an application.
Each time the application is started the virus is activated.
An email virus attaches itself to an email message. It spreads by
automatically mailing itself to each contact in the users
address book.
A worm has the ability to copy itself from machine to machine.
Worms normally move around and infect other
machines through computer networks.
A Trojan horse is simply a computer
program. It claims to be one thing, such as
a computer game, but will cause damage
when the program is started.
Many people believe creating and introducing
destructive viruses is a computer crime. Data
that has been infected by a virus is often costly
to repair or impossible to replace. Viruses
are very frustrating because the lost
productivity has been the intention of an
unknown person. By contrast, some people
argue that even though the people creating
the viruses are unethical, viruses are having a
positive effect on the computer industry. Their
reasoning is linked to the copyright issue and
software piracy. Viruses are programs that are added onto an
application program. If that program is copied, the virus is also

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copied and in this way spread between computer systems. If people


stop making illegal copies of software for fear of catching a virus,
then viruses are serving the computer industry. Viruses are
reducing the amount of software piracy.
An anti-virus program is used to scan a file or disk for a range
of well-known viruses. There is no guarantee that an anti-virus
program will stop every virus, as new viruses are always appearing.
However, if users download the latest virus definition files and
regularly use the anti-virus program it will minimise the problem.
It is also important for users not to open email attachments from
unknown people. If an email has a virus it will not be activated
until the email is opened. Emails with viruses should be deleted.

Legislation
Legislation is the creation of laws to protect individuals and to
ensure that society is equitable and fair. There are laws protecting
people trying to gain employment and also to protect them in their
daily work.
The Anti-Discrimination Act promotes the equality of opportunity
between all persons. Discrimination is the unfair treatment of
people on the basis of race, sex, age, religion, sexuality or disability.
Organisations are required by law to ensure that their work
practices are non-discriminatory.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Act (EEO) provides all
workers with an equal chance to seek and obtain jobs. It aims to
eliminate all forms of discrimination in recruitment, selection,
training and conditions of employment. EEO protects employees
from all types of harassment, including electronic harassment.
Email could be used to abuse, threaten or harass other workers.
Occupational Health and Safety Act (OH&S) requires employers
to maintain a safe working environment and protect workers
against foreseeable risks. Ergonomic principles and industry
standards for information technology are discussed in Section 5.4.
The Internet has created confusion about your rights against online
crime, privacy and intellectual property. For example, if a person in
South Africa defrauds an Australian citizen by using their website
that operates from a server in Germany, where has the crime been
committed? If the country does not have a law covering the fraud,
then the criminal cannot be prosecuted. Clearly, we need uniform
laws to protect people online.

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Exercise 5.1
1 What am I?
a The illegal copying of software.
b Software that can be freely
distributed and used.
c A small program that attaches
itself to an application.
d A program that scans a file or disk
for a range of well-known viruses.
2 True or false?
a Information published on the
Internet is protected by
copyright.
b A software licence is a legal
document that defines how
you can use the software.
c A Trojan horse infects other
machines through computer
networks.
d The Anti-Discrimination Act
requires employers to maintain
a safe working environment and
protect workers against foreseeable
risks.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing
the letter in brackets with a suitable term:
(a) is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors and
artists. Text and (b) obtained from a website should not be
reproduced without (c). Internet sources must be correctly (d).
4 a List the information displayed when citing an Internet source.
b Why do software developers need to be protected by
copyright?
c What is the purpose of intellectual property laws?
d Why is the Internet a great environment for a virus?

Development
5 How would you respond to a request from a friend for a copy
of a software program that you have just purchased for $450?
Justify your answer.
6 Viruses are a serious threat. Investigate the recent viruses that have
caused a major problem. Write a report of your investigation.
7 Napster was a website that provided an opportunity for people
to break copyright. The owners of Napster were prosecuted.
Do research to find information on Napster. Summarise the results
of your investigation.

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5.2 Ethical issues


Ethical issues are a set of beliefs about what is right and wrong.
Information technology provides us with many new and exciting
opportunities. However, there are risks. Information technology
must be used wisely. We must strive to live up to an ethical
standard of reference.

Code of practice and conduct


A code of practice and conduct is required in the use of information
technology in the workplace (see Figure 5.3). It is the responsibility
of each user for the professional standard of their communication
and the material displayed on their screen. A code of conduct should
state what the employee is not allowed to do, such as illegal activities,
unauthorised access to business data and participation in activities
that are regarded as offensive. Offensive material includes porno-
graphy, racist statements, sexist statements, violence, promoting
drug misuse and cruelty.
A code of conduct also needs to address some of the uncertain
areas such as sending private email, typing rsums, personal
Internet banking and downloading software. Is everything stored
or created using the business computer owned by the business?
What electronic documents need to be stored to meet government
regulations? Are employees allowed to borrow any of the information
technology? What will be the penalties if an employee breaks the code
of practice and conduct? The use of email has additional problems.
Email in the
workplace should
be for business
use. It could be
the subject of legal
proceedings in the
same way as a
letter. Email
should not be
used to promote
discrimination,
for harassment or
contain material
that may be
considered
Figure 5.3 The Department of Commerce guidelines
offensive. It is also

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inappropriate to use email to insult or spread rumours about other


people. Finally, you should not attempt to read, delete, copy or
modify the emails of other users.
There are also uncertain areas in the use of emails. What
happens to an employees email when they are on holiday? Are you
allowed to read a persons email when they are absent? Who has
access to each employees email password? How long are you
Flame mail is the
required to keep emails? Who is responsible when employees do use of email to
not reply to their email? What happens to a persons email if they transmit offensive,
leave the business? If employees are conducting business using their insulting, harassing
messages to people
private email this could be a major problem. in the workplace.

Privacy and security


Privacy is the ability of an individual to control their personal data.
Organisations are collecting a huge amount of data about our
personal lives and attitudes on various issues. Every time you fill
out a form, use a transaction card, or surf the Net, data is collected.
Is this data secure? Is it possible for people to access this data and
combine it? This combined information would provide a very
accurate picture of you. It could provide details of your income,
lifestyle and health. This information would be of great value to
retailers and advertising people. Furthermore, what if you
completed an application to build a house and somebody accessed
this data and sold it to a bricklayer? Your privacy has been invaded
and sold.
Privacy is invaded when an email from an unknown
organisation is sent to your email address. How did this
organisation get your email address? Was your email address sold to
this organisation? Privacy laws require websites to provide
disclaimers stating that any information provided will not be used
for other purposes. However, the security measures used by some Piggyback entry is
organisations may be inadequate. There is also the potential for the unauthorised
access to a
administrators of email systems to eavesdrop on conversations. computer system
Streaming video raises the issue of privacy. Digital video cameras by using the
are being located in streets and streamed live on the Internet. authorised users
password or
People who are walking down the street are not aware of this, nor terminal.
have they given permission, to be on the video. Is personal privacy
being invaded? Will all aspects of our lives, such as work, be
streamed onto the Internet? How can our privacy be protected
from this development?

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Inappropriate use
Hackers and computer crime are examples of the inappropriate use
of information technology. These are growing problems and pose
difficult ethical issues. Computer crime was discussed in Chapter 3.
Offensive material on the Internet, such as pornography, cruelty
and violence, is also a concern. The Internet allows children to
access any material they wish, either deliberately or unintentionally.
It is also distressing that paedophiles are using the Internet to find
potential children for their hideous crime. Should offensive
material be banned from the Internet? Is banning any material
compromising our free society? Governments and law enforcement
bodies around the world have made many unsuccessful attempts to
censor material on the Internet.
The Internet Industry Association (IIA) represents the
Australian Internet service providers (ISPs). It has released a code
of conduct that deals with censorship of online content. The code
requires ISPs to remove offensive content from their servers and
block access to classified material hosted on overseas websites. The
federal government has passed a law requiring ISPs to subscribe to
the IIAs code. The difficulty with censorship is the enormous
number of websites and the fact that thousands of new websites are
published daily. Monitoring websites on a global basis is
impossible. Clearly there needs to be international agreement on
offensive material. However, this agreement may be difficult to
obtain and regulate.

Accuracy, validity and bias of data


Accuracy of data is the extent it is free from errors. Inaccuracies can
be caused by mistakes in gathering or entering the data, by a
mismatch of the data, or the information being out-of-date. In the
past it was easier to check the accuracy of information because
there was less of it. Today, there is a huge amount of information
and this makes it difficult to check it in a reasonable amount of
time. What opportunities exist to check and change personal data if
it is wrong?
It is easy to publish data on the Internet with no guarantee that
the information is accurate. Organisations are providing access to
information to those who are not the creators of the information.
This causes a difficult issue. Who is responsible for the accuracy of
information? Is the creator the only person responsible for the
accuracy of the data? Do organisations that provide access to

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Figure 5.4 Photographs can be touched up or altered quite easily

information have a responsibility to verify its accuracy? Clearly,


it is necessary to compare data from a number of sources and
determine which data is accurate and relevant.
In addition to the issue of responsibility there are concerns
about ethics of altering data. For example, photographs can be
edited by adding, changing, or removing images (see Figure 5.4).
A person can be taken out of the photograph and another person
inserted. Is it acceptable to improve a photograph by slightly
altering the data? What is wrong with making a persons teeth white
or changing the colour of their eyes? Do you think it is acceptable
to alter a photograph if its meaning has not changed?
Data collected is used to solve problems, meet needs, or make
decisions. The accuracy of the data must be checked before it is
processed into information. This is called data validation. This
involves ensuring that the data is up-to-date, current, complete and
correctly entered. Data validation can be built into the software:
A range check is used if the data is restricted to a small range of
particular values. For example, when the data is entered in the
format 21/2/2005 the software checks whether the first two digits
are in the range of 1 to 31, and the second two digits are in the
range of 1 to 12.
A list check is used when the data can be compared to a set of
accepted data. For example, when data entered is an Australian
state then NSW would be accepted but NSX would not.
A type check is used to determine whether the data type is
correct. For example, when data is entered for a persons family

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name the software will check if the data is text. It would not
accept a date for a persons name.
A check digit is a digit calculated from the digits of a code
number and then added to that number as an extra digit. For
example, the ISBN 0 85859 921 4 has a check digit of 4 and it is
calculated from 0 85859 921.
Bias means that the data is unfairly skewed or gives too much
weight to a particular result. One common fault that leads to bias is
if the person collecting the data has some benefit to gain from the
outcome. This is called a vested interest (for example, if a doctor
from a tobacco company conducts medical research into the effects
of smoking). Data can be displayed in a biased way using tables and
charts. For example, tables can be constructed without all the
relevant data and the scales chosen on a chart may distort a trend.
Bias becomes an ethical issue when the relevant information is
knowingly misrepresented.

Exercise 5.2
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a ______ issues are a set of beliefs about what is right and wrong.
b Email should not be used to promote _______, for sexual
harassment or contain offensive material.
c A _______ is a type of data validation to determine whether the
data type is correct.
d Bias becomes an ethical issue when relevant information is
knowingly _______.
2 What am I?
a The ability of an individual to control their personal data.
b The extent data is free from errors.
c A type of data validation that compares data to a set of
accepted data.
d Data that is unfairly skewed or gives too much weight to a
particular result.
3 Unjumble these words:
a teraemsd ovdie
b tdaa vlitdaanio
c eytp ckehc
4 a How can the use of email be an invasion of privacy?
b What are some of the problems with the IIAs code?
c List four ways of collecting inaccurate data.
d What is the purpose of data validation?

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Development
5 Write a code of conduct for the use of information technology
in schools. The code of conduct should be directed at students
and needs to address the use of email.
6 The Data-Matching Act permits certain agencies to check records in
different government departments such as the Tax Office,
Department of Social Security, and Department of Employment,
Education and Training. It aims to catch people who are cheating
the welfare system. Do you think this is an invasion of your privacy?
Justify your conclusion.

5.3 Social issues


The effect of information technology on the nature of work and the
equality of access to information technology are important social
issues.

Nature of work
The introduction of information technology has created significant
changes in the workplace. There are increases in part-time work and
the use of contracted labour. Employees are required to be multiskilled
and undertake ongoing training. It is also likely that people will
change jobs many times throughout their careers, which was not
common practice twenty years ago. Technology is a major factor to
changes in career paths. In the next ten years new jobs will be created
and existing jobs changed to reflect developments in technology.
Information technology has led to economic progress, new job
opportunities and a more prosperous society. Employment
opportunities have been created for workers with the right skills.
Most people who use information technology do not find it stressful
and enjoy the interaction. However, new developments have cost
many workers their jobs and had a negative impact on their work.
Surveillance of employees at work is a concern. Employers can
monitor their staff using a video camera (see Figure 5.5). They can
also use software that provides information on the number of key
strokes a minute, the length of rest breaks, what files were opened
and read employees email messages. Research has found that
workers who are monitored suffer much higher degrees of stress
and anxiety than unmonitored workers. Do employees have the
right to privacy in the workplace? Is it only a matter of time before
surveillance in the workplace is extended to the streets in which you

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live? Will the concerns of


Big Brother presented by
George Orwell in his novel
1984 become a reality? Is a
computer-controlled society
going to end our personal
freedom?
Telecommuting allows
people to work from home
instead of the office. They
work on a personal
computer at home and use
email to communicate with
people in the office.
Telecommuting provides
Figure 5.5 Video cameras are used for surveillance
participants with flexible
hours and savings on transport, clothing, food and time.
Telecommuting benefits people who are physically impaired or
those who are required to look after small children. However, there
are problems with telecommuting. First, there is a need for a
separate work area to minimise interruptions from family and
friends. Second, telecommuters can experience loneliness, isolation
and a lack of support.
A videoconference is a meeting that allows people in different
locations to see video images of each other on a screen. The least
expensive form of videoconferencing is a tiny camera and a 10
centimetre window displayed on a computer screen. In a typical
business videoconference people appear on a larger screen. This
may require special communication arrangements because of the
high bandwidth of video.

Project: Telecommuting
Marc and Tracy are married with a young child. They have recently
moved to a 3-hectare property in the Southern Highlands of NSW. Marc
is an accountant who works in Sydney but would like to work from
home. The problem was solved using the four stages in project
development.
Define and analyse the problem: Marc gathered as much
information as possible on telecommuting. He interviewed three
people who are currently working from home. Each person
outlined the advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting.

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Design possible solutions: Marc decided to write a proposal


requesting more flexible working hours. Telecommuting would
result in a clear saving in time. Marcs proposal involved using this
time to complete more work and spend more time with his family.
He decided on a solution that involved setting up the home office
on a trial basis.
Produce the solution: Marc set up an office at home with a
powerful computer, fax machine, fast Internet connection and the
same accounting software used at work. Marcs proposal involved
completing most of his work at home and being in constant
communication with the office. Documents could be easily
transferred as email attachments and he would visit the office for
consultations with clients.
Evaluate the solution: Marc submitted a proposal to his manager.
The manager agreed to Marcs proposal on a trial basis for the next
six months.

Tasks
ICT 5.1
1 Do research into telecommuting. Write a brief report that
summarises your investigation.
2 Would you like a job that provided an opportunity to work at
home? Give reasons for your answer.

Equity, access and control


Wealth is a factor that influences a persons access to information
technology. People with high incomes are more likely to have the
latest technology and a greater access to the Internet. Some people
argue that information technology is widening the gap between the
rich and the poor. The rich are getting richer because they are
information rich. The gap between the information rich and the
information poor is a concern. Does this information gap exist
between developed and developing countries? On the other hand, it
can be argued that information technology is reducing the
information gap between the rich and the poor. The Internet brings
information to people all over the world. People in remote places are
able to access the latest information and improve their skills using
the Internet. Information technology is able to provide people with
a higher level of education and improve their standard of living.
It is argued by some people that women are not taking
advantage of information technology in the same numbers as men.
The highest paid jobs in the information technology industry are
dominated by men. There is an image in society that information
technology is technical and therefore an area more suited to men

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than women. This image is reinforced


by advertising in the media that has
traditionally targeted men to the exclusion
of women. Conversely, it can be argued
that the percentage of men and women
working in information technology is
roughly the same as any other industry.
The fact that woman are employed in the
lowest paid work, such as data entry
operators, has nothing to do with
information technology. Gender equity is
an issue throughout society. For instance,
the number of male doctors is much
Figure 5.6 Women are taking on leadership roles greater than the number of female doctors.
in information technology Furthermore, there are many examples of
women playing leadership roles in information technology
(see Figure 5.6).
Tutorial People with disabilities have the right to access and use
information technology. They should not be discriminated against
because of their disability. Organisations must try to ensure
advances in information technology do not disadvantage disabled
people. Software companies such as Microsoft have included special
features to provide support to assist people who are disabled (see
Figure 5.7). It is important that websites are developed which are
accessible by disabled people. This may involve alternatives to text
for the sight-impaired person or alternatives for audio information
to cater for the hearing-impaired person. Alternate input devices
are available for those with physical disabilities. Information

Figure 5.7 Microsoft addresses people with disabilities

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technology has long been used to give people with disabilities an


opportunity to more fully participate in society.
Australia is a multicultural society that requires access to high
quality and culturally relevant material. People from other cultures
should not be excluded from the benefits of information technology.
Aboriginal and indigenous people have been discriminated against
in the past. We need to ensure that Aboriginal people have access to
information technology in the same way as other Australians. People
from non-English speaking backgrounds need special assistance to
ensure that they can use technology effectively.

Exercise 5.3
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in
brackets with a suitable term:
Telecommuting provides participants with (a) hours and savings on
transport, (b), food and time. Telecommuting benefits people who
are (c) or are required to look after small (d).
2 True or false?
a A person can expect to have many different types of jobs
throughout their career.
b Most people who use information technology find it stressful.
c Wealth is a factor that influences a persons access to
information technology.
d People from other cultures should be excluded from the
benefits of information technology.
3 What am I?
a Watching over a person.
b People who work at home instead of in an office.
c A meeting that allows people in different places to see video
images of each other on a screen.
4 a Describe some of the benefits that have resulted from the
introduction of information technology in the workplace.
b How are employers carrying out surveillance of their staff?
c What is the least expensive form of videoconferencing?
d List two ways websites could be developed to make them more
accessible for disabled people.

Development
5 People who are information poor will become disadvantaged and
the social outcasts of the next century. Do research into the effect
of information technology on developing countries and then
outline your view on this statement.
6 Woman are not taking advantage of information technology in
the same numbers as men. Do you agree with this statement?
Justify your conclusion.

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5.4 Industrial issues


The rights and responsibilities of users of information technology
and the ergonomic principles for using information technology are
important industrial issues.

Rights and responsibilities


Workers in all industries have rights and responsibilities. The Office
of Industrial Relations outlines your responsibilities as:
follow reasonable and lawful instructions given by your employer
a reasonable instruction is one that an employee is competent
and capable of doing, is not illegal and is no threat to health
and safety
obey safety rules and ensure that quality standards are met
do not discriminate against people because of their age, race or
colourdo not engage in any kind of harassment
be responsible and take the sort of care with the job and your
employers property that you would if you were looking after
your own.
The Office of Industrial Relations outlines your rights as:
if most of your time is spent on tasks covered by an award or
registered agreement, you are entitled to be paid the appropriate
rate for that job
you are entitled by law to a healthy and safe work environment,
even if you are on work experience and not being paid
you are entitled to receive training in your duties
you have a right to a discrimination free workplaceyou have
the right to be treated with respect regardless of your age, race
or colour.

Figure 5.8 Office of Industrial Relations

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Ergonomics
Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work
environment. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces,
products and systems so that they fit the people who use them. The
way a computer is used and the work environment can have an effect
on the body (see Figure 5.9). This includes the desk, chair, hardware,
software, keyboard technique and indoor climate. The relationship
between all these factors affects health and efficiency. The incorrect use
of computers can cause health problems, such as eyestrain, headaches,
backaches, fatigue, muscle pain and repetitive strain injury (RSI).

1 5
The top edge of the 5 To reduce eye strain, focus
monitor should be at eye on a distant object, then
level or slightly lower focus on a close object
1
repeat this several times
2
Keep your elbows level
with the keyboard and
ensure your wrists remain
straight at all times 2
3 3
Do not lean forward or slouch
in your chair shift positions
often and stand up to stretch
at least once an hour
4
4 6
Use a fully adjustable chair Make sure your feet
that provides support for are flat on the floor
your lower back contoured 66
chair seats relieve pressure
on the legs

Figure 5.9 Furniture should be well designed

To reduce these health problems, there have been numerous


reports and standards that deal with ergonomics and information
technology. The Australian Standard AS3590.2 and the WorkSafe
Australia checklist are standards adopted in Australia. These standards
can contain slightly conflicting results as they are based on different
anthropometric data (body size and shape). The recommendations
are outlined below.
Furniture needs to be adjusted to suit each persons body,
otherwise problems may develop in the back, neck, shoulders, arms
and legs. The desk and chair needs to be positioned so that these
body parts are used effectively without strain and undue fatigue.
Desk height must be between 660 and 680 millimetres for a
fixed desk, and between 610 and 720 millimetres for an
adjustable desk. The depth of the desk should be 900
millimetres with at least 50 millimetres for the wrists between

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the front edge of the desk and the keyboard. This reduces the
strain on the forearms when typing.
Chairs must have an adjustable seat height that ranges from 370
to 520 millimetres from the floor. This allows a clearance of 200
millimetres between the seat and the desk. An adjustable backrest
must be between 170 to 250 millimetres above the seat and fit
snugly into the small of the back. The seat should be flat, well
padded, and slanted slightly backwards. This forces the participant
to lean against the backrest and maintain good posture.
The low-level The hardware and its placement are an important ergonomic factor
radiation emitted too. The system unit bought as tower or mini-tower can be placed
from monitors has
been linked to
away from the screen, keyboard and mouse to provide increased
miscarriages in desk space. The recommendations for the screen, keyboard and
pregnant women, mouse are outlined below.
as well as
The screen should be about an arms length away with the user
leukaemia.
However, the proof looking down on the screen. It should also be between 15 and
is inconclusive. 30 degrees below the eye level and adjusted so that it is at right
angles to the line of sight. Adjustments of angle, brightness, and
contrast should be possible, to cater for individual differences.
The keyboard must be detachable and positioned so that the
forearms are parallel to the floor. The angle of the keyboard
relative to the desk should be between 5 and 18 degrees with the
keys requiring a minimum of pressure.
The mouse must fit the hand and be easily moved. The button
should require a minimum of pressure. The sensitivity of the
mouse should be easily adjusted to suit the operator.
The work environment is affected by factors such as lighting,
indoor climate and noise.
Incorrect lighting can cause eyestrain, a burning of the eye,
double vision, headaches and can reduce visual powers. Lighting
needs to be uniform, and bright enough for all text to be read
easily on the screen, keyboard and paper. All parts of the work
environment should have non-reflective surfaces to minimise
glare. Glare is reduced by using window shades, diffusers on
Electronic smog
overhead lighting and anti-glare filters on screens.
is the result of
excessive electro- If the climate of a room is uncomfortable, it can cause
magnetic fields and weariness, sleepiness, loss of performance and increased errors.
static electricity The temperature range when a person feels comfortable varies.
generated by
large numbers of For a clothed and resting person, the temperature should range
electronic devices. between 20 and 23C. If the relative humidity of the air is
between 30 and 70 per cent it will not create any discomfort.
Air movements, such as draughts, are unpleasant if they exceed
0.2 metres per second.
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Excessive noise in the work environment can be a significant


distraction. Noise levels should not exceed 55 decibels, as it makes
communication with others difficult and can affect concentration.
Protection from noise can be obtained by sound insulating a
room, enclosing the source of the noise with sound absorbing
materials, or by using headphones, ear plugs and soft music.

Exercise 5.4
1 True or false?
a The recommended height for a desk is between 660 and 680 mm.
b The screen should be about 30 cm away and adjusted so that it
is at right angles to the line of sight.
c The keyboard must be detachable and
positioned so that the forearms are
parallel to the floor.
d Noise levels in the work environment
should exceed 55 decibels.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is the relationship between
people and their work environment.
b The screen should be between
_______ and 30 degrees below the
eye level.
c Incorrect _______ can cause
eyestrain, burning of the eye and
double vision.
d A comfortable temperature range for
a room is between _______ and 23C.
3 Unjumble these words:
a omieonrgcs
b ajutabdsle rebackst
c ledehtacab rdkboeya
4 a What are some of the health problems that may occur from
incorrect use of computers?
b What is the recommended height for a chair?
c Describe the ergonomic recommendations for a keyboard.
d What are the effects of an uncomfortable climate in a room?

Development
5 The majority of people who use information technology at work
are not aware of their rights and responsibilities. Outline your view
on the importance of rights and responsibilities in the workplace.
6 Ergonomics is being blamed for many health problems. People ICT 5.2
have been doing repetitive jobs for centuries without knowing
about ergonomics. Analyse these statements.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.

1 Which of the following licences can 7 Which of the following does not
be freely distributed and used? influence a persons access to
a Site license information technology?
b Network license a Culture
c Shareware b Disability
d Public domain c Privacy
d Wealth
2 What do anti-virus programs do?
a Scan a file or disk for a range of 8 Which of the following statements
well-known viruses is incorrect?
b Cost organisations billions of a Proportions of woman in the
dollars in lost productivity workforce have been increasing
c Reduce the amount of software b Surveillance of employees raises
piracy the issue of privacy
d Guarantee to stop every virus c Telecommuters can experience
loneliness and isolation
3 Which of the following laws aim to
d Most people find information
reward and encourage people with
technology stressful
innovative ideas?
a Anti-Discrimination Act 9 What is the process of ergonomics?
b Equal Employment Opportunity Act a Ensuring equality of access to
c Occupational Health and Safety Act information technology
d Intellectual Property Act b Designing workplaces, products
and systems so that they fit the
4 A code of conduct would allow people who use them
participation in which of the c Checking the accuracy of the data
following? d Monitoring the work of
a Illegal activities employees
b Email
c Unauthorised access to data 10 Which of the following is not an
d Offensive material ergonomic recommendation?
a The screen should be at eye level
5 Which of the following does not and at right angles to the line of
affect the accuracy of the data? sight
a Bias data b Furniture needs to be adjusted to
b Mistakes in entering the data suit each persons body
c Mismatch of data c The seat of a chair should be flat,
d Out-of-date data well padded and slanted slightly
backwards
6 Which of the following is not a d Lighting needs to be uniform and
method of data validation? bright enough for all text to be
a Range check read easily
b List check
c Type digit
d Check digit

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Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 The right to use, copy or control the 7 People who work at home instead
work of authors and artists. of the office.
2 Legal document that defines how 8 Meeting that allows people to see
you can use the software. video images of each other on a
3 The illegal copying of software. screen.
4 The ability of an individual to control 9 Relationship between people and
their personal data. their work environment.
5 The extent data is free from errors. 10 Health problem caused by the
6 Checking the data before it is incorrect use of computers.
processed into information.

Terms
a Copyright f Piracy
b Data accuracy g Privacy
c Data validation h RSI
d Ergonomics i Telecommuters
e Licence j Videoconference

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 What is the purpose of copyright? Do 4 The accuracy of data on the Internet
you think it is a computer crime to is a difficult issue. Explain this
break copyright? Give reasons for statement.
your answer. 5 Information technology has changed
2 Why are computer viruses a serious the nature of work. Describe some of
threat? Describe four types of the changes in the nature of work
infection. over the past twenty years.
3 What is privacy? Do you think 6 Is ergonomics an important issue in
streamed video is an invasion of the workplace? Your answer should
privacy? Give reasons for your outline some of the problems that
answer. may arise if ergonomic considerations
are ignored.

e Tester

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Project: Issues
Investigate an issue associated with information technology and prepare a report
based on this investigation. During this report you need to develop and apply
skills in data gathering, data validation and the interpretation of data. Data
gathering could include surveys, interviews, books, magazines or the Internet. It is
important to distinguish between facts and opinion. Remember that an issue is
debatable. The report should contain evidence on both sides of the issue. You
should conclude by giving your view.

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6
6
C H A P T E R

People
Syllabus outcomes
5.5.3 Describes and compares key roles and responsibilities of
people in the field of information and software technology.

Overview
This chapter examines the roles and responsibilities of people in the
field of information and software technology. Careers are divided
into three sections: system development; operations and
maintenance; and end user support. Each section describes a range
of career opportunities and career paths.
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6.1 System development


People in system development are involved in the planning, design
and construction of a computer system. There are a number of
career opportunities, such as project managers, systems analysts,
programmers, software engineers, computer engineers, multimedia
specialists and web designers.

Project managers
Project managers supervise all aspects of a project (see Figure 6.1).
Project managers are required to determine the goals of the project,
a costing of the project and
ensure the project is delivered
on time. Project managers are
also responsible for resolving
any conflicts and checking the
work of each member of the
team. A project manager only
needs a broad understanding
of the information technology
industry. However, project
management does require
good interpersonal and
Figure 6.1 Project managers supervise their teams leadership skills.

Systems analysts
Systems analysts solve computer problems and enable information
technology to meet the needs of the user. They help an organisation
realise the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment and
personnel. Systems analysts are involved in the planning,
implementation and maintenance of the computer system. They
must have good management and personal skills to be able to
interview users of the system, determine their hardware and
software requirements and develop a plan of action.
Most systems analysts have university degrees in either
computer science or business. They must have a broad knowledge
of computers and keep up-to-date with recent developments in
information technology. They are often required to test new
products. Systems analysts are given a variety of titles such as
computer analyst, systems consultant, or systems officer.

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Programmers
Programmers design and write software. A programmer depends on
a systems analyst to provide a detailed description of the users
requirements. This description is called the design specifications. A
programmer writes programs using a programming language such
as Visual BASIC, PROLOG, Java or C++. It is common for several
programmers to work together as a team under a senior
programmers supervision. Programmers usually have completed a
degree at university. There are two types of programmers, the
systems programmer and the application programmer.
A systems programmer writes the systems software such as the
operating system. For example, they could make changes to the
way the CPU communicates with peripheral devices or the
relationship between workstations on a network.
An application programmer writes software to handle a specific
job such as a program to track inventory. The software may be
written by revising an existing software package. Application
programmers are usually focused on business, engineering or
science.

Software engineers
Software engineers design, create and modify
software to solve a computer problem. They
are focused on developing software
products including the certification,
maintenance and testing of the software.
Most software is very large and complex. It
is often built by a team of experts guided by
a software engineer. The team includes
programmers, engineers, designers and
marketing people. Software engineers must
have good programming skills and a
detailed understanding of software
technologies. They are more concerned with
developing algorithms than writing the
program code. Project management is an
important feature of software engineering.
Software engineers require a university
degree in information technology and Figure 6.2 A job advertisement for
programming (see Figure 6.2). a software engineer

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Multimedia specialists
Multimedia specialists are involved in the integration of text,
graphic, audio, animation and video. They could be involved in
authoring commercial CD and DVD products, designing websites
or creating promotional demonstrations. Multimedia specialists
require a combination of skills and experience in different areas.
IT skills in greatest
The development of a multimedia product may require content
demand at present providers and technical staff:
are in the areas Content providers are people who provide the material for the
of clientserver
multimedia product. This may include text, drawings, video
applications,
Internet, footage and audio tracks. Generally these people are skilled in
multimedia, data- their field without necessarily having any technical skills in the
base management software or hardware areas.
and system
software support. Technical staff modify the material developed by the content
providers into the appropriate format for the final product.
They include design staff who work to develop the overall
theme and look of the product.

Web designers
Web designers are
responsible for the
creation and
management of a website
(see Figure 6.3). They
must have a good
knowledge of
programming, excellent
writing skills and a
detailed understanding of
design. Web designers
must be able to sell a
design idea to their
client. They work closely
with clients and must
develop websites to meet
Figure 6.3 A web designer works closely with others to their clients needs. Web
develop products to meet a clients needs designers are often
required to work long
and irregular hours to meet deadlines. They must be flexible and
able to work under pressure. Web designers usually operate within
a team and must enjoy working closely with people. Web

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designers need to be competent in database development and


have a high proficiency in HTML and Java.

Computer engineers
Computer engineers design and invent new hardware and software.
They are involved in a range of projects such as the design,
development, testing and supervision of new integrated circuits.
Computer engineers are attracted to new developments such as
robotics and machines with artificial intelligence. Computer engineers
usually construct prototypes before building the new product. They
work as part of a team. A career as a computer engineer requires a
university degree in engineering or computer science.

Exercise 6.1
1 What career am I?
a Designs and invents new hardware and software.
b Designs, creates and modifies software to solve a computer
problem.
c Supervises all aspects of a project.
d Solves computer problems and enables information technology
to meet the needs of the user.
2 True or false?
a Systems analysts are often required to test new products.
b Software engineers are concerned with writing program code.
c Web designers usually operate within a team.
d Computer engineers depend on systems analysts to provide a
detailed description of the users requirements.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A web designer is responsible for the creation and management of
a (a). They must be able to sell their (b) to their client. Web
designers must be flexible and able to work under (c). They need to
be competent in (d) development.
4 a What is the role and responsibility of a project manager?
b Describe the role of the systems analyst.
c How does a programmer write programs?
d Explain the difference between a systems programmer and an
application programmer.
e What is a multimedia specialist?
f List a project that would involve a computer engineer.

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Development
5 The most important qualification for employing people in the
information technology industry is experience. Do you agree with
this statement? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Research the newspaper or the Internet to find the employment
opportunities and pathways for careers in system development.
Write a brief report that summarises the result of your
investigation.
7 Design an advertisement for a job opportunity for a programmer.

6.2 Operations and


maintenance
Operations and maintenance people keep the system working
efficiently. They ensure the system is achieving its purpose. Career
opportunities include managers, computer operators, technicians,
data entry operators, network administrators and database
administrators.

Managers
Managers oversee the computer
operation and ensure that
personnel and machines are
working efficiently. Managers
must have leadership skills as
well as technical knowledge
about systems development, so
a degree in business and
information systems is
generally required. They have a
variety of titles, with slightly
different roles, including
information systems manager
(see Figure 6.4). An
information systems manager
plans and oversees all the
information resources in the
organisation.
Figure 6.4 An information systems manager
oversees the computer operation in an
organisation

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Computer operators
Computer operators look after computing resources in a large
computer system such as a mainframe. Their tasks often include
preparing, starting up, and running the computers and peripheral
devices. A computer operator is responsible for the maintenance of
hardware and software, security, virus scanning, regular backups
and providing consumables. If the equipment breaks down they
attempt to fix the problem and, if necessary, liaise with a technician
to fix the problem. Many computer operators receive their training
on-the-job, although university qualifications are becoming necessary.
They need a logical mind and to be able to work under pressure.

Technicians
Technicians install, maintain and repair the hardware of a computer
system. To prevent the computer from breaking down, they
perform routine checks and service. This may involve checking for
loose connections, cleaning any moving parts and running
diagnostic programs to check that everything is working correctly.
If a component such as a motherboard is not working they replace
it and take it back to a workshop for repair. Technicians must have
a thorough understanding of information technology and usually
have a strong background in electronics.

Computer service technician


Fadia is a computer service technician who enjoys her work.
She is dealing with cutting edge technology each
day. Fadia gets to use equipment that other
people dream about. It is exciting playing
with the latest CPU and using the best
quality graphic cards. Fadia travels to
homes or offices each day to fix a
clients problem. The hardest task for a
technician is finding the cause of the
problem. It often takes some detective
work. You need a logical mind to
identify the problem.
Fadia not only fixes computers but
also assembles them. She inserts
components onto the motherboard and
connects peripheral devices. Fadias role
involves setting up computers for people who
have just purchased a new system. She spends most

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of her time dealing with hardware but also needs to install software
and run tests on computers to make sure they are working correctly.

Tasks
1 Fadia gets to use equipment that other people dream about.
Describe the latest equipment that people dream about.
2 Does a career as a computer service technician interest you?
Give reasons for your answer.
ICT 6.1

Data entry operators


Data entry operators are people who accurately and quickly enter,
modify and delete data. Data entry operators work with large
computer systems and are trained on-the-job, although good
typing skills are required. Smaller companies may employ a
secretary whose job would include data entry.
TAFE courses
provide specialist Network administrators
training and
qualifications Network administrators are responsible for the security and
that are widely administration of a network. They also design and implement
recognised in
the information
systems to keep the network working in the event of a power failure
technology or emergency. The duties of a network administrator include
industry. There are installing new hardware and software, maintaining peripherals on
a range of courses
the network, training staff, changing passwords, enforcing licensing
that cater for most
careers. agreements, developing a storage system and providing routine
backups.
Network administrators
need a good understanding
of network hardware and a
detailed knowledge of at
least one major network
operating system (see Figure
6.5). Network related
problems are often very
complex so a network
administrator should enjoy
solving challenging
problems. A network
administrator is also
required to adapt to new
technology and to have
good communication skills.
Figure 6.5 A job advertisement for a network administrator

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Database administrators
Database administrators install, maintain and control databases.
The Internet and the expansion of e-commerce have resulted in a
rapid increase in job opportunities for database administrators.
Determining the best structure of a database to meet a clients
needs is an important role of the database administrator. However,
they also need to maintain the security of the database and ensure
the data is not accessed or altered by unauthorised users. Most
database administrators work for a medium or large business and
need to have completed a university degree. They require a broad
knowledge of information technology and excellent
communication skills.

Exercise 6.2
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A network administrator (a) new hardware and software, maintains
(b) on the network, trains staff, changes (c), enforces licensing
agreements and provides (d) backups.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Computer operators may liaise with a _______ to rectify a
problem.
b Technicians would _______ a component if it is not working.
c Network related problems are often very _______.
d The _______ has resulted in a rapid increase in job opportunities
for database administrators.
3 What career am I?
a Installs, maintains and repairs the hardware of a computer
system.
b Responsible for the security and administration of a network.
c Oversees the computer operation and ensures personnel and
machines are working efficiently.
d Looks after the computer resources in a large computer system.
4 a Describe the qualifications required by a manager.
b What are the tasks performed by a computer operator?
c How does a technician perform routine checks and service?
d What is the role of a data entry operator?
e List the knowledge required to be a network administrator.
f Describe an important role performed by a database
administrator.

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Development
5 Research the newspaper or the Internet to find the employment
opportunities and pathways for careers in operations and
maintenance. Write a brief report that summarises the result of
your investigation.
6 Design a job advertisement for a job opportunity for a technician.
7 Investigate information technology courses at your local TAFE.
Briefly outline the career paths for each course, the content taught
and any requirements for admission.

6.3 End user support


An end user or user is a person or a group of people who make use
of the information technology. They operate the computer system
to perform a particular task. Users have different levels of skills,
from inexperienced beginners to information technology
professionals. They require support in a range of tasks, such as
using a piece of software, installing new equipment or simply
understanding the basics of a computer system. Career
opportunities involved in end user support include training
specialists, support staff, consultants and sales staff.

Training specialists
Training specialists teach users how to operate their computer
systems. Training is needed in the installation of a new computer
system and to ensure users are efficiently using software
applications. There are many opportunities for qualified instructors
in schools, TAFEs, universities and private industry. Trainers
present information to individuals, at meetings, workshops or
conferences (see Figure 6.6). They may be asked to develop training
documentation, multimedia presentations or create a tutorial for
the computer. It is essential that trainers keep pace with the latest
developments in information technology. Trainers usually require
industry qualifications such as a Microsoft Certification.
Future growth in
demand for IT Support staff
skilled people is Support staff provide hardware and software support to a range of
expected to
increase by over
users. Their roles and responsibilities may include advice on backup
24 per cent in the and virus detection, undertaking preventative maintenance,
next three years. installing hardware and software, documenting solutions and
responding to problems. Support staff need a broad knowledge of

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Figure 6.6 Trainers at a workshop

information technology and to be completely familiar with the


specific products of their employer.
People working on the help desk are support staff. Help desk
staff receive notification of problems by phone or email. Help desk
staff enter details of problems into help desk software, prioritise
problems, solve problems and, if necessary, refer problems to more
qualified staff. Most information technology organisations employ
help desk support staff to answer a wide range of questions on their
products.

Help desk
Alexis works on the help desk for a business called IT Results.
His day involves answering a constant stream of phone
callsfrom people who have forgotten their
passwords to people whose computers do
not work. Most problems can be dealt
with immediately. However, if this is not
possible, Alexis records the problem
and passes it to a technician. Alexis
enjoys his job but it can be quite
stressful. When people have deadlines
and their computer is not working they
can get very angry. For this reason, help
desk staff need excellent communication
skills and the ability to solve problems
quickly and effectively.

