WWMC - Module 2 Editted

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SUJITH .P.S. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR -ECE

Wireless Mobile Communication
MODULE 2
Module II
Radio wave propagation issues in wireless systems-basic propagation Models-

Multipath fading based models, Parameters of mobile multipath channels,
Equalization/Rake receiver concepts, Diversity, combining methods and Space-time
processing
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION ISSUES IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS
Propagation means the ways in which waves travel.
Propagation is the fundamental importance to coverage ,capacity and quality of all

wireless communication system..
The Transmission path between the transimitter and receiver can

vary from
(Line Of sight)
NLOS(Non Line of sight)
There are two basic ways of transmitting an electro-magnetic (EM) signal, through
a guided medium or through an unguided medium.
Guided mediums such as coaxial cables and fiber optic cables, are far less hostile
toward the information carrying EM signal than the wireless or the unguided
medium.
AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
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It presents challenges for this kind of transmissions
Modeling Radio Channel has been historically been one of the most difficult part
in mobile radio channel system design and is typically done in a statistical fashion
based on signal measurements or by spectral allocation.
A signal, as it travels through the wireless channel, undergoes many kinds of

propagation effects such as reflection, diffraction and scattering, due to the
presence of buildings, mountains and other such obstructions.
Reflection occurs when the EM waves impinge on objects which are much greater
than the wavelength of the traveling wave.
Diffraction is a phenomena occurring when the wave interacts with a surface

having sharp irregularities.
Scattering occurs when the medium through the wave is traveling contains objects
which are much smaller than the wavelength of the EM wave.
These varied phenomena's lead to large scale and small scale propagation losses.
Models which predict the mean signal strength for arbitrary transmitter receiver
distances are termed as large scale propagation models. These are termed so
because they predict the average signal strength for large Tx-Rx separations,
typically for hundreds of kilometers
Propogation Models that characterize the rapid fluctuations of received signal

strength over very short travel distances or short time duration are called Small
Scale Propagation Models or Small Scale Fading Models.

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BASICPROPAGATION
MODELS
Free Space Propagation Model
(LOS)
EM signals when traveling through wireless channels experience fading effects

due to various effects.
But in some cases the transmission is with a direct line of sight between
transmitter and receiver such as in satellite communication, such cases Free Space
Propagation Model is used to Predict the received signal Strength.
Free space model predicts that the received power decays as negative square root
of the distance. Ie Transmitter Receiver Seperation distance and is given by Friss
free space equation
Friis free space equation is given by
( ) ..(1)
( )
Where is the transmitted

power,
( ) is the received power,
is the transmitter antenna

gain
, is the receiver antenna
gain,

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d is the Tx-Rx separation
and
L is the system loss factor depended upon line attenuation, filter losses and
antenna losses
The gain of the antenna is related to the effective aperture of the antenna which in
turn is dependent upon the physical size of the antenna as given below
G= .(2)
Path loss which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB

is defined as the difference between the effective transmitted power and received
power and may or may not include the effect of antenna gains.
The effective aperture is related to the physical size of the antenna, and
is related to the carrier frequency by
= ..(3 )
where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz,

is the carrier frequency in radians per second
c is the speed of light given in meters/s.
The values for and must be expressed in the same units
and are dimensionless quantities.
The miscellaneous losses L (L 1 ) are usually due to transmission line
attenuation, filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system A
value of L = 1 indicates no loss in the system hardware

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The Friis free space equation (1) shows that the received power falls
off as the square of the T-R separation distance. Which means the
received power decays with distance at a rate of 20 dB/decade.
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with
unit gain uniformly in all directions, and is often used to reference
antenna gains in wireless systems.
The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as the maximum
radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of
maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator
EIRP = ..(4 )
In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead of EIRP to

denote the maximum radiated power as compared to a half-wave
dipole antenna (instead of an isotropic antenna). Since a dipole
antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB above an isotrope), the ERP will
be 2.15 dB smaller than the EIRP for the same transmission system.
In practice, antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with
respect to an isotropic source) or dBd (dB gain with respect to a half-
wave dipole).
The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB, is defined as the difference (in dB) between
the effective transmitted power and the received power, and may or
may not include the effect of the antenna gains. The path loss for
the free space model when antenna gains are included is given
PL (dB) =10 log =-10 log *( +..( 5)

)
When antenna gains are excluded. the antennas are assumed to have
unity gain and path loss is given by
PL (dB) =10 log =-10 log *( +..( 6)

)

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The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for for values of
d which are in the far-field of the 'transmitting antenna. The far-field,
or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna i s defined a s the region
beyond the far- field distance , which is related to the largest linear
dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier
wavelength.
The Fraunhofer distance is given by
= ..( 7)
Where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.