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Help desk staff are most needed when there is a new or updated
system being installed. Users will have questions and need help until
they become familiar with the new software, or hardwares operation.
Alexis has been able gain a huge variety of knowledge and skills
working on the help desk. The experience gained has the potential to
open career opportunities in the future. Alexis would like to move
from help desk into help desk management where you actually visit
the user or client to fix problems.

Tasks
1 Would you be interested in working on a help desk? Give reasons
for your answer.
2 Developments in information technology will make the help desk
unnecessary. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for
your answer.

Consultants
Consultants are experts who charge a fee for providing advice or
service. They draw on their experience gained in one or more areas,
such as education, finance or engineering. Consultants must have
good technical skills and the ability to communicate their
suggestions effectively to their clients (see Figure 6.7).

Sales staff
Sales staff are
employed by an
organisation to sell the
companys products.
Sales staff provide
information to
customers to enable
them to choose a
product that meets
their needs. Sales staff
in information
technology may have
customers who want
to purchase a new
computer, a piece of
software or who are
Figure 6.7 Searching for a job on the Internet (screen capture taken
inquiring about a new
23 July 2004) computer game. They

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are required to provide basic technical support to their customers.


For this reason they must have a broad understanding of
information technology and a specific knowledge of the products
they are selling. This requires sales staff to learn new technologies
and keep pace with constant changes in hardware and software.
Sales staff require good people skills and the ability to communicate Tutorial
effectively. There are many job opportunities for sales staff with
developers of hardware and software as well as through retailers.

Exercise 6.3
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The _______ is a person who makes use of information
technology.
b Trainers develop training _______, multimedia presentations or
create computer tutorials.
c _______ staff receive incoming problems for service from the
phone or email.
d Sales staff need to keep pace with the constant _______ in
hardware and software.
2 What career am I?
a Experts who charge a fee for providing advice or service.
b Teach users how to operate their computer systems.
c Provide hardware and software support to a range of users.
d Employed by an organisation to sell their products.
3 Unjumble these words:
a ephl keds
b nde rues
c raetinr
4 a Describe the type of support provided for end users.
b Describe some of the opportunities for training specialists.
c What are the roles and responsibilities of support staff?
d Why do most information technology organisations employ
help desk support staff?
e List the skills needed to be a consultant.
f Describe the knowledge required by sales staff in information
technology.

Development
5 Some software companies charge a fee to provide user support. Do
you agree with a user-pays system? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Research the newspaper or the Internet to find the employment
opportunities and pathways for careers in end user support. Write
a brief report that summarises the result of your investigation.
7 Design a job advertisement for a job opportunity for a help desk
staff member.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions 6 What does the work of a computer


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) operator involve?
that best answers each question. a Prepares, starts up and runs the
computers and peripheral devices
1 What do you call a person who is b Oversees the computer operation
involved in system development of a and ensures that personnel and
computer system? machines are working efficiently
a Computer operator c Responds to incoming problems
b Technician from the phone or email
c Programmer d Needs a good knowledge of
d Support staff programming

2 What does the work of a 7 What do you call a person who


programmer involve? installs, maintains and repairs the
a Designs and invents new hardware hardware of a computer system?
and software a Data entry operator
b Writes programs using b Technician
programming language c Hardware repairer
c Plans implements and maintains a d Computer operator
computer system
8 What do you call a person who is
d Focuses on developing software
products involved in end user support?
a Training specialist
3 What do you call a person who is b Information system manager
concerned with developing software c Network administrator
products? d Computer engineer
a Software engineer
9 What does the work of a consultant
b Software analyst
involve?
c Programmer
d Computer engineer a Installs, maintains and controls a
database
4 What do you call a person who b Supervises all aspects of a project
solves problems and enables c Plans implements and maintains a
information technology to meet the computer system
needs of the user? d Charges a fee for providing advice
a Project manger or service on which they are
b Software engineer expert
c System analyst 10 What do you call a person who
d User support staff receives incoming problems for
5 What do you call a person who is service from the phone or email?
involved in the security and a End user
maintenance of a computer system? b Sales staff
a System analyst c Help desk staff
b Software engineer d Consultant
c Consultant
d Network administrator

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Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.
Statements
1 A person who solves computer 6 A person who looks after computing
problems and enables information resources in a large computer system
technology to meet the needs of the such as a mainframe.
user. 7 A person who installs, maintains and
2 A person who determines the goals repairs the hardware of a computer
of the project, a costing of the system.
project and ensuring the project is 8 A person who is an expert in one or
delivered on time. more areas and charges a fee for
3 A person who designs and writes providing advice or service.
software. 9 A person who teaches users how to
4 A person who designs, creates and operate their computer system.
modifies software to solve a 10 A person who provides hardware and
computer problem. software support to a range of users.
5 A person who accurately and quickly
enters, modifies and deletes data.
Terms
a Computer operator f Software engineer
b Consultant g Support staff
c Data entry operator h Systems analyst
d Programmer i Technician
e Project manager j Training specialist

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Describe three careers in system and responsibilities of database
development. Which career would you administrators? What qualifications
prefer? Give reasons for your answer. are required to be a database
2 Explain the difference between the administrator?
role of a software engineer and that 5 Describe three career opportunities
of a programmer. in end user support. Which career
3 Describe three careers in operations would you prefer? Give reasons for
and maintenance. Which career your answer.
would you prefer? Give reasons for 6 Help desk staff have stressful jobs.
your answer. Do you agree with this statement?
4 There has been a rapid increase in Explain your answer by referring to
job opportunities for database the role of help desk staff.
administrators. What are the roles

e Tester

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Project: Careers
Create an employment database of the career opportunities in the field of
information technology. The careers described in this chapter will provide a basis
for the database. However, students are expected to find recent information on
each career and other careers not specified in this chapter. The employment sites
on the Internet and newspapers have appropriate information. Each career will be
a record in the database. Suitable fields for each record should be chosen, such as
name, job description, qualifications, personal qualities and salary. Students are
expected to create forms for data entry and to be able to search the data for
specific information.

ICT 6.1

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7
7
C H A P T E R

Software
Syllabus outcomes
5.1.1 Selects and justifies the application of appropriate software
programs to a range of tasks.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.

Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge of software. It examines
the two main types of software: system software and application
software. You will also learn about interface design and the
graphical user interface (GUI).
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7.1 System software


Software is the detailed instructions used to direct the hardware to
perform a particular task. It controls the processing and movement
of data within a computer system. A computer needs software to
tell it what to do and it needs hardware to carry out the actual
User work. There are two main types of software known as system
software and application software.
System software manages all the operations needed to run the
computer. It affects the way the user interacts with a computer.
Application System software carries out a range of functions, such as starting up
software the computer, loading the application software, storing files and
sending data to the printer. It includes the operating system and
utility software.

Operating
system Operating system
The operating system (OS) is the software that supervises and
controls the hardware (see Figure 7.1). It is usually stored on a hard
disk. Most of the time the operating system is working in the
background. As you use an application it interacts with the
Hardware
operating system. For example, to print a document you select the
print command of the application and a message is passed to the
Figure 7.1
operating system, which performs the task. The most common
The role of the
operating system operating systems are Windows, Linux, UNIX and the Macintosh
operating system.
The operating system starts automatically when the computer is
turned on. Starting up the computer and the operating system is
called booting the system. A ROM chip that contains the BIOS
(basic input output system) executes a power-on self test (POST) to
make sure hardware is connected and operating correctly. After the
POST is completed successfully, the BIOS loads the operating
system. The operating system runs continuously whenever the
computer is on.
Operating systems The operating system performs a variety of tasks:
can be likened to Scheduling hardware operations: The CPU is required to perform
the conductor of
an orchestra many different tasks. However, it can only work on one task at a
because they time. The operating system determines when the CPU will
control the entire perform each task. A common way of allocating CPU time is
resources of the
computer system.
called time slicing. A time slice is a fixed amount of CPU time.
With this technique, each task in turn receives a time slice. The
operating system also directs the CPU to switch between
different tasks to take advantage of idle time on one task.

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Memory management: The operating system controls how the


CPU relates to memory. It must ensure data is efficiently accessed
and not overwritten. This involves dividing the available
memory between different tasks and swapping data between
memory and secondary storage. Data that has been read into
memory from an input device or is waiting to be sent to an
output device is stored in an area of memory called a buffer.
The operating system assigns the location of buffers in memory
and manages the data that is stored in them. Virtual memory
is a technique used by the operating system to increase the
amount of memory. It uses spare hard disk space to supplement
available RAM. Virtual memory is slower than RAM.
Controlling peripheral devices: The operating system provides
the communication with all input, output and storage devices.
It uses specific software for each type of peripheral device. This
specific software is referred to as a device driver or driver. For
example, a mouse driver is the software that tells the computer
how to receive data from a mouse. Printers are relatively slow
devices compared to other peripheral devices. To increase
printer efficiency the operating system uses a technique called
spooling. Spooling transfers the data to a printer buffer and
queues it until it can be printed.
File management: The
operating system organises
and keeps track of files. A file
is a collection of data that is
recognised by a file name. It
can be work you create on the
computer, a data file or an
application. File names consist
of unique names followed by a
period (.) and file name
extension. The file name
extension indicates the type of
information stored in the file.
Files are stored and organised
into folders or directories. A
folder can hold both files and
additional folders. The
contents of a folder are
displayed in a window. The Figure 7.2 File management is part of the operating
window shows the properties system software

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of each file, such as the file name, size, type, or date modified. It
is possible to create new files, delete files, open files, close files,
rename files and copy/move files (see Figure 7.2).
System settings: The operating system is used to change the
computers settings. For example, the control panel allows you
to change a computers theme, desktop background, screen
saver, screen resolution, time and communication settings. For
security the operating system may provide each user with a
name and password. It is possible to change the way users log
on and off.
There are different types of operating systems. Single-tasking allows
only one task to be performed at one time. Palm OS is used on a
Palm handheld computer and it is a single-task operating system.
Multitasking allows several applications to work at the same time.
Windows and Mac OS are multitasking operating systems. In
addition to single and multitasking, operating systems are classified
as single-user and multi-user. A multi-user operating system allows
many different users to access the computers resources at the same
time. UNIX is an example of a multi-user operating system.

Utility software
Utility software performs routine tasks to support the operation of
the computer system. Most operating systems contain utilities to
assist in the management of the system. However, users often purchase
more powerful utility software (see Figure 7.3). Some common
examples of utility software include:

Figure 7.3 Norton SystemWorks is a specialist utility program

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file compression to reduce the size of a fileit allows the user


to store more data and makes data transmission faster
diagnostic tools to compile technical information about a
computers hardware and software
disk scanner to detect and correct problems on a disk and
search for and remove unwanted files
disk defragmenter to reorganise files and unused space on a
computers hard diskallows data and programs to be accessed
faster
un-installer to remove an application and any associated entries
in the system files
device drivers to provide communication with a peripheral
deviceprovided with the peripheral device or can be
downloaded from the Internet
backup utility to copy selected files or the entire hard drive onto
another disk
anti-virus program to prevent, detect and remove viruses.

Exercise 7.1
1 Explain the difference between:
a a file and a folder
b single-tasking and multitasking
c a disk scanner and a disk defragmenter.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a System software manages all the _______ needed to run the
computer.
b A _______ is a fixed amount of CPU time.
c A file is a collection of data that is recognised by a _______.
d _______ performs routine tasks to support the operation of the
computer system.
3 True or false?
a BIOS executes a POST to make sure the hardware is connected
and operating correctly.
b Spooling is the specific software for each type of peripheral
device.
c UNIX is an example of a single-user operating system.
d Most operating systems do not contain utility software.
4 a What is an operating system?
b List four tasks performed by the operating system.
c How does the operating system manage memory?
d List some of the tasks that can be performed by file management.
e What utility is used to remove an application and any
associated entries in the system files?

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Development
5 New versions of utility software are constantly being developed.
Investigate the latest utility software. Create a presentation to
outline the features of the current utilities. Will these features be
included in the next version of the operating system? Give reasons
for your answer.
6 The Internet allows computers using different operating systems to
view the same document. How is this possible? Do research into
ICT 7.1 HTML. Write a report that summaries your investigation. Illustrate
your answer using examples of HTML code.

7.2 Application software


Application software is a program used for a specific task. It allows the
computer to achieve the task for which it was bought. Application
software consists of software packages and custom software.

Software packages
A software package is a complete and documented set of programs
supplied to several users. Software packages can be bought to cover
nearly all requirements. They include word processing, desktop
publishing, spreadsheets, database management systems, paint
programs, draw programs, web browsers, video editing software,
animation software, presentation software and authoring software.
A brief description of these applications was given in Chapter 1.
Software packages usually include printed documentation with
instructions for installing the software. Installing software transfers
files to the hard disk to enable the software to work. Most software
packages contain onscreen tutorials, onscreen reference material and

Figure 7.4 Tutorials are often provided in software packages

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help files (see Figure 7.4). It is also common for software companies
to supplement and update their help files with online help from
their website. This requires the user to register their software
package with the software company using the product code.
Wallyware
Most software packages have new versions being developed. These is application
versions contain new features and any errors (or bugs) in the previous software collected
version have been repaired. The version of the software package is often by the user to
boast about having
recognised by the year, such as Macromedia Dreamweaver MX2004. It it, though it may
is also common for a new version to be given a new number, such as 6 never be used.
in Internet Explorer 6. Minor changes to the software package may be
shown using tenths, such as Lotus Approach 9.5.
When you purchase a new version you are upgrading your
application software. It is important when upgrading or
purchasing new software to check that your hardware and
operating system are compatible. The latest versions of the
software often place greater demands on the hardware and
operating system. Upgrading your software may require an
upgrade in your hardware and operating system. Compatibility
requirements are usually specified on the software package and
should be checked before the application is bought.
Office suites contain several applications. Microsoft Office comes
in different versions for different users (see Figure 7.5). It includes
the core applications of Microsoft Word, Excel, Access, PowerPoint
and Outlook. The cost of an office suite is less than the total price
of each application. Integrated software contains several applications

Figure 7.5 Microsoft Office bundles word processing, database and other
applications together

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that work together as a stand-alone product. For example,


Microsoft Works includes word processing, database, spreadsheet
and graphics. Each application is not as powerful as a separate
application. However, it is cheaper than buying an office suite and
meets the needs of many users. Both office suites and integrated
software allow data to be easily moved between applications.

Custom software
Even though software packages are very flexible they cannot be
used for some specific tasks. Custom software is written for a
customer and is not for several users. Some custom software is
developed for a single customer or client. It is written to fit the
exact requirements of the problem and is labour intensive. For
these reasons custom software is very expensive. Custom software is
written by a programmer using a programming language.
Programming languages are a set of codes and rules that enable
the computer to operate in a desired way. They are divided into two
groups: low-level languages and high-level languages.
Low-level languages are the lowest level of computer languages
and depend on the hardware of the computer system. They
process calculations much faster than high-level languages.
Tutorial
Low-level languages include machine language and assembly
language.
High-level languages use English-like codes where each
statement corresponds to several lines of machine code. It does
not depend on the hardware of the computer system, so the
programs are portable. Since high-level languages are closer to
English, programs are easier to write and often shorter in length
than programs in low-level languages.
Programmers write software using high-level languages. There are
many high-level languages available such as BASIC, Java, Pascal, C,
COBOL, FORTRAN, APL, PROLOG, Ada and Logo. Each is
designed for a particular purpose. Today most programmers use
Visual BASIC, C++ or Java.
Visual BASICdeveloped by Microsoft to allow users to create
Windows applications. It is an object-oriented language that
allows users to create the interface using objects, set the
properties for those objects and write instructions for the
interface using BASIC programming language.
C++based on the original C programming language for the
UNIX operating system. It is an object-oriented language.

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However, it does not contain visual objects found in Visual


BASIC. Many commercial applications are written using C++.
Javadeveloped by Sun Microsystems to create small
applications is an object-oriented language that excels at
producing web-based applets that work on different platforms.
Java is similar to C++.

Hardware requirements
A computer system is made up of hardware and software that work
together, processing data to achieve a purpose. The relationship
between hardware and software is important. Software depends on
a particular hardware configuration to work effectively. It is written
and tested using a certain processor, memory and peripherals. This
is often described as the system requirements for the software. All
software companies are required to clearly state the system
requirements of their products.
Application software is available to complete many different
tasks. Each task may require different data types and levels of
processing. This affects the hardware requirements of the system.
For example, authoring software that combines text, graphics,
animation, video and audio will place greater hardware demands
on the system than a word processor that only processes text. The
system requirements for application software are frequently
changing as new and more powerful versions of the software are
developed. The system requirements may also include specific
peripheral devices. For example, it is suggested for authoring
software that the system includes a DVD burner to create a DVD.

Project: Clean Up Australia


The student representative council (SRC) has decided to submit a
proposal to the school executive to encourage students and their
families to be involved in clean up Australia day. A team from Year 9
was appointed by the SRC to complete the project. The problem was
solved using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: The solution required an effective
method to encourage participation in the event, proposed venues,
dates and times, and a presentation to the school executive. A
project plan was written and some initial ideas investigated.
Teachers and students were interviewed to gather their views.
Design possible solutions: Two possible solutions were examined in
a feasibility study. The team recommended a promotional

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campaign to start at the end of February. Prototypes for advertising


in the school newsletter and the local newspaper were developed.
A storyboard for a multimedia presentation was constructed. The
multimedia presentation will be used to motivate students to be
involved in the event. The school executive approved the solution.
Produce the solution: Venues, dates and times were determined.
Advertisements and a multimedia presentation were constructed.
The promotion of the event started two weeks before the event.
The multimedia presentation was presented to the school at a
formal assembly.
Evaluate the solution: There was a significant increase in the
number of people involved in clean up Australia day. The project
promoted the school and increased the awareness of
environmental issues. The school executive was very positive in its
evaluation of the project.

Tasks
1 Design an advertisement for clean up Australia day for your local
community.
2 Create a storyboard for a multimedia presentation for your local
community.

Exercise 7.2
1 True or false?
a Microsoft Works is an example of a software package.
b High-level languages process calculations faster than low-level
languages.
c A software package is usually more expensive than custom
software.
d The system requirements may include specific peripheral devices.
2 What am I?
a A complete and documented set of programs supplied to
several users.
b The process of transferring files to the hard disk to enable the
software to work.
c A bundle of software that contains several applications.
d Programming language that excels at producing web-based
applets that work on different platforms.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Users (a) their software when they purchase a new version.
However, it is important to check software and hardware (b) before
purchasing the software. The (c) versions of the software often
place greater demands on the (d).

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4 a List the onscreen support provided by most software packages.


b Why do users upgrade their software?
c What is custom software?
d Explain the difference between a low-level language and
a high-level language.
e What are the system requirements for the software?

Development
5 People should not have to upgrade their hardware after a few
years to use the latest software version. Discuss this statement.
Your answer should contain examples of application software
currently being updated.
6 System requirements are frequently changing as new and more
powerful versions of the software are developed. Do research into
the system requirements for the popular application software.
Construct a table to summarise your results. ICT 7.2

7.3 Interface design


The user interface is the way the user interacts with the software.
The function of the user interface is to provide a means of
communication between the user and the computer. There are two
common types of user interfaces: the character-based (or command
line) user interface and the graphical user interface (GUI).

Character-based user interface


The character-based user interface requires the user to give
instructions using only characters. The user types the characters
using a keyboard. The first widely used operating system was the
OS/360 system and it used a character-based interface. The OS/360
system was developed in 1964 for all computers in IBMs
System/360 family. MS-DOS (Microsoft disk operating system) uses
a character-based interface. It was very popular and became the
industry standard for IBM-compatible computers in the 1980s
(see Figure 7.6).
Character-based interfaces are still being used. UNIX
(pronounced you-nicks) is a multi-user operating system that was
developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories. It enables the timesharing of
a host computer (usually a mainframe) with several other
computers at the same time. The character-based UNIX interface is
similar to MS-DOS although the commands are different. It is still
widely used on Internet servers. However, there are variations of
UNIX that provide a graphical user interface. Character-based user

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Figure 7.6 MS-DOS command prompt

interfaces are also commonly used on devices with a limited


amount of memory and options for the user. For example, some
mobile phones and microwave ovens use a character-based user
interface.

Graphical user interface


The graphical user interface (GUI, pronounced gooey) allows the
user to give instructions using a mouse, and clicking on icons and
menus. A GUI provides an easy-to-use and consistent interface for
a range of applications. Microsoft Windows (or Windows) is the
most popular GUI (see Figure 7.7). Some of the main features of a
GUI are:
Windoweverything done on the computer appears within a
rectangular frame called a window. The user can open several
windows at the same time and work on different programs. Each
window can be closed, resized, moved, minimised or maximised.

Figure 7.7 The Windows desktop

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Icona small picture that represents a program, file, folder or


shortcut. Text describing the icon appears when the user points In 1977 the Xerox
at the icon. Double-clicking the icon will open the file. Star computer
introduced the
Menuan onscreen list of available commands and tools. To open GUI. However, the
a menu, click on the menu name. A pull-down menu will be system was too
displayed. A command is then chosen by clicking on its name. expensive and too
slow. Users liked
Dialog boxa secondary window that contains buttons and
the power and the
various kinds of options through which you can carry out a ease of operation,
particular command or task. but they needed
better performance.
Desktopthe onscreen work area on which windows, icons,
The machine was
menus and dialog boxes appear. It is like the physical desktop not a success in
we use in day-to-day work. the marketplace.
Recycle or trash bina special folder to store deleted files. To
delete a file drag the file to the recycle bin or right-click the file
and press delete.
GUI was first used by the Xerox Corporation in the 1970s.
However, it was not until the Apple Macintosh in 1984 that the
GUI became popular. Microsoft Windows introduced the GUI to
IBM compatible computers in 1985. Both Mac OS and Windows
have added new features to their GUI to make them easier to use.
Even though there are differences many users can easily switch
between operating systems.
Linux (pronounced Linn-uks) operating system is freely
distributed and supported. It was developed by Linus Torvalds
using a scaled down version of UNIX. A GUI is provided for Linux
using a shell called KDE. Linux is an example of open source
software. Programmers from around the world have worked on
Linux and improved the product. Linux is used on personal
computers, web servers, film workstations and even scientific
supercomputers.
GUIs offer several clear advantages over character-based user
interfaces. Applications developed for a GUI have the same
consistent appearance as the operating system. The features
described above make it easier for people to understand and learn
commands compared to a character-based interface. The GUIs are A GUI is also
also more forgiving. Most dialog boxes have a Cancel button and referred to as a
WIMP environment
the Undo command allows users to reverse the last action. Window, Icon,
However, there are disadvantages with GUIs. They require faster Mouse and Pull-
processors, more memory, more disk space, higher quality screens down menu.

and more complex software.

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Exercise 7.3
1 What am I?
a A small picture that represents a program, file, folder or shortcut.
b A special folder to store deleted files.
c An onscreen list of available commands and tools.
d The first widely used operating system.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The GUI gives instructions using a (a), and clicking on icons and (b).
In 1984 the Apple (c) made the GUI popular. Today a GUI provides a
consistent (d) for a range of applications.

3 Unjumble these words:


a srue faircntee
b nuxli
c dlogia xbo
4 a What is a character-based user interface?
b What is the significance of MS-DOS?
c Describe UNIX.
d List the main features of a GUI.
e What is Linux?
f Outline the advantages of a GUI over a character-based user
interface.

Development
5 The rapid growth of Linux is challenging the dominance of
Windows. Do research into Linux. Write a summary of your
investigation. What is your opinion of open source software?
Would you be willing to volunteer your time to write software for
free? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Operating systems in the future may be very different from those
we use today. Do research into natural language interfaces. Outline
some of the advantages and disadvantages of natural language
interfaces.

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7.4 Features of a GUI


Application software written for a GUI must follow a strict set of
guidelines that control how the application looks and how standard
operations are performed. Some of the features in these guidelines
are described below.

Functionality
A window is used to display the contents of files, folders and
programs. More than one window can be opened at the same time
(see Figure 7.8). Each window is stacked on top of each other. The
active window is the highlighted window and all commands are
performed on the active window. The title bar is the horizontal bar
at the top of the window. The left side of the title bar contains the
name of the file. Special buttons in the top-right corner of the title
bar are used to rearrange windows:

Figure 7.8 The Mac OS

minimise ()reduces the window to a button on the taskbar;


click the button to reopen the window
maximise ()increases the window so that it can be viewed
using the entire screen
restore ()returns the window to its previous size after it has
been maximised
close ()closes a window or exits a program.

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Windows that have not been maximised can be resized and moved
on the screen:
resizepoint to the border of the window until it turns into a
double-headed arrow, then drag the borders to the required size
movedrag the title bar to its new position.
Opening (running or launching) an application starts the
application. Applications must be installed before they are opened.
Installing adds the program files to the hard disk so that the
application will work correctly. Exiting an application quits the
program. The operating system will display a dialog box for the
user to save any work that has been changed.

Navigation
Menus are an onscreen list of available commands and tools. The
menu bar is a horizontal bar located below the title bar. To open a
menu, click the menu name. A menu will either drop down or pop
up on the screen. The user then clicks the desired menu option.
Some menu options may be confusing:
light grey options are unavailablethe user needs to perform
another task before selecting this option
options with an arrow () open to a submenupointing to
the arrow opens the submenu
options marked (or ) indicate the current active option
clicking this option turns it off
options followed by dots () open with a dialog box that
requires further information.
Scrolling is the method of moving within a window if the contents
do not fit the window. The document can be scrolled up, down or
sideways using the scroll bars. Scroll bars are located at the bottom
and side of the window. Pressing the scroll bars provides the user
with a scroll tip. It may show the current page or any information
to help the user move through the document.
Dialog boxes are message boxes requesting further information
(see Figure 7.9). Information is entered using:
tabappears at the top of the page when there are two or more
pages of options
text boxtype in text such as the number of pages to be printed
option button (or radio button)selects one option from a group
check boxclick to turn an option on or off; more than one
option can be selected from a group
list boxpresents the user with two or more options that are
viewed using a scroll bar

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drop-down listonly
one item is visible and
the rest hidden; click
the arrow to the right
of the box to display
all items
spin boxtext box
that has controls to
change the settings
by set amounts
sliderdrag up, down
or from side to side to
increase or decrease
the setting
command buttons
Figure 7.9 A dialog box provides options for the user
OK to confirm
selection and Cancel to quit.

Consistency of elements
The following commands are consistent in all applications
developed for a GUI:
A new document is needed to start work in an application. It is
selected from the File menu, the New Blank button from the
standard toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+N or Command+N. A
dialog box appears displaying the templates and wizards
available for that application.
Opening a document retrieves a previously saved document. It is
selected from the File menu, the Open button from the standard
toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+O or Command+O. A dialog box
appears allowing the user to select a file from a particular disk
and folder.
Closing a document removes the active file but keeps the
application running. It is selected from the File menu or the
Close button at the top-right of the title bar. To close all open
documents, press shift and click Close All on the File menu.
Mistakes are easily corrected using the Undo and Redo
commands from the standard toolbar or Edit menu. The undo
or restore command reverses the last action such as changing a
font style. If you decide that you want the change after all, select
the redo or undelete command.
Cut and paste moves a block of text or graphic to another place
in the same document or to another document. To cut a block

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of text, select the Cut command from the Edit menu, the Cut
button from the standard toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+X or
Command+X. After the selected text has been cut it is necessary
to move the cursor to the new location where the text is to be
inserted or pasted. To paste a block of text, select the Paste
command from the Edit menu, the Paste button from the standard
toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+V or Command+V.
Copy and paste copies a block of text or graphic to another place
in the same document or to another document. To copy a block
of text, select the Copy command from the Edit menu, the Copy
button from the standard toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+C or
Command+C. This command copies the block of text into the
clipboard but does not remove it from the document as the Cut
command does. The text is then pasted into a new position
using the Paste command.
Drag and drop is an easy way to move or copy a block of text or
graphic a short distance using the mouse. To move a block of
text using drag and drop editing, point to the selected text and
hold down the mouse button. Drag the text to the new location
and release the mouse button.
Printing a document transfers a copy of it onto a piece of paper.
This is called a hard copy or a printout. To print a document,
select the Print command from the File menu, the Print button
from the standard toolbar or press Ctrl+P or Command+P. The
application must recognise the printer otherwise an error
message will result.
Finding text locates specified characters, words or phrases in a
document. This is a useful feature if you have a long document.
To find text, select the Find or Search command from the Edit
menu or press Ctrl+F or Command+F.
Saving a document stores the document
permanently onto a
secondary storage
device such as a
hard disk. Saving a
document is selected
from the Save
command from
the File menu, the
Save button from
the standard toolbar
or by pressing Ctrl+S or

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Command+S. The Save command is used to update a file that


has previously been saved. It stores the active file with its
current file name, location and file format.

Exercise 7.4
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ is used to display the contents of files, folders and
programs.
b Applications must be _______ before they can be opened.
c _______ moves a block of text or graphic to another place in the
same document or to another document.
d Opening a document retrieves a previously _______ document.
2 True or false?
a Restore increases the window so that it can be viewed using
the entire screen.
b Options with an arrow () indicate the current active option.
c The option button selects one option from a group.
d The save command is used to update a file that has previously
been saved.
3 What am I?
a Text box that has controls to change the settings by
predetermined amounts.
b Appears at the top of a dialog box when there are two or more
pages of options.
c Commands used to easily correct mistakes.
d Easy way to move or copy a block of text or graphic a short
distance using the mouse.
4 a List four special buttons located in the top-right corner of the
title bar.
b How do you use a menu to select a command?
c What is scrolling?
d How do you close a document but keep the application
running?
e List three ways you can print a document.

Development
5 Examine the navigation features of a GUI in three different
applications. Demonstrate your proficiency in using menus, scrolling
and dialog boxes. Outline the similarities and differences in the
navigation features of these applications.
6 Investigate the consistency of elements in the applications developed
for your GUI. Construct a table that summarises the uniformity in
completing the same task in a different application. The table should
contain more than one way of completing the task.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.

1 Which of the following is not 5 How would you describe custom


performed by the operating system? software?
a Loading the application software a A complete and documented set
b Sending data to a printer of programs supplied to several
c Storing files users
d Entering characters and creating b A set of codes and rules that
documents enable the computer to operate in
a desired way
2 What do you call starting up the c The software that supervises and
computer and the operating system? controls the hardware
a Booting the system d Written for one customer and not
b System start mass-produced for several users
c Spooling the system
d Power-On Self Test (POST) 6 Which of the following operating
systems is a character-based user
3 How would you describe a driver? interface?
a Compiles the technical a UNIX
information about a computers b Windows
hardware and software c Linux
b Provides communication with a d Mac OS
peripheral device
c Accelerates the speed of the CPU 7 How would you describe an onscreen
d Reorganises files and unused space list of available commands and tools?
on a computers hard disk a Window
b Icon
4 Which of the following statements is
c Menu
incorrect?
d Dialog box
a When you purchase a new version
of software you are upgrading 8 Which of the following is not an
your application software advantage of a GUI over a character-
b The cost of an office suite is more based user interface?
than the total price of each a GUIs require a faster processor
application and more memory
c All software companies are b Applications developed for a GUI
required to clearly state the have the same consistent
system requirements of their appearance
products c GUIs make it easier to understand
d Most software packages contain and learn the commands
onscreen tutorials, onscreen d GUIs are more forgiving and allow
reference material and help files the user to reverse their last action

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9 What is it called when information is 10 What are the commands used to


entered into a dialog box that move or copy a block of text or
involves turning on or off an option? graphic a short distance using the
a Command button mouse?
b Radio button a Undo and Redo
c Option button b Drag and Drop
d Check box c Cut and Paste
d Copy and Paste

Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.
Statements
1 Software that manages all the 6 Software written for one customer
operations needed to run the that is not mass-produced for several
computer. users.
2 Software that performs routine tasks 7 It gives instructions using a mouse
to support the operation of the and clicking on icons and menus.
computer system. 8 It is used to display the contents of
3 Software that supervises and files, folders and programs in a GUI.
controls the hardware. 9 An onscreen list of available
4 A complete and documented set of commands and tools.
programs supplied to several users. 10 The way the user interacts with the
5 Software used for a specific task. software.

Terms
a Application software f Software package
b Custom software g System software
c GUI h User interface
d Menu i Utility software
e Operating system j Window

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 The operating system often works in 2 The routine tasks performed by the
the background. You use the utility software should be part of the
application software and it interacts operating system. We should not
with the operating system. Describe need to purchase utility software. Do
some of the tasks performed by the you agree with these statements?
operating system when you are using Use examples to explain your answer.
an application.

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3 Software packages are becoming more 5 Some people prefer to use a


flexible and often contain a character-based user interface over a
programming language to meet the GUI. Outline some of the reasons for
exact requirements of the user. List their choice.
some software packages that contain a 6 Briefly describe some of features and
programming language. Is it necessary elements that are consistent in all
for users to become programmers? applications developed for a GUI.
Give reasons for your answer.
4 Describe six features of a GUI that
you consider to be the most
important. e Tester

Project: Application software


Investigate one piece of application software. Write a software evaluation and
demonstrate this application to the class. The software evaluation should contain:
name and version of the software, history of product, software developer, system
requirements, cost, ease of use, quality of documentation, Internet support and
major uses. Students are expected to research their application and summarise
their results. The software evaluation should contain relevant graphics and follow
good design principles.

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8
8
C H A P T E R

Artificial
intelligence,
simulation
and
modelling
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
This chapter examines artificial intelligence and simulations. First, you
gain a basic understanding of artificial intelligence and the areas of
artificial intelligence, such as expert systems and neural networks.
Second, you will learn the requirements, purposes, advantages and
limitations of models and simulations. The chapter concludes by
discussing the use of modelling and simulation programs.
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8.1 Artificial intelligence


Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to give computers the ability to think
like human beings. It is the behaviour of a computer that, if
exhibited by a person, would be called intelligent. Some people
argue computers will never have intelligence. They reason a
computer is an electronic tool that can only process data very
quickly but cannot actually think up any new ideas, it does not have
any intelligence. For a computer to be called intelligent, its
behaviours and capabilities must be compared to our own ways of
doing things and thinking.
Consider a simple problem that requires you to choose a piece
of fruita banana, an orange or a pineapple. In making your
decision let us assume that you cannot see, touch or taste the fruit,
but are told the piece of fruit is a sphere. Immediately you know the
fruit must be an orange, but how did you make this deduction? You
have seen many bananas, oranges and pineapples, and from this
experience you know that the oranges are a sphere and that the
Artificial
other fruits are not. Your intelligent response is probably not based
intelligence began on having ever been told an orange is a sphere, but from your own
in the 1950s with observations. Could a computer solve this simple problem? The
attempts to write
programs to
computer is faced with two problems: understanding human or
challenge human natural language and recognising the difference between bananas,
intelligence, such oranges and pineapples. It has not learned from observations and
as playing chess.
experience that oranges are spheres.
The world chess
champion Garry This simple problem raises some interesting questions. Is
Kasparov was choosing a piece of fruit intelligent behaviour? The computer does
beaten by a not find this task easy. However, it can perform arithmetic
program in 1997.
operations many times faster than any person. What is intelligence?
It is difficult to define and understand intelligence. People use the
word intelligent to describe somebody who can solve difficult
problems. Intelligence might also be described as the ability to
Lit 1.1 reason or the power of thought. The Macquarie Dictionary defines
intelligence as the ability to understand, learn and to control
behaviour in any new event. Is a computer intelligent? AI research
has produced some impressive results. Computers can
communicate in human languages, computers have been
programmed to be experts in a range of fields and a computer can
beat the best human in chess. However, most people would not
describe a computer as intelligent.

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Historical perspective
Artificial intelligence became available with the development
of the first electronic digital computer called the Colossus in
1943. It was built by a team led by Alan Turing to break
German military codes (see Figure 8.1). After building this
computer Turing wrote a paper titled Computing Machinery
and Intelligence in 1950. It effectively started the field of
artificial intelligence. The paper contained a concrete test for
determining whether a machine was intelligent. The Turing
test involves two people at the computer. One person sits
alone in a room and types questions into a terminal. The
Figure 8.1 Alan Turing
questions are on any topic. The answers to the questions
appear on the terminal and the person has to determine whether
the answer is written by another person or the computer. If the
person repeatedly chooses the computer then it has demonstrated
intelligent behaviour.
The term artificial intelligence was first used at a conference in
Dartmouth, USA in 1956. The conference was organised by John
McCarthy who is regarded as the father of AI. In the past fifty years
the progress in artificial intelligence has been steady rather than
spectacular. It includes the following developments:
John McCarthy headed a team that developed the programming
language called LISP (LISt Processing) in 1958. LISP was
completely different from the popular procedural languages
such as FORTRAN. Every expression is a list of calls to
functions. LISP dominated AI research for many years and is
still used today.
Joseph Weizenbaum wrote a program called Eliza (Eliza
Doolittle) in the 1960s. The program acted as a therapist and
encourages the user to talk. For example, if the user types My
father never liked me, the program, recognising the keyword of
father, would respond with Tell me more about your family. If
the user did not type any keywords the program would respond
with a neutral sentence such as Thats very interesting.
Weizenbaum was surprised that people took his program
seriously and thought the computer intelligent. He spent several
years arguing against artificial intelligence.
PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic) was developed in 1970 at
the University of Marseille in France by Alain Colmerauer and
Philippe Roussel. The decision by Japanese computer designers
to work with PROLOG instead of LISP made it very popular.

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Many of the features that were once unique to PROLOG are


used in modern object-oriented programming such as Java.
Expert systems first appeared in the 1970s. They could predict
the probability of a solution under certain conditions. Expert
systems were introduced to a range of applications. MYCIN was
a famous expert system developed at Stanford University. It was
designed to assist non-specialist doctors in the diagnosis and
treatment of bacterial blood infections.
David Marr outlined new theories on artificial vision in the
1970s. For example, how is it possible to distinguish an image
based on the shading of an image, basic information on shapes,
colour, edges and texture?
Artificial intelligence started to gain pace in the 1980s. Expert
systems were in demand because of their efficiency. Large
organisations such as Boeing and General Motors relied heavily
on expert systems. Neural networks were considered possible
ways of achieving artificial intelligence.
The worlds first intelligent robot eye was created in 1990 by
Fujitsu Laboratories. It is capable of detecting high-speed
motion by following a similar procedure to the human brain.

Requirements of artificial intelligence


Artificial intelligence requires more processing power and storage
capacity than most other applications. Processing speed and
memory are important requirements for artificial intelligence.
Intelligent computers also require a range of input devices to
receive data from the environment. For example, images are
collected using cameras, audio using microphones and data from
the environment using sensors. Sensors are used to detect different
physical conditions such as temperature, light, position and touch.
Output devices for intelligent computers include conventional
devices such as screens and printers, as well as speech synthesisers
and a range of robotic devices to provide movement.
Robots are often used in artificial intelligence. They are built to
carry out tasks similar to the tasks carried out by people. Robotic
arms are used to make a response involving movement. They are
programmable and generally consist of a trunk, joints and end
effectors. Some robotic joints only allow linear movement within
one plane and are called prismatic, while other joints enable
rotation and are called revolute. End effectors are tools attached to
the end of the robotic arm to perform the required tasks.

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Artificial vision
enables computer-
controlled devices to see
through the use of
cameras, scanners and
sensors (see Figure 8.2).
Visual images are
captured by a camera and
digitised by an analog-to-
digital converter. These
images are stored on the
computer as a grid of
individual dots called Figure 8.2 Sensors are used in many robots so that they can see
pixels. Artificial
intelligence techniques are used to analyse and interpret the image.
In addition to robots that are equipped with cameras and sensors,
artificial vision is used for security screening. A camera can digitise
the image of a persons face or fingerprint to decide entry into a
security area.
Artificial intelligence needs software to receive data from input
devices, to process and store this data, and then to make logical
decisions to produce an intelligent response. Software for artificial
intelligence is written using non-procedural languages. Non-
procedural languages are used in which the programmer specifies
what to do and the system determines how to do it. The two most
popular non-procedural languages are LISP and PROLOG.

Exercise 8.1
1 Which person was responsible for this development in AI?
a Outlined new theories on artificial vision in the 1970s.
b Developed the programming language called LISP.
c Started the field of artificial intelligence.
d Developed the programming language called PROLOG.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ aims to give computers the ability to think like human
beings.
b MYCIN was a famous_______ system developed at Stanford
University.
c _______ allow intelligent systems to make a response involving
movement.

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3 True or false?
a Most people describe a computer as intelligent.
b John McCarthy is regarded as the father of AI.
c John Weizenbaum spent several years arguing for artificial
intelligence.
d LISP and PROLOG are two procedural languages.
4 a What is the meaning of the word intelligence?
b Describe the Turing test?
c What is artificial vision?
d Why does artificial intelligence need software?

Development
5 Some people argue that computers are capable of making
intelligent responses. Other people argue that computers are
machines that follow instructions and will never be intelligent.
Discuss this issue. Your answer should contain references to current
developments in AI research.
6 Construct a table to compare and contrast the intelligence of a
person with that of a computer. What are the tasks performed well
by a computer? What are the tasks people find easy but computers
find difficult? Your answer should contain at least ten different tasks.

8.2 Areas of artificial


intelligence
Areas of artificial intelligence include intelligent systems, expert
systems and knowledge bases, neural networks, agents and demons.

Intelligent systems
Intelligent systems are systems that receive data from the
environment, react to that data, and produce an intelligent
response. People are intelligent systems. They receive data through
sight, sound, touch, taste and smell, and then use reasoning,
knowledge and feelings to produce speech and movement.
Information technology is being used to create intelligent systems.
One example of an intelligent system is the interpretation of a
natural language.
Natural languages are the languages of humans such as English,
French, Chinese and Arabic. If intelligent systems are going to
produce what people would consider an intelligent response, they
should be able to use natural language. Natural language is the means
by which we share our knowledge. It is not an easy task to teach a
person or a computer a natural language. The main problems are

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syntax (the rules governing the way in which the words are arranged),
and understanding context to determine the meaning of a word. To
interpret even simple phrases requires a vast amount of knowledge.
For example, teaching the computer the word square must take
into account the following contexts:
this shape is a square
fair and square
the square of two is four
a square meal
out of square
square up
square root
square a debt
youre a square
Natural language processing
is applied in many applications,
however, the results must
be checked by the user. Word
processors contain spell
checkers, grammar checkers
and auto-correct features that
identify and correct likely
spelling errors. Voice
recognition programs provide
Figure 8.3 Natural language processing
96 per cent accuracy even for
continuous speech (see Figure 8.3). Automatic translation
programs are able to accurately convert data to another language.
All these applications have been influenced by AI research. But the
development of natural languages is one of the challenges facing
artificial intelligence. It is going to require further developments in
information technology before a satisfactory solution is found.

Expert systems and knowledge bases


Expert systems provide information and solve problems that would
otherwise require a person experienced in that field (expert). They
are used in applications such as medical diagnosis, investment
analysis, equipment repair and training. Expert systems provide
information based on the knowledge of the expert. However, their
conclusions are not guaranteed. It is up to the user to accept or
reject the information. The main advantage of expert systems is
their low cost compared with the expense of paying an expert or
team of specialists.

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Expert systems ask users a set of questions and compare their


answers to a knowledge base. The knowledge base is a set of general
facts and ifthen rules. If the condition is true, then a certain
deduction is made. For example, if it has four legs, then it is a dog.
However, this deduction is not always valid. A more accurate
deduction is obtained by using a set of ifthen rules. For example, if
it has four legs and if it has a tail and if it barks, then it is a dog.
The inference engine is the part of the expert system that carries
out the reasoning by using the facts, assumptions, theories and
rules. It carries out the reasoning by following a set of strict logical
processes as opposed to the richness of human reasoning. The
inference engine applies the ifthen rules in the knowledge base to
decide what question to ask next. There are two types of inference
engines:
forward chaining is an inference strategy where the user supplies
all the data before the question is asked, or inference made
backward chaining starts with one or more possible solutions
and searches back through the system to determine the
Tutorial
questions to be asked.
A knowledge base is often constructed using expert system shells,
or simply shells. Expert system shells are a ready-made expert
system except they contain no knowledge. When the knowledge is
entered it results in an expert system. Shells provide an interface to
assist the user in creating an expert system. The shell queries the
user for facts and links between the facts. It enters this data into
the knowledge base. The majority of shells represent knowledge
using the ifthen rules. The shell displays the word if on the
screen and the user
enters the conditions.
The deductions are
added after the
conditions. When a set of
ifthen rules are
completed the shell
builds a knowledge base.
Expert system shells
allow expert systems to
be built very quickly. The
great majority of expert
systems in Australia are
built using shells (see
Figure 8.4 An expert system Figure 8.4).

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Neural networks
A neural network is a computer system that works like the human
brain and is capable of learning. It contains a large number of
processors connected in a similar way to nerve cells in the human
brain. These processors or nodes form a network and act like cells
in the brain. A neural network finds relationships between sets of
data to develop an understanding of the situation. In an early
demonstration researchers trained a neural network to read aloud.
A neural network
It learned to do this task by being shown thousands of examples. was first proposed
Neural networks are very good at finding a link between the data in 1947 by doctors
W. McCulloch and
and a result. They are being used by:
W. Pitts.
financial firms for economic forecasting
insurers to decide if a potential customer is a good risk
marketers to predict which products will sell
manufacturers to predict how much material they will need
investment companies to make predictions.
Even though neural networks have been very successful, their
applications are still limited. Most neural networks contain a few
thousand nodes compared to about 100 billion in the human brain.
As a result, neural networks take a very long time to train;
recognising visual images requires the processing of large amounts
of data. Neural networks are in the developmental stages and
billions of dollars are being spent on research.

Agents and demons


Agents are pieces of software designed to search through databases
for relevant data. They use the neural networks to efficiently search
vast amounts of data. Agents are independent and can be launched
into a computer system or network to operate in the background.
The most common use of these agents is on the Internet, such as
an email agent or a news agent. An email agent can screen a users
incoming email for those requiring immediate action. Similarly a
news agent is trained to scan articles in a news service and to
deliver a personal bulletin based on a users preferences. Agents aim
to carry out a task faster and more effectively than a human.
Demons are programs that spring to life when they are relevant,
similar to how knowledge springs into your head when it is
appropriate. Demons are an important feature in artificial
intelligence as they allow computers to be self-modifying. This
means that computers can teach themselves through experience.
For example, if a computer observes an orange, a demon would be
activated to learn from this experience.

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Exercise 8.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a a knowledge base and an inference engine
b an expert system and a neural network.
2 What am I?
a A piece of software to search through databases for relevant
data.
b A computer system that works like the human brain and is
capable of learning.
c A program that springs to life when it is relevant.
d A ready-made expert system except that it contains no
knowledge.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
(a) systems ask users a set of questions and compare their answers
to a (b). The knowledge base is a set of general facts and (c) rules.
The (d) applies the ifthen rules in the knowledge base.
4 a What is an intelligent system?
b Why is it difficult to teach a computer a natural language?
c List some of the applications of expert systems.
d How does a neural network work?

Development
5 Computers are becoming more intelligent, not allowing students
to think. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your
answer. Your answer should contain examples of tasks performed
by a computer that could be classified as intelligent.
6 There are many websites that use artificial intelligence, such as
predicting share prices and a home-loan analyser. Investigate two
websites that are applying AI. Write a report that describes the
features of these two websites.
7 Use an expert system shell to create an expert system. You will
need to decide on the subject area. Possible subject areas include
choosing a sport, pet, computer or movie. Test your expert system.

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8.3 Modelling and


simulations
A model is a representation of some
aspect of the real world and a simulation
is the use of that model. Modelling and
simulation are used to make predictions
and examine decisions concerning real
situations. There are many different types
of models used for simulations, including
physical models, mathematical models
and computer models. For example, a
game of Monopoly uses physical models
of streets, money and houses to simulate
the buying and selling of real estate (see
Figure 8.5). However, since Monopoly is a
game that depends on chance, the
simulation is not used to make decisions Figure 8.5 Game board for Monopoly
concerning the real world.
People establish theories based on what they observe and
measure in real life. Models are then built to test these theories to
see if they are correct. If the model works it can then be used for
simulation. Consider a situation in which temperature needs to be
converted from Fahrenheit to Celsius. A theory is first proposed
that a formula could be used to do the conversion. A model can The word
now be developed by measuring a range of Fahrenheit and Celsius simulation comes
from the Latin
temperatures and determining their relationship. The following word similis
formula is a mathematical model used to test the theory: meaning like.
C = 5/9(F 32)
C = temperature in Celsius
F = temperature in Fahrenheit
When the model has been tested using the range of Fahrenheit
and Celsius temperatures and the results obtained are correct, it can
be used in a simulation. The simulation uses the model (in this case
the formula) to determine the Celsius temperature given the
Fahrenheit temperature.
Interactive
Purposes of models and simulations
Modelling and simulation are used when the real situation is time-
consuming, expensive or impossible to reproduce. They are applied
in situations where a prediction is required, or as learning tools.

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Many businesses use a spreadsheet to model the way their


business works. The model usually consists of all the income
and expenses of the business, with a simulation to determine its
profit or loss. The data in the model can be changed and the
results seen immediately. It is an invaluable tool and enables the
business to run efficiently.
Financial planners create models for different investment
schemes and perform simulations. The amount invested, the
interest rate and the period of the investment can be altered with
each application. When the returns from each scheme are
compared, the financial planners offer the best investment advice.
Car manufacturers use the computer to simulate car crashes in
order to test new cars and limit the amount of real crash testing.
Engineers are able to watch a model of the car crumple under a
given impact. The cars structure is tested for its reaction to the
stress of a crash at various speeds.
Simulators are devices used for training and in experiments to
simulate movement, flight or some other condition (see Figure
8.6). They are increasingly used in industry where it is too
dangerous or too expensive for people to practise on the job.
Drilling simulators are used in the oil and gas industry to train
operators on the drilling rig floor. The trainee operators read
gauges and dials, set drilling speeds, and use the brakes under
the supervision of an instructor. The instructor can introduce
faults and problems to monitor the progress of the operator.
Simulators have also been used for the space shuttle mission.
Astronauts are trained using a simulator, which is a model of
the shuttle. It is very realistic and allows the astronauts to
experiment and react to the conditions they will be encountering.
Scientists use simulation
in many ways. Molecular
model kits are used to
simulate the shape of
complex molecules and
have led to the discovery
of chemical compounds.
Computers can also create
these models and allow the
viewer to rotate the model
on the screen. This allows
scientists to examine the
Figure 8.6 A flight simulator
shape of compounds

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before they are synthesised. This can be useful in drug synthesis


where the shape of the molecule is an important factor in its
physiological response.
Astronomers have used a simulation to find the position of stars
that could not be seen from earth. The model uses data from
radiation entering the earths atmosphere, and the simulation
has enabled a supercomputer at NASA to construct a more
detailed map of the universe. A theoretical model of a black
hole has been used by scientists to simulate its flow of gases.
This simulation involved 25 000 variables, 10 000 steps in each
experiment and a solution consisting of 1.25 billion numbers.

Advantages and limitations


Modelling and simulation provide many advantages. In many
situations it is safer, cheaper and quicker to use a model rather than
the real situation. Designing a model of a car using a computer and
simulating a range of tests is much more efficient than building the
car. Minor changes to the model are easily completed and another
simulation completed. In some situations, such as preparing
astronauts for a space mission, a simulation is the only way of
training. In business, models and simulations are used to ensure
the business is profitable and to determine future opportunities.
A simulation is only as good as the model and the data used to
create it. If the model is incorrect or the data entered is inaccurate
then the simulation will produce the wrong result. In addition, if
the model is too simple and does not take into account a major
factor, the result of the simulation will be unreliable. For example,
a model used by financial advisors that did not take into account
rising interest rates would result in inaccurate advice when the
simulation is performed.

Exercise 8.3
1 What am I?
a The use of a model.
b Software used by many businesses to model the way their
business works.
c A model of the space shuttle used by astronauts for training.
d A type of computer used at NASA to construct a more detailed
map of the universe.

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2 Copy and complete the following sentences:


a A _______ is a representation of some aspect of the real world.
b If a model works it can be used for _______.
c Modelling and simulation are used when the _______ is time-
consuming, expensive or impossible to reproduce.
d _______ create models for different investment schemes and
perform simulations.
3 Unjumble these words:
a nsiulaomti
b lodme
4 a How are models and simulation used by car manufacturers?
b How are drilling simulators used by trainees?
c Describe the way scientists use simulation.
d What are the main advantages of modelling and simulation?

Development
5 Most computer games involve a simulation. Compare and contrast
a computer game to the real situation.
6 Modelling and simulation programs are freely available from the
Internet. Use a simulation program and perform the simulation.
Write a report to describe the use of this program. Evaluate the
value of this program.
7 Modelling and simulation make life too predictable and are not
benefiting our society. Do you agree with this statement? Why? Do
research to find current applications of modelling and simulation to
illustrate your answer.

8.4 Requirements of
models and simulations
There is a range of hardware and software that can be used to
construct models and perform simulations.

Hardware
Creating a model and performing a simulation can be completed
Lit 1.2 on most computer systems. However, to achieve accurate and more
realistic simulations hardware capable of performing computations
quickly and with a high degree of precision is required. If the
simulations are complex, such as scientific applications, then a
supercomputer or mainframe may be required. These computers
can process data at very high speeds and have extensive storage

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capabilities. Other hardware features include simulators, analog


computers and parallel processors.
Simulators are devices used for training and experiments to
simulate movement, flight or some other condition. For example,
flight simulators have become an effective way to train pilots. The
simulator consists of a model of a cockpit with authentic seats,
realistic instrument panels and the ability to simulate movement
using hydraulic legs that are controlled by the computer system.
The simulation presents the trainee with different conditions to test
their skills, such as the weather conditions at various airports or a
mechanical failure in the aircraft. Flight simulators allow pilots to
be trained without risking human life and valuable aircraft.
Simulators are also used to train car drivers, racing drivers, crews of
large ships or controllers of any other vehicle.
An analog computer is a device that processes analog data. It is
designed to perform arithmetic functions on numbers that are
represented by a physical quantity, such as a voltage. Analog
computers can accept data directly from peripheral devices in Lit 1.3

analog form without having to first convert it into digital form.


This allows analog computers to process data at very high speeds
making them suitable for modelling and simulation.
Parallel processing is the use of several processors to share the
calculations of a large task. Parallel processing is much faster than
using one central processing unit to carry out several instructions
one after the other. Parallel processing divides the processing task
between a series of processors. Parallel processing provides high
speed calculations needed in many modelling and simulation
systems.
Virtual reality is an extension of a
simulation program where a person
interacts with the simulated world. It
refers to a computer program and
other devices that enable a person to
perform tasks virtually with all the
function and effectiveness of the real
situation. Images are displayed using
special screens mounted in a helmet,
and the user interacts through the
use of a special glove that allows
them to move through the simulated
world by pointing and grabbing (see
Figure 8.7). Figure 8.7 Virtual reality

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Software
Software for modelling and simulation systems consists of
modelling programs, programming languages, spreadsheets and
simulation programs.
A modelling program is any program that allows the user to
create models and simulate a real situation. Even though
spreadsheets are used as modelling programs, there is more
sophisticated software that specialises in creating models. These
The Simula programs are very complex, usually containing a programming
(SIMUlation language, and have more flexibility in viewing and reporting data.
LAnguage) is
a programming
One example is called EasyFlow. This modelling program is for
language designed fluid dynamics and has applications in aerospace, architecture,
and built by electronics and the environment.
Ole-Johan Dahl
All general purpose programming languages such as BASIC
and Kristen
Nygaard at the and C++ are used for modelling and simulation. However, specific
Norwegian simulation languages, such as Dynamo and Simula, have been
Computing Center
developed for modelling and simulation applications. They
in Oslo.
contain definitions of the essential elements of a model and
procedures for modifying and observing the model.
Simulation programs have been developed for many different
fields, such as business, science and mathematics. These programs
contain a model and allow the user to make predications and
Lit 1.4
decisions based on the model (see Figure 8.8). In business, packages
Lit 1.5
such as Marketplan and Brandaid are used for marketing, Callplan
and Detailer for sales, and Mediac helps prepare advertising media
schedules. There are also many simulation programs in science and
mathematics that
are used to test and
teach theories. For
example, a program
called Catlab
teaches the
principles of
genetics by
modelling the
breeding of cats
with different
colours.

Figure 8.8 Simulation program

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Project: Gold Coast conference


Nita needed to organise a conference on the Gold Coast for her staff.
She had to determine the cost of the conference, an outline of an
itinerary and construct a budget. The problem was solved using the
four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: A search of the Internet was
completed to gather information on motels, places to visit, travel
arrangements and possible dates. A project plan was written and
some initial ideas discussed with her supervisor.
Design possible solutions: Four possible solutions were examined in
a feasibility study. Nita recommended a three-day conference at
Conrad Jupiters. PowerPoint was used to present the solution to
her supervisor for approval. The supervisor approved the solution if
the cost could be reduced by 10 per cent.
Produce the solution: A proposed budget was developed using a
spreadsheet program. Nita used whatif predictions to obtain the
cost reduction. The venue and air travel were booked. Each
member of staff was advised of the arrangements and their
responsibilities during the conference. The conference was
completed and invoices received.
Evaluate the solution: The cost of the conference was below the
proposed budget. Each staff member completed an evaluation of
the conference. The report on the conference, including the
budget, was submitted to the supervisor for accountability.

Tasks ICT 8.1


1 Why was a spreadsheet program used to construct a budget?
2 Investigate any templates that could be used to construct a budget.
Describe the labels, values and formulas in these templates.

Exercise 8.4
1 True or false?
a Analog computers can accept data directly from peripheral
devices in analog form.
b A special screen mounted in a helmet is often used for parallel
processing.
c Programming languages cannot be used for modelling
simulation.
d Simulation programs have been developed for many different
tasks.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The ability to perform _______ quickly is an important aspect in
modelling and simulation systems.

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b In virtual reality the user interacts with the simulated world


using a _______.
c If simulations are complex, such as scientific applications, then
_______ may be required.
3 What am I?
a A device used for training and experiments to simulate
movement, flight or some other condition.
b A program that allows the user to create models and simulate
the real situation.
c An extension of a simulation program where a person interacts
with the simulated world.
d It divides the processing task between a series of processors.
4 a List some of the advantages of using a simulator.
b What is an analog computer?
c Describe two specific simulation languages.
d Describe a simulation program.

Development
5 Simulation of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, is an attempt
to save lives at the risk of interfering with nature. Does this
application of technology further separate society from natural
systems and result in a heartless attitude to the environment? Give
reasons for your answer.
6 The requirements of models and simulations are constantly
changing. Do research to examine the hardware needs for
operating simulation programs. Write a summary of your
investigation.

8.5 Using models and


simulation programs
Data in a simulation represents the state of the model at any
particular time. If the data is changed in the model then so is the
simulation. Data is stored in variables and parameters.
Variables are items of data that may change. A variable name is
used to store the data or value of the variable in a location of memory.
For example, if A5 is used as a variable and given the value 10 (A5
= 10), then a specified memory location referred to as A5 will hold
the number 10. In a modelling and simulation program, data that is
stored in variables can be easily changed.
Parameters are variables whose values cause particular instructions
to be completed. During the course of the simulation a parameters
value might be continually changing, the model uses these values

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to help determine the result of the simulation. For example, in a


modelling and simulation program the variable A5 might also be
parameter. If its value is 10 (A5 = 10) then a set of instructions is
completed. However, if its value is 12 (A5 = 12), a different set of
instructions is completed. The result of the simulation depends on
the parameter A5.

Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is a software package that can be used for modelling
and simulation. It is a rectangular grid made up of rows and
columns to organise and store data that require some type of
calculation. A spreadsheet creates a model using formulas to
represent the real situation. For example, a spreadsheet could be
used to calculate loan repayments. It would use a formula that
relates the interest rate, time period and present value of the loan.
Spreadsheets can present data in tables and charts and make
predictions based on trends.
All spreadsheets consist of rows that run horizontally across the
screen and columns that run vertically down the screen. Rows are
usually numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, while columns are often
named in alphabetic terms A, B, C, up to Z; then AA, AB, AC up to
AZ; then BA, BB and so on. The intersection of a row and column in
a spreadsheet is called a cell. The position of the cell in the
spreadsheet is called its cell
address (or cell reference) such
as A2. A range is a group of
adjacent cells in a single row or
column, or in several adjacent
rows and columns. For example,
the range B5:C7 contains the
data in cells B5, B6, B7, C5, C6
and C7.
A spreadsheet is very
particular about the type of data
that is entered into each cell.
There are three main types of
data called labels, values and
formulas (see Figure 8.9):
Label is text entered into
a cell to provide some
explanation of the Figure 8.9 A spreadsheet containing labels, values and
spreadsheet. Calculations formulas

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are not carried out using this data. Labels are used for headings
in rows and columns.
Values are numbers stored in a spreadsheet on which
calculations can be carried out.
Formulas are instructions to perform a calculation. The answer
to the calculation will always appear in the cell that contains the
formula. The formula itself is not shown. The user can create a
The word formula formula or select a predefined function such as average.
has two plural Formulas often contain cell addresses that are used as
formsformulas
and formulae.
parameters.
The latter is most Spreadsheets have many features that make them easy to use. Some
often used in of the features include editing data, workbooks, templates, macros
scientific work.
and charts.
Editing data is completed on the spreadsheet or using the
formula bar. Cut and Paste, Copy and Paste, or Drag and Drop
are used to copy values, labels, cell references and formulas into
other cells. The Fill down or Fill right instruction copies the
contents of a cell into a range of adjacent cells.
A workbook is made up of one or more spreadsheets called
worksheets or sheets. These sheets allow the user to organise
Lit 1.6
related information in a single file.
A template is a document created for repeated use. A
spreadsheet template contains labels and formulas to solve a
particular problem. The user enters the values to obtain the
required solution. A template saves time and effort.
A macro is a series of commands stored in a file that can be
executed by pressing a few keys. Macros allow many operations
to be performed automatically, such as opening menus,
choosing commands or entering text.
A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. Charts
convert data in rows and columns into a picture that is read at a
glance. Charts make data easy to understand. Trends are
revealed and comparisons can be made instantly. Charts assist
people to make quick and accurate decisions.

Whatif predictions
Whatif predictions are a process of making changes to the data and
observing their effects. It answers whatif? questions: What if the
interest rate increases by 1 per cent, what would be the effect on my
loan repayments? What if I buy a car with a fuel consumption of 8

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L/100 km instead of 10 L/100


km? How would this affect
the cost of fuel over the next
two years? Spreadsheets
instantly give the user the
answer to whatif
questions. You change the
data and observe the effect.
Goal Seek is a command
used to make whatif
predictions. If the user knows
the result of a particular
formula, but not the value to
be entered, then Goal Seek
will determine this value. For
example, in Figure 8.10 Goal
Seek is used to determine the
sales of cola in December
that will result in average Figure 8.10 Whatif predictions and Goal Seek
monthly sales of eighty for
the past six months.

Spreadsheet design
A spreadsheet must be well designed and easy to use. There is no
correct way to design a spreadsheet. Each particular problem has its
own design requirements. However, a well designed spreadsheet has
four easily identifiable areas called the instruction, input,
calculation and output (see Figure 8.11):
Instruction areainformation about the spreadsheet or
directions for use of the spreadsheet. It is usually at the top of
the spreadsheet and includes a title, a description, the author
and date. Larger spreadsheets include a brief outline of their
structure, directions and parameters.
Input arealabels for headings and values on which
calculations are based. The format of values and labels is often
completed after the data has been entered. For example, when
entering money values do not include the $ sign as these values
can be format to currency after the numbers have been entered.
All inputs should be labelled clearly so the user knows where
and how to enter the data.

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Figure 8.11 A well-designed spreadsheet.

Calculation areaformulas and functions complete the work of


the spreadsheet. The calculation area is the heart of a
spreadsheet.
Output areadisplays the result of the spreadsheet. In many
spreadsheets the output area and the calculation area will be the
same. All outputs should be clearly labelled so the user under-
stands the results. Presentation of data should be suitable to the
type of data and its use. Often a chart will display the information
in more understandable form for a decision to be made.

Exercise 8.5
1 Explain the difference between:
a variables and parameters
b labels and values
c templates and macros
d an instruction area and an input area of a spreadsheet.
2 What am I?
a The instructions in a spreadsheet to perform a calculation.
b One or more worksheets.
c The process of making changes to the data and observing the
effects.
d A graphical representation of numerical data.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
All spreadsheets consist of (a) that run horizontally across the
screen and (b) that run vertically down the screen. The (c) of a row
and a column is called a cell. A range is a group of (d) cells in a
single row or column.

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4 a What is a spreadsheet?
b How are rows and columns numbered in a spreadsheet?
c List the three main types of data in a spreadsheet.
d How is data edited in a spreadsheet?

Development
5 Create the three spreadsheets shown in this section. Answer the
following questions by referring to these spreadsheets.
a What is the parameter? Give an example.
b Use the Fill Down command to enter data. Describe the steps
to use this tool.
c Explain the difference between an absolute and relative
reference. Give an example.
d What is a function? List ten different types of functions and
give an example using correct syntax.
e Use Goal Seek to perform a whatif prediction. Describe the
steps in your prediction.
6 Design a spreadsheet to analyse your time management. For each
day of the week, enter the amount of time (in hours) you spend on
sleep, eating, television, homework, study and other activities. Use
the spreadsheet to total the hours for each activity and find the
weekly averages. Design the spreadsheet using four easily
identifiable areas. Construct appropriate charts from this
spreadsheet.
ICT 8.2

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 Which of the following is the person c Carry out the reasoning by using
who effectively started the field of the facts, assumptions, theories
artificial intelligence? and rules
a Joseph Weizenbaum d Software used to construct a
b John McCarthy knowledge base in an expert
c David Marr system
d Alan Turing 5 Which of the following is a
2 Which of the following describes representation of some aspect of the
artificial intelligence? real world?
a Aims to give computers the ability a Model
to think like human beings b Simulator
b The ability to understand, learn c Demon
and to control behaviour in any d Agent
new event
6 Which of the following is not an
c A computer system that works like
advantage of modelling and
the human brain and is capable of
simulation systems?
learning
d The ability to give an intelligent a Predicts the result of an event
response using natural languages b Teaching tool to prepare trainees
c Inexpensive to use compared to
3 Which of the following is the set of the real situation
general facts and ifthen rules in an d Results of the simulation cannot
expert system? be changed
a Database
7 What is the name of a device used
b Knowledge base
for training and experiments to
c Inference engine
simulate movement, flight or some
d Intelligent agent
other condition?
4 Which of the following describes a Virtual reality
expert system shells? b Simulator
a Receive data from the environment, c Experimenter
react to that data and produce an d Training machine
intelligent response
8 Which of the following is a
b Provide information and solve
problems that would otherwise simulation language?
require a person experienced in a Simula
that field b Sim City
c Java simulator
d Simlang

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9 Which of the following is an 10 Which of the following is not a


instruction to perform a calculation method of editing data in a
in a spreadsheet? spreadsheet?
a Formula a Cut and paste
b Value b Drag and drop
c Label c Fill down
d Macro d Formula bar

Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 Provides information and solves 6 Item of data that may change.
problems that would otherwise 7 A rectangular grid made up of rows
require a person experienced in that and columns to organise and store
field. data that require some type of
2 A system that works like the human calculation.
brain and is capable of learning. 8 A process of making changes to the
3 A set of general facts and ifthen data and observing their effects.
rules. 9 A system that receives data from the
4 A representation of some aspect of environment, reacts to that data and
the real world. produces an intelligent response.
5 A device used for training and 10 It aims to give computers the ability
experiments to simulate movement, to think like human beings.
flight or some other condition.

Terms
a Artificial intelligence f Neural network
b Expert system g Simulator
c Intelligent system h Spreadsheet
d Knowledge base i Variable
e Model j Whatif predictions

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Part C: Extended-response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Why is it so difficult to define 4 Describe a situation that uses a model
artificial intelligence? How would and simulation. What are the
you test whether a computer was advantages of this simulation? Outline
intelligent? the requirements of this simulation.
2 Developments in information 5 Describe the requirements of models
technology will eventually allow and simulations. Divide your answer
computers to create their own into hardware and software.
knowledge bases. Explain this 6 Spreadsheets are often described as
statement. the first killer application. People
3 You are a passenger on a plane and bought personal computers to use
have just learned that it will be spreadsheets. Why are spreadsheets so
landing automatically using an expert popular? Outline the advantages of
system. What is an expert system? spreadsheets compared to manual
How do you feel about this situation? methods of performing the same tasks.
Give reasons for your answer.

e Tester

Project: Pizza shop


A pizza shop is having problems meeting its costs. It needs to decide whether it
should increase or decrease its prices. Visit a local pizza shop to obtain current
price structures, types of pizzas and the typical sales during the week. Design a
spreadsheet model that could be used to estimate the effects of different prices
on revenue and the quantity of pizzas purchased. Survey students on their pizza
preferences and use this information to make a recommendation to the owner of
the pizza shop. Demonstrate the use of whatif predictions to assist your decision.
Your solution should be developed using the four stages in project development.

Project 1.1
Project 1.2
Project 1.3
Cross project 1
Cross project 2
Cross project 4

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9
9
C H A P T E R

Authoring
and
multimedia
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
The chapter examines multimedia and develops skills in using
authoring software. First we describe the types of multimedia
products and recognise the features of data types for multimedia
products. Multimedia software and the design principles used in
multimedia products are examined.
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9.1 Multimedia products


Multimedia is the presentation of information using text, graphics,
animation, audio and video. It uses at least three different data
types. Multimedia has the potential to provide a better experience
than any other information medium. It can combine the best of
television, film, graphics, animation, books, magazines and radio.
The result of using authoring software is called a multimedia
product or a multimedia presentation.
A key feature of multimedia is interactivity. It allows the user to
choose the sequence and content of information. A multimedia
product is often judged on the quantity of interactivity. The
The interactive
Internet is an example of an interactive environment. The
nature of multi-
media allows the expression surfing the Net or browsing refers to the experience of
user to take part jumping from one page to another using interactivity. Interactive
in the experience.
multimedia accepts input from a mouse, touch screen or keyboard
It is different from
television and and performs some action. Hypertext is used to navigate through a
video where we multimedia product.
have no control Hypertext is a system that allows documents to be cross-linked
over the
information flow. in such a way that the user can move from one document to another
by clicking on text. Hypertext linksor hyperlinksare usually
identified using an underlined text and/or a different text colour.
The author of the hypertext must specify the destination of that

Figure 9.1 Multimedia on the Internet

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link. In a multimedia product the link may be to another screen,


audio, animation or video. When you click on a link you move
from one document to another, even if they contain different data
types. Hypertext provides the interactivity in the multimedia product.
The developments in information technology have allowed
people to create multimedia products that were once only developed
by film professionals. Multimedia products are very demanding and
require the latest technology, such as a fast processor, large memory,
high-resolution screen, quality speakers and the latest in storage
devices. Advances in information technology are influencing
multimedia development. For example, improvements in Lit 2.1
communication speed and capacity on the Internet have turned it
into a medium to deliver multimedia (see Figure 9.1). Multimedia
is extensively used in education, entertainment and information.

Education
Multimedia is very effective at helping people to learn. A good
multimedia product that uses different data types maintains the
users interest. The interactive nature of multimedia allows the user
to control the learning. It addresses each users particular needs.
Multimedia also allows training to be carried out at convenient
times and is developed to cater for a wide range of abilities. It is a
cost effective method of teaching people.
Computer based training (CBT) is a type of multimedia
product used for education and training. A person uses CBT at
their own pace. Information is presented using different types of
media and the user has the opportunity to review misunderstood
concepts. CBT is designed by experts in their field to cater for
different rates of learning. Interactivity in CBT is the basis for an
individual to progress through the system. CBT usually contains
some form of assessment to determine whether an individual is
ready for the next level.

Entertainment
Multimedia designed for entertainment is generally classified as
computer games. Computer games provide a high level of
interactivity. The responses of the user determine the game being
played. The sequence of actions is determined by the game
designer. Games tend to be time restricted and contain complex
animation. The level and amount of text is limited. Depending on
the type of game the navigation may be deliberately hidden until
the user reaches a certain level. Computer games feature high-

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Figure 9.2 Xbox Live

resolution images, audio, animation and video. They often use


some form of alternative to the keyboard for input such as a
joystick. Developments in technology have resulted in computer
games that are more realistic. Games are increasingly being played
over the Internet (see Figure 9.2).

Information
Multimedia provides users with an easy way to display information.
The user controls when, how and what information will be
displayed. The interactive nature of multimedia allows the user to
search using related keywords to find specific information. This is a
distinct advantage over printed forms of the same material. A
multimedia encyclopaedia is a good example of multimedia being
used to store information. It displays information using text,
graphics, audio, animation and video. This makes it easier for
people to understand the information.
Multimedia kiosks allow people to use a touch screen and select
information about an organisation or service. Information
displayed depends on the selections of the user. Multimedia kiosks
commonly provide information about items, the location of items
or a map to a particular product or service. They use large
navigation buttons with few options. Kiosks can also be used to
provide information to the organisation. The selections made by
the user are a source of information about the interest in a product
or service.

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Exercise 9.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The result of multimedia is called a _______
b _______ is a key feature of multimedia.
c Hypertext links are usually identified by an _______.
d A multimedia _______ is a good example of multimedia being
used to store information.
2 True or false?
a Multimedia requires at least four
data types.
b Multimedia products are very
demanding and require the
latest technology.
c CBT is designed by experts in
their field to cater for
different rates of learning.
d Computer games provide a
low level of interactivity.
3 What am I?
a The presentation of
information using text,
graphics, animation, audio and
video.
b It is used to navigate through a
multimedia product.
c A type of multimedia product used for
education.
d A multimedia product that allows people to use a touch screen
and select information about an organisation or service.
4 a Why is the Internet an example of an interactive environment?
b What is hypertext?
c How are developments in information technology affecting
multimedia?
d Why is multimedia very effective at helping people to learn?
e Describe some of the features of computer games.
f Why is multimedia used to display information?

Development
5 Games have been a driving force for improvements in information
technology. Do research into the latest computer games for the PC.
What are the system requirements for these games? Describe the
multimedia features of these games. Write a report that
summarises your investigation.
6 Compare and contrast a multimedia encyclopaedia with a print
encyclopaedia. Describe the data types used in both multimedia
and print encyclopaedias. What navigation methods were used in
the multimedia encyclopaedia?

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9.2 Data types


When creating a multimedia product the data is acquired from
another application or imported using an appropriate file format.
The features of the different data types are described below.

Text
Text is data in the form of letters, numbers and other special
characters. Text is written using a word processor or within the
authoring software. It is edited in many different ways, such as
deleting, inserting, moving and copying. Some common file
formats for text include:
DOC (document) is the format used by Microsoft Word. DOC
files maintain their formatting and can contain other data
Lit 2.2 types.
Lit 2.3 TXT (text) files or ASCII is a standard format to store text and
numeric data. It is essentially raw text without any formatting.
Each byte in the file contains one character that conforms to the
standard ASCII code.
RTF (rich text format) is a standard developed by Microsoft for
specifying the format of text documents. RTF files are actually
ASCII files with special commands to indicate the formatting of
characters and paragraphs.
PDF (portable document format) is a file format developed by
Adobe Systems. A PDF file contains a combination of text and
graphics. Documents downloaded from the Internet are often in
PDF format.

Graphics
Graphics are pictures such as drawings, paintings or photographs.
Graphics are used to create interest and provide information. They
can be stored, edited and transferred in similar ways to text. Graphics
are created using graphics programs or captured using a scanner,
digital camera or video camera. All graphics are displayed using
tiny dots called pixels. A pixel (picture element) is the smallest part
of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total
number of pixels on the screen is called its resolution. There are
two types of graphics: bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics.
Interactive Bit-mapped graphics (raster graphics) store and manipulate each
pixel. They produce good quality images where shading and fine
detail are needed. However, when resized bit-mapped graphics
become ragged and suffer loss of resolution. Enlarging the graphic

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enlarges each pixel and creates a staircase pattern along a diagonal


or curved line called jaggies. Bit-mapped graphics are created and
edited using a painting program (see Figure 9.3). Some common
file formats for bit-mapped graphics include:
BMP (bit-map) is the native
bit-mapped graphic format
for Microsoft Windows. It
stores information about
each pixel used in an image.
This results in large file
sizes.
JPEG (JPG, Joint
Photographic Experts
Group, pronounced jay-
peg) compresses a bit-
mapped graphic using lossy
compression. JPEG files use
24-bit colour (16.7 million
colours) and are commonly
used for photographs on the
Web.
GIF (Graphics Interchange
Format) is a popular format
for web graphics. GIF files
are compressed without loss Figure 9.3 Adobe Photoshop
of quality using lossless
compression. They are good for line art drawings, logos and
simple graphics. GIF format compresses graphics files using
8-bit colour (256 colours).
TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) is widely supported by
applications on both Windows and Macintosh platforms. There
are several different versions of TIFF files, some of which
involve compression.
PICT (picture) stores bit-mapped or vector graphics. It is the
standard file format on Macintosh computers. PICT files are
encoded in QuickDraw commands. Lit 2.4
Vector graphics (object-oriented graphics) store pictures as a
collection of objects such as shapes and lines. Each object is defined
by its characteristics such as position, line width and pattern. These
characteristics are stored as mathematical expressions and displayed
on the screen as pixels. Vector graphics are created and edited using a
drawing program. A hardcopy of a vector graphic appears smoother

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than a bit-mapped graphic when enlarged. Some common file


formats for vector graphics include:
CDR (CorelDraw) is a file created by CorelDraw. CorelDraw is a
powerful drawing program used by professional artists and
Some graphics
designers.
programs have WMF (Windows Metafile Format) stores bit-mapped or vector
merged the graphics. WMF is a file format commonly used by Microsoft
features of bit-
mapped and
Windows applications. WMF is used to exchange images
vector graphics between Windows applications.
into a single EPS (encapsulated postscript) is a common format for output
application. This
on high-resolution devices. It stores images using Postscript.
has blurred the
distinction and Postscript is a page-description language for describing fonts,
presented new illustrations and other elements of the printed page.
possibilities for
PICT (picture) stores bit-mapped or vector graphics (see above).
artists.

Audio
Sound travels through the air in waves with a particular amplitude
(volume) and wavelength (pitch or note). Audio is sound that has
been digitised or represented in the form of digits. Audio is used to
explain concepts, reinforce selections and for special effects. Audio
signals from a computer are converted into analog sound waves for
transmission through speakers. Sounds are edited in many different
ways, such as deleting, changing the speed, adding an echo,
overlaying (mixing) sound files and altering the quality of the
sound file. Some common file formats for audio include:
WAV (pronounced wave) is a format that stores either 8-bit,
16-bit or 32-bit sound. It has no compression so there is no loss
of quality. One disadvantage with WAV sound files is that they
result in large file sizes.
MP3 (MPEG audio layer 3) compresses a sound file by
removing the high and low frequencies out of our hearing
range. MP3 has made it possible to download quality audio
from the Internet. However, it can be compressed too much and
result in low quality audio.
WMA (Windows Media Audio) is a compressed audio format
used for Windows Media Player.
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface, pronounced
middy) is a standard connection for computers and electronic
musical instruments. MIDI files require less storage as they only
contain the note information. The quality of the sound in MIDI
files is dependent on the synthesiser.

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Animation
Animation is the apparent movement of an object. It is the result
of a series of graphics or frames presented in rapid succession.
Animations often direct the attention of the user to an area of the
screen or an interesting feature. They are usually started
Tutorial
automatically when a frame is viewed or by the user clicking a
button. When creating an animation the user needs to consider the
size of the graphic and the speed of the movement. Some common
file formats for animation include:
SWF (ShockWave Flash object) is a popular animation format
created by Macromedia (see Figure 9.4). It is vector-based and
compresses to very small file sizes. It is used extensively on the Web.

Figure 9.4 Macromedia Swish

Animated GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) is a type of GIF


image that can be animated. Animated GIF does not give the
same level of control as other animation formats.
MOV (Movie) is a video and animation format developed for
Apple QuickTime. It is built into the Macintosh operating
system and used with most Macintosh applications.
Animation is created using path-based and cel-based animation.
Cel-based animation creates an animation by using a sequence of
individual still images, each displayed in a frame or cell. It is
possible to have a fixed background, however, the shape of the
animated objects and their position must be changed. Path-based
animation creates an animation by displaying the movement of an
animated object onto a fixed background in a particular sequence
or path. The shape of the animated object remains the same.

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Animation is achieved by drawing the object, wiping it, and then


drawing the object in a new position. This process is made easier
because animation software can generate the intermediate frames
between two objects. This is called tweening (short for in-betweening).