In the far-field region, must satisfy
D and
Equation (1) does not hold for d=0 So, large-scale propagation models
use a close-in distance, , as a known received power reference
point.
The received power ( ) at any distance d > d0, is related to
at d0. The value ( ) may be predicted from equation (1), or may
be measured in the radio environment by taking the average received

power at many points located at a close-in radial distance d0 from the
transmitter.. . The reference distance must be chosen such that it lies
in the far-field region, that is, and is chosen to be
smaller than any practical distance used in the mobile communication
system.
By using equation (3)the received power in free space at a distance

greater than is given by

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( ) = ( ) ( ) where d .(8)
Equation (8) may be expressed in units of dBm or dBW by taking the

logarithm of both sides and multiplying by 10. if is in units of dBm,
the received power is given by
( )
( ) dBm = 10 log + 20 log where
d .(9)
Where ( ) is in units of watts

The reference distance d0 for practical systems using low-gain antennas
in the 1-2 GHz region is typically chosen to be 1 min indoor environments and
100
m or 1 km in outdoor environments, so that the numerator in equations (8) and
(9) is a multiple of 10. This makes path loss computations easy in dB units
Problems
Example 1
Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1 m
and operating frequency of 900 MHz.
Solution
Largest dimension of antenna, D = I m
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Operating frequency f = 900 MHz
= = =0.33m
Fraunhofer distance = = =6m

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Path loss PL (dB) = -10 log *( +
)
=-10 log *( + =47dB

)
Example 2
If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the
transmit power in units of (a) dBm, and (b) dBW. If 50 watts is
applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space
distance of 100 m from the antenna. What is (10 km) ?
Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
Solution
Transmitter power, = 50
W. Carrier frequency,
= 900MHz
Using equation (9),
(a) Transmitter power
(dBm) = 10 log [ (mW) /1mW] = 10 log [50 ] =47dBm
(b) Transmitter power
(dBW) = 10 log [ (W) /1W] = 10 log [50] =17dBW
The received power from equation (1)
( )( )( )
( )=( =( =( )W ( )mW
) )
( ) =log ( ) = 10 log ( ) =-24.5dBm

.
The received power at 10 km can be expressed in terms of dBm using equation
(9), where =100m and d =10km
( )= ( ) + 20 log* + = - 24.5dBm-40 dB = -64.5dBm

1

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Basic Methods of Propagation (NLOS)
Reflection, diffraction and scattering are the three fundamental phenomena that
cause signal propagation in a mobile communication system, apart from LOS
communication.
The most important parameter, predicted by propagation models based on above

three phenomena, is the received power.
The physics of the above phenomena may also be used to describe small scale
fading and multipath propagation
REFLECTION
Reflection occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls on an object, which has very
large dimensions as compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. For
example, such objects can be the earth, buildings and walls.
When a radio wave falls on another medium having different electrical properties,
a part of it is transmitted into it, while some energy is reflected back.
If the medium on which the electromagnetic wave is incident on a perfect

dielectric, some energy is reflected back and some energy is transmitted.
If the medium is a perfect conductor, all energy is reflected back to the first
medium. The amount of energy that is reflected back depends on the polarization
of the e.m. wave.,anglae of incidence & frequency of propagating wave.
The electric field intensity of reflected and transmitted wave can be related to
FRESNEL COEFFICIENT gamma.