Video
A video is made up of frames that contain individual images. When
the video is played, the frames are displayed in sequence. The
number of frames per second is the frame rate. Video has a frame
rate ranging from 15 to 60 frames per second (fps). Some common
file formats for video are:
MPEG (MPG, Motion Picture Expert Group) is a family of
formats for compressed video that has become a standard.
MPEG-1 is a suitable standard to create a video CD at the
quality of VHS tape. MPEG-2 is a higher quality standard at the
level of a DVD. MPEG-4 is a format designed for transmission
over the Internet.
AVI (audio/video interleaved) is a video and audio format
developed by Microsoft. It is limited to 320 by 240 resolution
and 30 frames per second.
DivX is a compressed format based on MPEG-4 technology.
DivX can be quickly downloaded from the Internet without loss
of quality.
WMV (Windows
Media Video) is a
compressed video
format used for
Windows Movie
Maker (see Figure
9.5). It is based on
MPEG-4
technology.
MOV (Movie) is a
video and
animation format
developed for
Apple QuickTime
(see above).

Figure 9.5 Windows Movie Maker

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Exercise 9.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a a bit-mapped graphic and a vector graphic
b a JPEG and a GIF file
c cel-based animation and path-based animation.
2 True or false?
a Vector graphics are created and edited in a drawing program.
b GIF files are bit-mapped graphics.
c An MP3 file is a much larger file size compared to WAV.
d MPEG-1 is a suitable standard to create a video CD.
3 What am I?
a File format that is essentially raw text without any formatting.
b The staircase pattern caused by enlarging each pixel in a bit-
mapped graphic.
c Sound that has been digitised.
d A family of file formats for compressed video.
4 a List common file formats for text.
b What is a pixel?
c What is the main advantage of a vector graphic compared to a
bit-mapped graphic?
d How are sounds edited?
e What is an animation?
f What is the frame rate?

Development
5 File formats for the different data
types are constantly changing.
Do research into the most
popular file formats for text,
graphics, audio, animation
and video. List software that
could be used to create or
edit these formats. Construct
a table to summarise your
results using three headings:
Data type; Software
application; File format.
6 Your school wants to create a
multimedia product for a kiosk
in the foyer of the school. The
multimedia product aims to
display information about the
school for the community. Describe
the information that could be displayed
by each data type. Design a home page
for the kiosk.

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9.3 Authoring software


systems
Multimedia is created and displayed using a range of multimedia
software such as presentation software, multimedia authoring and
web authoring.

Presentation software
Presentation software is used to make a multimedia presentation to
a group of people. A presentation consists of a series of slides. A
slide is an individual screen or page of the presentation. Each slide
may contain text, graphics, animation, audio and video. Each of
these elements is treated as an object. A presentation is a group of
objects positioned on one or more slides. Some popular
presentation software includes Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus
Freelance and Aldus Persuasion (see Figure 9.6).
Presentation software often allows you to create several different
types of documents such as:
Onscreen presentationsslides displayed on a monitor or
projected onto a screen. The timing of the presentation is
controlled either automatically or manually. Automatic requires
the user to set the timings for each slide so that the slides
advance by themselves. Slides advance manually by clicking the
mouse button.

Figure 9.6 Microsoft PowerPoint

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Audience handoutscontent of one or more slides on a page.


Handouts are given to people who attend the presentation.
Overhead transparenciesslides printed on transparent film for
use with an overhead projector. They can be in black and white
or colour, and in portrait or landscape orientation.
Speakers notesnotes the speaker may need to refer to when
discussing the slides.

Multimedia authoring
Multimedia authoring software is used to create and edit a multi-
media product. It allows the user to combine the different data types
such as text, graphics, audio, animation and video. Multimedia
authoring software is designed to produce self-contained applications
for a CD or DVD, as a part of an information kiosk or to run on the
Internet. Multimedia authoring software provides a much greater
level of interactivity than presentation software. A multimedia product
is created by first developing each of the data types. It is often completed
by a group of people, each of them specialising in a data type such
as video or audio. They create their part of the project using Lit 2.5
separate applications and import files into the authoring software.
Authoring software also allows the user to create the interactivity.
Most authoring software shares similar features. Some popular
authoring software includes:
Macromedia Directoruses a movie to create the multimedia
product. It treats each file as a cast member of a production.
These files will appear at a particular time, position and appear
for a certain length of time. A cast window is used to store
different data types and a store window is used to synchronise
the different elements.
Macromedia Authorwareuses a flowchart to create the
multimedia product. A flowchart consists of a number of icons
that represent a specific programming task such as a selection.
Macromedia Authorware specialises in creating multimedia
training courses.
HyperStudiouses a card-and-stack user interface that was
originally introduced with Apples HyperCard. A multimedia
product is constructed as a stack of cards. A card represents a
screen and contains different data types. Buttons are placed on
the cards to provide the interactivity.
Asymetrix ToolBookuses a similar interface to HyperStudio
except a book replaces a stack and a page replaces a card. It uses
OpenScript as a programming language.

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Web authoring
Web authoring software is used to create and manage a multimedia
website. Websites contain a range of data types, such as text,
graphics, animation, audio and streamed video. The web authoring
software will position and display objects, as they would be viewed
through a web browser. Many programs allow the user to manage
entire websites using tools that automate repetitive tasks. Some
popular web authoring software includes:
Macromedia Dreamweaveris the industry standard used by
professional designers (see Figure 9.7). It creates HTML
(hypertext markup language) code that is efficient and
compatible with any browser or platform.
Microsoft FrontPageis used by small business and home users.
It has an intuitive layout with easy to use templates. Users have
the ability to view and edit the HTML code.
Web animation software such as Macromedia Flash has developed
into a multimedia program. In addition to creating animations
such programs now include text, graphics, audio and video.
Macromedia Flash also contains programming languages for
creating interactive applications.

Figure 9.7 Macromedia Dreamweaver

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Project: Total Music


Total Music is a local band that would like to create a multimedia
product of their material. The multimedia product is to include their
music, video clips of the band and interviews with the band members.
Imran from MediaCom was chosen by Total Music to develop the product.
The problem was solved using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: A meeting with the band was
arranged to discuss the selection of songs, opportunities to video
a live performance, appropriate topics for the interviews and any
ideas for design of the product. A project plan was written and
submitted for approval to the band. ICT 9.1
Design possible solutions: Imran investigated the features
of similar multimedia products. He decided on three
possible solutions and created a storyboard for
each solution. A feasibility report was written
and presented to the band. The
recommendation from the feasibility
report was accepted by the band.
Produce the solution: The multimedia
product was constructed using
Macromedia Director. Each screen had
the same layout, format and style.
Photographs taken of the band at
their last concert were used to create
interest. A music session was used to
record the bands music and film the
interviews with the band members. Each
piece of data was imported into Director
and the final product tested.
Evaluate the solution: The multimedia
product was presented to the band. The
band was pleased with the final
product and is using it for promotion
outside the local area.

Tasks
1 Construct a storyboard that would be
appropriate for this project.
2 Do research into the features of the latest
multimedia authoring software. Write a brief
report that summarises your investigation.

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Exercise 9.3
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Multimedia authoring software is used to (a) and (b) a multimedia
product. It is designed to produce self-contained (c) for a CD or
DVD, as a part of an information (d) or to run on the Internet.
2 True or false?
a Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular web authoring program.
b Presentation software allows you to create audience handouts.
c Macromedia Director uses a card-and-stack user interface.
d Web authoring software will position and display objects, as
they would be viewed through a web browser.
3 Unjumble these words:
a etasenoptirn wsarofte
b gaouthrin
4 a What is the purpose of presentation software?
b List some different types of documents that can be created by
presentation software.
c How is a multimedia product created using multimedia
authoring software?
d What is web authoring software?
e Describe Macromedia Dreamweaver.

Development
5 Create a multimedia presentation on a multimedia product. The
product could be a software application such as an educational
program or a computer game. Your presentation should use
different data types.
6 Investigate the authoring software that you have available in your
school. Write a report that outlines the steps taken to construct a
multimedia product. Share your investigation with the class.

9.4 Multimedia design


A multimedia product needs to be carefully designed. It involves
conforming to certain design principles.

Design principles
The different data types must be combined into one effective
multimedia product. The design of each screen should be based on
the three basic design principles:
Consistent: Layout, format and style should be the same
Lit 2.6
throughout the multimedia product unless different data types
demand a change. Readability is improved when similar items

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are grouped. Grouping is achieved by spacing, use of colour for


the text and changing the backgrounds or borders.
Navigation: Users need to understand the structure of the
multimedia product and be able to find information they want It is tempting to
easily. The time taken to respond to a users action is important. use all the bells
People become frustrated if they have to wait more than a few and whistles of the
authoring software.
seconds for the next screen or a video clip to load. Remember that
Simple: Do not overuse design elements as this will create visual the message is
clutter and confuse the user. The overuse of colour, sound and more important
than the media.
animations can be distracting.
Text should be short, simple and relevant. It is better to provide text
in concise bursts using short paragraphs (see Figure 9.8). For longer
sections of text, consider providing a brief introduction and then
include a link to the full version on another page. Design principles
to format text include:
Fonts: Use at most three different fonts. Both sans serif typefaces
(such as Arial, Verdana or Georgia) and serif typefaces (such as
Times Roman) can be used for text. Care should be taken using
font variations such as bold and italic. Use different size
headings to reflect their importance.
Screen layout: Appropriate conventions exist for column width,
alignment, line spacing, character spacing, indentation,
hyphenation and kerning. Long lines of text are difficult to read.
Double spacing improves readability. Bullets and numbering are
common ways to organise text in a multimedia product.

Figure 9.8 Multimedia website using good design

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Colour scheme: This contributes to the style and theme of a


multimedia product. Colour draws attention to the text. Some
colours should not be used together as they produce poor
contrast and reduce readability. For example, blue text on a red
background. Too many different colours can be distracting and
reduce readability. Use colour in a consistent way so users easily
recognise the different elements.
Graphics and animations are used to create interest and provide
information. However, they place extra demands on the multimedia
product, so need to be used carefully. The position and size of a
graphic or animation is dependent on its importance and balance
with the other design elements. It can support or weaken a
multimedia product. If too many images are used the product loses
its impact. The same goes for animations. Animations should be
used sparingly, such as to introduce a new section within the
multimedia product. Images and animations are edited and
adjusted to suit the screen resolution. The resolution of a graphic is
dependent on the screen and the number of colours that can be
displayed. The intention of a graphic must be easily understood.
For example, a graphic might guide the user to another section of a
multimedia product. Titling is the placement of a caption to
accompany the graphic.
Audio and video are also used to create interest and provide
information. An occasional burst of sound for special effect will
focus the audience on the multimedia. However, the frequent use of
sound effects can draw attention away from the main information.
Audio and video can be excellent media to explain concepts,
however, they place extra demands on the users computer system.
A decision on the use of sounds and video is often made in terms
of providing exciting additional elements and ensuring the
multimedia product will function effectively. Audio and video files
are usually very large and this factor must be taken into account
before including them in the multimedia product.

Script and storyboard


A script and a storyboard are two tools used to organise a
multimedia product. A script is a printout of all the text, graphics,
animation, audio and video used in the production. It outlines the
interactivity in the project. A script gives directions for the
construction of the multimedia product. It is a textual method of
representing ideas and actions. On the other hand, a storyboard is a

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series of frames each representing a different action or screen


image. It is a visual method of representing ideas and actions.
Storyboards are drawn on paper or involve the use of
storyboarding tools. They are frequently edited. Multimedia
storyboards define each screen and the specific data types used.
They consist of navigation paths, information and graphics. There
are four basic storyboard layouts (see Figure 9.9):

Figure 9.9 Storyboard layouts

Lineara simple sequential path that is set up quickly. It is an


appropriate layout when users are expected to examine each
frame before moving to the next frame.
Hierarchicala sequential path in a top-down design. It starts
at the beginning and moves down through the multimedia
product. This layout allows users to choose their direction and
explore a particular topic in greater depth.
Non-linear (random)no particular structure. It moves
between different layouts in any direction. This layout is often
used in multimedia encycloaedias as it gives users the
opportunity to explore.
Combinationa blending of
the all these layout types.

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Exercise 9.4
1 What am I?
a A storyboard layout that has no particular structure.
b A serif typeface commonly used for text.
c A series of frames each representing a different action or
screen image.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The position and (a) of a graphic or animation is dependent on its
(b) and balance with the other design elements. Graphics and
animations are edited and adjusted to suit the screen (c). Titling is
the placement of a (d) to accompany a graphic.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The layout, format and style should be the _______ throughout
the multimedia product.
b Bullets and _______ are common ways to organise text in a
multimedia product.
c Audio and video place extra _______ on the users computer
system.
d A _______ is a printout of all the text, graphics, animation,
audio and video used in the production.
4 a List the three basic design principles.
b Describe the design principles for using fonts.
c What is the purpose of a colour scheme?
d How should audio and video be used in a multimedia product?
e Describe multimedia storyboards.
f List the four basic storyboard layouts.

Development
5 Do research into at least three websites that offer advice on design
principles for multimedia. Write a report that summarises your
investigation.
6 Create a multimedia product for a kiosk for the foyer of your
school. The multimedia product aims to display information about
the school for the community (Exercise 9.2, Question 6):
a Construct a storyboard for the multimedia product.
b Describe the design features used in the product.
c Outline any issues that have been raised in developing the
ICT 9.2
product, such as privacy and copyright.
d Display your multimedia product to the class.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 Which of the following statements is 5 Which of the following is not a
incorrect? common file format for video?
a Multimedia uses at least three a MPG
data types b SWF
b Data types of the multimedia c AVI
product are created within the d WMV
authoring software
c Interactivity is a key feature of 6 Which of the following is an example
multimedia of web authoring software?
d Multimedia products are very a Microsoft PowerPoint
demanding and require the latest b HyperStudio
technology c Asymetrix ToolBook
d Macromedia Dreamweaver
2 Which of the following describes
hypertext? 7 Which of the following statements is
a Allows documents to be cross- incorrect?
linked in such a way that the user a Presentation software provides a
can move from one document to much greater level of interactivity
another than multimedia authoring
b Data in the form of letters, software
numbers and other special b A presentation consists of a series
characters of slides that may contain text,
c Used to create and manage a graphics, animations, audio and
multimedia website video
d Popular multimedia authoring c Multimedia authoring software is
software designed to create self-contained
applications for a CD
3 Which of the following is a common d Web authoring software will
file format used for bit-mapped position and display objects as
graphics? they would be viewed through a
a PDF web browser
b DOC
8 Design principles to format text
c MPG
d JPG involve using which of the
following?
4 Which of the following describes a More than three different fonts
vector graphics? b Either a sans serif typeface or a
a Store pictures as a collection of serif typeface
objects such as shapes and lines c Font variations freely to improve
b Are created using a painting readability
program d The same size headings
c Is the movement of an object
d Store and manipulate each pixel
rather than as shapes and lines

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9 A series of frames each representing 10 Which of the following design


a different action or screen image is principles is incorrect?
known as which of the following? a Layout, format and style should be
a Storyboard consistent throughout the
b Script multimedia product
c Screen layout b Do not overuse design elements as
d Navigation this will create visual clutter and
confuse the user
c Simple navigation through the
multimedia product is an
important design principle
d Readability is improved by using a
range of different colours

Part B: Matching the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 The presentation of information using 6 Software used to make a multimedia
text, graphics, animation, audio and presentation to a group of people.
video. 7 Software used to create and edit a
2 A key feature of multimedia. It multimedia product.
allows the user to choose the 8 Software used to create and manage
sequence and content of information. a multimedia website.
3 Graphic file format to store and 9 A printout of all the text, graphics,
manipulate each pixel rather than as animation, audio and video used in
shapes and lines. the production.
4 Graphic file format to store pictures 10 A series of frames each representing
as a collection of objects such as a different action or screen image.
shapes and lines.
5 Animation process of generating the
intermediate frames between two
objects.

Terms
a Bit-mapped graphic f Script
b Interactivity g Storyboard
c Multimedia h Tweening
d Multimedia authoring software i Vector graphic
e Presentation software j Web authoring software

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Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Define multimedia. What makes 5 Outline the three basic design
multimedia different to other principles for an effective multimedia
information media such as product. Illustrate your answer with
newspapers and radio? sketches.
2 What are the three areas of use for 6 Creating a multimedia product
multimedia products? Briefly describe requires a logical approach. Describe
those areas. two tools used to organise a
3 Multimedia products use a multimedia product.
compressed file format for graphic,
audio and video. Name and describe
two compressed file formats for each e Tester
of these data types.
4 There is a range of authoring
software for multimedia. This
software is constantly being upgraded
with new features. Describe three
popular software packages that are
available for multimedia.

Project: Electronic yearbook


Create a multimedia product that is a snapshot of your cohort for this year.
Suggested material could include features of your school, issues, aspirations of
students, famous quotes, embarrassing moments, poems, photographs, current music
and movies, cultural events, excursions, videos or results of surveys. This is a group
project that requires each member of the group to create a separate section. Your
solution is to be developed using the four stages in project development.

Project 2.1
Project 2.2
Project 2.3

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10
10
CHAPTER

Database
design
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
This chapter will develop your skills with databases. First it
examines database development and then the collection,
organisation and storage of data. Next you will learn how to edit,
search and sort records. The chapter concludes by investigating the
methods of presenting information and integrating data.
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10. 1 Database development


A database is an organised collection of data. People use databases
of all sizes and shapes. There are large databases such as airline
ticket information and library catalogue systems. People also create
small databases such as home inventories and address books.
Databases are not a new development. We have been using manual
databases for hundreds of years. One common example of a
manual database is the telephone book. It is a database arranged
alphabetically by family name. Electronic databases have several
advantages over manual databases. They make it easy to:
The Internet is store large quantities of information using storage devices
dependent on search and sort data quickly and accurately to obtain the
database required information
technology.
When you use organise information in different waysdata is updated
a search engine without having to retype all the data
you are accessing present information in different ways using tables, forms and
a database.
reports.
A database is created for a particular purpose. For example, you
might create a database to store information about your music
collection or to maintain a phone list. For these purposes a flat file
database is suitable. A flat file database organises data into a single
table. However, organisations store huge amounts of data and need
to organise their data using a series of related tables. These are
called relational databases.
Lit 3.1
Databases are created using database programs. There are a
variety of database programs such as file managers and database
management systems (DBMS). A file manager is a program that
enables users to work with one file at a time. It is used to create a
flat file database. A DBMS is a software package that allows the user
to enter, maintain and provide access to a collection of files. The
user can choose which data is required and how to display that
information in a meaningful way. A DBMS creates a relational
database.
Tutorial
Components of a database
The components of a database are called files, records, fields and
characters. These components make up the structure of the
database. To illustrate these data structures consider the employee
database in Figure 10.1.
A file is a block of related data stored on a storage device. When
Interactive
you have done some work on the computer it is stored in a file.

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The employee database is


File or Table Employees
stored as a file. A file in a
database is divided into a
set of related records. 1
Records Adams David
2
Bell James
3
Cook Damien
other records
A record is a collection of
facts about one specific
other fields
entry in a database. All Fields 2 Bell James

the information about


one employee is a record.
Characters B e l l
A record is divided into
one or more related
Figure 10.1 Components of a database
fields.
A field is a specific piece of data in a record. Fields for each
employee include the employee ID, last name and first name.
A field is also known as a data item or category and is made up
of characters.
A character is the smallest unit of data that people can handle
and includes letters, numbers and special symbols.

Data dictionary
A data dictionary is a comprehensive description of each field in a
database. It contains information about the characteristics of each
item entered in the database, such as the field names, data types,
field sizes and field descriptions (see Figure 10.2).
Field name is the name of the field. It should be carefully
selected to avoid confusion. Field names should be relatively
short, clear and avoid the use of punctuation.
Data type or field type is the kind of data in the field. Each field
stores data of a single data type. Some common data types
include:
Textused for text or numbers that do not require
calculations, such as phone numbers

Figure 10.2 Data dictionary

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Memoused for lengthy text and numbers such as


descriptions
Numberused for numeric data to be included in
mathematical calculations
Currencyused for currency values
AutoNumberused to automatically create a unique
number when a record is added
Yes/Noused for data that can be only one of two possible
values; cannot be empty or null
OLE objectused for data created in other programs such
as a spreadsheet, graphic or sound
Hyperlinkused for hyperlinks
Date/Timeused for dates and times.
Field size or field width, is the number of characters allowed in
each field. To keep the size of the database small it should be
limited to the smallest number of characters that can be
expected for that field.
Description specifies the contents of the field.
The organisation of data often involves a key. Keys are fields used to
sort and retrieve information. A primary key is a field where each
item is unique and must have a value, such as employee ID.
Primary keys cannot be empty or null. AutoNumber is a good
choice as the data type for the primary key.

Tables and forms


A table or list displays data using columns (fields) and rows
(records). It shows more than one record but only allows the fields
that will fit across the screen. Additional fields and records are
brought into view by scrolling. A table is convenient when working
with several records, or entering new data in only one field. There
are several ways to change the screen layout, such as changing the
width of columns, hiding a column and altering the row height.

Figure 10.3 A table from the employee database

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Data in a table is usually


entered using a form,
retrieved using a query and
printed using a report.
A form or label usually
displays data for every field
of a single record. The layout
of a form can be changed.
The user can position fields,
headings, instructions and
graphics. A well-designed
form provides information
explaining the required data Figure 10.4 A form from the employee database
and any data entry rules that
apply to particular fields. For example, a field name Sex (M/F)
leaves no confusion about its required data. Drop-down lists are
often used to ensure the correct data has been used. Fonts need to
be carefully chosen to ensure the screen is easy to read. The type
size, stroke weight and colour of the font will have an impact on
the user and the accuracy of the data that is entered. When entering
data into a table or form, the user types the data for the first field
and presses the Enter or Tab key to move to the next field. After
entering the data for the last field of a record, the next record will
appear. This process continues until all the data has been entered.

Exercise 10.1
1 Explain the difference between:
a a flat file database and a relational database
b a file and a record
c a table and a form.
2 What data type am I?
a Numeric data to be included in mathematical calculations.
b Data that can be only one of two possible values.
c Data used for text or numbers that does not require calculations.
d Data created in other programs.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A database is an _______ collection of data.
b _______ is the number of characters allowed in each field.
c A primary key is a field where each item is _______ and must
have a value.
d Data in a _______ is usually entered using a form, retrieved
using a query and printed using a report.

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4 a What are the advantages of an electronic database compared


to a manual database?
b List the four components of a database.
c Describe a DBMS.
d What are fields in a database?
e What is a data dictionary?
f How do you enter data in a form?

Development
5 Create the personnel database using the data in Figure 10.3.
Construct a data dictionary using appropriate data types for each
field. Adjust the field sizes where necessary. Select a format for the
Date hired field. Design a form similar to Figure 10.4. Enter the
employee data into a table.
6 Create a database of your friends. Possible field names include:
Friend ID; Last name; First name; Address; Suburb; Post code; Phone
number; Gender; Age. Construct a data dictionary using
appropriate data types for each field. Adjust the field sizes where
necessary. Enter data into a table. Design a form that displays all
the fields.

10. 2 Collecting, organising


and storing data
Creating a useful database depends on the collection of data,
organising the data appropriately and ensuring the database is
securely stored.

Sources of data
The data entered into a database is very structured. Data is
organised into a file, records, fields and characters. For this reason
the collection of data requires careful planning. It consists of four
steps:
deciding what to collectwhat will be a file, record and field
identifying the source of the datawhere the data can be found
determining how the data will be gatheredwhat the questions
in the survey, questionnaire, interview or mail out will be
gather the datacollect and enter the data into the DBMS.
The source of the data can be classified as primary or secondary.
A primary source is when data is collected first hand. Many
organisations generate their own primary data because they
consider it meaningful and reliable, although it is time consuming
and costly. Data from primary sources is acquired through

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interviewing people, conducting surveys or observing the system in


operation. A secondary source is when data is collected or created by
someone else. For example, data collected from newspapers, books,
other print media, CD-ROMs and the Internet. This is often the
quickest and least costly method of collecting data but may not
meet all needs. The World
Conservation Union
After the data is collected it must be checked for accuracy. Try manages a database
not to gather data from one source. Investigate other secondary on the global
sources to confirm its reliability. It is important to remember that environment. It
uses this database
secondary sources of data might be protected by copyright. to advise govern-
However, the Copyright Act does make special provisions for ments, organisations
students to use information for research purposes. It allows and local
communities in
students to use a reasonable portion of the original work if devising and
correctly cited. The copyright issue was examined in Chapter 5. implementing
conservation
strategies.
Database storage
Organisations use databases to store large amounts of data.
Magnetic disk storage is used when immediate access to data is
required. It uses direct access. This form of access allows data to be
found directly without accessing all the previous data. Magnetic
tape is used as a backup medium for databases. It can store large
quantities of data inexpensively. Magnetic tape uses sequential Lit 3.2
access. This form of access starts at the beginning of the tape and Lit 3.3
reads all of the data until the required item is found.
Recovering a database from damage or system failure is very
important. A backup is another copy of the data that could be used
to rebuild the system. Backups can be sent to a warehouse storage
facility through the Internet or secured offsite. If the system goes
down the recovery process rebuilds the system. The success of
backup and recovery depends on implementing appropriate
procedures. A backup procedure may involve at least three
generations of backup files. This is called grandfatherfatherson.
The most recent backup is the son, the second last is the father and
the oldest is the grandfather. Grandfatherfatherson is commonly
used with magnetic tape.
Database storage and retrieval may occur many times each day.
This results in file fragmentation. File fragmentation occurs when a
file is broken and stored in separate segments on a disk. If storage is
badly fragmented it slows access time to the data. Most DBMS have
a command or a utility program to reorganise files and improve
efficiency.

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Validation and verification


Validation and verification involve checking that the data is correct.
Data is not always accurate. Errors in the data are caused by
mistakes in gathering the data, in data entry, by a mismatch of the
data and the person or by out-of-date information. For example, if
the price of a product has been entered incorrectly into the
database then customers buying that product will be charged the
wrong price. This could be very costly to the organisation.
Opportunities are needed to check and change data if it is wrong.
Data validation checks the entry of data. It is used to detect
missing data or typing mistakes. Data validation errors have been
reduced by using check boxes, option buttons and drop-down lists.
The data dictionary is used to assist in data validation. Data
validation rules are entered to perform a range check, list check,
type check and check digit (see pages 11314 in Chapter 5 for more
detail).

Figure 10.5 Validation for the personnel database

Data verification checks


whether the entered data is
accurate. For example, has the
phone number been entered
exactly as the data written on
the survey? Data verification is
performed by a person. A
person reads the data and
makes judgements about its
accuracy. If the data appears
to be wrong the person
would check the data.
Ensuring the accuracy of the
data is difficult. For example,

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a person might change their address but forget to inform their


employer. These types of errors can go undetected for some time.
Data can also become corrupted or damaged after data entry. Using
backup and recovery procedures is the best protection against
damaged data.

Exercise 10.2
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in
brackets with a suitable term:
The data entered into a database is very (a). It is organised into files,
(b), fields and characters. The source of the data is classified as (c)
or secondary. After the data is collected it must be checked for (d).
2 True or false?
a A secondary source is when data is collected first hand.
b Magnetic disk storage is used as a backup medium for
databases.
c Data validation errors have been reduced by using check boxes,
option buttons and drop-down lists.
d A data dictionary is used to assist in data validation.
3 What am I?
a Another copy of the data that could be used to rebuild the
system.
b It is used to detect missing data or typing mistakes.
c It occurs when a file is broken and stored in separate segments
of a disk.
d Checking whether the entered data is accurate.
4 a List the four steps involved in the collection of data.
b Describe the grandfatherfatherson backup procedure.
c How do errors occur in data?
d Explain the difference between data validation and data
verification.
e Why is it difficult to ensure the accuracy of the data?

Development
5 Many databases contain inaccurate information about individuals
that may cause them inconvenience and harm. The Australian
Freedom of Information Act aims to protect individuals from ICT 10.1
inaccurate data. Do research into this law. Write a report that
summarises your investigation.
6 Obtain three data entry forms from different sources such as your
school, Internet and local community. Comment on the data
validation used on these forms. Select a poorly designed form and
suggest improvements to this form. Design a new form.

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10. 3 Methods of
processing and analysing
data
Database management systems allow users to process data by
editing and analyse data by sorting and searching.

Editing
Editing is the process of changing data. It involves inserting data,
deleting data, moving data and modifying the data structure.
Data is inserted into a field in a table or form by placing the
cursor in the desired location. New records are inserted by
moving to the last record and typing in the new data. The user
can insert new records by choosing an appropriate command. It
does not matter where the new records are inserted, as the
records can be rearranged by sorting.
Data is deleted from a field in a table or a form by placing the
Museums around cursor to the right of the existing character and pressing the
the world
maintain a Backspace key. A block of text is deleted by selecting the data
database of and pressing the Delete key. The user can replace existing data
objects in their by selecting this data and typing in the new data. To delete a
museum. The
database consists record, the user selects the records and then presses the Delete
of a description of key or chooses an appropriate command.
each object, a Data is moved and copied using the Cut, Copy and Paste
photograph, a
report on its
commands. These commands are available on a block of text,
condition, its one or more fields, whole records or the entire table.
dimensions, its The structure of the database can be edited to meet new
source and the
date received.
requirements. This involves changing the data dictionary. To
add a field, the user will first decide on a field name, field size
and data type. The user will then go back to each record and
enter data into that field. It is convenient to use a table to enter
new data into a field across many records. Deleting a field
should be done with caution. If a field is deleted, all its data
from every record is gone. It may also require forms to be
redesigned.

Sorting
Sorting is the process of arranging data in a particular order. It is a way
of organising the data. Sorts can be performed in either ascending or
descending order (see Figure 10.6). Ascending order arranges data
from smallest to largest (09) or from first to last (AZ).

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Descending order is
the reverse: from
largest to smallest
(90) or from last to
first (ZA). When a
text field containing
numbers is sorted it
will be arranged
according to the
order of their Figure 10.6 Sorting by last name in the personnel database

characters not the size of the number. For example 25 will appear
before 9 when sorted in ascending order. The first letter 2 is less
than the first letter 9.
To sort records the user first chooses a field on which the sort is
to be based and then selects ascending or descending order. Data
can be sorted on more than one field so that records are arranged
in precise order. A two-level sort uses two fields such as Last name
and First name. If Last name is the primary sort and First name
is the secondary sort, the records are arranged alphabetically by last
name and if there are records with the same last name they are
sorted by first name.

Searching
Searching is the process of locating data and information. For small
databases the Find or Search commands are adequate. However,
for large databases the most efficient way of searching is to
construct a query. A query is a search of a database for records that
meet a certain condition. It is a question you ask of the database.
For example, what employees have a last name of Fisher? The
results of a query are usually displayed in a table but can be used as
the basis for a form, report, graph or even another query.
To create a query, the user selects the Query command and
selects the fields to be displayed. A simple query is constructed of
the form: Field name-Operator-data such as Last name = Fisher.
DBMS have different ways of entering a query. Query by example
(QBE) requires the
user to enter the data
against a field. For
example, if you were
looking for a person
with a last name of
Fisher you would Figure 10.7 A query in the personnel database

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type =Fisher in the Last name field and leave the remaining fields
blank. The DBMS would then search the database and select all the
records that have Fisher as a Last name.
Queries are constructed using an operator. Operators represent
the action to be performed in the query. Operators are classified as
either relational or logical. Relational operators (=, <>, <, >, <=,
>=) are symbols or words indicating the relationship between two
expressions. Some DBMS have additional relational operators such
as begins with, contains and does not contain. Logical operators
(and, or, not) are used to combine two or more single queries. It is
important to understand the difference between these operators.
The and operator requires both the first and the second query
to be true. It only retrieves the records that appear in both
queries. For example, if you require an employee with a last
name of Fisher who lives in Blacktown, the query would be:
Last name = Fisher and Suburb = Blacktown.
The or operator requires either the first or the second query to
be true. It retrieves all the records from both queries. For
example, if you require all the employees with a last name of
Fisher as well as the employees who live in Blacktown, the query
would be: Last name = Fisher or Suburb = Blacktown (see
Figure 10.8).
The data in a query can
contain wildcard characters.
Wildcard characters represent
one or more unknown
characters. Some common
wildcard characters are the
asterisk (*) that substitutes
for any number of characters
and the question mark (?)
that substitutes for one
character. A query such as
Last name = Be* would find
last names such as Bee, Bell,
Beat or Beatle. However a
query Last name = Be?
would only find last names
such as Bee and Bed.

Figure 10.8 Result of using two logical operators on the


personnel database

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Mathematical calculations
There are a variety of mathematical calculations that can be
performed in a database. For example, you can calculate the average
of the values in one field or multiply the values in two fields. When
instructing the DBMS to perform a calculation it is important to
follow the correct syntax such as =Avg([Salary]). For example, if
one parenthesis (bracket) is omitted an error message will result.
Database calculations are performed using either:
a predefined calculationuses functions such as sum, average,
count, minimum and maximum
a custom calculationthe user writes a formula to perform a
calculation such as =[Salary]*1.2 and a separate field is usually
created to store the calculated results.

Exercise 10.3
1 True or false?
a The structure of the database involves changing the data
dictionary.
b Descending order arranges data from largest to smallest (90).
c The or operator only retrieves the records that appear in both
queries.
d Wildcard characters represent only one unknown character.
2 Explain the difference between:
a sorting and searching
b relational operators and logical operators
c a predefined calculation and a custom calculation.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a It does not matter where new records are inserted, as the
records can be rearranged by _______.
b Sorts are performed in _______ or descending order.
c Operators represent the action to be performed in the _______.
d When instructing the DBMS to perform a _______ it is important
to follow the correct syntax.
4 a How is data deleted from a field?
b Describe a two-level sort.
c What is an adequate method of searching small databases?
d Describe a wildcard.
5 Write out queries for each of the following. Make up appropriate
field names.
a All customers who live at Camden
b All employers who earn more than $100 000
c All the girls who play netball
d All students in Year 10 as well as those students who live at
Wollongong

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Development
6 Open the personnel database created in Exercise 10.1, Question 5.
a Edit the salary of these employees: James Bell, $45 789 and
Jane Cook, 66 979.
b Delete David Adams and Elizabeth Roberts as employees.
c Insert the following new record: 11, Tan, Daisy, 76 Muston St,
Mosman, 2068, 9969 2345, 19-Mar-05, $50 654.
d Sort Post code in ascending order.
e Complete a two-level sort in ascending order. Primary sort is
Last name and the secondary sort is First name.
f Construct the following queries:
i all the employees who live at Blacktown
ii all the employees with a last name of Fisher
iii all the employees with a first name of Tway
iv all the employees whose last name contains the letter p
v all the employees who live in a court (Crt)
vi all the employees whose salary is greater than $51 000
vii all the employees whose last name contains the letter a
and first name contains the letter e
viii all the employees who live at Blacktown or whose
postcode is 2031.
7 Open the friends database you created in Exercise 10.1, Question 6.
Construct the following queries:
a all the friends who are female
b all the friends who are younger than you
c all the friends who live in a particular street and are male
d all the friends who live in the same suburb or are the same age
as you.

10. 4 Methods of
presenting information
A DBMS presents information using tables, forms and reports. It is
possible to change the format of information in each of these objects.

Report
A report is the formatted and organised presentation of data.
Examples of reports are invoices, mailing labels and telephone lists.
The purpose of the report will determine its content, format and
style. Before creating a report the user may need to select the
required records by constructing a query. For example, a report of
all employees who live at Blacktown. The next step is to select the

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fields to be included in the report. These fields are placed in


appropriate positions, formatted and sorted. Reports typically have
a number of standard sections:
The report header appears once at the beginning of a report. It is
used for items such as a company logo, report title and date.
The page header displays information such as a title, column
headings or any information needed at the top of every page. A
page header appears after the report header on the first page of
the report.
Most of the information will be displayed in the detail section.
The user has a variety of tools to manipulate and format fields.
The page footer displays information such as the date, page
number or any information the user wants at the bottom of
every page.
The report footer appears once at the end of the report. It
displays items such as report totals. The report footer appears
after the page footer on the last page of the report.

Figure 10.9 Report in design view from the personnel database

Design principles
When designing forms and reports keep it consistent and simple.
The layout, format and style should be the same throughout the form
or report. Similar items should be grouped together using spacing,
colour or borders. Both reports and forms should be designed to
promote reading gravity. Reading gravity involves reading information
from the top to the bottom of the page and from left to right. For
this reason position headings at the top of the page and the body of
the text underneath. A serif typeface such as Times Roman can be
used for the body of the text. Care should be taken using font
variations such as bold and italic. A sans serif typeface such as
Arial, Verdana or Georgia is appropriate for headings. Use different

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size headings to reflect their importance. The readability of a form


or report is improved by using plenty of white space.
The design of a form can be easily changed. The user has
complete control over the layout and appearance of a form. Any
fields from the database can be added to the form in any position,
however, make sure the field order follows a logical sequence.
Headings, instructions or graphics are used to improve readability
and data entry. For example, instructions such as Y/N give clear
guidance to the user. The colour scheme should be carefully chosen.
Some colours such as blue text on a red background should not be
used together as they produce poor contrast and reduce readability.
There are also a range of selection tools that can be added to a form
such as check boxes, option buttons, list boxes or drop-down lists.
The design of a report is in either tabular layout (displays data
with the fields extending across the page) or column layout
(displays the data with the fields going down the page). It is
possible to insert headings, sort data, choose the fields, switch
fields, change column widths and select records. There are a
Huge collections of number of conventions that should be considered when designing
documents were
reports:
transferred to data-
bases in the 1960s. headings should identify the purpose of the report
This allowed layouts should efficiently present the information, such as using
organisations to tables or columns
use the computer
to search and sort text should be balanced on the page either vertically or
large quantities horizontally
of data. styles should be consistent throughout the report and should be
chosen to match the purpose of the report
columns should have clear and descriptive headings
page numbers and the date should be included in the header or
footer.

Macros
Macros are a set of actions the user creates to automate common
tasks. They perform a particular operation such as opening a form
or printing a report. Macros are used for repetitive tasks. For
example, you may need to print a report each day. If you stored the
actions to print a report in a macro, then every time you ran the
macro it would print the report. Macros save time and reduce
keyboard errors. They are used to open menus, choose commands,
enter text and do hundreds of other tasks. Any sequence of actions
that you perform can be recorded as a macro. Creating a macro is
slightly different in each DBMS, however, it involves entering or

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recording the actions


to be completed by the
macro. Each macro is
then given a name. A
macro is executed by
selecting the run macro
command (see Figure
Figure 10.10 Macro in the personnel database
10.10).

Exercise 10.4
1 True or false?
a Before creating a report the user needs to select the required
records by constructing a form.
b The report header appears once at the beginning of a report.
c The readability is improved by using plenty of yellow space.
d A report is only designed in tabular layout.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Macros save (a) and reduce keyboard errors. Any sequence of (b)
that you perform can be recorded as a (c). A macro is executed by
selecting the (d) macro command.
3 What am I?
a A formatted and organised presentation of data.
b A section of a report that appears once at the end of the report.
c A set of actions the user creates to automate common tasks.
4 a List the standard sections of a report.
b Describe a well-designed form.
c What are some of the selection tools that can be added to a
form?
d How can a user change the design of a report?
e Outline some of the conventions that should be considered
when designing reports.
f What is the purpose of a macro?

Development
5 Open the personnel database created in Exercise 10.1, Question 5.
Create the following reports:
a a tabular layout of all records, sorted on last name
b a tabular layout of employees who live at Castle Hill
c a column layout that contains only the employees first name
and last name.
6 Open the friends database created in Exercise 10.1, Question 6.
Design a report using a tabular layout. Construct a macro to
automatically open and print this report.

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10. 5 Integration
Integration is the process of merging data from other sources. You
can transfer data between a database and other applications in
several ways.

Importing and exporting


Moving data between applications is a common task. Importing is
the action to copy data produced by another program. For example,
you may be able to import data from a text file or spreadsheet to
create a database. Exporting is the action to send data to another
program. For example, you may be able to export data from a
database into a spreadsheet or another DBMS. Importing and
exporting data is becoming easier as applications have become
more powerful.
Embedding occurs if the copy is not connected to the source.
The copy is fixed and does not change if the source is changed. It is
used when the information does not have to be updated
automatically and is unique to the destination document, for
example, inserting a graphic into a form. Linking occurs if the copy is
connected to the source. If you change the data in the source it is
automatically updated in the destination. It is useful when your
documents require current information from other sources. For
example, a database report that is based on changing statistics in a
spreadsheet (see Figure 10.11). Macros can be used to automate the
importing, exporting and linking of data.
The Cut, Copy and Paste commands are also used to import and
export data. To export data you select the data to be transferred.
Then use the Cut command to remove the data or the Copy
command to make a
duplicate of the data.
When you cut or
copy data it is
temporarily stored
on the clipboard. To
import data you
open the application
and relevant file.
Move to the correct
location and use the
Figure 10.11 Linking external data Paste command for

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embedding. If linking is needed use a Special Paste command. The


data should appear in a format that the new application can edit.
For example, if you move records from a database into a
spreadsheet it appears as rows with each field in a separate column.
The International
Mail merge Atomic Energy
Agency maintains
Organisations often send variations on the same document to more
an extensive data-
than one person. For example, an organisation might want to base on publications
inform its customers of a new service. This task is completed using related to nuclear
power. This data-
mail merge. Mail merge combines a document written on a word
base is used to
processor or other program with data from another source such as provide technical
a database. Organisations create a database of names and addresses assistance to
and use a word processor to generate personalised letters. Mail developing
countries.
merge saves time and makes each document look as if it was
individually written. There are three basic steps in carrying out a
mail merge:
Set up a data source: The data source contains the data to be
merged into the other document. It is usually a database. The
data source could be a query to merge specific data.
Set up the merged document: Word processors and publishing
programs are often used to create the merged document. After
the document is written, select the Mail Merge command. A
data source is then selected and the cursor positioned where the
data is to be inserted. A merged field is chosen from the data
source. More than one merged field can be inserted if required.
Merge the
documents: A
Merge command
will replace the
selected fields with
data from the data
source. Each
record from the
data source
produces an
individual version
of the merged
document.

Figure 10.12 A mail merge

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Project: BuyIT
BuyIT is a new business that sells personal computers. The manager
needs to create and maintain a database of its products. Lowana Taylor
was contracted to develop the database. She solved the problem using
the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Lowana examined the range of
products for inclusion in the database. She discussed the
advantages and disadvantages of a database with the manager. A
project plan was written and submitted for approval to the
manager.
Design possible solutions: Lowana determined a structure for the
database. She sketched possible designs for tables, forms and
reports. A feasibility report was written and presented to the
manager. The recommendation from the feasibility report was
accepted by the manager.
Produce the solution: The database was constructed using
Microsoft Access. A database dictionary was created using seven
fields: Product ID; Product name; Product description; Serial
number; Price; Supplier; Purchase order. Tables and forms were
built and the data entered. Reports were generated and the
manager trained on using the database.
Evaluate the solution: The manager is very pleased with the
database. BuyIT has expanded in the last six months and a separate
table to organise suppliers is being considered.

Tasks
1 Construct a data
dictionary using the
seven fields listed in
this case study.
2 Use a DMBS to
create the database
for this project. Enter
data into the
ICT 10.2 database. Design
appropriate tables,
forms and reports.

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Exercise 10.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is the process of merging data from other sources.
b Macros are used to _______ the importing, exporting and
linking of data.
c To export data you _______ the data to be transferred.
d Mail Merge saves time and makes each document look as if it
was _______ written.
2 True or false?
a Importing is the action to copy data produced by another
program.
b Linking occurs if the copy is not connected to the source.
c The data source in a mail merged document is usually a word
processor.
d The Copy command is used to remove data.
3 Unjumble these words:
a tiinteaogrn
b amli emreg
4 a What is importing?
b When is it useful to link documents?
c What are the three steps in carrying out a mail merge?
d How do you set up a merged document?

Development
5 Create the letter shown in
Figure 10.12. Use the database
constructed in Exercise 10.1,
Question 5.
a Insert the merged fields
from the personnel
database into the letter.
b Merge the letter and the
personnel database so
each employee receives
an individual letter.
6 Create personalised
invitations to your next
party. Design an invitation
using a word processor or
publishing program. Merge
this document with the friends
database created in Exercise 10.1,
Question 6.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 What is a record? c Table
a A block of related data stored on d Data
a storage device
7 Which of the following is a set of
b A comprehensive description of
actions the user creates to automate
each field in a database
c A collection of facts about one common tasks?
specific entry in a database a Mail merge
d An organised collection of data b Macro
c AutoCommand
2 What do you call fields that are used d Drop-down list
to sort and retrieve information?
8 Which of the following is not a good
a Key
b Form design principle?
c Data type a The layout, format and style
d AutoNumber should be different throughout a
form or report
3 Which of the following checks the b Headings, instructions or graphics
entry of data? are used to improve readability
a Check box and data entry
b DBMS c Similar items should be grouped
c Data validation together using spacing, colour or
d Data verification borders
d Colour scheme should be carefully
4 Which of the following is a chosen
secondary source?
a Data collected first hand 9 What is importing?
b Data obtained from a secondary a Actions to copy data produced by
storage device another program
c Data whose source is unknown b Actions taken to send data to
d Data collected or created by another program
someone else c Actions to replace data in another
program
5 Which of the following is the process d Actions taken to store data on a
of arranging data in a particular storage device
order?
10 Which of the following saves time
a Sorting
and makes each document look as if
b Searching
c Editing it was individually written?
d Querying a Form
b Report
6 Which of the following is not part of c Word processor
a query? d Mail merge
a Field name
b Operator

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Part B: Match the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.
Statements
1 An organised collection of data. 7 The formatted and organised
2 A specific piece of data in a record. presentation of data.
3 A collection of facts about one 8 A set of actions the user creates to
specific entry in a database. automate common tasks.
4 Displays data in every field of a 9 It combines a document written on a
single record. word processor or other program
5 Checks the entry of data. with data from another source.
6 A search of a database for records 10 The process of merging data from
that meet a certain condition. other sources.

Terms
a Data validation f Macro
b Database g Mail merge
c Field h Query
d Form i Record
e Integration j Report

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:

1 Describe the components of a 5 Rachael needs to create mailing


database. Give examples to illustrate labels for all the customers who are
the difference between these overdue in their payments. She has
components. access to the organisations database.
2 Ty is planning to use a database for Outline the steps required to
his home inventory. complete this task.
a Name five fields that you think 6 Explain the difference between these
would be the most relevant. terms:
b List two searches on this data that a importing and exporting
could be carried out. b embedding and linking.
3 Describe the methods used for
database storage.
4 The most efficient way of searching a e Tester
large database is to construct a query.
How do you construct a query? Your
answer should explain both relational
and logical operators.

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Project: Classic movies


Create a database containing your favourite movies such as your DVD or video
collection. Each movie will be a record in the database. Suggested fields include:
Title; Category; Year; Stars; Director; Personal rating; Synopsis; Time in minutes.
The solution is to be developed using the four stages in project development. It is
a group project that requires each member to agree on the structure and design
of the database. The documentation should include the data dictionary, sources of
data, tables, forms, searches, calculations and reports.

Project 3.1
Project 3.2.1
Project 3.2.2
Project 3.3
Cross project 1
Cross project 2
Cross project 4

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11
11
CHAPTER

Digital
media
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
This chapter examines the purpose of digital media and the types
of digital media products. It explains different manipulation
techniques and the digitisation process of data types. The chapter
concludes by outlining how to display and distribute digital media
products.
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11. 1 Digital media


Digital media refers to text, graphics, audio, animation and video
processing. It is focused on the editing of digital data. Each data
type is edited in many different ways, such as cropping a graphic or
trimming a video clip. Application software is available to create,
edit and display each data type.
Interactive
Purpose of digital media
People are using digital media at a great rate. We are living in a
digital revolution. Data is represented digitally because it can be
used by information technology. This allows the data to be
processed faster and more easily than ever before. Some examples
of the use of digital media include the following:

Figure 11.1 Macintosh iTunes

E-music is audio accessed from the Internet. It has been made


possible using compressed file formats such as MP3. E-music
Digital television has allowed people to easily download music from the Internet
broadcasting
started in Australia and copy music from a CD onto a magnetic disk. However, it
on 1 January 2001, has also allowed people around the world to make illegal copies
using the DVB-T of music. E-music can be played back using a media player on
(Digital Video
Broadcasting
the computer or using an MP3 playback device (see Figure 11.1).
Terrestrial) Digital newspapers provide information on stories of special
standards. People interest from the Internet. They provide the latest news, as the
are adopting
digital television at
stories are being constantly updated. Digital newspapers can
an increasing rate. email subscribers a page of news headlines on the areas they
nominate. Each item of text is linked to the full story on a website.

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Digital television provides interactive television. It merges


communication, television and computer technologies. Digital
television offers more channel choices, a higher resolution
screen and greater control over the program the user is
watching. For example, a user watching a football match could
choose to watch a particular football player rather than
decisions made by the producer.
Electronic games are played using a game machine (or game
console) displayed on a television or using gaming software on
the computer. The latest games have different levels and are
becoming more realistic. Games are also designed for multiple
players, who can interact and compete with each other. The
Internet is commonly used to play games.

Digital media products


There is a range of digital media products:
Desktop publishing magazines are
created using desktop publishing
software (DTP). This is specialised
software to combine text and graphics
on the screen. DTP enables the user
to have precise control over objects
on the page. It easily creates
magazines and newspapers using
layout tools such as multiple columns
and wrapping text around images
(see Figure 11.2). DTP documents are
often saved in PDF format and
Figure 11.2 Microsoft Publisher
transmitted via the Internet.
Bit-mapped graphics are created and edited using a painting
program. It stores and manipulates each pixel rather than Tutorial
shapes and lines. Bit-mapped graphics produce good quality
images where shading and fine detail are needed such
as in photographs. Some common file formats for bit-mapped
graphics include BMP, JPEG, GIF, TIFF and PICT.
Vector graphics are created and edited using a drawing program.
This stores pictures as a collection of objects such as shapes and
lines. Each object is defined by its characteristics such as
position, line width and pattern. These characteristics are stored
as mathematical expressions and displayed on the screen as Lit 4.1
pixels. Some common file formats for vector graphics include
CDR, WMF, EPS and PICT.

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Audio is captured using a microphone. Sound travels through


the air in waves with a particular amplitude, wavelength and
frequency. Editing a sound wave involves changing these
characteristics. A short piece of sound is often referred to as a
sequence. Some common file formats for audio include WAV,
MP3 and WMA.
MIDI sequence is a file containing the note information and not
the details of the sound wave. MIDI (Musical Instrument
Digital Interface, pronounced middy) is a standard connection
for computers and electronic music instruments. MIDI allows
up to sixteen instruments to be played simultaneously. A
musician uses a MIDI instrument to play music and the
computer to store and edit the music. MIDI sequences require
less storage than audio files as they only contain the note
information and are easier to edit. The quality of the sound in
MIDI sequence is dependent on the synthesiser used to play it.
Animation sequence is the movement of an object. It is the result
of a series of graphics or frames presented in rapid succession.
When creating an animation sequence the user needs to
consider the size of the graphic and the speed of the movement.
Some common file formats for animation include SWF, MOV
and animated GIF.
Video productions are created using video clips (or video
sequences) from a digital video camera and video editing
software. It involves adding video clips, audio or pictures to a
timeline or storyline. Each video clip is made up of frames that
contain individual images. When the video is played, the frames
are displayed in sequence. Some common file formats for video
are MPEG, AVI, DivX, WMV and MOV.

Exercise 11.1
1 True or false?
a E-music has been made possible using compressed file formats
such as WAV.
b Electronic games are commonly played over the Internet.
c Animation is the result of a series of graphics presented in
rapid succession.
d AVI is a common file format for animation.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Digital _______ refers to text, graphics, audio, animation and
video processing.

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b _______ graphics are created and edited using a drawing


program.
c MIDI sequence requires less storage than an _______ file.
d A video clip is made up of _______ that contain images.
3 What am I?
a It provides information on stories of special interest from the
Internet.
b Specialised software to combine text and graphics on the screen.
c A file containing note information and not the details of the
sound wave.
d It involves adding video clips, audio or pictures to a timeline.
4 a Why are people using digital media?
b List uses of digital media.
c Why is it appropriate to use DTP to create a magazine?
d Why are photographs stored as bit-mapped graphics?
e What are the characteristics of a sound wave?
f How do you create a video production?

Development
5 Draw a personal computer using a drawing program. Alter the
graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns. Group all the
objects to make the graphic appear as a single object. Move and
copy the graphic. Make the graphic larger (4x) and smaller (1/4).
6 Open a digital photograph of a personal computer in a graphics
program. Reduce and enlarge the digital photograph and compare
the results with Question 5. Write a brief report to explain your
investigation.
7 Create an advertisement for a personal computer using a DTP
program. The advertisement should contain a banner heading,
column text, graphics and different fonts.
8 Do research into one current application of digital media. Prepare a
brief report that summarises the result of your investigation.

11. 2 Manipulation
techniques
Digital media involves the processing of digital data. Processing
involves editing the data using manipulation techniques for each
data type.

Graphics
Graphics are created using a graphics program or captured using a
scanner, digital camera or video camera. There are two types of

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graphics: bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics. Editing a


graphic involves the following techniques:
Cropping removes unwanted parts at the side of a graphic. In
some programs the cropped parts of the image are permanently
deleted. In other programs the cropped parts are simply hidden
and the picture can be restored to the original state.
Resizing makes a graphic smaller or bigger. It can keep the
proportions the same so that the picture will not be distorted.
Resizing a bit-mapped graphic at an object level is often a
problem. It is difficult to select an object in a bit-mapped
graphic. Enlarging the graphic enlarges each pixel and creates a
staircase pattern along a diagonal or curved line called jaggies.
Size and position moves the graphic or object to another
location. It includes flipping, rotating and moving objects
forward or backwards.
Rendering converts the graphic into a more realistic image. This
involves adding 3D qualities such as shadows and textures to
surfaces. A common technique for rendering is ray tracing. Ray
tracing sends a ray of light to each pixel on the screen. The ray
is reflected depending on the surface and colour of the object.
Colour effects change the colour, brightness and contrast of a
graphic. Adjusting the brightness and contrast makes a dull
object lighter and a bright object darker. The colour of a
graphic can be changed using a palette of colours and patterns.
Red eye is a common problem in photographs of people and is
easily removed.
Special effects change the proportions of a graphic. This includes
distorting, making part of the image transparent, blurring and
sharpening the focus (see Figure 11.3).

Figure 11.3 Special effects

Audio
Audio signals from a computer are converted into analog sound
waves for transmission through speakers. Each sound wave has an
amplitude, wavelength and frequency. The amplitude is the height

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of the wave. It gives the sound


its volume. The wavelength is
the distance between the ends
of one complete cycle of a wave.
It gives the sound its pitch or
note. The frequency of the wave
is the number of wavelengths in
one second and is measured in
hertz (Hz). Sounds are edited in
many different ways and affect
the amplitude, wavelength and
frequency of the wave (see Figure 11.4 Audio software
Figure 11.4).
Amplify increases or decreases the volume of sound by changing
the height of the wave. Amplifying ensures the audio will be
clearly heard or not heard. Mute does not play the audio.
Equalisers or filters are used to make adjustments to the
strength of sounds at different frequencies.
Stretch changes the frequency (pitch) and duration of the audio
signal. For example, you can use stretch to change a song to a
higher key.
Noise removal reduces background noise with minimal
reduction in sound quality. It is often used to reduce the
background noise of the microphone.
Delete silence is used to remove periods of silence between
words or other sounds.
Echo is used to add an echo to a sound. For example, you can
create the echo Hello-ello-llo-lo-o.
Fading is used to change from one audio to the next. Fade-in
gradually increases the audio volume and fade-out gradually
decreases the audio volume.

Animation
Animation is created using path-based and cel-based animation.
Cel-based animation creates an animation by using a sequence of
individual still images each displayed in a frame or cel. Path-based
animation creates an animation by displaying the movement of an
animated object onto a fixed background in a particular sequence
or path (see Figure 11.5). Animation software uses different
animation techniques such as tweening and morphing.
Tweening creates the intermediate frames between two objects
that are to be animated. The animation software enables the

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Figure 11.5 Animation

user to identify specific objects in an image and define how they


should move and change during the tweening process. The
computer then processes the data to calculate what should be
displayed in each intermediate frame.
Morphing is the smooth change between two different images. It
involves transforming the shape, size, dimension and colour of
one image so it appears to merge into another image. For
example, you could morph your own image into a movie star.
Morphing programs work by marking the main points of the
before and after images. These points are used to calculate the
movements from one image to the other. Morphing requires
large amounts of memory and fast processing speeds.
Morphing is short
for the word Video
metamorphosis. Video is captured using a digital video camera and edited using
Metamorphosis is
a complete change
video editing software. After each video clip is captured it is
of physical form, displayed as a thumbnail. Creating the video production involves
structure, or adding video clips, audio or pictures to a timeline or storyline. A
substance such as
when a caterpillar
timeline is an area that shows the timing and arrangement of clips
changes into a or files that make up a video production. Editing a video involves
butterfly. the following techniques.
Trimming (or splicing) a clip changes the start and end point of
the video clip. It allows the user to hide unwanted material.
Trimming does not remove the information. The user can delete
the trim points and return the clip to its original state if required.
Splitting a clip divides a video clip into two clips. It is often used
to insert a picture or place a transition in the middle of a clip.
Combining a clip joins two or more video clips. It is useful if the
Lit 4.2
user has several short clips and they want to view them as one clip.
Video effects are special effects that change how a video clip or
the video production will be displayed. For example, you might

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want a video effect to change the clip into black and white or be
given an old-aged look (see Figure 11.6).
Transitions are special effects used to change from one video
clip to the next. Before the one clip ends the other clip starts to
play. There are many different types of transitions such as a fade
effect. Transitions are placed between the video clips on the
timeline.
Adding a picture involves importing a graphic file or capturing
a picture from a video clip. The graphic file is displayed as a
thumbnail and is dragged onto the timeline. The user
determines the duration of the picture.
Adding audio involves a narration or
background music. A narration is
added by talking into a microphone
when viewing the timeline of the
video. To include background music,
import the music file and drag it
onto the timeline that specifies
audio.
Titles and credits provide the
finishing touches to your video by
adding text. Information displayed as
text is usually the title of the movie, the
date the movie was produced and the author
of the movie. Text can be formatted and animated
in many different ways.

Figure 11.6 Video effects

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Exercise 11.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a cropping and resizing a graphic
b amplitude and wavelength of a sound wave
c trimming and splitting a video clip.
2 True or false?
a Enlarging a vector graphic creates a staircase pattern called
aliasing.
b Ray tracing is a common technique for rendering.
c Tweening is the smooth change between two different images.
d A graphic file can be dragged onto the timeline of a video
production.
3 What am I?
a It converts a graphic into a more realistic image.
b Increases or decreases the volume of sound.
c Audio command that adjusts the strength of sounds at
different frequencies.
d Special effects used to change from one video clip to the next.
4 a What are some of the colour effects for editing a graphic?
b List some of the ways a sound wave can be edited.
c How is path-based animation created?
d What is morphing?
e What is a timeline in a video production?
f Describe the information displayed in the titles and credits
of a video production.

Development
5 Open a digital photograph in a
graphics program. Perform the
following manipulation
techniques: cropping, resizing,
rotating, distorting, rendering
and changing the colour. Save
each manipulation as a
separate file.
6 Open a piece of music in an
audio program. Perform the
following manipulation
techniques: amplifying,
using a filter, fading and
adding an echo.
7 Open a video clip in a video
editing program. Perform the
following manipulation techniques: splitting,
trimming, adding atransition, using a video effect
and inserting a title.

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11. 3 Digitisation and file


sizes
Digitising is the process of generating digital data. Digital data is
represented using the binary number system. It consists of one of two
digits, 0 and 1 (bit). The fact that all data is represented as a series of
bits means that a computer can organise and transmit data of any
type. It deals with data as 0s and 1s irrespective of the original format
of the data. There is a different process to digitise each data type.

Text
Text is digitised using a standard method of conversion such as ASCII.
It works by assigning each character with a decimal number and
converting this number into binary code (see Chapter 3). A scanner
creates digital data from any printed page of text. However, unless
instructed otherwise it will represent this text as an image. Optical
character recognition (OCR) software converts text on paper into
digital data that can be edited. The software matches the image
from a scanner to the shapes of individual characters. Characters
that are read are stored using ASCII codes and characters that
cannot be read are usually indicated with a tilde (~).

Graphics
Graphics are digitised using a process called bit-mapping. Bit-mapping
is the relationship between the graphic on the screen and the bits in
memory. All graphics are made up of tiny dots called pixels. Each
pixel in a graphic is assigned one or more bits. The number of bits per
pixel is called the bit depth (or colour depth). At the simplest level,
a graphic with a bit depth of one would have two colours. The 0 bit
would be white and the 1 bit would be black. To determine the file
size of a graphic in kilobytes we use the following formula:

File size = Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024

The file size is affected by the resolution of the graphic. The resolution
is the total number of pixels on the screen. It is calculated by
multiplying the horizontal and vertical dimensions in pixels. This is
shown in the formula. The division in the formula is used to convert
bits to bytes (8 bits = 1 byte) and bytes to kilobytes (1024 B = 1 KB).

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Example: What is file size in KB of a black and white image (1 bit per
pixel) with a resolution of 300 by 180?
File size = Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024
= 300 180 1
8 1024
= 6.59 KB

Colour and greyscale (shades or tones) increase the number of


bits per pixel and require more storage (see Table 11.1). For example,
if two bits are used to represent one pixel, four shades will be possible,
since two bits results in four binary numbers: 00, 01, 10 and 11.
Colour graphics are obtained from an RGB (redgreenblue) screen
that uses a combination of red, green and blue colours. The minimum
number of colours is eight; red only; green only; blue only; red and
green (yellow); red and blue (magenta); blue and green (cyan); red,
green and blue (white); and no colour (black). The number of
colours and tones are multiplied together. For example, a bit depth
of 8 allows a graphic to contain 256 colours, or 64 colours each
with 4 tones (64 4 = 256), or 32 colours each with 8 tones (32 8
= 256). Graphics with a higher bit depth are better quality.
Table 11.1 Relationship between bits and colours or tones

Bit depth Relationship Number of colours or tones


1 21 = 2 2
2 22 = 4 4
3 23 =8 8
4 24 = 16 16
6 26 = 64 64
8 28 = 256 256
16 216 = 65 536 65 536
24 224 = 16 777 216 16 777 216
32 232 = 4 294 967 296 4 294 967 296

Example: What is file size in KB of a 250 by 192 graphic with 256 colours
(8 bits per pixel)?
File size = Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024
= 250 192 8
8 1024
= 46.88 KB

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The above calculation applies to a raw image. Compression formats


such as JPEGs can be used to reduce the file size.

Audio
Sound is digitised using a method called sampling. Sampling converts
a sound wave to audio. It has three important characteristics called
the sampling rate, bit resolution and the number of channels:
Sampling rate is the number of times a sample (slice) is taken
from the sound wave. During a sample the amplitude of the
wave is measured and converted to a number. The higher the
sampling rate the better the sound but the larger the file size Lit 4.3
(see Table 11.2).
Bit resolution (or sample size) is the number of bits per sample.
The most common sampling sizes are 8-bit, 16-bit or 24-bit
sound. The larger the bit resolution the better the quality sound.
Voice is often produced using 8-bit sound. CD quality stereo
sound requires at least 16-bit resolution and larger file sizes.
Channels used by the sound. Mono uses one channel and stereo
uses two channels (left and right) of sound. Stereo sound results
in better sound.
Table 11.2 Sampling rates and their uses

Sampling rate Bit resolution Best use for audio files


11.025 kHz 8-bit Low qualityacceptable for voice
22.05 kHz 8-bit Acceptable quality with low file sizes
44.1 kHz 16-bit CD qualityminimum for serious
audio production
48 kHz 16-bit Standard for most digital systems
such as DAT recorders
96 kHz 24-bit Serious music productionpresent
recording standard
192 kHz 32-bit Standard under development

To determine the file size of audio in kilobytes we use the following


formula:
File size = Sample rate Bit resolution Time (s) Channels
8 1024

Example: Calculate the file size in MB of an audio file that


uses a sample rate of 44.1 kHz with 16-bit resolution and that
lasts for 2 minutes in stereo.

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File size = Sample rate Bit resolution Time (s) Channels


8 1024
= 44 100 16 120 2
8 1024
= 20671.88 KB
= 20.19 MB (divide by 1024)

Video
Video is made up of frames that contain individual images. To
satisfactorily play a video we need to consider the speed at which
the image can be shown. The speed of a video or animation is
called the frame rate. It is measured by the frames per second (fps).
The higher the frame rate the smoother the video or animation
(see Table 11.3).
Table 11.3 Comparison of frame rates

Frame rate Examples


30 Screen refresh rate of monitors
25 Video speed for the PAL system
24 Film speed for motion pictures
12 Cartoon animation speed
8 Minimum speed for the illusion of motion

To calculate the file size of a video we need to first calculate the


total number of frames. This is determined by multiplying the
frame rate by the length of the video in seconds. Each frame will
contain a graphic that has to be digitised. For this reason a formula
to determine the file size of a graphic is required. The formula
below calculates the file size of a video in kilobytes:

File size = Frame rate Time (s) Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024

Example: Calculate the file size in GB of a 15 minute video at 25 fps. Each


frame is 352 by 288 pixels at 24 bits per pixel.
File size = Frame rate Time (s) Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024
= 25 900 352 288 24
8 1024
= 6 682 500 KB
= 6.37 GB (divide by 1 048 576)

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A frame grabber captures and digitises graphics from a video.


If a video has a frame rate of 25 fps then the freeze frame operates
by grabbing an image that lasts for 1/25th of a second.

Data compression
Data compression reduces the number of bits required to represent
the information. It allows the user to store more data and makes
data transmission faster. The amount a file is compressed is
measured by the compression ratio. The compression ratio
compares how much larger the uncompressed file is to the
compressed file. If a compressed file is half the size of the
uncompressed file, the compression ratio is 2 to 1 (2:1). A higher
compression ratio indicates greater compression of data. High
compression ratios can be achieved with graphic, audio and video
files. For example, an MPEG file can provide a compression ratio
up to 200:1. However, some quality may be lost at very high
compression ratios. Data compression is either lossy or lossless
compression. These concepts were examined in Chapter 3.

Exercise 11.3
1 What am I?
a Relationship between the graphic on the screen and the bits in
memory.
b Digitising process that converts a sound wave to audio.
c The number of bits per sample in an audio file.
d The speed of a video or animation.
2 a What is optical character resolution?
b List the minimum number of colours in a colour graphic.
c What is the sampling rate?
d Identify the sampling rate and bit resolution for serious music
production.
e What is a frame grabber?
f Explain the compression ratio.
3 Calculate the file size of the following graphics (answer to the
nearest KB):
a 8-bit colour graphic with a resolution of 530 by 510
b 16-bit colour graphic with a resolution of 620 by 800
c colour graphic with a resolution of 490 by 420 and 64 colours
d colour graphic with a resolution of 232 by 185 and 65 536
colours each with 256 tones.

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4 Calculate the file size of the following audio files (answer to the
nearest MB):
a sampling rate of 11.025 kHz with an 8-bit sound for 5 min 07
sec in mono
b sampling rate of 44.1 kHz with a 16-bit sound for 2 min 35 sec
in stereo
c sampling rate of 48 kHz with a 16-bit sound for 3 min 40 sec in
stereo
d sampling rate of 96 kHz with a 24-bit sound for 2 min 41 sec in
stereo.
5 Calculate the file size of the following video files (answer in GB
correct to one decimal place):
a frame rate of 25 fps, 25 min, frame resolution of 352 by 288
pixels with 24-bits per pixel
b frame rate of 25 fps, 5 min 28 sec, frames resolution of 340 by
260 pixels with 16-bits per pixel
c frame rate of 30 fps, 10 min, frames resolution of 400 by 320
pixels with 24-bits per pixel.

Development
6 Pia has scanned a picture taken on her holiday. She wants to
ICT 11.1 display the photograph using 24-bit colour. Is 24-bit colour suitable
bit depth? The picture has a resolution of 500 by 700. Calculate the
file size of this picture. What would be a suitable compressed file
format for this picture? Give reasons for you answer.
7 Investigate the properties of at least three different graphic, audio
and video files on your computer. Write a summary of your
investigation. Your answer should contain references to file format,
resolution, bit depth, sampling rate, bit resolution and frame rate.

11. 4 Display and


distribution
Displaying and distributing digital media products involves the
presentation of that product using a range of devices.

Displaying
The media used to display digital media products is dependent on
the data type, the audience and the hardware requirements of the
product. Display devices include screens, printers and speakers.
A screen is a display surface that provides immediate feedback
about what the computer is doing. It can display text, graphics,
animation and video data. The screen displays data using pixels.
The space between the pixels is called the dot pitch. Screens that

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allow more pixels to be displayed and have a


smaller dot pitch will provide a clearer image.
The most common type of screen is a monitor.
It uses CRT technology. Images are produced
by firing a beam of electrons onto the inside of
the screen containing a coating of phosphor.
The phosphor glows when struck by the
electron beam. Colour monitors use three Figure 11.7 A data projector
beams to strike red, green and blue phosphor.
LCD is a flat-panel display that uses liquid crystal display
technology. Data projectors use LCD technology to project images
onto a larger screen. A data projector accepts video inputs and can
easily create an image three or four metres in size.
A printer is an output device that produces a paper copy of any
required data. It can display text and graphic data. Inkjet printers
produce text and images by spraying very fine drops of ink onto the
paper. The print head of an inkjet contains a nozzle with anywhere
from fifty to several hundred small holes. The ink is propelled
through a combination of nozzle holes to form the characters.
Laser printers use a rotating disk to reflect laser beams onto the
paper to produce text and images. A laser printer converts data
from the computer into movements of a laser beam that are
directed to a positively charged revolving drum. When the drum is
touched by the laser beam it attracts toner.
A speaker is a device used to present sounds. A small speaker is
usually located in most personal computers inside the system unit.
However, high quality stereo speakers are often connected to the
computer using a port and a sound card. A speaker generates
sounds electromagnetically. A coil of wire is attached to a cone. The
coil is magnetised and causes the cone to vibrate. The movement of
the cone makes the air near the cone vibrate and this creates sound
waves.

Distribution Laser is an
acronym for Light
The media used to distribute digital media products is also Amplification by
dependent on the data type, the audience and the hardware Stimulated
Emission of
requirements of the product. Distribution involves optical disks, Radiation. It is a
the Internet and streaming. narrow beam of
Optical disks are a storage medium used to distribute digital light in a single
wavelength.
media. Data is read and written using laser technology. Optical
disks have the capacity to store large amounts of data. CDs and
DVDs are optical disks.

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CD (compact disc) is a polycarbonate disk whose surface is


coated with a reflective layer of metal. The standard CD is 12
centimetres in diameter and can store up to 800 MB. There are
many kinds of CDs such as CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW.
DVD (digital versatile disk) is similar in appearance to a CD. It
can store in excess of 17 GB. There are many kinds of DVDs
such as DVD-ROM, DVD-RAM, DVD-R and DVD-RW. DVD-
ROM drives can play DVD movies, read DVD data disks, read
computer CDs, and play audio CDs.
The Internet is a network of computers used to display and
distribute digital media. Websites present information using all the
data types. A user visits a website and digital data is displayed from
powerful computers called servers. Websites are available on a range
of topics and display text, graphics, animation, audio and video.
The Internet also allows digital media products to be distributed.
For example, you can download audio files or digital photographs.
Streaming is a method of displaying audio and video across a
network (see Figure 11.8). It occurs when a computer begins to
receive content from a server and plays the content before the entire
file has been transferred. Streaming uses the bandwidth efficiently
as it sends data at the speed the computer can play the content. The
bandwidth is the quantity of information that can be sent through
a transmission medium. Streaming is widely used on the Web. A
streamed video is played within a few seconds but the data is not
permanently stored on the computer.

Figure 11.8 Streamed video is available on the Web and also now
available on Mobile phones

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Project: Australian Music


Lorenzo is a graphic designer who has been contracted to design a
magazine called Australian Music. The manager of FM Records is
responsible for developing the concept of the magazine. Lorenzo
solved the problem using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Lorenzo discussed the proposed
features of the magazine with the manager. He examined current
music magazines. A project plan was written and submitted for
approval to the manager.
Design possible solutions: Lorenzo sketched possible designs for the
cover, contents, articles, headings and body text. A feasibility report
was written and presented to the manager. The recommendation
from the feasibility report was accepted by the manager. The
manager provided text and graphic data for the first issue.
Produce the solution: Lorenzo created the design using Adobe
InDesign. He completed the page layout for each feature in the
magazine. This involved positioning headings, the number of
columns for text, the borders and the placement of graphics. The
text and graphics were imported into the publication. The
magazine was formatted and edited. A draft copy was printed and
used to check the publication.
Evaluate the solution: The manager was excited about the
appearance of the magazine. FM Records is preparing an Audio CD
to be attached to the magazine.
ICT 11.2
Tasks
1 Design an appropriate cover for the magazine Australian Music.
2 Do research into the features of the latest desktop publishing
programs. Write a brief report that summarises your investigation.

Exercise 11.4
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ use LCD technology to project images onto a large
screen.
b The print head of an _______ printer contains a nozzle to spray
fine drops of ink.
c _______ is a storage medium where data is read and written
using laser technology.
d The Internet is a network of _______ used to display and
distribute digital media.

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2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets


with a suitable term:
The screen displays data using (a). The space between the pixels is
called the (b). The most common type of screen is a (c). It uses (d)
technology.
3 Unjumble these words:
a odt ictph
b sapeekr
c seatrnmig
4 a How are images produced using CRT technology?
b Describe the way a laser printer produces text and images.
c How does a speaker generate sounds?
d Describe a DVD.
e How is digital data displayed on a website?
f What is streaming?

Development
5 The display and distribution of
digital media is constantly
changing. Do research into
the latest innovations to
display digital media.
Write a report that
summarises your
investigation.
6 Digital media should
only be distributed using
the Internet. Outline the
advantages and
disadvantages of using the
Internet to distribute
digital media.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 What are text, graphic, audio, c Frequency
animation and video processing d Fading
called?
6 Which of the following does not
a Digital data
affect the size of an audio file?
b Digital media
a Sampling rate
c Digital revolution
b Bit resolution
d Digitisation
c Channels
2 What is a MIDI sequence? d Memory mapping
a Sound wave with a particular
7 Which of the following describes the
amplitude, wavelength and
speed of a video or animation?
frequency
b Audio file that uses WAV as the a Frame grabber
file format b Frame rate
c A file containing the note c Frame size
information and not the details of d Frame speed.
the sound wave 8 What is bit resolution?
d The result of a series of graphics
a Relationship between the graphic
presented in rapid succession
on the screen and the bits in
3 Which of the following transforms memory
one image so that it appears to b Number of bits per sample
merge into another? c Total number of pixels on the
screen
a Morphing
d Converts a sound wave to audio
b Transforming
c Tweening 9 Which of the following is a device
d Rendering that can display text, graphic,
4 Which of the following describes animation and video data?
cropping? a Screen
b Printer
a Changes the proportions of a
c Speaker
graphic
d Optical disk
b Changes the start and end point
of a video clip 10 Which of the following is a method
c Converts the graphic into a more of displaying audio and video across
realistic image
a network?
d Removes unwanted parts of a
a Video production
graphic
b Video clip
5 Which of the following determines c Streaming
the volume of a sound wave? d Digitising
a Amplitude
b Wavelength

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Part B: Match the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.
Statements
1 It refers to text, graphics, audio, 6 The relationship between the graphic
animation and video processing. on the screen and the bits in memory.
2 Removes unwanted parts of a graphic. 7 It converts a sound wave to audio.
3 Converts the graphic into a more 8 The speed of a video or animation.
realistic image such as adding 3D 9 Reduces the number of bits required
qualities. to represent the information.
4 Creates the intermediate frames 10 Display surface that provides
between two objects that are to be immediate feedback about what the
animated. computer is doing.
5 The smooth change between two
different images.
Terms
a Bit-mapping f Morphing
b Cropping g Rendering
c Data compression h Sampling
d Digital media i Screen
e Frame rate j Tweening

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Describe the main features of one 4 List formulas to determine the file
digital media product. Where appro- size of a graphic, audio and video.
priate, illustrate your answer with an 5 Graphics with a higher bit depth are
example of the digital media product. better quality. Explain this statement.
2 Editing a graphic involves techniques What other factors affect the file size
such as cropping, resizing and of a graphic?
rendering. Explain the differences 6 The presentation of digital media is
between these techniques. important. Outline the main
3 What are the steps in creating a video features of three display
production? List four techniques devices for digital media.
commonly used to edit a video. e Tester

Project: DigitMedia
DigitMedia is a business that specialises in personal computers and Project 4.1
digital media. It aims to expand into your local community. Visit local Project 4.2
information technology businesses to obtain an outline of their Project 4.3
services. Create a promotional campaign for DigitMedia. The solution Cross project 1
should include advertising brochures, business cards, advertisements
Cross project 2
for newspapers, a monthly newsletter for clients and a video to be
Cross project 3
streamed through their website. This is a group project to be developed
Cross project 4
using the four stages in project development.

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12
12
CHAPTER

The Internet
and website
development
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
This chapter will develop your understanding of the Internet and
intranets. It examines the uses of the Internet, Internet software
and types of protocols used on the Internet. You will learn about
the World Web Wide (www) and developing a website.
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12. 1 The Internet and


intranets
The Internet (the Net) is a connected set of networks using the
TCP/IP standard. It links millions of computers all around the
world. The Internet provides instant access to information such as
news, weather reports, sports scores, share prices and educational
material. It also provides services such as sending messages, banking,
shopping, playing games and listening to music. People access the
Internet in their homes, at school, at work or even at the beach.
Establishing a connection to the Internet involves one of three
basic types of connections: direct connection, dial-up connection
and broadband connection. Direct connection is through a LAN
and is used in many schools and organisations. Users are not
required to dial-in, files are stored on their computer and response
time is fast. Dial-up connections require a modem and telephone
line. A typical connection is much slower and often less reliable
than a direct connection. Modems are capable of delivering data at
56 Kbps or faster. Broadband connection uses a higher bandwidth
than a dial-up connection and is much faster. The bandwidth is the
capacity of the channel or transmission media. Broadband users are
not required to dial-in and the Internet is available all the time.
Both broadband and dial-up connection are delivered using normal
telephone lines, a direct connection uses a dedicated data
connection.
Accessing the Internet requires an ISP. An Internet service
provider (ISP) is an organisation that provides access to the Internet
for a fee. There are hundreds of ISPs in Australia, such as Telstra
BigPond, OptusNet and Ozemail (see Figure 12.1). Each ISP offers
a different level of service and support for a specified charge.

Figure 12.1 BigPond is an Internet service provider

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Historical perspective
Even though the history of the Internet is relatively short it has
undergone many significant developments.
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was the
basis of the Internet. It was established in 1969 by the US Department
of Defence. The aim of ARPANET was to allow scientists at different
locations to share information and protect against a nuclear attack.
The ARPANET was built with no central authority because that
would make the entire network vulnerable to attack. Lit 5.1
Telenet was the first commercial version of ARPANET and was
launched in 1974. In 1979 Usenet was established with a focus on
newsgroups. Newsgroups allowed users to conduct discussions on
particular topics. In 1981 BITNET (Because Its Time Network)
connected IBM mainframes around the educational community and
the world to provide mail services. A link (gateway) was provided to
connect BITNET to ARPANET.
The Internet arrived in 1982 when ARPANET adopted the TCP/IP
standard. The number of hosts on the Internet reached one thousand
in 1984. The domain naming system (DNS) was first implemented
in 1984. In 1986, the National Science Foundation (NSF) agreed to
be the backbone for the US Internet service. It connected its huge
network (NSFnet) to the Internet and provided five
Interactive
supercomputers to service the increasing volume of traffic.
A friendly user-interface to the Internet started in 1990. A simple
menu system called gopher was developed to access files and
information for the University of Minnesota. HTTP (HyperText
Transfer Protocol) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee for
embedding links in text. In 1991 the World Wide Web (or Web) was
introduced using this HTTP protocol. It has changed the appearance
of the Internet. Mosaic was developed by Marc Andreessen in 1993.
It was the first graphical browser to display hypertext documents.

Intranet
An intranet is a private network that uses a similar interface to the
Web. It is essentially a smaller version of the Internet that exists
within an organisation. Intranets support email, newsgroups, file
transfer, web publishing and are accessible to users by a browser.
The main purpose of an intranet is to share information and
computing resources among the members of an organisation. The
information may be staff news, product information, telephone
directories, policies, employee manuals and calendars. This information

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can be displayed in a web page using a similar method to that used


on the Internet.
Extranet is an intranet that is accessible to customers, suppliers
or others outside the organisation. It provides information such as
product descriptions, frequently asked questions, warranties and
how to contact customer service. Organisations are attempting to
make extranets easy to use and a source of relevant information.