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POLARIZATION
Electromagnetic waves are polarized ie because of passive reflectors ,they have

instantaneous electromagnetic field components in orthogonal directions in space.
A Polarized wave can represented as a sum of two spatially orthogonal

components Vertical or horizontal
Left hand or Right hand Circularly Polarized
Polarization can be used as a degree of freedom for frequency planning
Reflection From Dielectrics
There is an incident wave which broken up into two orthogonal components EI and
HI.
EI is in the plane of the paper. HI is orthogonal to the plane of the paper and it
impinges on the surface with another dielectric.
Part of it is reflected back as an Er and Hr and part of it is transmitted as an ET.

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Parallel refers to the E-field having direction parallel to the plane of incidence (as
in Figure (a));

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perpendicular means perpendicular (normal) to the plane of incidence (as in
Figure b)).
Subscripts i, r, and t to refer to the incident, reflected, and transmitted field.
, is the permittivity of medium 1 and 2.
, is the permeability of medium 1 and 2.
The intrinsic impedance of medium is [Permeability /
Permittivity]
By knowing the permeability and the permittivity of the dielectric by knowing the
permeability and the permittivity of the dielectric can be calculated
Permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects and is affected by a
dielectric medium.
Permeability is the measure of ability of a material to support the formation of a

magnetic field within itself.
REFLECTION FROM PERFECT CONDUCTORS
Electromagnetic energy cannot pass through conductors.
Energy doesnt leak to the other side because all the energy is reflected back.\
Boundary conditions require that

i = r Snells Law
Ei = Er for vertical polarization,
Ei = -Er for horizontal polarization

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Brewsters angle
The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the
medium of origin.
It occurs when t h e incident angle is such that the reflection coefficient
is equal to zero.
The Brewster angle is given by the value of which satisfies
Sin ( )= (10)
when the first medium is free space and the second medium has a
relative permittivity above equation can be expressed as
Sin ( )= (11)
Brewster angle occurs only for vertical (i.e. parallel) polarization.

Numerical Problem
Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on ground having a

permittivity of =4 at the frequency of 100MHz.Also calculate the
same for typical ground with permittivity of =15
Solution
For =4
Sin ( )= = = =
= ( ) =
For =15
Sin ( )= = =
= ( )=

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TWO RAY GROUND REFLECTION MODEL
Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
The 2-ray ground reflection mode] shown in Figure 1 is a useful propagation

model that is based on geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a
ground reflected propagation path between transmitter and receiver. This model
has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale signal
strength over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use
tall towers (heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for line-of-sight microcell
channels in urban environments
Figure 1:Two ray ground reflection model
In most mobile communication systems, the maximum T-R separation distance

is at most only a few tens of kilometers, and the earth may be assumed to be flat.
The total received E-field, is then a result of the direct line-of-sight
component, and the ground reflected component,

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From Figure 1, is the height of the transmitter and is the height of the
receiver. If 0 is the free space E-field (in units of Vim) at a reference distance d0
from the transmitter, then for d > d0, the free space propagating E-field is given by
E (d,t) = cos ( ( )) where d > d0(12)
Where E (d,t) = represents the envelope of the E-field at d meters from the
transmitter.
Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a
distance and the reflected wave that travels a distance . The E-field due to
the line-of-sight component at the receiver can be expressed as
( ,t) = cos ( ( )) (13)
and the E-field for the ground reflected wave, which has a propagation distance of d
can be expressed as
( ,t) = cos ( ( )) (14)
According to laws of reflection in dielectrics

i = r .(15)
= ... (16)
= (1 +) ... (17)
Where is the reflection coefficient for ground. For the small values of i (i.e., grazing
incidence), the reflected wave is equal in magnitude and 180 out of phase with the
incident wave. The resultant E-field, assuming perfect ground reflection (i.e.,
= -1 and = 0 )is the vector sum of and , and the
resultant total E-field envelope is given by
| |=| |... (18)
The electric field (d,t) can be expressed as the sum of equations (13) and (14)
(d,t) = cos ( ( )) + (-1) cos ( ( )).. (19)