Internet addresses
Each computer
connected to the
Internet has a
unique address
called an IP address
(Internet Protocol
address). Most IP
addresses use four
bytes (32 bits)
grouped in four
8-bit segments,
separated by a full
stop (period). For
example, the IP
Figure 12.2 An Internet address is used to locate information on the Web
address for
Microsoft is
205.188.200.58. IP addresses are difficult for people to understand,
so another addressing system is used based on a domain name.
A domain name is the address of a specific computer on the
Internet. Domain names are translated into IP addresses. Domain
names are easier for people to remember than IP addresses as they
are based on natural languages. A domain name consists of a number
of separate parts. Each part is separated by a full stop and is called a
domain. For example, the domain name www.hi.com.au:
www stands for World Wide Web
hi is the name of the specific computer
com is the organisational domain
au is the geographical domain.
Organisational domains include edu for education, mil for
military, gov for government, com for commercial, and org for
non-profit organisations. The United States is the only country
without a geographical domain, although some US sites have
adopted us as the geographical domain. Geographical domains

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include au for Australia, uk for United Kingdom, fr for France,


and ca for Canada.
A URL (Uniform Resource Locator, pronounced you-are-el) is
the address of a file or resource on the Web. It is usually in lower
case in a single unbroken line, with no spaces, such as:
http://www.hi.com.au/heinneman/default.htm
There are three parts to a URL:
Protocolindicates access to a particular resource on the Web.
For most cases the protocol will be http://. It allows access to
web pages based on hypertext.
Domain nameaddress of the specific computer where the
resource is located such as www.hi.com.au. The domain name is
interchangeable with the IP address.
File pathfull path to the file to be retrieved. It may be a simple
file name or a directory path, such as /heinneman/default.htm.
The domain name and the file path are separated by a forward
slash (/). The file being retrieved in this example is default.htm.

Exercise 12.1
1 True or false?
a Broadband connection uses a higher bandwidth than a dial-up
connection.
b The Internet arrived when ARPANET adopted DNS standard.
c The Web was the first graphical browser.
d A URL contains a domain name.
2 What am I?
a An organisation that provides access to the Internet for a fee.
b The basis of the Internet.
c Private network that uses a similar interface to the Web.
d The address of a specific computer on the Internet.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The Internet is a connected set of (a) using the TCP/IP standard. A
dial-up connection requires a (b) and telephone line. The (c) was
introduced in 1991 using the (d) protocol.
4 a What is provided by the Internet?
b List three ways of establishing a connection to the Internet.
c What contribution did the NSF make to the development of the
Internet?
d Explain the difference between an intranet and an extranet.
e Describe an IP address.
f What is a URL?

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Development
5 Do research into the history of the Internet. Identify the key
historical events for the Internet. Include additional events not
mentioned in this section. Construct a timeline of these events.
Briefly describe and state the importance of each event.
6 Compare and contrast an intranet and the Internet. Outline the
features of the school intranet.

12. 2 Uses of the Internet


The Internet has many different uses such as email, research,
chatting and messaging.

Email
Email (electronic mail) is the transmission of electronic messages
using a computer. Email is the most widely used Internet service.
It requires email software to send, receive and manage email. Most
browsers include an email component and there are also separate
email applications such as Microsoft Outlook Express and Netscape
Mail. In addition to email software the user needs an account and
an email address.
Email addresses are unique and consist of two parts separated
by the @ (at) symbol in the form name@domain name. The first
part is the name of the account. It is often a persons username and
is chosen where a user signs up for an account. The second part is
the domain name. It is the location of the persons account on the
Internet. The domain name identifies the specific computer or
server where the email messages are stored. For example, the
address adam@yahoo.com consists of the following parts:
adam is the username
yahoo is the name of the account on the Internet
com is the organisational domain.
An email message is usually short without a lot of details. When
email is sent, it is stored on the server where the recipient has an
account. It stays on the server until the person checks their email.
Email is sent using a header. The header contains information
needed to deliver the message. The senders email address is usually
automatically inserted. The email header contains four main parts:
Toemail address is the address of the person receiving the
message, which must be correctly typed

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Cccarbon copy sends


the same message to
other people apart from
the main recipient
Bccblind carbon copy
sends a copy to other
people without revealing
who else got the message
Subjectis the topic of
the message or brief
descriptionthis is very
useful for the receiver of Figure 12.3 Email message
the message.
After the email is read it can be deleted, printed or stored in an
appropriate folder. The user can reply to an email message simply
by clicking on the Reply or Respond To command. A new
message window is opened with the address of the original sender
automatically inserted. The previous message can be retained to
remind the person of their original message. This is called quoting.
The prefix Re: may be added to the original subject line to identify
the thread of the message. Forwarding messages involves sending
messages you receive to someone else. An address book is used to
store email addresses. This saves time typing the address and avoids
the problem of remembering each address. A mailing list is a group
of people who want to receive the same messages. A signature is
several lines automatically added to the end of all email messages.
It may include an email address, website, graphic, occupation and
telephone number.
An attachment is a file in its original condition and format that
is sent with the email message. It can be any kind of file, including
text, graphic, video, audio or a program. Attachments are a useful
means of file transfer, as the receiver of the attachment will have an
exact copy of the file. To send an attachment click the Attach or
Insert File command and select the file you want to send. When
sending an attachment it is important to include a brief
explanation in the main body of the email message. The file name
and the format of the attachment should be easily understood.
Netiquette is a code of acceptable behaviour users should follow
on the Internet. It covers rules for all aspects of the Internet such as
the email, chatting, newsgroups and discussion groups. If you
follow the rules of netiquette, you will be doing your part to make

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life on the Internet easier for everybody. Some of the rules for
netiquette include:
keep messages short and to the point
be polite and avoid offensive language
avoid sending abusive or insulting messages (flames)do not
participate in flame wars
avoid using all capital letters as it is considered shouting
use emoticons to express feelings such as :) for happy or :( for
sad
use abbreviations and acronyms such as IRL for in real life or
BTW for by the way
make the email subject line as meaningful as possible.

Research
A search engine is a program that finds websites and web pages. It
accesses a database of indexed websites that can be searched using a
keyword. This index is built by regularly scanning for new websites
and accepting submissions from website authors. A search engine is
accessed using a browser. There are dozens of search engines
available on the Web, including Yahoo!, Alta Vista and Google (see
Figure 12.4). Each search engine has a different method of building
its index and often obtains different results from the same search.
Some search engines provide web directories. A web directory
organises the Web into categories and then smaller subcategories.
This allows the user to browse through the categories until they
find a relevant site.
Search engines require the user to enter one or more keywords
related to their topic of interest. Most search engines allow users to
search for specific items such as images. When the user enters a
keyword and clicks the Search button, the search engine scans its
index and lists the
websites that
contain that
keyword. Some
search engines
allow a search to
be restricted to
just Australia.
This can be an
advantage when
researching. The
Figure 12.4 Yahoo! is one of many search engines on the Internet listing of websites

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is usually in order of relevance and is in the form of hyperlinks.


This allows the user to access the listed web pages by simply clicking
them. Selecting a keyword is crucial to the success of a search. To
avoid being overloaded with information it is sensible to use
keywords that are very specific. Advance search options provide Archie was
developed in
users with more accurate results. The search can be restricted to 1989 at McGill
files that were updated recently, particular file formats or websites University in
without certain words. Canada. It was the
first search engine.
Administrators
Chatting found out that
half the traffic
A chat provides a real time conversation with one person or with going into Canada
hundreds of people. People meet for a chat in a chat room (or chat was accessing
channel). A chat room is a virtual room usually on a particular Archie on their
computer. They
topic where people talk in groups or privately. To start a chat the closed down
user connects to a chat server through a chat program. A chat Archie to outside
program is included in your browser or can be downloaded from access.
the Internet. Chat rooms supporting voice chats and video chats,
where you can hear and see others, are becoming more popular.
Most chat rooms are open for everybody and users can
contribute to ongoing discussions by typing a few lines. People
make friends and even have met future partners through chat
sessions. However, people can make up different personalities and
pretend to be anything they want to be. There are dangers for users,
particularly children, from being exploited. Personal information
such as address, phone number or bank details should never be
given out in a chat session.

Messaging
A newsgroup is an online area in which users conduct discussions on
a particular topic. People read messages and join in discussions by
sending or posting messages. The entire collection of newsgroups is
called the Usenet (Users network). Newsgroups are read each day
by people from all over the world and provide a large diversity of
opinion and knowledge. Each newsgroup is classified into eight
major categories: computers (comp.), social issues (soc.), science
(sci.), recreation (rec.), discussion (talk.), miscellaneous (misc.),
newsgroups (news.) and alternative (alt.).
A message board (or discussion group) is a popular web-based
discussion group (see Figure 12.5). Message boards are provided by
many websites. Discussion groups contain useful information. For
example, FAQ (frequently asked questions) provide concise and

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detailed information
relevant to that group.
Some discussion groups
and newsgroups are only
for authorised members
and require a username
and password. For
example, a discussion
group for a university
course would be restricted
Figure 12.5 Discussion group to students taking that
course.
Instant messaging (IM) is a real-time Internet service that
notifies users when one or more people are online. It has become
one of the most popular Internet activities. Instant messaging
services are provided by many organisations such as ICQ, AOL,
Microsoft and Yahoo!. They enable users to create buddy lists, check
whether a buddy is online and exchange messages. There are
currently no standards for instant messaging. Individuals on a
buddy list need to be on the same or compatible instant messaging
program.

Exercise 12.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a email and chatting
b an attachment and a search engine
c forwarding and replying.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ are unique and consist of two parts separated by the @
symbol.
b A mailing _______ is a group of people who want to receive the
same messages.
c A web directory organises the Web into _______.
d A _______ is a popular web-based discussion group.
3 What am I?
a Used to store email addresses.
b Code of acceptable behaviour users should follow on the
Internet.
c Online area in which users conduct discussions on a particular
topic.
d Real-time Internet service that notifies users when one or more
people are online.

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4 a List the four parts of an email header.


b Explain how a user replies to an email message.
c Describe some of the rules for netiquette.
d How does a search engine work?
e What is a chat room?
f What is provided by an instant messaging service?

Development
5 Create or obtain two email addresses.
a Create a brief email message.
b Send an email message to one of the email addresses.
c Send a carbon copy and blind carbon copy to a friend.
d Read and reply to the email message.
e Create a simple mailing list.
f Create and send an email message that contains an attachment.
6 Use three different search engines to find information about
netiquette. Compare and contrast the results of the three search
engines. Which search engine do you prefer? Give reasons for your
answer.

12. 3 Internet software


and protocols
There is a range of Internet software and types of protocols over
the Internet.

Browser software
A web browser (or browser) is a software program that allows users
to access and view web pages. The most widely used web browsers
are Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator (see Figure 12.6).
Online service providers (OSP) such as America Online (AOL) and
CompuServe provide a browser free of charge as part of their
subscription package. Web browsers display web pages, link to
other web pages and download information to your computer.

Figure 12.6 Internet Explorer is one web browser

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A web browser will display a website if the address (or location)


is entered directly into the browser. Web pages that have video and
animation take longer to download, as they are larger in size.
Browsers have the ability to store the addresses of frequently used
websites. These stored addresses are called favorites or bookmarks.
Favorites save time accessing frequently used web pages. The
websites recently visited are called history. History can be displayed
using the browser. Web browsers also have a range of commands or
buttons that make them easier to use.
Table 12.1 Browser commands

Command or button Use


Back Displays the previous web page
Forward Displays the next web page
Stop Interrupts the download of a web page
Refresh Reloads the current web page from the
server
Home Returns to the home page
Search Displays web search tools
Favorites/Bookmark Addresses of frequently used websites

Web authoring software


Web authoring software is used to create and manage a multimedia
website. Websites contain a range of data types such as animation,
audio and streamed video. The web authoring software will
position and display objects, as they would be viewed through a
web browser. Many programs allow the user to manage entire
websites using tools that automate repetitive tasks. Some popular
web authoring software includes:
Macromedia Dreamweavercurrently the industry standard
used by professional designers. It creates HTML code that is
Tutorial
lean and compatible with any browser or platform.
Microsoft FrontPageused by small business and home users.
It has an intuitive layout with easy to use templates. Users have
the ability to view and edit the HTML code (see Figure 12.7).
Web authoring software allows the user to create a website structure.
This may involve different levels and arranging groups of pages.
Authoring software is designed to handle different data types. Text is
created and formatted in many different ways such as using different
fonts. Text can be placed in ordered and unordered lists. Images are
added to a web page and edited as required. Users can also create

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and edit thumbnails. Audio, animations and video are easily inserted
onto a web page. Authoring software also allows users to create
tables, frames and forms. These are powerful tools used to create
professional web pages.

Types of protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the transmission of data
between computer devices. Some of the protocols used on the
Internet include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP and SMTP. TCP/IP was originally
developed by the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a United States
common language for data transmission and error detection across Department of
the Internet. It works by breaking information into smaller packets Defence for
computers using
of data. Each data packet contains the information and the address the UNIX
of the receiving computer. The TCP standards inform the receiving operating system.
computer what is inside the data packet and the IP standard tells It is now used by
every computer
the computer where and how to send the packet. Each data packet on the Internet.
might take a different route but eventually reaches the same
destination where all the packets are reassembled into the original
information.
Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is a standard for transferring
the contents of a web page into a browser for viewing. It does not
download files that make up the web page. HTTP is a one-way
system as data is only transferred from the web server to the
browser. Whenever http appears in a URL the user is connecting to
a web server and using the HTTP standard.
File transfer protocol (FTP) is a standard to upload and
download files. An FTP server is a computer that allows users to
upload and download files using FTP. Whenever ftp appears in a
URL the user is
connecting to a file server
and not a web server.
Some form of file transfer
will then take place.
Simple mail transfer
protocol (SMTP) is a
standard for outgoing
email. Most email
messages are sent using
SMTP. POP3 (Post Office
Protocol) is a standard
for incoming email. Figure 12.7 Popular web authoring software for the home user
includes Microsoft FrontPage

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Project: My website
Preneeth Kumar is a student who wants to create a website about his
family, friends and interests. His sister Rani has agreed to supervise and
assist in the development of the website. Preneeth solved the problem
using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Preneeth surfed the Internet
and gathered design ideas from other personal websites. He
investigated the possibility of including pictures and videos of the
family. A project plan was written.
Design possible solutions: Preneeth developed two possible
solutions. Each solution had a different website structure and
design. Both solutions had a large multimedia component.
Preneeth made a choice and presented his recommendation to
his sister. Rani agreed but suggested a simplified version.
Produce the solution: The website was constructed using Microsoft
FrontPage. He created the website structure and used a consistent
layout for each page. Preneeth imported pictures, audio and video
into the appropriate pages. Links were added and tested. His sister
provided some technical advice on using tables and creating
animation. Web pages and files were uploaded to a web server
to become part of the Internet.
Evaluate the solution: Preneeth tested his website using another
computer. He checked each web page and ensured all links were
working. Preneeth was happy with his website.

Tasks
1 Outline a website structure that would be appropriate for this
project.
ICT 12.1
2 Describe any social and ethical issues that would be a concern in
this project.

Exercise 12.3
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Web _______ software is used to create and manage a
multimedia website.
b The refresh command _______ the current web page from the
server.
c The _______ interrupts the download of a web page.
d _______ is a standard for incoming mail.
2 True or false?
a OSPs provide a browser as part of their subscription package.

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b The back command displays the next web page.


c TCP/IP is a common language of data transmission and error
detection over the Internet.
d FTP is a standard for outgoing email.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A web (a) is a software program that allows users to access and
view web (b). It will display a website if the (c) is entered directly
into the browser. Web pages that have video take longer to (d).
4 a What is the advantage of Favorites or Bookmarks?
b Describe a website structure.
c What is a protocol?
d How does the TCP/IP work?
e What protocol is used to upload and download files?
f What is the hypertext transfer protocol?

Development
5 Examine the range of software in your school to create a website.
Investigate any templates and wizards available with this software.
Which piece of software do you prefer? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Create a web page that briefly describes the types of protocols
used on the Internet. Do research into Internet protocols to ensure
that the information on your web page is current.

12. 4 World Wide Web


The World Wide Web (www, also the Web) consists of a worldwide
collection of electronic documents that use the HTTP standard.
The Web provides a user-friendly interface to the Internet.
Resources on the Web are organised so that users can easily move
from one resource to another. The connections to other computers
are made automatically without being seen by the user. These
connections are made with the use of hypertext and a browser.
A browser allows users to access and view websites.
A website is a group of electronic documents that present
information on a particular topic. Each electronic document is Lit 5.2

called a web page. A web page can contain text, images, sounds,
video clips and links to other pages. Web pages are stored on
powerful computers called servers or web servers. Each server may
store thousands of web pages from different websites. To view a
particular web page your computer asks the server for a particular
page to be sent.

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Figure 12.8 The ninemsn website contains different types of information

The Web is an information medium that covers a vast range of


topics on all aspects of society. It is used to access research,
businesses, entertainment, software and personal interests. A key
feature of the Web is interactivity. It allows the user to choose their
experience on the Web. For example, you can access information,
communicate using email, download software, listen to music,
watch a video or play an interactive game. There are many types of
websites:
commercialexist to sell their goods or services
informationpresent factual data
businesssites that provide support for an organisation such as
technical support
newspresent information on the current events, sports,
money, life and weather (see Figure 12.8)
portalprovide Internet services such as search engines, email,
news, sports and reference material
personalan individuals web page and these sites contain
information on every topic.

Internet security
The Internet has generated a whole underground industry of
threats such as viruses, hackers and spam. However, there are many
ways of controlling access to information on the Web.
A cookie is a file that is stored on the hard disk after the user
visits a website. It is used to measure a users behaviour and work
flow habits. Privacy is often an issue raised with cookies. Cookies
store the information about the web pages visited and the transactions

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completed. However, most cookies are designed to improve your


experience and allow organisations to target advertisements to your
tastes. Users do have the option of blocking all cookies or having
your browser prompt you before accepting cookies.
A proxy server is a barrier to the Internet to ensure users are
Lit 5.3
securely and productively accessing network resources. It lets
administrators limit access to objectionable content by filtering
URLs. Administrators can control user access to specific documents
or websites. Proxy servers distribute and manage information
reducing network traffic and user wait times. Traffic time is reduced
as the proxy server caches frequently accessed documents or entire
websites. The proxy server only requests data from its source when
that source has been updated or has expired.
Firewalls are used on the Internet or any network to check all
incoming data for the purpose of verification and authentication. It
aims to protect a computer system from hackers trying to access
sensitive information. Firewalls are an important security measure
on an intranet. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass
through the firewall. It examines each message and blocks those
that do not meet the specified security criteria. On large systems
more than one firewall is necessary because barriers need to be
placed at all critical points.
Anti-virus software is used to scan a file or disk for a range of
known viruses. A virus is a small program that attaches itself to an
application. There is no guarantee that anti-virus software will stop
every virus, as new viruses are constantly appearing. However, if
users download the latest virus definition files and regularly use the
anti-virus program it will minimise the problem. Anti-virus
software will also protect against email viruses, worms and Trojan
horses. An email virus
attaches itself to an email
message. It spreads by Proxy server
automatically mailing User
itself to each contact in
the users address book. Internet
Worms have the ability to
Firewall User
copy themselves from
machine to machine.
Worms normally move
around and infect other User
machines through
networks. Trojan horses Figure 12.9 Proxy server

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are programs that claim to be one thing, such as a computer game,


but will cause damage when the program is started.
Spam blocking software is protection against spam. Spam is the
sending of a message through the Internet as a mass mailing to a
large number of recipients. The message is unwanted and often
The term spam commercial. Fighting spam has been an ongoing battle. Anti-
comes from a spammers develop a tool to block spam and spammers defeat the
Monty Python
tool. For this reason spam blockers need to be regularly updated.
sketch called the
The Black Eagle. There are different technologies used to block spam. The success of
The sketch spam blocking software is not only the quantity of spam it stops
contained an
but also ensuring genuine email is received.
annoying and
repetitive song Anti-spyware software is protection against spyware. Spyware is
about spam. software that installs on a computer in secret and transmits data
from that computer. The data transmitted is usually personal
information or information about computer usage. Users are
infected with spyware when they visit a website and are tricked into
installing it or they download a program with a spyware
component. The spyware component may be advertising software
or adware. Anti-spyware software is a tool that removes spyware
and prevents it from being installed.

Exercise 12.4
1 What am I?
a A worldwide collection of documents that use the HTTP standard.
b A file that is stored on the hard disk after visits to a website.
c Checks all incoming data for the purpose of verification and
authentication.
d A program that claims to be one thing but will cause damage
when the program is started.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A (a) is a group of electronic documents that present (b) on a
particular topic. Each electronic document is called a web (c).
Websites are stored on powerful computers called (d).
3 Unjumble these words:
a ewb gepa
b oxpry rseevr
c asntirviu aroswfte
4 a What is a key feature of the Web?
b List six different types of websites.
c What is the purpose of most cookies?
d How does a proxy server improve security?

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e How is a firewall used on an intranet?


f What is spam?

Development
5 Find at least one website where the focus is commercial,
information, business, news, portal and personal. What are the
features of these websites? Justify your classification of these
websites.
6 Why is the Web an important medium to publish information?
Describe the ways the Web is different from other publishing
media.

12. 5 Website development


A website is made up of three types of web pages: home page,
intermediate pages and content pages. Home page (index page) is
the first page viewed by a visitor. It provides information about the
purpose and subject matter of the website. A home page provides a
link to other web pages. Many websites have intermediate pages. An
intermediate page is the next level down from the home page. An
intermediate page is accessible from the home page and links back
to the home page. Intermediate pages provide structure and assist
in the navigation of the website. They are a way of grouping the
content pages. Content pages contain topic details and are usually
accessible from intermediate pages. Content pages usually contain a
link back to the home page.
Hypertext markup language (HTML) is used to create web
pages. HTML is a set of special instructions (called tags) that
Lit 5.4
indicate how parts of a document will be displayed. HTML code
can be created with any word processor or text editor, however, you

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do not need to write HTML code to create a web page. Many


programs will automatically convert basic formatting features into
HTML codes. Web authoring software is used to create and manage
Tim Berners-Lee a website. You can layout text and graphics exactly the way you
developed a
method of Internet
want them to look and the software creates the HTML code.
addressing called
URL, the language Features of a website
for encoding and
displaying hyper- The features of websites are changing to take advantage of new
text documents developments in information technology. Some common features
called HTML and a
method of linking
found in websites include:
hypertext docu- Contact informationtraditional contact information is
ments called HTTP. needed on most websites such as address, phone, fax and email.
It is appropriate to include as many different contact methods
as possible.
Textthe look and style of text is an important factor in a web
page. The text content of a web page should display the essential
content.
Graphicpictures add interest and attraction to a web page.
The most common formats for web images are JPEG and GIF.
Thumbnail imagesmall preview representation of the real
full size image. It downloads faster than the full size image. If a
visitor wants to see the full size image they simply click on the
thumbnail.
Rolloverpicture, icon or button that changes when the mouse
is moved over it. A rollover is actually two images: one image
for the on condition and one image for the off condition. GIF
file format is often used for images as they must be displayed
quickly.
Animationa flashing object quickly gets the visitors
attention. It is used to direct the visitor to an area of the screen
or an interesting feature.
Streamed audioused to provide background music or sound
effects. Streaming audio is heard before the entire file has been
transferred.
Streamed videovideo clips that play before the entire file has
been transferred. It is more dependent than streamed audio on
a high bandwidth.
Hyperlinka link to another part of the same web page, a
separate web page, or location on the Internet. Hyperlinks are
made using text (hot word) or image (hot spot). Links are
usually identified using an underlined character and/or a
different text colour. Popular graphic links use buttons and

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icons. Links are


often arranged in
horizontal rows or
vertical columns to
form a navigation
toolbar.
Tablesrows and
columns of cells
that are filled with
characters or
graphics. Tables are
used to arrange
Figure 12.10 Features of a website (these materials have been reproduced
information in a with the permission of eBay Inc. Copyright eBay Inc. All rights reserved)
precise row and
column format. A variety of attributes can be applied to tables
and their cells, such as shading and borders.
Listsunordered lists do not have a numbered sequence. Entry
in an unordered list is usually shown with a bullet. Ordered lists
provide a more structured look using a numbered sequence.
Framesspace or boxes that hold an object. Each frame is
considered a separate window and could be a separate HTML
document. Frames allow a banner, advertising message or
animation to be held in place while the visitor navigates the
website.
Web formsare tools to collect information, such as orders for
goods and services and results from surveys. Web forms have an
invisible part that processes the data and stores it in a database.
Information is entered using text boxes, option buttons, check
boxes, list boxes, spin boxes.

Designing a website
There are three basic design principles for a website (see Figure 12.11):
Consistencylayout, format and style should be the same
throughout the website unless different data types demand a
change. Readability is improved when similar items are
grouped.
Navigationpeople need to understand the structure of the
web pages. Colouring different areas of the page, using visual
symbols (icons and arrows), inserting clear page headers and
creating simple hyperlinks improves navigation.
Simplicitydo not overuse design elements as this will create
visual clutter and confuse the visitor. The overuse of colour,

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Figure 12.11 Website Tips

sound and animations can be distracting. First impressions on


the Web are important. A visitor often forms an opinion of a
website within the first minute of accessing the home page.
In addition to the above design principles there are design factors
for these elements:
Textclear and legible text using at most three different fonts.
Care should be taken using font styles such as bold and italic.
Lit 5.5 Underlining is only used for hyperlinks. Long lines of text are
difficult to read.
Colourmany different colours can be distracting and reduce
readability. A colour scheme should not interfere with the main
message of the web page. Dark text on a light background or
vice versa usually works well. Blue is often preferred for unused
links and purple for used links.
Graphicsare used to create interest, however, they are slow to
download. When using graphics consider the size of the graphic,
recognisable icons and whether the graphic fits easily on the screen.
Animationvisitors seeking information from a website are
distracted by inappropriate animation. A small creative animation
such as a comet-type effect can be effective.
Audio and videoshould not be an essential part of a web page
as some visitors might not have the right hardware or plug-in. It
is good practice to advise visitors about the size of audio and
video files.

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Exercise 12.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ image is a small preview representation of the real
full size image.
b Links are usually identified using an _______ character and/or a
different text colour.
c Each _______ is considered as a separate window and could be a
separate HTML document.
d Many different colours can be distracting and reduce _______.
2 True or false?
a HTTP is used to create web pages.
b Streaming audio is heard before the entire file has been
transferred.
c Ordered lists are usually shown with a bullet.
d Web forms have an invisible part that stores data in a database.
3 What am I?
a The first page viewed by a visitor
to a website.
b A set of special instructions that
indicate how parts of a document
will be displayed.
c A picture, icon or button that
changes when the mouse is moved
over it.
d Rows and columns of cells that are
filled with characters or graphics.
4 a Describe an intermediate page of a
website.
b How do you create HTML code?
c Identify the contact information
that is needed on most websites.
d What is a hyperlink?
e Describe some of the information
often displayed in a frame.
f Why is navigation an important
design element?

Development
5 Investigate the features of three different
websites. Identify the features that you like and
those you dislike. Write a report that summarises your
investigation.
6 Create a simple website on a topic you find interesting.
a Describe the features of the website.
b Create and test the navigation used in your website. ICT 12.2

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 Which of the following describes a 6 Which of the following is a command
historical event introduced in 1991 or button that stores the addresses
using the HTTP standard? of frequently used websites?
a ARPANET a Explorer
b World Wide Web b Save
c Email c Favorite
d NSFnet d List

2 Which of the following is a private 7 What is a proxy server?


network that uses a similar interface a A barrier to the Internet to ensure
to the Web? users are securely and productively
a Intranet accessing network resources
b Extranet b A file that is stored on the hard
c ARPANET disk after the user visits a website
d BITNET c A computer used to store web pages
d A computer used to store email
3 Which of the following is a program
that finds websites and web pages? 8 Which of the following statements is
a Find command incorrect?
b Search program a Cookies are an important security
c Search engine measure for the intranet
d Attachment b Fighting spam has been an
ongoing battle
4 Which of the following describes c Anti-virus software is used to scan
chatting? a file or disk for a range of well-
a Online area in which users known viruses
conduct discussions on a particular d Worms have the ability to copy
topic themselves from machine to
b A popular web-based discussion machine
group
9 Which of the following is a set of
c A real-time Internet service that
notifies users when more than one special instructions used to create
person is online web pages?
d A real-time conversation with one a HTTP
person or with hundreds of b Hypertext
people c HTML
d Web manager
5 Which of the following is a standard
to upload and download files? 10 Which of the following describes a
a SMTP picture, icon or button that changes
b FTP when the mouse is moved over it?
c HTTP a Thumbnail
d TCP/IP b Rollover
c Hyperlink
d Graphic

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Part B: Match the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 A connected set of networks using 6 A software program that allows
the TCP/IP standard. users to access and view web pages.
2 A private network that uses a similar 7 A standard for transferring the
interface to the Web. contents of a web page into a
3 An online area in which users conduct browser for viewing.
discussions on a particular topic. 8 A worldwide collection of electronic
4 Transmission of electronic messages documents that use the HTTP
using a computer. standard.
5 A program that finds websites and 9 A file that is stored on the hard disk
web pages. after the user visits a website.
10 The first page of a website.
Terms
a Cookie f Intranet
b Email g Newsgroup
c Home h Search engine
d HTTP i Web
e Internet j Web browser

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Describe four major events in the 4 What is the World Wide Web? Your
history of the Internet. Which event answer should explain interactivity,
do you consider the most important? websites and web pages.
Give a reason for your answer. 5 Spam is causing a problem for many
2 The Internet is having a significant people. Why is spam a problem?
impact on our society. Outline four How can spam be reduced?
ways we are using the Internet. 6 Tables, lists and frames are an
3 Explain the difference between these important feature of many websites.
terms: Distinguish between these tools.
a HTTP and FTP
b web browser and web authoring
software.
e Tester

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Project: Internet website


Create a website that presents information about the Internet. Suggested topics
could include history of the Internet, intranets, email, search engines, chatting,
messaging, browsers, authoring software and some aspect of Internet security.
This is a group project that requires each member to create at least one page in
the website. The design of the website and the navigation are important
characteristics for this project. Your solution should be developed using the four
stages in project development.

Project 5.1
Project 5.2
Project 5.3
Cross project 2
Cross project 3
Cross project 4

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13
13
CHAPTER

Networking
systems
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
This chapter provides an overview of networking systems. It
examines the nature of a communication network and data
transmission. You will learn network basics and the different
network topologies. The chapter concludes by describing network
operating systems.
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13. 1 A communications
network
A network is a number of computers and their peripheral devices
connected together in some way. The simplest form of network is
when one computer is linked to another computer. The Internet is
a connected set of networks that links millions of computers.
Computers communicate with each other through a network. The
role of a network is to transfer data from one location to another.
Data stored on one computer can be obtained by people using
other computers, often thousands of kilometres away. The power of
one computer is not restricted to one room, but can be made
available anywhere.
Tutorial Networks have changed the way we live and work. In most
workplaces they are a necessity. There are a number of advantages
in establishing a network:
Sharing peripheral devices: Networks enable users to share
peripheral devices such as printers, hard disks and Internet
Lit 6.1 access. It is common to find a small number of high-quality
network printers shared by a large group of users on a network.
Sharing peripheral devices reduces costs and allows more
people to access the equipment.
Sharing applications: Networks enable users to share applications.
Networks that share applications usually require a site licence or
a network licence. These licences allow the software to be used
on the same site or for a certain number of users. Network
licences cost less than purchasing multiple copies of the software.
It also takes less time to install or update the network software.
Sharing data: Networks provide a very fast method for sharing
and transferring files. Many networks have a file server to store
data. Data stored on a file server can be accessed from any
computer on the network. Users can instantly send a file to
another user on a network. Users can also access their files from
different locations. Sharing data increases efficiency and
productivity (see Figure 13.1).
Security of information: Networks secure files by restricting
access to authorised users. The entire network is backed up on a
regular basis. It is not dependent on users backing up their files.
Firewalls are used to protect data on the network from hackers.
Improved communication: Networks enable users to work
together in ways that otherwise would not be possible. Email
and messaging systems make it easy to communicate and share

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ideas. There is also a range of


software designed for groups
of users on a network. One
example of this software is
project management
software. It is a tool to
efficiently plan, manage and
communicate information
about a large project.
On the other hand, establishing a
network has some disadvantages:
Expensive to install: The Figure 13.1 Accessing data from a network
initial costs of network
installation is very costly. Servers, network devices, cables and
network software are expensive. A technician is usually required
for installation and this adds to the cost. However, generally
over time a network will save money.
Administrative time: Maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise. A person called a network
administrator needs to be employed to manage the network.
This is an added expense.
Server failure: When the server goes down the entire network
does not operate. Users do not have access to files and
applications. Loss of productivity can be significant.
Damaged equipment: In some networks a broken cable can stop
the entire network. A faulty network interface card will prevent
users of that computer accessing the network.
Maintaining security: Networks are targets for hackers and
viruses. The files stored on a network can be accessed, stolen
and edited more easily than files stored on an individual
computer. A virus that enters the network can spread to every
computer on the network. Appropriate procedures need to be
implemented to maintain security.

Protocols
A protocol (pronounced PROH-tuh-cahl) is a set of rules that
governs the transfer of data between computers. A protocol defines
how a link is established, how data is transmitted and how errors
are detected and corrected. When the same protocols are used,
different types of computers and devices can communicate with
each other. There are numerous protocols that have been developed
for specific technology (see Figure 13.2) including:

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TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a
standard for data transmission and
error detection across the Internet.
The TCP standards inform the
receiving computer what is inside the
data packet and the IP standard tells
the computer where and how to send
the data packet.
IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet
Exchange/ Sequenced Packet
Exchange) is a standard used for data
transmission in local area networks
(LAN) that use the Novell NetWare
operating system.
NetBEUI (NetBios Extended User
Interface, pronounced net-booey) is
a standard used for data transmission
Figure 13.2 Network protocols in local area networks that use
Windows NT and LAN manager.
AppleTalk is a set of local area network standards for Apple
Macintosh computers. It is built into all Apple computers and
Apple laser printers.

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Exercise 13.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Networks enable users to share _______ devices.
b Files and applications on a network are _______ to authorised
users.
c _______ of a network requires considerable time and expertise.
d TCP/IP is a standard for data transmission and error detection
across the _______.
2 True or false?
a The Internet is a connected set of networks.
b Sharing data on a network is a major disadvantage.
c Networks are inexpensive to install.
d Networks are targets for hackers and viruses.
3 What am I?
a A number of computers and their peripheral devices connected
in some way.
b A set of rules that governs the transfer of data between
computers.
c A standard used for data transmission in the local area
networks that use Novell NetWare.
4 a What is the role of a network?
b List five advantages in establishing a network.
c How do networks improve communication?
d What are the consequences if the server of a network goes
down?
e Why is a virus a concern on a network?
f List four protocols commonly used on a network.

Development
5 A business is planning to establish
a local area network to improve
efficiency and productivity.
What would be some of the
benefits of networking?
Installing a network is
expensive. What costs are
involved in establishing a
network?
6 Network protocols are
often developed in
conjunction with
improvements in technology.
Do research into two protocols
that are commonly used on a
network. Prepare a report that
summarises
your investigation.

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13. 2 Data transmission


Data transmission on a network involves serial transmission. It
transfers data by sending one bit at a time through a single line.
All data on a network is transferred using a data transmission
mode, a data transmission rate and a data transmission medium.

Data transmission modes


The data transmission mode describes the direction of data flow.
It is either simplex, half duplex or full duplex (see Figure 13.3).
Simplex mode allows transmission in one direction only, from
the sender to the receiver. An example of simplex mode is the
radio, television or a school broadcast system. Remote sensors
send information to a computer using simplex mode.

Half duplex mode


Simplex mode

one way
both ways
one at a time

Full duplex mode

simultaneous
both ways

Figure 13.3 Transmission mode

Half duplex mode allows transmission in both directions but not


at the same time. This means the sender and the receiver take
turns. An example of half duplex mode is an intercom or
walkie-talkie. Disk drives and printers transfer information
using half duplex mode.
Full duplex mode allows transmission in both directions at the
same time. Most communications systems use full duplex
mode, such as the telephone or email. A computer uses full
duplex for most of its communication.

Data transmission rates


Data transmission rate is the speed of data transfer. It is measured
by the number of bits per second or its baud rate.
Bits per second (bps)the number of bits transmitted in one
second. Common units of measurement for transmission speed
are kilobits (Kbps), megabits (Mbps), gigabits (Gbps) or terabits
(Tbps) per second. Bits per second is also called the bit rate.

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Baud ratethe maximum number of electrical signals


transmitted in one second. It is different to bits per second as an
electrical signal can contain more than one bit of data. For Baud rate was
example, a 2400 baud might transmit at 4800 bps. Here one named after the
electrical signal is roughly equal to two bits. French inventor
J. M. Emile Baudot
The speed of data transmission is determined by the device and
(18451903). It was
the bandwidth. The bandwidth is the quantity of information that used to measure
can be sent through a transmission medium. The transmission the speed of
Morse code
medium is the pathway for transferring data between the devices.
transmission.
A transmission medium with a high bandwidth can transfer more
data in the same amount of time. The transmission medium is
either a wire transmission or a wireless transmission.

Data transmissionwire
Wire transmission transfers the data through wires and cables. These
cables must be protected from damage, they take up space and can
be difficult to install. However, wire transmission can carry large
amounts of data with little interference from other signals. Wire
transmission includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable or optical
fibre cable (see Figure 13.4). Lit 6.2

Twisted-pair cable consists of pairs of insulated copper wires,


twisted to form a spiral. Twisting reduces the amount of
interference from other cabling. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
is used on a network. There are two common standards for
UTP called 10Base-T (10 Mbps Ethernet) and 100Base-T (100
Mbps Fast Ethernet). UTP is preferred as it is cheap and easy to
install. It is suitable for a maximum distance of 100 metres.
Coaxial cable (coax, pronounced co-axe) has a single copper
wire surrounded by an insulator, grounded shielding and an
outer insulator. The shielding allows data to be transmitted with

Twisted-pair Coaxial cable Optical fibre cable

Conductor Outer insulation Covering

Grounded
Insulator Cladding
shielding
Glass
Insulation optical fibre

Inner conductor

Figure 13.4 Wire transmission

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little distortion. It is more dependable than UTP, however, it is


more expensive and less flexible. The most common standard
for coaxial cabling is 10Base2 (10 Mbps Ethernet). It is suitable
for a maximum distance of 200 metres.
Optical fibre cable is a very thin fibre of clear glass or plastic that
carries light waves. Optical fibre cable is becoming the standard
for wire transmission. Optical fibre cables are free from
electromagnetic and radio interference, very secure, light and
transmit data at high speeds without errors. Optical fibre cables
can, in theory, transmit data in excess of 10 Tbps. However, they
are more expensive than other types of wire transmission.
Optical fibre is suitable for long distances.

Data transmissionwireless
Wireless transmission moves the data through air and space. It does
not need a fixed physical connection between the source and the
destination. Wireless networks allow devices to communicate using
radio waves, microwave and satellite:
Radio waves are used to transfer data by connecting a small
radio transmitter to each device (see Figure 13.5). The
transmitter sends and receives data through the air using radio
waves. The most common wireless networking standards are
802.11b (11 Mbps) and 802.11g (54 Mbps). The major problem
with radio waves is their lack of security. The signals can be
intercepted by anyone.
Microwave is a high frequency radio signal sent through space
in a straight line from one antenna to another. It has been used
for several decades to transmit
both voice and data. Antennae
are placed on tall buildings or
mountain tops to continue
transmission over long
distances. Even though it is
reasonably error free, weather
conditions or objects such as
trees and buildings will
obstruct the signal and affect
the transmission. Microwave
transmission is commonly
used with satellites for long
Figure 13.5 Wireless PC Card distance transmission.

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Satellites are specialised receivers and transmitters that are


launched by rocket and placed in orbit around the earth.
A signal is sent from one ground station to the satellite, which
receives and re-transmits the signal to another ground station.
Each ground station uses a satellite dish to send and receive the
signals. Satellites can transmit large amounts of data over long
distances and at great speeds. There are hundreds of satellites
currently in operation. They are used for weather forecasting,
television broadcasts, radio communications and Internet
communications.
Wireless networks have become popular for small networks in
homes and small businesses. The main reason for their popularity
is that they do not require cables. Installing cabling requires a
specialist. In addition, there could be problems obtaining access
under the floor or over the ceilings in some buildings. Wireless
networks are installed without digging or drilling. However,
wireless transmission transfers data at slower speeds and has Interactive

problems in maintaining signal quality compared to wire


transmission.

Exercise 13.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a simplex mode and half duplex mode
b bits per second and baud rate
c twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable.
2 What am I?
a Transmission mode that allows transmission in both directions
at the same time.
b A very thin fibre of clear glass or plastic that uses light waves.
c Transmission media that moves data through air and space.
d A high frequency radio signal sent through space in a straight
line from one antenna to another.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Wire transmission transfers data through wires and (a). It can carry
large amounts of data with little (b) from other signals. Wire
transmission includes (c) cable, coaxial cable and (d) cable.
4 a List four common units of measurements for transmission speed.
b What is the bandwidth?
c What are the reasons for choosing UTP for wire transmission?
d What are the advantages of optical fibre cables?
e What are the major problems with radio waves?
f Why have wireless networks become popular?

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Development
5 Investigate the latest standards for wire transmission. Construct a
table that compares each standard in terms of cost, distance and
speed. Which standard of wire transmission would you prefer? Give
reasons for your answer.
6 Eddie has three computers at home. He would like these computers
to share files, applications and peripherals. Eddie is not sure which
data transmission medium would be most appropriate. What advice
would you give Eddie? Give reasons to explain your answer.

13. 3 Network basics


A network is a number of computers and their peripheral devices
connected together in some way. Each device on a network is called
a node. There are networks of all shapes and sizes using wire or
wireless transmission.

Types of networks
Networks are classified as local area networks, wide area networks
or as virtual private networks.
A local area network (LAN) is a network on one site, such as
within a building or group of buildings. A LAN is often a
collection of computers and peripheral devices. LANs enable
users to share resources and communicate with each other more
effectively. These tasks are completed using a network operating
system (NOS). The physical arrangement of the devices on a
LAN is called the network topology. There are many possible
network topologies, such as star, bus and ring.
A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a very large
area. It is often made up of a collection of LANs (see Figure 13.6).
A WAN may use a private leased line, the normal telephone
network or a combination of both. A private leased line is
dedicated to the network. It offers higher transmission speeds and
more accurate transfer of data than those available through the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). PSTN links are
relatively cheap if computers do not require constant connection.
However, the link is not guaranteed and can be interrupted.
A virtual private network (VPN) is a private network carrying
encrypted data across the Internet. It uses the PSTN and the
Internet to create an organisations network. A VPN aims to
provide an organisation with the same capabilities as a LAN but
at a much lower cost. It uses encryption and other security

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measures to ensure only Satellite


authorised users have
access to the VPN. Local area
Local area
Encryption is the process network (LAN) network (LAN)
of coding data and
decryption the process of
changing it back. Data is
coded, transmitted and
then converted back to its
original form. Encryption
is used to prevent data
from being intercepted Figure 13.6 WANs are often made up of LANs
during transmission and
to maintain the privacy of the VPN.

Components of networks
There are a range of components for networks such as servers,
workstations, hubs, switches, routers, bridges, gateways, repeaters
and network interface cards.
A server is a computer that provides resources to other
computers on the network. The server provides access to files,
applications or peripheral devices. There are different types of
servers, such as the following:
A file server is a controlling computer in a network that
stores the programs and data shared by users. The files
stored on this server can be retrieved by authorised users.
A print server is a computer in a network that controls one
or more printers. Print servers have printers attached to
them and are accessed by authorised users. If the printer is
busy the data to be printed is stored in the print server and
placed at the end of a queue. A print server can be used with
or without a file server.
A mail server is a computer in a network that provides email
facilities. It stores incoming mail for distribution to users
and forwards outgoing mail to appropriate devices. Some
mail servers can be accessed from the Internet.
A web server is a computer in a network that stores and
distributes web pages. When a network user accesses a web
page from the Internet it is stored in the web server.
Websites are downloaded and stored on web servers. When
you browse the Internet you are travelling from one web
server to another.

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A workstation is a personal computer on a network. It has


memory, storage and processing capabilities. Workstations can
operate independently of the network. They access a server for
files and applications but process the data themselves.
A hub is a central connecting device in a network. Each node is
connected directly to the hub. Most hubs were initially dumb.
They receive a data packet from one node and send that data
packet to all nodes on the network. This created a lot of
unnecessary network traffic, as most of the nodes will ignore
the data because it is not addressed to them. A better type of
hub is called a switch.
A switch is an intelligent hub that only sends data to a specific
node (see Figure 13.7). The switch looks at the address of the
data packet and sends it to that address. A switch reduces the
volume of traffic on a network compared to a hub.
A router is a very intelligent hub that
directs (routes) data packets to and from
other networks. It makes its decision on
its current understanding of the
networks. A router maintains a table of
the available routes and their conditions.
It uses this table to determine the best
Figure 13.7 Switch route for a given data packet. Routers
are often used to connect to the Internet.
A bridge is a device to link two similar networks. It often
connects networks that use the same protocol such as Ethernet.
A bridge examines each data packet on a network and forwards
any data packets addressed to a connected network.
A gateway is a link between two different types of networks. It
converts different protocols and transfers data between the two
networks. For example, a gateway could be used to convert a
TCP/IP packet to an IPX packet. A gateway acts as the door
Lit 6.3
between the networks. All the data must pass through the
gateway to reach the other network. Gateways are not
necessarily separate devices but rather are often pieces of
software running on servers or in routers.
A repeater is used to rebuild a fading signal to its original
strength and shape before transmitting it onwards. For example,
the data sent along a UTP cable becomes unreadable after about
100 metres. A repeater would be installed every 100 metres to
rebuild the signal. A repeater ensures that the data is received as
it was sent.

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A network interface card


(NIC, pronounced nick)
is an expansion card that
allows a device to be
connected to a network
(see Figure 13.8). NICs are
installed into servers,
workstations and some other
devices. Each device must
have a driver to
communicate on the
Figure 13.8 Network interface card
network. A NIC is usually
given a unique address so
that it can be identified on the network. Most NICs require a
network cable connection and have connectors on the card for
different types of cables.

Clientserver and peer-to-peer networks


A clientserver network is a network that uses one or more computers
as servers and all the remaining computers as clients. Each server is a
powerful computer that contains resources to be shared with clients.
Most organisations use the clientserver network for their LAN. A
clientserver network involves using a network operating system
(NOS). A NOS allows the server to complete requests from clients
for resources. The majority of the NOS is installed on the server but
each client has NOS client software. The NOS client software is used
to send requests to the server.
A peer-to-peer network is a network where there is no central
server but each computer is both a server and a client. It is a simple
network that usually connects less than ten computers. A peer-to-
peer network is used in homes and small offices to share files,
peripheral devices and one Internet connection. In a peer-to-peer
network each computer is considered a peer because it is equal and
shares resources with others without a server. Each user determines
which resources on their computer are to be shared. Operating
systems such as Windows XP and Mac OS have the software to
operate a peer-to-peer network. A P2P is an Internet peer-to-peer
network on which users connect directly to each others hard disks
and exchange files over the Internet.

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Exercise 13.3
1 What am I?
a A private network carrying encrypted data across the Internet.
b A controlling computer in a network that stores the programs
and data shared by users.
c A link between two different types of networks.
d A network with no central server but each computer is both a
server and a client.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ is a network on one site such as within a building or
group of buildings.
b A workstation is a _______ on a network.
c A _______ is a very intelligent hub that directs data packets to
and from other networks.
d A NIC is an _______ that allows a device to be connected to a
network.
3 True or false?
a A WAN is often made up of a collection of LANs.
b Each node is connected directly to a hub.
c A bridge is used to rebuild a fading signal to its original
strength and shape before transmitting it onwards.
d Most networks use a peer-to-peer network for their LAN.
4 a Describe a VPN.
b List four different types of servers.
c Why is a switch a better type of hub?
d How does a gateway work?
e Why is a NIC given a unique address?
f Where are peer-to-peer networks used?

Development
5 Investigate a LAN either at your
school or in the local community.
Draw a plan that shows the
arrangement of devices on the
network. Identify all components
of the network. What types of
data transmission media are used
on the network?
6 VPNs have been used by some
organisations to save money.
However, there are risks in
establishing a VPN. Do research into
VPNs. Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of a VPN.
7 Hubs, switches and routers are used as central connecting devices.
Do research to find more information on these devices. Write a
report that summarises your investigation.

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13. 4 Network topologies


Network topology is the physical arrangement of the devices on a
LAN. The type of network topology is not determined by the shape
but by how each node is connected to other nodes. There are many
possible network topologies (see Figure 13.9):
A star topology has a central node with each device connected
directly to it. The central node is usually a hub, switch or router.
The central node receives messages and sends them to the
destination device. Star topology requires extra cabling as each
device needs a cable to the central node, not the nearest device.
If one device or cable is broken the network can still operate.
However, if the central node fails then the network fails.
A bus topology is an arrangement where all the nodes are
attached to a cable called the bus. Each device has a unique
The word bus
identity and can only recognise those signals intended for it. was used to
Nodes check the bus, and retrieve their messages as data travels describe a bus
topology as it
along the bus. Each node is considered to be connected to every
performs a similar
other node and can communicate directly along the network to task to a bus on
any device. Bus topology is one of the easiest and cheapest to set the road. The bus
up. It can still operate if one node fails and nodes are easily travels along a
road (bus cable)
added. However, a faulty bus will stop the network and data and picks up/drops
collisions can occur on the bus. off passengers
A ring topology is an arrangement where all nodes are attached (data) at bus stops
(nodes).
in the shape of a closed loop. Each device in the ring has a
unique address. Data flow is in one direction, moving from
node to node until it arrives at its destination. Ring topology is
dependent on the ringif it is faulty the network will stop.

Bus topology Ring topology Star topology

Figure 13.9 Network topologies

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Network access methods


There are a number of ways of dealing with multiple users wanting
to access the network at the same time. The two most common
access methods are discussed below:
Ethernet is the most common standard used in star or bus
topologies. It allows data to be transmitted in both directions at
the same time. Unfortunately this causes data collisions and
errors. To overcome this problem Ethernet uses a method called
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
In CSMA/CD all nodes have the ability to sense signals on the
network. When a node wishes to transmit, it listens for signals.
When there is no signal it transmits. However, occasionally a
collision will occur if two nodes listen for signals at the same.
When a collision is detected the node stops transmitting and
re-transmits at another time. The most common Ethernet
standards are Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps) and Gigabit Ethernet
(1 Gbps).
Token ring is the standard used on the ring topology. The token
ring operates by continually passing special data packets called
tokens between nodes. Workstations with data to send capture a
free token and attach data along with addressing information. A
busy token with data cannot be used by other nodes. When the
data arrives at the destination, the data is replaced with an
acknowledgement and sent back to the original sending node.

Security of information
A network aims to share resources and provide communication for
users. It provides an opportunity for hackers to access data.
Network security requires careful planning and needs constant
review to ensure procedures are appropriate. Security of
information involves storage, backup and data security.
Lit 6.4 Networks are required to store huge quantities of data. Storage
Lit 6.5 involves using magnetic disk and magnetic tape. Magnetic disk
storage is used when immediate access to data is required. It uses
direct access. This form of access allows data to be found directly
without accessing all the previous data. Magnetic tape is used as a
backup medium. It can store large quantities of data inexpensively.
Magnetic tape uses sequential access. This form of access starts at
the beginning of the tape and reads all of the data until the
required item is found.

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Network users are encouraged to store important files on the


server. However, a server is exposed to many risks such as a crash,
theft or circuitry failure. Regular backups of data stored on the
server are essential. A backup is another copy of the data that could
be used to rebuild the system. Backups are sent to a warehouse
storage facility through the Internet or secured offsite. If the system
goes down the recovery process rebuilds the system. The success of
backup and recovery depends on implementing appropriate
procedures.
Data security is a series of safeguards to protect data. There is a
range of security techniques that apply to networks:
User identification is the ability to identify the user to the
network and to confirm their identity. A user is identified by
entering a user ID and confirms their identity by entering a
valid password. A password is secret words or numbers that are
typed on the keyboard to gain access to the system.
Logon security involves protecting user ID and passwords from
unauthorised access. The password file should be encrypted and
secured.
Access controls restrict users or a group of users to those files
and resources they need to perform their job (see Figure 13.10).
When connecting to a network a certain level of access is
granted. This is done during a process of logging on.
Data encryption is used to prevent
data from being intercepted during
transmission. Encryption is the
process of coding data and
decryption the process of changing it
back. It is the most effective way to
achieve data security during the
transmission of data. Data is coded,
transmitted, and then converted back
to its original form.
Firewalls are used on a network to
check all incoming data for the
purpose of verification and
authentication. A firewall aims to
protect the network from hackers
trying to access sensitive information.
Large networks have more than one
firewall because barriers need to be
placed at all critical points. Figure 13.10 Access controls for a network

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Anti-virus software is used to scan the network for a range of


well-known viruses. Data infected by a virus is often costly to
repair or impossible to replace. There is no guarantee that anti-
virus programs will stop every virus, as new viruses are always
appearing. However, if the network uses the latest virus
definition files and regularly uses the anti-virus program
problems will be minimised.

Exercise 13.4
1 Explain the difference between:
a a star topology and a ring topology
b Ethernet and token ring.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Network topology is the physical _______ of devices on a LAN.
b The central node in a _______ topology is usually a hub, switch
or router.
c Logon security involves protecting _______ and passwords from
unauthorised access.
d _______ is used to prevent data from being intercepted during
transmission.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Bus (a) is an arrangement where all the nodes are attached to a
cable called a (b). It can still operate if one (c) fails and nodes are
easily added. However, data (d) can occur on the bus.
4 a How do devices in a bus topology access data?
b What is CSMA/CD?
c Describe the storage devices used on a network.
d Why is it essential to perform regular backups of data stored on
a server?
e What is user identification?
f When are access controls granted?

Development
5 A LAN is to be constructed with eight nodes in a star topology. The
central node is a switch. Use graphics software to show this
arrangement. Illustrate how a star network transfers data.
6 A LAN is to be constructed with a file server, printer and five
workstations in a bus topology. Use graphics software to show this
ICT 13.1 arrangement. Illustrate how a bus network transfers data.

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13. 5 Network operating


systems
A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system to
support computers connected on a LAN. Some common examples
of network operating systems are Novells Netware, AppleShare and
Microsofts Windows XP Server (see Figure 13.11). Most of the
network operating system is installed on the server but each client
has NOS client software. The NOS client software is used to send
requests to the server. The NOS performs a range of different tasks.

Figure 13.11 Novell Netware

Network operating system tasks


Network operating systems control the flow of data between the
devices on the network and the requests for data. The network
operating system organises messages from nodes until the network
is ready to process the message. The tasks performed by a network
operating system and the administrator of the network include:
Administrationadds, removes and organises users. Groups of
users are often given the same permissions and rights.
Permissions and rights allow access to particular files and Lit 6.6

resources.
File managementgives users access to the remote hard disks
on the server. It provides a file system and the ability to manage
a network directory. Drives and directories are mapped for
users.
Applicationshandles requests from users to share applications.
The NOS is used to install software. It is easier for network
administrators to comply with software copyright laws using a
network. Access to the application files is restricted.

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Resource managementallows network devices such as printers


and modems to be shared. It assigns users to printers and orders
print jobs. The NOS is able to track the use of resources. This
assists with budgeting.
Securitymonitors and restricts access to network resources. It
is often much easier to secure data on a network compared to
securing data on a large number of computers. Anti-virus
software is used to protect the network from viruses. Regular
backups are implemented for data stored on the network.
Most networks are connected to the Internet. A NOS must be able
Maintaining a to manage the flow of data between a LAN and the Internet.
reliable backup Security of the data on the network is an important issue. Most
and recovery plan
for data on a
NOS provide a firewall to protect the network. Firewalls are used to
network is the check all incoming data for the purpose of verification and
single most authentication. A hacker who attempts to enter the network
important daily
task for a network
through the Internet will be blocked by the firewall.
administrator.
Logon and logoff procedures
When connecting to a network a certain level of access is granted.
This is done during a process of logging on. Logon is the procedure
used to get access to the network. The user is identified by means of
a user ID and a password. The user ID usually conforms to a
limited length such as eight characters, and the password must
contain at least one digit. The password is an important security
measure and must not be readily available or easily guessed by
others (such as using a nickname). The network must also keep
passwords secure. The password file should be protected from
unauthorised access and encrypted. Network systems may require
users to frequently change their passwords as a security measure.
After logging on the user is given access to
only those features authorised by the network
administrator. The logon procedure usually
allows the user two or three attempts to enter
the correct name and password. Mistakes
can occur in typing or in the data
transmission. The correct procedure
of logging off should always be carried
out. This ensures all data is correctly
saved and programs are closed in the
correct manner. Logging off also reduces
the risk of unauthorised persons accessing
the network.

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Project: Simple network


Angela Kocoski wanted to link two PCs together so that they could
share files and peripherals. She required an easy and inexpensive way
to create this network. Angela solved the problem using the four
stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Angela discussed the project with
a salesperson at the local computer store. She browsed the Internet
to gather alternative solutions. Angela wrote a project plan.
Design possible solutions: Angela decided to use a Fast Ethernet
starter kit. It contained all the equipment needed to create the
network for less that $200. Angela investigated three starter kits
and decided to purchased the Netgear Fast Ethernet starter kit.
Produce the solution: The kit contained two NICs, a switch and two
cables for connecting each NIC to the switch. Angela followed the
manual to install the NICs into the motherboard of each computer
and for connecting each cable. After completing the installation
Angela started up her computers and transferred her first file.
Evaluate the solution: Angela is pleased with her simple network.
There have been no problems with the equipment and the speed
of transmission is more than adequate.

Tasks
1 Research the Internet to find current solutions for creating a simple
network. Describe these solutions.
2 Do you think a wireless network would be a better solution for ICT 13.2
Angela? Give reasons for your answer.

Figure 13.12 Netgear

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Exercise 13.5
1 True or false?
a A NOS is an operating system to support computers connected
on a WAN.
b Most of the NOS is installed on the server.
c File management is a NOS task that adds, removes and
organises users.
d It is easier to secure data on a large number of computers than
data on a network.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A NOS must be able to manage the flow of data between a (a) and
the Internet. Most NOS provide a (b) to protect the network. A (c)
who attempts to enter the network through the (d) will be blocked
by the firewall.
3 Unjumble these words:
a wfalirel
b aoprdssw
4 a Describe the administrative tasks performed by the NOS and
the administrator of a network.
b Why do administrators find it easier to comply with software
copyright laws?
c How does the NOS manage
resources?
d What is the purpose of
anti-virus software?
e Describe the logon
procedure.
f What is a
password?

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Development
5 A NOS provides a file system and the ability to map drives and
directories for users. Explain this statement. What are the
advantages of restricting access for users?
6 Efficient networks are dependent on the network administrator.
Research newspapers and the Internet to find information about
the role of a network administrator and employment
opportunities. Write a brief report that summarises the result of
your investigation.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions 6 Which of the following is a bridge?


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) a Expansion card that allows a
that best answers each question. device to be connected to a
network
1 Which of the following is not an b Device to link two similar
advantage in establishing a network? networks
a Administrative time c Link between two different types
b Sharing data of networks
c Communication d Central connecting device on a
d Sharing peripherals network

2 What is the standard for data 7 Which of the following is an


transmission and error detection over intelligent hub that only sends a data
the Internet? packet to a specific device?
a IPX/SPX a Repeater
b NetBEUI b Gateway
c TCP/IP c Router
d Internet protocol d Switch

3 Which of the following describes 8 Which of the following is a network


data transmission in both directions topology that has a central node
but not at the same time? with each device connected directly
a Simplex mode to it?
b Half simplex mode a Ring topology
c Full duplex mode b Star topology
d Half duplex mode c Bus topology
d Central topology
4 Which of the following is the
maximum number of electrical 9 Which of the following is a network
signals transmitted in one second? access method used in star or bus
a Baud rate topologies?
b Bits per second a Token ring
c Signals per second b Logon
d Bit rate c Encryption
d Ethernet
5 Which of the following describes a
network on one site such as within a 10 Which of the following is not
building or group of buildings? performed using the NOS?
a WAN a Arrangement of nodes on a LAN
b VPN b Adding and removing users
c NIC c Installing software
d LAN d Mapping drives and directories
for users

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Part B: Match the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 A number of computers and their 6 A network where there is no central
peripheral devices connected in server but each computer is both a
some way. server and a client.
2 Set of rules that govern the transfer 7 A computer that provides resources
of data between computers. to other computers on the network.
3 The number of bits transmitted in 8 The physical arrangement of devices
one second. on a LAN.
4 The maximum number of electrical 9 A network topology where all the
signals transmitted in one second. nodes are attached in the shape of a
5 A network that uses one or more closed loop.
computers as servers and all the 10 An operating system to support
remaining computers as clients. computers connected on a LAN.

Terms
a Baud rate f NOS
b bps g Peer-to-peer
c Client server h Protocol
d Network i Ring
e Network topology j Server

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:

1 Networks are a necessity in most 4 Many LANs are linked together.


workplaces. What are the Describe three components of a
disadvantages in establishing a network that link LANs together.
network? 5 Define the following types of
2 There are three types of wire network topologies. Briefly state the
transmission. Briefly describe each advantages and disadvantages of
type of wire transmission. each topology:
3 Explain the difference between: a star topology
a a local area network and a wide b bus topology.
area network 6 What is a NOS? Outline the tasks
b a clientserver network and a performed by a NOS and the
peer-to-peer network. administrator of the network.

e Tester

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Project: Avon High School


Avon High School is a new school whose first enrolment will be next year. The
school expects a future enrolment of 1000 students with approximately seventy
staff. The school needs a local area network to operate throughout the school.
Staff and students require access to this network and the Internet. Design a
network to solve this problem. Create a building plan for Avon High School. The
solution requires details on the type of network, components of the network,
network operating system, data transmission media, proposed location of the
equipment and security. The network should be designed using the latest network
infrastructure. Standards and costs need to be outlined. This is a group project to
be developed using the four stages in project development.

Project 6.1
Project 6.2
Project 6.3

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14
14
CHAPTER

Robotics and
automated
systems
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
This chapter provides an overview of robotics and automated
systems. It starts by examining robotics and the types, purpose and
use of robots. You will learn the function of robots including the
use of sensors and actuators. The second half of the chapter
describes automated control and automated systems.
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14. 1 RoboticsRobotics is the study of the design, construction and use of robots.
People have been excited about robots for a number of years. The
term robot was first used in a classic play written in 1923 by Karel
Capek called R.U.R. (stands for Rossums Universal Robots). Robots
were mechanical men and women created to serve the human race.
The term android is now commonly used for human-like robots.
The robots in R.U.R. were developed to the point where they
revolted against people and proceeded to take over the world.
Karl Capek derived
Authors have since written many fictional books and movies
the word robot
from the Czech containing good and bad robots.
work robotnik Isaac Asimov wrote a science fiction book called I, Robot in
meaning slave 1950. It contained three laws of robotics that may still be relevant
labour.
to the future development of robots:
a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction,
allow a human being to come to harm
a robot must obey orders given it by a human being except
where such orders would conflict with the first law
a robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the first or second law.
The development of robots started in the textile industry in the
eighteenth century. Joseph-Marie Jacquard perfected an automated
looming machine to repeat the repetitive work on looms by weavers.
The industrial revolution spread automation to many other industries.
However, true robots were not possible until the invention of the
electronic computer in 1943. The first robot was called shakey. It
was built by researchers at the Standford Research Institute in 1968.
Shakey was larger than several humans, controlled by a computer
the size of a room and used a television camera. It took hours to
arrange blocks into stacks. In 1973 the first commercial industrial
robot was available. It was developed by Richard Hohn for Cincinnati
Milacron Corporation. The robot was called T3 (The Tomorrow
Tool). It tracked objects on a moving conveyor.
The vision many people have of robots is not matched by reality.
A robot is a computer-controlled machine designed to perform
physical tasks. It is more flexible and adaptable than other automated
systems. Robots are able to perform many tasks more quickly, cheaply
and accurately than people. A typical robot will have a movable
structure, actuator, sensors, power supply and processor. The
processor receives data about the environment from a sensor.
Robots change their actions to some degree in response to changes

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in the environment. The physical actions


are completed using an actuator.
Robot soccer is an interesting research
project that started in the 1980s. There
are three robots on a team and the soccer
field is the size of a table tennis table.
Robots are cubes with 7.5 centimetre
sides with two wheels driven by an
electromotor. A microprocessor inside the
robot controls the wheels by following
instructions from a computer. A camera
over the field sends images to the
computer. The computer processes these
images and recognises the positions of the
robots and the ball (see Figure 14.1).
Robot soccer is played without
interruption from people. Figure 14.1 Robot soccer

Types of robots
Robots consist of industrial robots and domestic robots.
Industrial robots are automated machines that work on assembly
lines. They are designed to do exactly the same action over and over
again. For example, robots are used to weld panels on a car coming
down an assembly line (see Figure 14.2). Industrial robots need to
be taught each action. The exact sequence of actions is stored in a
program. Industrial robots are not restricted to one task. They can be
re-programmed to perform a different task, the same as a computer.
Domestic robots are mobile robots that work in homes and
businesses. Providing mobility for a
domestic robot is an important
consideration. Wheels or tracks are used
if robots are to move over smooth
ground. Rough terrain requires other
methods, such as building robots with
legs. Domestic robots have been
developed to vacuum a house when the
owner is asleep. They are being used in
hospitals to transport medications and in
museums to protect galleries. Researchers
are predicting robots will become a
normal part of everyday life in the near
future. Figure 14.2 Robots in a car assembly line

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Purpose of robots
The population of robots is expanding at an extraordinary rate. The
purpose of robots includes:
Performing dangerous tasks: Robots perform tasks in unsafe
environments, such as cleaning up hazardous waste. They reduce
the risk of injury in the manufacturing industry, such as
welding car bodies.
Performing repetitive tasks: Robots are able to repeat their
actions accurately. They never become tired and can complete
jobs requiring extreme precision. Robots will always perform
their task in exactly the same way, such as drilling a hole in the
same position.
Operating in remote locations:
Robots are able to complete
tasks in locations difficult for
people to access, such as at
the bottom of the ocean or in
outer space (see Figure 14.3).
Robots are used to
manufacture integrated
circuits. The tiny
components on a silicon
chip require very precise
placement that is difficult
Figure 14.3 Robots in space
for humans.
Saving labour costs: Robots are able to work 24 hours a day,
without lunch breaks, sick leave or holidays. Robots are
expensive to design and install but when operational reduce
labour costs.

Use of robots
Robots are used in a range of situations, such as the following:
Explorationinvolves robots exploring dangerous or remote
locations. Remote robots are commonly used for this task. The
robot is partly controlled using radio or infrared signals. The
operator directs the robot to go to a certain spot then the robot
uses its sensors to find its own way. Robots are used to explore
inside volcanos, other planets or to seek out landmines.
Assembly linea series of workstations that gradually produce a
product. Robots are used at these workstations to perform a
physical task such as welding, painting or part fitting. Robots
and people usually work together on the assembly line.

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Maintenance and repairrobots fix equipment in many


industries, such as a nuclear power plant, aircraft servicing and
underwater facilities. Robots are chosen for this work because of
their precision or because the location is dangerous or remote.

Exercise 14.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ was the first robot.
b A robot is a computer-controlled machine designed to perform
_______ tasks.
c One purpose of a _______ is to operate in remote locations.
d An _______ is a series of workstations that gradually produces a
product.
2 What am I?
a The study of the design, construction and use of robots.
b The author of the science fiction book called I, Robot.
c Automated machines that work on assembly lines.
d A mobile robot that works in homes and businesses.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Robots are able to perform many (a) more quickly, cheaply and
accurately than people. They are able to (b) their actions accurately.
Robots will also perform in (c) environments and operate in (d)
locations.
4 a When was the term robot first used?
b What makes up a typical robot?
c How is the mobility of a domestic robot an important
consideration?
d List the three main purposes of robots.
e Describe the use of robots in exploration.
f Why would a robot be used for maintenance and repair of
equipment?

Development
5 Do research into the representation of robots in movies and on
television. Construct a table that identifies and describes the
characteristics of at least five different robots in movies and
television.
ICT 14.1
6 Robots will free millions of people from dirty, dangerous and
boring industrial work and their application will enrich society.
Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.

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14. 2 Function of robots


Industrial robots often have movable robotic arms. The amount of
movement in robots is called the degrees of freedom. Most robotic
arms have seven metal segments that are joined
by six joints (see Figure 14.4). The arm has six
degrees of freedom because there are six joints.
Many robotic arms have end effectors attached
on the last joint. There are all sorts of end
effectors that are suited to particular
applications. One common end effector is called
a gripper. Grippers are capable of grasping,
holding and controlling objects. Some robots
have hands with built-in pressure sensors that
indicate how hard a robot is gripping an object.
End effectors are also tools capable of
performing physical actions such as cutting,
painting or drilling. The operation of a robot is
dependent on sensors, actuators, computer
Figure 14.4 A robotic arm control and software programs.

Sensors
A sensor is an input device that measures data from the
environment. Sensors are used to detect different physical
conditions such as temperature, light, motion, touch, pressure and
flow of fluids.
Temperature sensors measure the temperature of the air or a
body. The control of temperature is very important in many
industries. Different temperature sensors are required for
Lit 7.1
different applications, such as thermostat, thermistor,
thermocouple and thermometer. Some types of temperature
sensors may be inappropriate for use due to the large range of
temperatures, the sensitivity of the sensor or their breakability.
Light sensors detect the presence of light or the intensity of light.
They are used to control the motion of robots and their
interpretation of the environment. Researchers are working very
hard at the interpretation of light images received by light
detectors. Photoresistor and phototransistor are two types of
light sensors.
Motion sensors measure the movement of objects. There are
sensors to detect position, distance, speed and acceleration. A
common motion sensor includes slotted wheels attached to a

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robots joints. A light beam is sent through the slots to a light


sensor on the other side of the wheel. When the wheel moves
the slots break the light beam and this indicates the amount of
motion. This type of sensor is also used in a mechanical mouse.
Touch sensors detect whether two objects have come into
contact. For example, in a motor vehicle assembly line, touch
sensors are used to determine that a car is in the correct
Interactive
position before welding or spraying can take place.
Pressure sensors measure the exertion of a force. A capacitor is a
type of pressure sensor that stores electric charges. When
pressure is placed on the capacitor there is a change in the level
of the stored charge. Measuring the change in the stored charge
indicates the force of the pressure.
Flow sensors detect the motion of fluids, including liquids and
gases. They are often used to measure the flow of liquids and
gases through pipes and drains. One common flow sensor is a
turbine. The flowing liquid spins a turbine like a windmill. The
speed the turbine spins indicates the flow of the liquid.

Actuators
An actuator performs the
physical action of the robot.
Some common actuators are
electric motors, stepper
motors, solenoids and
hydraulic pumps.
Electric motors are the
most common type of
actuators. Direct current
(DC) motors are capable Figure 14.5 Stepper motor
of high precision, fast
acceleration and high reliability. DC motors use battery power
and run continuously in one direction and then in the other
direction. AC motors use normal electrical power and do not
produce their greatest force until they achieve maximum speed.
Stepper motors (or step motors) allow movement in small
precise steps (see Figure 14.5). A stepper motor is used when
precise positioning is requiredit can move in either direction.
Stepper motors are not suitable for heavy loads.
A solenoid is a coil of wire around a magnet. When an electric
current passes through the wire, a magnetic field is generated.
This magnetic field moves the magnet one way or the other

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depending on which way the current is going. Washing


machines use solenoids to control the level of water entering the
tub from a tap. A solenoid is a simple mechanism that provides
rapid short movement.
Hydraulic pumps are used when great strength is needed.
Hydraulic fluids are used to power the pump. Hydraulic fluids
are non-compressible fluids, such as oil, that can be used in very
high-pressure situations. The power transmitted by the
hydraulic fluid comes from the pressure the fluid exerts against
things. This power is transmitted through high pressure tubing
Most successful to the hydraulic device.
commercial robots
Actuators need a power source. Most robots have a battery or are
look like normal
machinery. They connected to the mains power. The electrical circuit generated
are not androids as powers actuators such as electric motors and solenoids. Hydraulic
depicted in many
systems use electrical values to determine the hydraulic fluids path
movies and books.
through the machine. For example, to move a hydraulic arm, an
electrical valve would be opened and the hydraulic fluid would be
used to push a piston and create movement.

Computer control
Robots are controlled using a processor. The
processor inside the robot is often a microcontroller.
A microcontroller is an integrated circuit with a
CPU, RAM, ROM, timers and input/output ports
(see Figure 14.6). A microcontroller has all the
components of a computer except that it is a
dedicated device. Microcontrollers are often
described as the heart of the robot.
Microcontrollers also can receive data from
sensors, store and process that data and send
the information to an actuator such as a motor.
A computer is often used to give instructions to
the microcontroller. The computer transmits
infrared or radio signals to the microcontroller.
Figure 14.6 A microcontroller controls
the robot

Software
Robot software is designed to give the user total control of a robot.
The software allows the user to control the movement of the robot
while it intelligently avoids obstacles, builds a map for the robot,
sends the robot into specific areas, allows the user to control the

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robot from the Internet and to see and hear what the robot sees
and hears. Robots are also given instructions using a variety of
programming languages.
Non-procedural languages such as LISP and Prolog are used
with complex robots to allow them to make intelligent responses.
The programmer specifies what to do and the system determines
how to do it. Common high level languages such as BASIC are also
used to program robots. They require the programmer to specify
every action using a series of commands. Microcontrollers can be
purchased with the BASIC language built into their integrated Lit 7.2
circuit. The user downloads their programs for the robot using
their personal computer.

Exercise 14.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a a motion sensor and a touch sensor
b a DC motor and an AC motor.
2 True or false?
a Robotic arms have seven degrees of freedom.
b Light sensors are used to control the motion of robots.
c Hydraulic fluids are compressible fluids.
d Non-procedural languages are used with simple robots.
3 What am I?
a End effectors capable of grasping, holding and controlling an
object.
b Sensor used to measure the exertion of a force.
c Integrated circuit with a CPU, RAM, ROM, timers and
input/output ports.
d A common high level language used to program robots.
4 a What are the degrees of freedom?
b List six different types of sensors.
c What is a flow sensor?
d Describe a solenoid.
e What tasks are performed by a microcontroller?
f List some of the tasks the user can complete using robot
software.

Development
5 Robots are at the cutting edge of technology. Do research to find two
recent developments in robot technology. Describe this technology.
What impact will these developments have on our society?
6 Do research into the hardware available to construct a robot. Write
a report that summarises your investigation.

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14. 3 Automated control


Automated control devices manage themselves once given suitable
instructions. Examples of automated control devices include washing
machines and microwaves. Automated control devices use a feedback
principle. The device must be able to measure or sense a physical
quantity such as temperature, position or speed. It uses this data to
control itself. The refrigerator is an example of automated control.
Tutorial A refrigerator has a thermostat that measures the temperature, a
controller that compares the set temperature with the temperature
in the refrigerator and a compressor motor to remove heat. The
controller turns the compressor motor on and off so that the
refrigerator maintains the set temperature. This feedback principle
used in automated control has been used for centuries. The steam
engine invented in 1788 by James Watt used automated control to
regulate the amount of steam delivered to the engine.
The application of automated control to industrial processes is
called automation. Automation applies machines to tasks once
performed by people. It has the ability to perform a set of complicated
People visualise tasks repeatedly with great accuracy. The development of automation
the motor vehicle
assembly line
has become increasingly dependent on the use of computer
when thinking technology. This has resulted in automated systems that have become
of automation. increasingly sophisticated and complex. Advanced systems represent
The progress of
automation in
a level of capability and performance often greater than people, such
the motor vehicle as in aircraft navigation systems.
industry has been
a springboard for
other industries.
Historical perspective
The development of automation started in the second half of the
eighteenth century in the textile industry (see Figure 14.7). Joseph-
Marie Jacquard perfected an automated looming machine to repeat
the repetitive work on looms by weavers. Products before this time
were still custom made with manually operated machine tools. The
industrial revolution applied the concept of automation from the
textile industry to many other industries. Technology was developed
to build machines that copied the motions of the worker. These
machines were motorised and resulted in the factory system of
production. Workers and machines needed to be located near a
power source.
Automation resulted in better and cheaper goods and services.
The motor vehicle industry adopted the automation concept in the
1920s. Automation out-produced thousands of workers and
resulted in more affordable cars. The invention of the electronic

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computer in 1943 and the


subsequent reduction in the
size of computer parts made
significant changes to
automation. The first
commercial industrial robot
was available in 1973.
General motors started using
industrial robots to build
motor vehicles in 1980.
Automation and robot
technology is now an
accepted part of many
Figure 14.7 Textile industry during the early twentieth century
industries.
Automation and its effect on employment has been an issue
since the eighteenth century. A group of people called the Luddites
smashed the textile machinery in 1812 to stop automation. Some
people still argue that automation is replacing people in a range of
jobs. They argue that robots are performing industrial processes
that were previously done by
a factory worker. The
increasing use of robots and
automation has resulted in
higher unemployment. On
the other hand, some people
argue that automation has
led to economic progress,
new job opportunities and a
more prosperous society.
They suggest there is no link
to unemployment, as new
areas of employment are
created and these are
Figure 14.8 Automation and robots
expanding.
The standard of living enjoyed by most people in the
industrialised world is a product of automation. Automation has
increased the production of most goods and lowered their costs
(see Figure 14.8). Consumer products, such as computers, cars and
televisions, are available to more people because of automation.
People have more leisure time and the real wages of most people
have increased.

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Project: Robot
Amy Nguyen is interested in robotics and wants to build a robot. She
has no previous knowledge about robots. The aim of the project is to
create a simple robot that will be able to move around obstacles in her
house. The robot is to be controlled using her PC.
Define and analyse the problem: Amy investigated a range of
products that could be used to build her robot. She browsed the
Internet and read books on robotics. Amy discussed her project
with a friend who had a robot.
Design possible solutions: Amy arrived at two possible solutions.
She decided to use Lego blocks because of their low cost and
portability. Lego blocks are easily expanded to more complex
robots and tasks.
Produce the solution: Amy purchased the Lego blocks, a
microcontroller, software, two motors, two touch sensors, a light
sensor and a infrared transmitter. She installed the software into
her PC and tested all the products. Amy spent the next few days
building her robot. She used RCX code to create a program for the
robot. Amy tested her robot to ensure it obeyed her commands.
Evaluate the solution: Amy had successfully built a simple robot.
There were no problems with the hardware devices or the
software. Amy plans to create a more complex robot in the future.

Tasks
1 Research the latest hardware and software available to build a
simple robot. Write a brief report that summarises your investigation.
2 Describe the robots you think will be available in the future.

Exercise 14.3
1 True or false?
a Automated computer devices use a feedback principle.
b Automation is the application of machines to tasks once
performed by people.
c The motor vehicle industry adopted the automation concept in
the 1950s.
d Automation has increased the production of most goods and
lowered their costs.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The application of automated (a) to industrial processes is called
automation. The development of automation has become
dependent on (b) technology. This has resulted in (c) systems that
have become increasingly sophisticated and (d).

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3 Unjumble these words:


a toiauoatnm
b troob
4 a What is the feedback principle?
b Why is the refrigerator an example of automated control?
c Where did automation start?
d What event in 1943 made a significant change to automation?
e Who were the Luddities?
f Describe some of the benefits of automation.

Development
5 Do research into the history of automation. Identify the key
historical events for automation. Construct a timeline of these
events. Briefly describe and state the importance of each event.
6 Automation is the cause of unemployment. Critically discuss this
statement. What is your opinion of the effect of automation on
employment?

14. 4 Automated systems


Automated systems use automated control to perform tasks. The
application of automated systems has grown with developments in
information technology. We use remote control garage doors, home
security systems, automated lighting systems and have car parks
controlled by automated boom gates. Feedback is the basis of
automated control. It is provided using sensing devices and
actuators.