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Figure 2: method of images is used to find the path difference between the line-of sight and the ground
reflected paths
Using the method of images, which is demonstrated by the geometry of the path
difference, between the line-of-sight and the ground reflected paths can be
expressed as
= - =
= ( ) - ( ) (20)
When the T-R separation distance d is very large compared to

equation (20) can be simplified using a Taylor series approximation
= - = ..(21)
Once the path difference is known, the phase difference between the two E-
field components and the time delay between the arrival of the two
components can be easily computed using the following relations
= = (22)
= = (23)

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It should be noted that as d becomes large, the difference between the distances d'
and d" becomes very small, and the amplitudes of are virtually identical
and differ only in phase.
That is
| |= | | =| |..(24)
If the received E-field is evaluated at say at t = d"/c, equation (19) can be

expressed as
(d,t= ) = cos ( ( )) + (-1) cos ( ) .(25)
[ -1]
where d is the distance over a flat earth between the bases of the transmitter and
receiver antennas. Referring to the phasor diagram of Figure 3.9 which shows
how the direct and ground reflected rays combine, the electric field (at the receiver)
at a distance d from the transmitter can be written as
| ( )| =( ) ( ) ( ) (26)
Or
| ( )| = (27)
Figure 3 :phasor diagram showing the electric field components of the line of sight,ground
reflected and the total received E fields

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Using trigonometric identities, equation (27) can be expressed as
| ( )| = sin ( )(28)
Note t h a t equation (18) may be simplified whenever sin ( ) = . This occurs
when is less than 0.3 radian. Using equations (21) and (22)
= < 0.3 rad . (29)
which implies that equation (28 )may be simplified as
d> = .. (30)
Thus as long as d satisfies (30), the received E-field can be approximated as
(d) = = V/m (31)
where k is a constant related to ,the antenna heights, and the wavelength.

The power received at d is related to the square of the electric field through
equation (1). Combining equations (1), (2), and (31), the received power
at a distance d from the transmitter can be expressed as
= (32)
As seen from equation (32) at large distances ( d > > ) , the r e c e i v e d

power falls off with distance raised to the fourth power, or at a rate of 40 dB/
decade. This is a much m o r e rapid path loss than is experienced in free space. At large
values of d, the received power and p a t h loss become independent of frequency. The
path loss for the 2-ray model (with antenna gains) can be expressed in dB as
PL (dB) = 40logd-(10 log +10 log ) (33)

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At small distances,equation (19) must be used to compute the total E-field. When
equation (22) is e v a l u a t e d for = , then d = (4 )/ is where the ground
appears in the first Fresnel zone between the transmitter and receiver. The first
Fresnel zone distance is a useful parameter in microcell path loss models .
Example 3.6
A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station and uses a
vertical /4 monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB to receive cellular
radio signals. The E-field a t 1 k m from the transmitter is measured to
be V/m. The carrier frequency used for this system is
900MHz.
(a)Find the length and the effective aperture of the
Receiving antenna (b) Find the received power at the mobile using
the 2-ray ground reflection model assuming the height of the transmitting
antenna is 50 m and the receiving antenna is 1.5 m above ground.
Solution
T-R separation distance = 5 km

E-field at a distance of 1km =
Frequency of operation. f = 900 MHz
=c/f =(3 x )/ (900 x )= 0.333m
(a) length of the receiving antenna
L= /4=0.333/4=0.0833m=8.33cm
The effective aperture of the /4 monopole receiving antenna
can be obtained by equation (2) G =
=0.016 m square
(b)Since d > >
(d) = = V/m

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( )( )
= = V/m
( )
The received power at a distance d can be obtained by

equation 1 where l =1
( ) ( )
(d)= * +
(d = 5km)=5.4 x W=-122.68 dBW or -92.68

dBm
DIFFRACTION
This occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed
by a surface that has sharp irregularities or edges. Edges, corners, bends, etc. will
cause diffraction.
Diffraction is very important because otherwise without line of sight, it would not be
able to receive any signal from my base station.
Hence this explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments
without a clear line of sight and diffraction can be explained by Huygens principle.
IT says that all points on a wave front can be considered as point sources for the
production of secondary wavelets.
When signal transmit form the transmitter T. it radiate in all directions assuming
its an omnidirectional antenna.
The wave radiates in all direction.
The one that hits at a point will generate wavelets which will travel from all
directions. From Huygens secondary source principle, any point on the wave front
will generate its secondary wavelets.
The wave which is diffracted and will be received at the receiver.
FRESNEL ZONE GEOMETRY