Sensing devices
Sensors are input devices that measure data from the environment.
They send data to a processor that issues commands to an actuator.
Sensors are used in a range of situations such as red-light traffic
systems, car navigation systems and security systems.
Red-light traffic systems are used to catch drivers who pass
through a red light. The system has three essential components: a
digital camera, a trigger and a microcontroller. The digital cameras
are positioned at the corner of an intersection. The cameras are
pointed at cars driving through the intersection. A trigger is set
off when a car has moved past a particular point in the intersection.
A microcontroller is located in the camera. It constantly monitors
the traffic signals and the trigger. If a car has set off the trigger and
the traffic light is red then the microcontroller instructs the camera

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to take a picture of the


car. The picture of the car,
together with the location,
date and time, is
transferred to a larger
computer for a fine to be
issued.
Car navigation systems
assist drivers to find their
destinations (see Figure
14.9). The car navigation
system contains a small
screen that displays a map.
The driver enters their
Figure 14.9 A car navigation system
destination and the best
route is displayed on the
screen. The car navigation system uses the global positioning
system (GPS) to access a satellite and determine the exact location
of the car as it travels along its route. A synthesised voice provides
directions throughout the journey. Car navigation systems use a
sensor device to measure the motor vehicles exact position.
Security systems are used to protect property from intruders.
There are simple security systems to protect homes to more
advanced systems to protect businesses. One method of detecting
intruders is to use a source of focused light such as a laser beam
and a light sensor. The light beam is aimed across a doorway to the
light sensor. When a person walks through the doorway the path of
the light beam is blocked. The light sensor measures a change in the
level of light and sends a signal to the control box. The control box
receives the signal and sounds the alarm. The alarm will not stop
until somebody has entered a security code at a connected keypad.
Infrared motion sensors are used in more advanced security
systems. These sensors measure the infrared energy emitted by an
intruder. The intruder walks into the field of view of the sensor and
the sensor sends a signal to the control box.

Types of actuators
Actuators perform a physical action and are used in a range of
situations such as opening and closing automatic doors. Automatic
doors are opened and closed using motion sensors and an actuator.
The motion sensor is located in a box above the doors. The motion
sensor sends out microwaves and waits for the reflected energy to

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bounce back. If there is nobody in front of the doors the


microwaves will be returned in the same pattern. However, when a
person approaches the door the returned microwaves have a
different pattern. The motion sensor then sends a signal to the
actuator to open the doors. The actuator used is often a pneumatic
pump. A pneumatic pump works in a similar way to a hydraulic
pump. A pneumatic pump uses compressed air to power the pump.
Compressed air is air under a pressure greater than that of the
atmosphere. Pneumatic pumps are used for heavy loads as they
provide great strength.

Controlling devices
A microprocessor is a CPU
contained on one integrated
circuit. Microprocessors are
used in many automated
systems such as televisions,
refrigerators, microwave
ovens and washing machines
(see Figure 14.10). These
devices are controlled by a
program stored in the
microprocessor on one
integrated circuit. The
microprocessor decides how
the device should respond to Figure 14.10 Microprocessor used in a refrigerator
the data collected from a
sensing device. Microprocessors are used for control since they are
small, cheap and reliable. Automated systems may have more than
one controller.
A controller receives information from an input device such as a
sensor and changes the output if required. The output is the signal
sent to an actuator. A controller does not have to be complicated.
A variable resistor attached to a light dimmer switch is an example
of a controller. When the strength of the resistor is adjusted, the
size of the current flowing through to the light is altered. The
controlling device may also be a microcontroller. A microcontroller
is an integrated circuit with a CPU, RAM, ROM, timers and
input/output ports. It has all the components of a computer except
it is a dedicated device.

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Exercise 14.4
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
(a) devices send data to a processor that issues commands to an (b).
Sensors are used in a range of situations such as (c) systems, car
navigation systems and (d) systems.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is provided using sensing devices and actuators.
b Red-light traffic systems contain a _______, trigger and
microcontroller.
c Car navigation systems use a _______ voice to provide directions
throughout a journey.
d A _______ is a CPU contained on one integrated circuit.
3 True or false?
a Automated systems use automated control to perform a task.
b Some security systems use a light beam and a light sensor.
c Automatic doors are opened and closed using pressure sensors
and an actuator.
d A controller is always a complicated device.
4 a What task does the microcontroller perform in a red-light
traffic system?
b What is the purpose of the global positioning system in a car
navigation system?
c How do infrared motion sensors work?
d Describe the use of motion sensors in automatic doors.
e How does a pneumatic pump work?
f Where are microprocessors used?

Development
5 Automated systems are an accepted part of our everyday life.
Identify the automated systems that you have used in the past
week. Do research into one of these systems. How does this
ICT 14.2 automated system work? Your answer should refer to sensing
devices, actuators and controlling devices.
6 Investigate an automated system in your
local community. Analyse the
system in terms of sensing
devices, actuators and
controlling devices.
Do you think this
automated system is
effective? Write a
report that
summarises your
investigation.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 Which of the following is an 7 Which of the following statements
automated machine that works on an is incorrect?
assembly line? a Automation is the application of
a Industrial robot machines to tasks once performed
b Assembly robot by people
c Domestic robot b Automated control devices
d Android manage themselves once given
suitable instructions
2 Which of the following is not a use c Feedback principle used in
for a robot? automated control is a recent
a Maintenance and repair development
b Assembly line d Development of automation has
c Mental calculation become dependent on the use of
d Exploration computer technology

3 Which of the following is the person 8 Where did automation start?


who wrote the three laws of a Textile industry in the eighteenth
robotics? century
a Karel Capek b Electronic computer in 1943
b Isaac Asimov c Steam engine in 1788
c Joseph-Marie Jacquard d Motor vehicle industry in the
d Richard Hohn 1920s

4 Which of the following is an input 9 Which of the following is not an


device that measures data from the essential component of red-light
environment? traffic systems?
a Actuator a Trigger
b Microcontroller b Digital camera
c Automated control c Microcontroller
d Sensor d Light sensor

5 Which of the following is a sensor 10 Which of the following is a device


that measures the movement of an that receives information from an
object? input device and changes the output
a Pressure sensor if required?
b Motion sensor a Microprocessor
c Action sensor b Actuator
d Touch sensor c Sensing device
d Controller
6 Which of the following is the most
common type of actuator?
a Electric motor
b Stepper motor
c Solenoid
d Hydraulic pump

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Part B: Match the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.
Statements
1 A computer-controlled machine 6 Performs the physical action of the
designed to perform physical tasks. robot.
2 Automated machines that work on 7 Integrated circuit with a CPU, RAM,
assembly lines. ROM, timers and input/output ports.
3 Mobile robots that work in homes 8 Devices that manage themselves
and businesses. once given suitable instructions.
4 Amount of movement in a structure. 9 Application of automated control to
5 Input device that measures data from industrial processes.
the environment. 10 A CPU contained on one integrated
circuit.
Terms
a Actuator f Industrial robot
b Automated control g Microcontroller
c Automation h Microprocessor
d Degrees of freedom i Robot
e Domestic robot j Sensor

Part C Extended-response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Define robotics and robots. Describe 4 What is the difference between an
the contribution made by Isaac actuator and a microcontroller?
Asimov to the concept of a robot. Identify four different types of
2 Robots are used in a range of actuators.
situations. Briefly describe three uses 5 Define automated control. Describe a
for robots. device that uses automated control.
3 Explain the purpose of a sensor. 6 Automated systems are dependent
Outline the main features of three on sensing devices. Select one
different types of sensors. automated system and
outline the sensing devices
used in this system. e Tester

Project: Automated system


Create an automated system using Lego or a similar product. The automated
system must be constructed using blocks and perform a range of different tasks.
It needs to contain automated control using sensors and motors. The
automated system is to be controlled using a personal computer and
a range of commands. This is a group project to be developed using
the four stages in project development. Demonstrating the operation Project 7.1
of the automated system is an important criterion for this project. Project 7.2
Project 7.3

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15
15
CHAPTER

Software
development
and
programming
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.

Overview
This chapter will develop your understanding of software
development and programming. It examines the basic
programming concepts, algorithms and control structures. You will
learn about programming languages, testing and documentation.
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15. 1 Programming
Programming is the process of writing programs and developing
software. A program is a collection of instructions that, when
executed, will complete a task on the computer. One or more
programs are commonly referred to as software or code. People
who write programs are called programmers or software
developers. Programmers write programs using programming
languages. There are many programming languages available such
as Java, Visual BASIC and C++.
Lit 8.1 Java is a popular language developed by Sun Microsystems. Java,
like all programming languages, has its own set of rules (syntax)
which must be strictly followed (see Figure 15.1). However, there
are basic programming concepts in all programming languages.

Figure 15.1 Java program

Basic programming concepts


When writing a program it is necessary to consider the input,
processing and output. Input is the data needed to solve the
problem, the processing is the calculations required and the output
is the way of giving the solution. Once these factors are determined,
the actual task of writing programs is minimised. A program is
written in a programming language using the following concepts.
Function (or keyword) is a reserved word for a particular
purpose such as class, public and private. Some functions are
very powerful, such as if and while.

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Constant (or literal) is an item of data with only one specific value.
Constants are either numbers or strings (numbers and letters).
Variable is an item of data that may take different values, one at
a time. They are storage containers used to hold data of the same
type.
Identifier is the name of anything in a program such as a
variable. There are some restrictions on the use of identifiers,
such as always starting with a letter.
Separator is a symbol for grouping sections of the program such
as { and }. The correct use of separators is essential otherwise
the program will not work.
Assignment statement gives a value to a variable such as: x = 9.
The general form of an assignment statement is: variable =
expression. The expression can contain other variables such as:
y + 1. This will result in the assignment statement: x = y + 1.

GUI layout
The graphical user interface (GUI, pronounced gooey) gives
instructions using a mouse, and clicking on icons and menus.
A GUI provides an easy-to-use and consistent interface for a range
of applications. Modern programming languages create objects for
each component in a GUI,
such as:
text box and labels are
used to display text
option button (or radio
button) enables the user
to select one option from
a group
check box, a text box and
a small box that allows
the user to click on or
offmore than one
option can be selected
from a group
list box presents the user
with two or more options
that are viewed using a
scroll bar
command buttonsOK to
confirm selection and
Cancel to quit. Figure 15.2 Visual basic

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Data type
Data type is the kind of data that can be stored in a variable. To
create a variable it must be declared. Variable declaration involves
stating the data type of the variable and an identifier or unique
name for the variable. Most programming languages have the
following data types:
integer number is a whole number without fractional parts
floating-point number is a number with the fractional parts
boolean is used to store values that have one of two possible
states such as true or false
character is used to store one character such as a letter, number
Lit 8.2
or symbol
string is used to store more than one character.

Data operators
Data operators (or operators) are used to represent an action to be
performed such as a calculation. Operators are classified as:
Arithmetic operatorperforms a calculation such as addition
(+), subtraction (), division (/), multiplication (*), powers (^)
and modulus (%). Calculations are carried out using the
Interactive standard order of operations.
Relational operatorcompares two values and returns a
boolean (true or false) result. Relational operators include less
than (<), greater than (>), less-than-or-equal-to (<=), greater-
than-or-equal-to (>=), equal-to (= =) and not-equal-to (!=).
Logical operatorcompares two values and returns a boolean
(true or false) result. Logical operators include AND (&&), OR
(!!) and NOT (!).

Exercise 15.1
1 Explain the difference between:
a constant and variable
b character and string
c an arithmetic operator and a relational operator.
2 What am I?
a A collection of instructions that, when executed, will complete
a task on the computer.
b The name given to anything in a program such as a variable.
c A component in a GUI that enables the user to select one
option from a group.
d Data type for whole numbers without fractional parts.

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3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in


brackets with a suitable term:
People who write (a) are called programmers. A collection of
programs is called (b). Programmers use (c) languages such as Java,
(d) and C++.
4 a What is programming?
b Describe the factors that minimise the actual task of writing
programs.
c What is the purpose of an assignment statement?
d What is a variable declaration?
e List five common data types.
f What is a data operator?

Development
5 Examine the Java program in Figure 15.1.
a What is the purpose of this program?
b How could you change this program to display your name?
6 Do research to find an example of a program written using a
programming language.
a Describe the input, processes and output.
b Identify the data operators, functions, assignment statements,
variables and constants.

15. 2 Algorithms
An algorithm is a series of steps designed to solve a problem in a
finite time. An algorithm can be used to solve many types of
problems. Algorithms are not programs but are an important part
in the development of a program. In this section we examine
algorithms from familiar but non-computing contexts.

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Algorithms can be used to describe simple daily actions or


explain a particular task. For example:
Algorithm to make a phone call:
Pick up the phone.
Dial number.
Deliver the message.
Hang up the phone.
Algorithm to catch a train:
Travel to station.
Buy a ticket.
Go to the correct platform.
If the correct train, catch the train, otherwise wait.
Repeat the above step.
Algorithm to install a smoke alarm:
Select a central location such as the hallway.
Select a wall or ceiling on which to mount the alarm.
Unlatch and remove the mounting plate from the alarm.
Use the screws to secure mounting plate to ceiling.
Install batteries into alarm body.
Hook the alarm body onto the mounting plate.

In all of these examples the algorithm presents a solution in a


definite number of steps. Each step is short enough so that it can be
easily carried out. The steps must also be performed in a particular
order (sequence) to solve the problem; for example, you cannot
hang up the phone before delivering the message. Algorithms are
represented in a number of different ways. These are referred to as
Before an
algorithm can methods of algorithm description. There are many different
be written the methods of algorithm description such as pseudocode and
problem must be flowcharts.
fully understood.
How a solution is
arrived at depends Pseudocode
a lot on past
experience. If a
Pseudocode uses indented lines and keywords to describe an
similar problem algorithm. Pseudocode is written using a word processor and is
has been solved similar to many programming languages. There are different
it is an obvious
advantage.
standards of pseudocode for different purposes, however, there are
some generally accepted rules. The flow of control in pseudocode is
always from the top to the bottom. The keywords are highlighted in
capital letters (or bold) to emphasise them and to indicate the type
of action being performed. The most common keywords are shown
in Table 15.1. These keywords are grouped together in pairs. For
example, for every BEGIN there is an END, for every IF there is an
ENDIF. Indentation is used to show the structure of the algorithm.

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Table 15.1 Keywords used in pseudocode

Keywords Meaning
BEGIN Terminal: start and finish
END
IF (condition) Selection: different tasks are performed
THEN process 1 according to the condition
ELSE process 2 The ELSE statement is optional
ENDIF
WHILE (condition) Repetition: statements between the keywords
process 1 are repeated while the condition is true
ENDWHILE (Pre-test repetition)
REPEAT Repetition: statements between the keywords
process 1 are repeated while the condition is true
UNTIL (condition) (Post-test repetition)

Problem: Write pseudocode to calculate the area of a


rectangle given a length of 3 cm and a breadth of 5 cm.
Solution:
BEGIN
Make length 3 cm
Make breadth 5 cm
Set area to length breadth
Display area
END
Lit 8.3
Flowcharts
A flowchart is a pictorial or graphical
method of describing an algorithm.
Flowcharts often make it easy to see
the structure of the solution. However,
it is very easy to draw a flowchart that is
complex and difficult to change into a
programming language. The basic
elements of a flowchart are a set of
symbols that contain messages
and interconnecting lines. A set of
standards for flowcharts has been
established for a number of
different applications. The four
most commonly used symbols are
shown in Table 15.2.

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Table 15.2 Symbols used in flowcharts

Symbol Meaning
Terminal: start and finish
There should be only one line in or one line out

Process: used to describe a process or action


Set count to thirty
It contains one line in and one line out

Subprogram: process described by its own


Set count to thirty
flowchart to perform a particular task

Decision: it consists of one line coming in at the


top and two lines leaving it

The Australian standards for


flowcharting indicate that the main
Begin
direction of flow is from top to bottom
or left to right. This flow of control is
indicated by lines and arrows called
Make length 3cm flowlines. Flowlines do not need an arrow
if the flow of control is following these
main directions. For example, in Figure
Make breadth 5cm
15.3 the flow of control is from top to
bottom so there are no arrows on the
flowlines.
Problem: Design a flowchart to
Set area to
length x breadth calculate the area of a rectangle
given a length of 3 cm and a
breadth of 5 cm.

Display area Solution: Figure 15.3 shows the


flowchart for this problem.

End

Figure 15.3 Flowchart to


calculate area of a rectangle

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Exercise 15.2
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Algorithms are not _______ but are an important part in the
development of a program.
b _______ uses indented lines and keywords to describe an
algorithm.
c The flow of control in pseudocode is always from the _______ to
the bottom.
d A flow chart is a _______ method of describing an algorithm.
2 What am I?
a A method of algorithm description that is written using a word
processor.
b A keyword in pseudocode to start the algorithm.
c The lines and arrows in a flowchart.
d A symbol used in a flowchart to start and finish.
3 The following algorithms have errors in their sequence. Find these
errors and write the correct solution to the problem.
a Algorithm to read a book:
Read book
Open book to first page
Close book
Get book
b Algorithm to run a bath:
If bath is full, turn off the taps
If water is too hot, increase the amount of cold water
Put plug into bath
If water is too cold, increase the amount of hot water
Turn on the hot water tap
Turn on the cold water tap
4 a What is an algorithm?
b Why must the steps in an algorithm be performed in a
particular order?
c Why are the keywords in pseudocode highlighted?
d What is the purpose of indentation in pseudocode?
e What are the disadvantages of a flowchart?
f Name the basic symbols used in flowcharts.

Development
5 An algorithm to watch your favourite television show is shown
below:
Turn television on
Select television show
Watch television show
Turn television off ICT 15.1
a Convert this algorithm into pseudocode.
b Convert this algorithm into a flowchart.

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6 An algorithm to listen to a CD is shown below:


Turn on equipment
Insert CD
Select track
Play
a Convert this algorithm into pseudocode.
b Convert this algorithm into a flowchart.
7 Design an algorithm in both pseudocode and a flowchart for the
following:
a making a cheese sandwich
b making a bowl of cereal for breakfast.

15. 3 Control structures


Programmers solve a problem by designing an algorithm and then
coding the algorithm into a programming language. Algorithms
and programming languages consist of control structures. Control
structures are the building blocks of the program. There are three
basic control structures: sequence, selection and repetition.

Sequence
Sequence is the order the steps are executed. In pseudocode, the
steps are placed between BEGIN and END (see the problem below).
The sequence of four steps is indented to show structure and to
improve the readability of the algorithm. The flow of control is top
to bottom, starting at the first step and finishing at the last step.
Flowcharts always start and finish with a terminal symbol (oval).
The steps are placed between these symbols and joined by flowlines
(see Figure 15.4). The direction of flow is down the page between
the terminal symbols.
Problem: Design an algorithm to wash your hands.
Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
Wet hands
Clean hands with soap
Rinse off soap
Dry hands
END
Flowchart solution is shown in Figure 15.4.

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Begin

Wet hands

Clean hands
with soap

Rinse off soap

Dry hands

End

Figure 15.4 Flowchart to


wash your hands

Selection
Selection is used to make a logical decision. It requires a choice to
be made between two or more options. The choice is made
depending on the answer to a condition. There are two types of
selection: binary and case.
Binary selection involves two choices. In pseudocode, the
keywords IF THEN ELSE are used for binary selection
(see the problem below). The condition is put after the IF keyword.
There are only two possible answers to the condition, true or false.
If the condition is true then the process after the THEN keyword is
executed. If the condition is false then the process after the ELSE
keyword is executed. The ELSE statement is not always required
and can be omitted. In a flowchart the selection is made using a
decision symbol (diamond). The condition is placed inside this
symbol and the answer must be true or false (see Figure 15.5). It is
very important that the two flowlines from the decision symbol are
labelled with true or false to determine which path to follow. The
two flowlines join together to complete the binary selection.

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Problem: Design an algorithm for turning on the lights.


Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
IF night
THEN turn lights on
ELSE turn lights off
ENDIF
END
Flowchart solution

Begin

False True
Is it night?

Turn lights off Turn lights on

End

Figure 15.5 Flowchart for turning on the lights

Case selection (or multiway selection) involves more than two


choices. In pseudocode, the keywords CASEWHERE ENDCASE
are used for case selection (see the problem below). The condition
is put after the CASEWHERE keyword. Careful thought is required
to cater for all possible answers to the condition. The possibilities
are indented under the CASEWHERE keyword with a process to be
executed only if the answer is true. In the problem below there are
three options: green, amber and red with a colon specifying the
process to be carried out if the option is true. In a flowchart the
case selection is made using a decision symbol (see Figure 15.6).
The condition is placed inside the decision symbol with the
answers above each process. The flowlines join together to complete
the case selection.
Problem: Design an algorithm for a set of traffic lights.

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Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
CASEWHERE colour of signal
Green : Pass through lights
Amber : Slow down vehicle
Red : Stop vehicle
ENDCASE
END
Flowchart solution

Begin

Colour of the
signal is?

Green Amber Red

Pass through lights Slow down vehicle Stop vehicle

End

Figure 15.6 Flowchart for a set of traffic lights

Repetition
A repetition or loop allows a number of steps to be repeated until
some condition is satisfied. The steps to be repeated are referred to
as the body of the loop. It is very important that each loop contains
a condition to stop the loop going on forever. There are two types
of repetition: pre-test or post-test.
In a pre-test repetition or guarded loop the condition is checked
at the beginning of the loop before the steps to be repeated are
executed. In pseudocode the keywords used for a pre-test repetition
are WHILE ENDWHILE (see problem below). The condition is
put after the WHILE keyword and the body of the loop between
the WHILE and ENDWHILE keywords. In a flowchart the pre-test
repetition is made using a decision symbol and flowlines (see
Figure 15.7). The condition is placed inside the decision symbol
and checked before the body of the loop.

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Problem: Design an algorithm for using seat belts in a car.


Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
WHILE car is moving
keep seat belts on
ENDWHILE
END
Flowchart solution

Begin

False
Is car moving?

True

Keep seat belts on

End

Figure 15.7 Flowchart for using seat belts in a car

In a post-test repetition or unguarded loop the condition is


checked at the end of the loop after the steps to be repeated are
executed. In pseudocode the keywords used for a post-test repetition
are REPEAT UNTIL (see problem below). The body of the loop
is underneath the REPEAT keyword and the condition is after the
UNTIL keyword. In a flowchart the post-test repetition is made with
a decision symbol and flowlines (see Figure 15.8). The body of the
loop is executed before the condition is met in the decision symbol.

Problem: Design an algorithm to cut the grass.


Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
REPEAT
Use lawn mower
UNTIL grass is cut
END

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Flowchart solution

Begin

Use lawn mower

False
Is grass cut?

True

End

Figure 15.8 Flowchart to cut the grass

Exercise 15.3
1 What control structures are represented by the following
algorithm segments?
a BEGIN
process 1
process 2
process 3
END
b WHILE (condition)
process
ENDWHILE
c IF (condition)
THEN process 1
ELSE process 2
ENDIF
d REPEAT
Process
UNTIL (condition)
e f

False

True

Figure 15.9 Figure 15.10

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g h
False True False

True

Figure 15.11 Figure 15.12

2 True or false?
a Case selection involves two choices.
b In a flowchart a selection is made using a decision symbol.
c The steps repeated in a repetition are called the body of the loop.
d The REPEAT UNTIL keywords are used for a pre-test repetition.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The building blocks of a program are called the (a). Sequence is the
(b) the steps are executed. Selection is making a logical (c).
Repetition allows a number of (d) to be repeated.
4 a What is the sequence in an algorithm?
b Describe the flow of control in pseudocode.
c What is binary selection in an algorithm?
d Why is it important to label the two flowlines from a decision
symbol with true or false?
e What keywords are used for a pre-test repetition in
pseudocode?
f How is a post-test repetition made in a flowchart?

Development
5 Explain what the following algorithms do.
a Pseudocode:
BEGIN
print What is the capital of Australia?
get answer from user
IF answer is Canberra
THEN print Well done, correct
ELSE print Sorry the answer is Canberra
ENDIF
END
b Pseudocode:
BEGIN
set Count to one
WHILE Count is less than eleven
print Count
increment Count by one
ENDWHILE
END

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c Pseudocode:
BEGIN
set Count to ten
REPEAT
print Count
increment Count by one
UNTIL Count is twenty
END
d e

Begin Begin

Print What is my Set Count to twenty


favourite colour?

False
Is Count
Input colour
> 0?

True

False Is colour True Print Count


blue?

Print You are wrong, Print Congratulations Decrease Count by one


blue is the answer you are right

End End

Figure 15.13 Figure 15.14

Begin

Set Count to thirty

Print Count

Decrease Count by two

False
Is Count less
than eight?

True

End

Figure 15.15

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6 Convert these algorithms into pseudocode and flowcharts:


a Go to the bus stop
Wait for the bus
Get on bus
Pay fare
b Alarm goes off
Get out of bed
If I have homework to complete, then finish homework
Get dressed
Eat breakfast
c Go to the lounge room
Turn on the TV
If it is Sunday, then watch a movie else watch news
d Wake up
Get out of bed
Have a shower
If weekday, then put on uniform else put on normal clothes
Eat breakfast
e Go to the station
Buy a ticket
Buy a magazine
Sit on a seat and read a magazine until the train comes
Put magazine in bag
Get on the train
7 Construct an algorithm in pseudocode for the following tasks:
a making a phone call
b cleaning your teeth.

15. 4 Programming
languages
Programming languages are used to create the instructions in a
program that can be understood by the computer. Each
programming language has its own set of rules that must be strictly
followed. The rules of the programming language are called its
syntax. Programming languages are divided into two groups:
Low-level languages are the lowest level of computer languages
and depend on the hardware of the computer. Programs written
Tutorial
using low-level languages are often called machine code or
assembly code. They process calculations much faster than
high-level languages.
High-level languages use English-like codes where each statement
corresponds to several lines of machine code. Programming

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languages such as Java, Visual BASIC and C++ are high-level


languages. A compiler or interpreter translates a high-level program
into machine code so the computer can implement the solution.

Object-oriented programming
Most programmers use a high-level language and a strategy called
object-oriented programming or OOP (rhymes with hoop). OOP
requires the programmer to package the data and the methods (or
procedures) into a single unit called an object. A program consists
of a collection of interacting objects. Writing a program involves Lit 8.4

describing different types of objectswhat they can do, how they


are created and how they interact with other objects. Creating an
object requires defining that object. This is called creating a class.
A class describes how objects behave and the kind of information
in the object. It is a template to create objects. After defining classes
and creating objects programmers write instructions to complete a
task. A task could be adding numbers or completing a simple game
(see Figure 15.16).

Figure 15.16 Instructions in Visual Basic

Object-oriented programming requires keywords, literals,


variables, identifiers, separators, data types and operators. These
concepts were examined at the start of this chapter. Java is a
popular language developed by Sun Microsystems to create small
applications. It is an object-oriented language that excels at
producing web-based applets that work on different types of
computers. Applets are graphical Java programs that execute within
a web page. They are responsible for the dynamic nature of the Web.
The Java software development kit has all the tools and resources
needed to write Java applets and applications. The Java program is
written in a text editor and a Java compiler used to convert the
program into source code for an HTML document. The control
structures used in Java are similar to pseudocode:

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sequenceexecute one after another from the start to the end


binary selectionuses the ifelse keywords:
if (condition)
Statement 1
else
Statement 2
case selectionuses the switchcase keywords:
switch (Expression)
case Constant 1:
StatementList1
case Constant 2:
StatementList2
default:
DefaultStatementList
pre-test repetitionuses the while keyword:
while (LoopCondition)
Statement
post-test repetitionuses the dowhile keywords:
do
Statement
while (LoopCondition)
Problem: Write a Java program that will ask the user for
their first name and print this name ten time on the screen.
Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
set Count equal one
input users name
WHILE Count is less than or equal to 10
print users name
increment Count by one
ENDWHILE
END
Java solution is shown in Figure 15.17

Subprograms
Structured programming aims to create well ordered and logical
programs. It involves breaking the problem down into smaller
parts. Each part is solved separately and then combined to produce
the final solution. A structured program consists of a collection of
smaller programs. Each of these smaller programs is called a
subprogram. A subprogram is a self-contained section of code that
performs a particular task. In Java, subprograms are called methods.
For example, the code below is a method in Java. It adds two
integers (parameters) and returns the result to the calling program
(larger program).

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Public int add2Int (int x, int y)


{
Int result;
result = x + y
Return result;
}
Subprograms have a single
entry point and suspend the calling
program until they have finished.
Subprograms have the added
advantage of being reuseable.
Programmers may use the same
subprogram many times in different
problems. This reduces the time
required to program. Programmers
keep a library of subprograms they
have written.

Data structures
A file is a block of related data
stored on a storage device. Figure 15.17 Java program

Programs are stored as files. A data structure used in many


programming languages is called a record.
A record is a collection of facts that are related in some way.
Records are a fixed length and are divided into one or more fields.
A field is a specific piece of data in a record. Shown below is a
record that consists of 17 characters: eight for field 1, seven for field
2 and two for field 3. Each record, irrespective of the data, would
have a fixed length of seventeen characters. A record is usually a
combination of other data types. The record below has a string data
type and an integer data type. The ability to have different data
types distinguishes records and arrays.
s m i t h l u k e 1 6

An array stores a list of elements of the same data type. An array


is used to efficiently store large quantities of data. Each element
within an array is numbered and accessed based on their number.
To use an array the data type and the number of items must be
declared. For example, array declarations in Java are shown below.
Int[] score = new int[10];
char[] vowel char[5];

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The first statement creates an integer array score with up to ten


elements. The second statement creates a character array vowel
with up to five elements. After the array is declared each individual
element can be used to store data. In the example below vowel[1] is
storing the letter E.
vowel[0] = A;
vowel[1] = E;
vowel[4] = U;

Exercise 15.4
1 True or false?
a Each programming language has the same rules that must be
strictly followed.
b Most programmers use a high-level language.
c A class describes how objects behave and the kind of
information in the object.
d Object-oriented programming involves breaking the problem
down into smaller parts.
2 Explain the difference between:
a a low-level language and a high-level language
b a record and an array.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A program in _______ consists of a collection of interacting
objects.
b A _______ is a self-contained section of code that performs a
particular task.
c Each element within an array is _______ and accessed based on
their number.
4 a What is the purpose of a programming language?
b Describe the process of writing a program using an OOP
language.
c What are applets?
d What is the aim of structured programming?
e Describe an advantage of subprograms.
f What is the purpose of an array?

Development
5 Do research into a high-level programming language. If possible
complete a tutorial on a programming language. Identify the basic
programming concepts and control structures used in the programming
language. Write a report that summarises your investigation.
6 Write a program that will ask the user for their first name and print
this name ten times on the screen (see Figure 15.17). Execute this
program. Modify the program so that the persons name is printed
twenty times.

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7 Write a program that will create an array and store each letter of
the alphabet. Enter data into the array and use the array to display
a message.

15. 5 Testing and


documentation
Most programmers strive for the perfect program, however, few are
able to achieve it. It is rare for a complex program to be written
without errors. Errors in a program are called bugs. A bug is an
error that makes the program run incorrectly. The process of
finding a bug is called debugging. Debugging is often a time-
consuming and challenging task. The term bug is
a result of a
problem with the
Testing Mark 1 computer
Test data is used to detect and correct any potential errors in a in 1945. This
computer started
program. Except for simple programs, test data will only cover a working after a
small percentage of all the possible sets of data. The programmer moth was removed
selects test data that will cater for the worst-case situation. This is from the inside of
the machine.
data the programmer predicts will cause a problem. It is often data Consequently, any
outside the boundaries of acceptable data such as entering a decimal unknown problem
number instead of an integer. Test data is also designed to check for with a computer is
said to be a bug.
expected outcomes. For example, if a user enters 4 the program
should display the result for this value. The selection of test data
depends on the programmers understanding of the program.
Programmers use test data throughout the development of a program.
Lit 8.5
Error detection and correction
Error detection involves identifying and describing the error. Error
correction fixes the source of the error to create a workable program.
There are three basic types of errors:
Logic errors result from an incorrect series of steps to solve the
problem. The program with a logic error produces incorrect or
unexpected results. Logic errors can occur if the algorithm does
not solve the problem correctly. The algorithm should be tested
before coding to eliminate logic errors. It is often a difficult task
to find and correct logic errors.
Syntax errors are made when the programmer has failed to
follow the rules (syntax) of the programming language. A syntax
error may be a spelling error or a symbol that cannot be

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translated. When the program is compiled or interpreted, an


error message will appear if the program contains any syntax
errors. Correcting any syntax errors is usually a simple task.
Run-time errors occur when it is impossible for the computer to
carry out the instruction. For example, if a calculation
attempted to divide a number by zero it would be a run-time
error. The instruction has the correct syntax but it is not
possible to carry out the instruction. Incorrect data can often
produce a run-time error.
There is a range of strategies to detect and correct errors:
Desk checking involves the programmer checking each line of
code. Desk checking takes place after the algorithm has been
written and again after it has been coded in the programming
language. The programmer executes the program the same as
the computer. Desk checking provides a way to see exactly what
code is being executed and the flow of execution through the
program. A desk check usually involves watching the variables.
A list is constructed containing the names of variables and their
values. The list of variables is updated after each step of the desk
check. If the desk check is performed by somebody other than
the programmer it is called a peer check.
Breakpoint is a roadblock in the execution of the program.
When the program reaches a breakpoint it stops. Breakpoints
are useful in isolating sections of the code and analysing them.
Software debugging tools are available for most programming
languages. A debugger is a program that will perform the desk
check electronically. They are often used with a breakpoint to
watch the variables in a section of code. Debuggers are only tools
to find problems and do not provide the solution to the problem.
A trapdoor is a
section of code
used by Documentation
programmers as a Documentation is a written description to explain the development
diagnostic tool to
enable them to
and operation of a program. It is not part of the actual code.
access certain parts Documentation is an important aspect of writing programs as it
of a program. helps the reader to understand what is going on. It should be written
Trapdoors are
removed before a
during the development of the program, however, it is often neglected
program is sold. and left until last. This results in inadequate documentation making
the program difficult to understand and modify. The documentation
required in a program falls into three main categories:
Intrinsic documentation involves writing an easy-to-read
program. It involves using correct programming techniques and
meaningful variable names such as height instead of x.

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Internal documentation consists of any comments or remarks


within the program code to describe its purpose. The code
below shows internal documentation in Java using the forward
slash and asterisk:
/* This form of documentation allows the text to wrap
around onto succeeding lines
*/
// This form of documentation is restricted to one line
External documentation consists of any written support
material. This may include a problem statement, input data,
output data, processes, algorithm, test data and a listing of the
program, user manuals and installation guides.

Project: Rite Software


Arla is a programmer who has been contracted to update the user
interface for Rite Software. Rite Software is a suite of programs to help
children read and write. The user interface was written seven years ago
and looks dated. She solved the problem using the four stages in
project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Arla spoke with the manager to
determine the exact requirements of the problem. She collected
information to be displayed on the screen. A project plan was
written and submitted for approval to the manager.
Design possible solutions: Arla designed four possible screens. Each
possible solution had the same objects; however, they were
formatted and displayed in different ways. A feasibility report was
written and presented to the manager. The recommendation from
the feasibility report was accepted by the manager. Arla designed
an algorithm using pseudocode to solve the problem.
Produce the solution: Arla used Visual BASIC programming
language to code the algorithm. She created forms and added
objects to those forms. The properties of each object were
specified. Arla entered the code and saved the project.
ICT 15.2
Evaluate the solution: Arla tested the program to ensure each
screen and form was working correctly. There was a problem
displaying one of the images and this was fixed. The new software
was presented to the manager.

Tasks
1 Design an appropriate introductory screen for Rite Software using a
modern user interface.
2 What are the characteristics of a modern user interface?

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Exercise 15.5
1 What am I?
a An error made when a programmer has failed to follow the
rules of programming.
b An error that occurs when it is impossible for the computer to
carry out the instruction.
c An error detection that involves putting a roadblock in the
execution of the program.
d Documentation that involves writing an easy-to-read program.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a When a program is _______ an error message will appear if the
program contains a syntax error.
b A desk check usually involves watching the _______.
c A _______ is a program that will perform the desk check
electronically.
d Inadequate _______ makes a program difficult to understand
and modify.
3 Unjumble these words:
a ugdinebgg
b ecdk hkiecncg
4 a What is a bug?
b What is the purpose of test data?
c List the three basic types of errors.
d What is desk checking?
e Why is documentation an important aspect of writing
programs?
f Explain the difference between internal and external
documentation.

Development
5 Examine the following algorithm. What will be the output if the
user enters 4? Perform a desk check by watching the variables
(Number, Count and Temp).
BEGIN
Get Number from the user
Set Count to zero
WHILE Count is less than Number
Set Temp to Count plus one
Print Temp
increment count by one
ENDWHILE
Print Count
END
6 Examine the following algorithm. What will be the output?
Perform a desk check by watching the variables (X and Y).

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BEGIN
Set X to zero
Set Y to one
REPEAT
Set X to X plus Y
Print X
increment Y by one
UNTIL Y is four
Print Count
END
7 Edit the programs created in Exercise 15.4, Questions 6 and 7 by
inserting appropriate documentation.

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Part A: Multiple choice questions


Select the alternative (a), (b), (c) or (d) that best answers each question.
1 Which of the following is a reserved a Case repetition
word for a particular purpose? b Case sequence
a Variable c Case selection
b Separator d Case algorithm
c Constant
6 Which of the following is a loop
d Function
checked at the end after the steps to
2 Which of the following describes a be repeated are executed?
data type to store a value that has a Pre-test repetition
one of two possible states such as b Post-test repetition
true or false? c Pre-test selection
a Boolean d Post-test selection
b String 7 Which of the following is a self-
c Floating-point
contained section of code that
d Yes/no
performs a particular task?
3 Which of the following statements is a Array
incorrect? b Subprogram
a Algorithms present a solution in a c Programming language
definite number of steps d File
b Keywords in pseudocode are
8 Which of the following requires a
highlighted to indicate the type of
programmer to package data and the
action being performed
methods into a single unit called an
c Flowcharts are easier than
pseudocode to convert into a object?
programming language a OOP
d Flow of control is indicated by b GUI
lines and arrows called flowlines c Low-level languages
d High-level languages
4 Which method of algorithm
description uses keywords grouped 9 Which of the following is the result
in pairs? from an incorrect series of steps to
a Pseudocode solve the problem?
b Flowchart a Syntax error
c Java b Run-time error
d Visual BASIC c Logic error
d Desk check
5 What control structure is represented
by the following algorithm segment? 10 Which of the following describes
comments or remarks within the
CASEWHERE (condition)
program code to explain its purpose?
process 1
process 2 a Comment documentation
b External documentation
ENDCASE
c Intrinsic documentation
d Internal documentation

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Part B: Match the term


For each of the following statements (1 to 10), select from the list of terms (a to j)
the one that most closely fits the statement.

Statements
1 A collection of instructions that, 6 Control structure that specifies the
when executed, will complete a task order the steps are executed.
on the computer. 7 Control structure used to make a
2 The kind of data that can be stored logical decision.
in a variable. 8 Data structure that stores a list of
3 A series of steps designed to solve a elements of the same data type.
problem in a finite time. 9 It is used to detect and correct any
4 A method of algorithm description potential problems in a program.
that uses indented lines and 10 A written description to explain the
keywords. development and operation of a
5 A method of algorithm description program.
that uses a pictorial or graphical
method.

Terms
a Algorithm f Program
b Array g Pseudocode
c Data type h Selection
d Documentation i Sequence
e Flowchart j Test data

Part C: Extended response questions


Write at least one paragraph for each of the following:
1 Variable declaration involves stating 4 Explain the difference between:
the data type of the variable. Briefly a binary selection and case selection
describe five different data types b a pre-test repetition and a post-
that are commonly used in programs. test repetition.
2 Explain the purpose of data 5 What is a high-level language?
operators. Identify and describe three Outline the processes involved in
different types of operators. structured programming.
3 Pseudocode and flowcharts are two 6 Testing should be done throughout
popular methods for algorithm the development of a program to
description. Outline the main detect errors. Describe three basic
features of these methods. types of errors. Which type of error
usually takes the longest
to correct? Give reasons
for your answer.
e Tester

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Project: Arithmetic program


Max is a primary teacher who needs software to test his students arithmetic skills.
The program should present students with ten problems to add and subtract
numbers. The numbers selected should be done randomly and not require the
student to calculate negative numbers. The program should total the number of
correct answers and store their results for Max. This is a group project to be
developed using the four stages in project development. Demonstrating the
operation of the arithmetic program and documenting the solution are important
criteria for this project.

Project 8.1
Project 8.2
Project 8.3
Cross project 3

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