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The Concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path difference around an

obstruction is explained by Fresnel zones
Fresnel zone represent successive regions where secondary waves have a path length
from transmitter to receiver greater than the total path length of line of sight path.
The concentric circle on the plane represent secondary wavelete which propagate to
the receiver
These circles are called Fresnel Zones
The successive Fresnel zone have the effect of alternately providing
constructive and destructive interference to the total received signal.
The radious of nth Fresnel Zones circle is denoted by rn and can be expressed in
terms of n,,d1 and d2
The difference between direct path and diffracted path is called excess path length can be
explained from the geometry

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The corresponding phase difference is

Phase Difference between direct line of sight path and diffracted path is a function of
height and Position of obstruction as well as transmitter and receiver location.

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KNIFE EDGE DIFFRACTION MODEL
When shadowing is caused by single object such as a hill or mountain the

attenuation caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction
as a diffraction knife edge.
This is the simplest of diffraction models and diffraction loss can be estimates using the Fresnel
Solution.
The Diffraction gain due to the presence of knife edge
F (v) is a function of the Fresnel Kirchoff diffraction parameters
Fresnel Kirchoff Diffraction parameter or Diffraction Gain
Where has unit of radians

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MULTIPLE KNIFE EDGE DIFFRACTION
Replace the buildings by two knife edge diffractors.

The position and the height of this equivalent knife edge will depend on the heights and
distances of the first two original knife edges.
SCATTETING
The actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger than what is
predicted by reflection and diffraction models alone.
This is because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface the reflected energy is
spread out in all directions due to scattering.
Scattering as we all know occurs when the medium has object, smaller or
comparable to the wavelength.
Small objects, rough surfaces rain drops, other irregularities in the channel, dust dew drops
will cause scattering
Scattering follows the same principle as diffraction. It causes the transmitter energy to
be radiated in many directions. So foliage, street signs, lamp posts, edges can cause
scattering.

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Surface roughness is often tested using Rayleigh criterion which defines critical height
hc for an given angle of incidence i is given by
RADAR CROSS SECTION MODEL
RCS Radar Cross Section of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power
density of signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the
radio wave incident upon the scattering object and has units of square meters,
For urban mobile radio systems models based on the bistatic radar equation may be
used to compute the received power due to scattering in the far field.
The bistatic radar equation describes the propagation of a wave traveling in free
space which impinges on a distant scattering object, and is then reradiated in
the direction of the receiver, given by
(dBm) = (dBm) + (dBi)+20log()+RCS (dB ) 20 log(4) 20log( )-

20log( )
where and are the distance from the scattering object to the transmitter
and receiver, respectively.
In equation above equation the scattering object is assumed to be in the far field
(Fraunhofer region) of both the transmitter and receiver.
The variable RCS is given in units of dB and can be approximated by the
surface area (in square meters) of the scattering object, measured in dB with
respect to a one square meter reference .
The a b o ve e qua ti o n may be applied to scatterers in the far-field of both
the transmitter and receiver and is useful for predicting receiver power which
scatters off large objects, such as buildings, which are for both the transmitter
and receiver.
Several European cities were measured from the perimeter and RCS values for
several buildings were determined from measured power delay profiles. For

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medium and large size buildings located 5 - 10 km away, RCS values were found to
2 2
be in the range of 14.ldB m to 55.7 d.B: m
As a mobile moves through a coverage area, these three mechanisms have an

impact on the instantaneous received signal strength.
if the mobile does have a clear line of sight then diffraction and scattering will
not dominate the propagation. The line of sight exists.we have a clear signal
strength.
if a mobile is at street level without line of sight then diffraction and scattering
will probably dominate the propagation. So this is important models exists for
all of this.
So it is possible to figure out theoretically and by stimulation how much is the

received power actually obtained .

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MULTIPATH FADING
MODELS
The wireless channel is a multipath

propagation channel.
The radio waves that originate from the transmitter do not reach the
receiver only by a single path .in fact there are several paths due to
atmospheric reflection, ionospheric refraction / reflection from water bodies
and from mountains /buildings and hence the name multipath.
Fading: rapid fluctuations of received signal strength over short time

intervals and/or travel distances called small scale fading or simply fading.
Multipath Fading Caused by interference from multiple Transmitter signal

arriving @ Rx at slightly different times at different amplitudes and phases
over a short period of time or travel distance.
Fading is a temporary effect. It is much more frequent and much more temporal in
nature.

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Fading is caused by destructive interference of two or more versions of the

transmitted cell signal arriving at the receiver at slightly different times.
delayed signals are the result of reflections or scatterings from terrain features
such as trees, hills, mountains or objects such as people, vehicles and buildings
At the receiver radio waves generated from the same transmitted signal may come
o From different directions
o With different propagation delays
oWith different amplitudes with different phases
o With different angles of arrivals
These multipath components combine vectorically at receiver an cause total signal
To fade
To distort
Effects of fading and multipath
Fading and multipath results in rapid changes in the signal strength over
small travel distances or small time intervals.
Random frequency modulation occurs due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multipath signals
Time dispersions due to multipath propagation delay occurs.
Mobility in the context of fading
When the receiver is mobile Other objects, reflectors and scatterers may
be mobile or stationary.
If the objects are stationary, motion is only due to mobile receiver. Fading
is purely a special phenomenon occurs only when the mobile receiver moves.
The special variations change as the mobile moves and it will be perceived
as temporal variation
PHYSICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING FADING IN MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL

(MRC)
1) Multipath Propagation
The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers cause multiple versions of
the signal to arrive at the receiver with different amplitudes and time delays

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The total signal at the receiver tends to fade or

distort. large differences in delay between signals
Effects is the interference and phase shifting of signals.
2) Speed of Mobile
o Relative motion between base station & mobile causes random
frequency modulation due to Doppler shift (fd)
o Different multipath components may have different frequency shifts.
o Change in amplitude, change in phase and the frequency modulations
also take place.
o the Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on whether
the mobile is moving towards or away from the base station
3 ) Speed of the surrounding objects
The speed of the surrounding objects causes time varying Doppler shift in the
multipath components if the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the
mobile. This effect dominates the small scale fading.
if the surrounding objects move at a much slower rate than the mobile, then their
effect on the small scale fading can be ignored.
The term coherence time determines how static the channel is when we relate
coherence time to the Doppler shift and will find an inverse relationship. it is a
measure of how fast your channel is changing whether the changing is occurring
because of the movement of the surrounding objects or whether the channel is
changing irrespective of the movement of the mobile station.
4 ) The transmission bandwidth of the signal.
The transmitted radio signal bandwidth and the bandwidth of the multiple
channel decide two things.
To what extent does the amplitude fluctuate
To what extent does the signal distort
The channel bandwidth can be quantified by a term called
coherence bandwidth.
If the transmission radio signal bandwidth is greater than Bandwidth of
multipath channel received signal will be distorted.
The coherence bandwidth is a measure of the maximum frequency
difference for which signal s are still strongly correlated in amplitude,

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transmitted signal has a bandwidth larger than the coherence bandwidth,

fading can be avoided
Level crossing rate
Level crossing rate is defined as the average number of times per second. The
signal envelope crosses a level in the positive going direction
Fading rate
Fading rate is defined as the number of times the signal envelope crosses a middle value in the
positive going directions per unit time. Hence the name fading rate
Depth of fading
Depth of fading is defined as the ratio of the mean square value and the minimum value of the
fading signal
Fading duration
Fading duration is a time for which the signal is below a given threshold.
All these factors, the level crossing rate, the fading rate, the depth of fading and
fading duration must be taken into consideration while planning your cellular system.
DOPPLER SHIFT
o When a wave source , the transmitter or a receiver moving with the
frequency of the received signal will not be the same as that of the transmitted
signal.
o When they are moving towards each other, the frequency of the received
signal is higher than the source, when they are opposing each other the
frequency decreases the frequency of the receive signal fr = fc, the
frequency of the source carrier fd where fd is a Doppler shift in the
frequency.
So this fd may be positive or negative depending upon which direction is the
mobile moving. This is the Doppler Effect.

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The Doppler shift is given by v, velocity of mobile divided by lambda, the wavelength
cos theta. v is the mobile speed lambda is the wavelength of the carrier.
Clearly the Doppler shift f D depends on the relative velocity of the receiver with respect to
the transmitter and the frequency of transmission which in turn translates to the wavelength
lambda. The effects of the Doppler shift are more pronounced at smaller wavelengths.
Motion causes frequency modulation due to Doppler shift (fd)
Consider a mobile moving with constant velocity V along the path length D between X
and Y where S is Source
Difference in Path Length travelled by S to A & B isl=dcos
ie l = vt cos

35
Phase Difference in path length

= 2 l /
Hence apparent change in frequency or doppler shift

fd
v : velocity (m/s)
: wavelength (m)
: angle between mobile direction and arrival direction of RF energy
+ shift mobile moving toward

shift mobile moving away from S
Doppler shift depends on
Relative Velocity of receiver with respect to transmitter

The Frequency of transmission
Impulse response Model Of A Multipath Channel
The small scale variations of a mobile radio signal can be directly related to the
impulse response of a mobile radio channel.
The impulse response is a wideband channel characterization.
The impulse response of a multipath channel contains all the information

necessary to simulate the channel and analyze the channel.
The mobile radio channel can be modeled as a linear filter with a time varying
impulse response. The multipath channels are changing because of the position of
the mobile. Hence, the impulse response is time varying..
Multipath fading is characterized by its impulse response which includes the
information about the relative time of the arrival of different multipath components,
The signal power in the various multipath components and the various signal
phases when the delayed signals arrive at the receiver , when the delayed signals
arrive at the receiver
36
If there is a mobile reception then the relative lengths and attenuations of the
various reception paths will change with time. This makes the channel time-
varying.
The time variations are strictly due to the receiver motion where t is given by the
distance divided by the velocity of motion t =d/v, considering a constant velocity.
Transmitted signal x(t) and received signal y(d,t) at any position d.
If the channel impulse response is expressed as h(d,t), then the received signal
For a casual system h(d,t)=0 for t<0
Since the receiver moves along the ground at a constant velocity V,the position of
receiver can be expressed as
d=vt substituting for d

37
Since V is constant y(vt,t) is a function of t and can be expressed as
From this equation , it is clear that the mobile radio channel can be modeled as a
linear time varying channel, where the channel changes with time and distance.
Since v may be assumed constant over a short time (or distance) interval, we may let
x(t) represent the transmitted bandpass waveform, y(t) the received waveform, and
h(t,) the impulse response of the time varying multipath radio channel.
The impulse response h(t,) completely characterizes the channel and is a

function of both t and .
The variable t represents the time variations due to motion, where as represents the
channel multipath delay for a fixed value of t .
. The received signal y(t) can be expressed as a convolution of the transmitted signal x(t)
If the multipath channel is assumed to be a band limited band pass channel, which is
reasonable, then may be equivalently described by a complex baseband impulse
response with the input and output being the

38
complex envelope representations of the transmitted and received signals of the

multipath channel is assumed to be a band limited bandpass channel, which is
reasonable, then may be equivalently described by a complex baseband impulse
response with the input and output being the complex envelope representations of
the transmitted and received signals
where c(t) and r(t) are the complex envelopes of x(t) and y(t), defined
as
Since the received signal in a multipath channel consists of a series of attenuated, time
delayed, phase shifted replicas of the transmitted signal, the baseband impulse response of a
multipath channel can be expressed as
Excess delay is the relative delay of the ith multipath component as compared to the first
arriving component Ti
Ti represents the excess delay of the ith multipath

component.
The maximum excess delay N
If channel impulse response is assumed to be tie invariant or is atleast stationary over a
small scale time or distance interval channel impulse response is

39
When measuring or predictiong () a probing pulse p(t) which approximates a delta

function is used at a transmitter.
For small scale channel modeling power delay profile of channel is found by
average of | ( )| over a local area.
If p(t) has a time duration much smaller than impulse response of multipath channel p(t)
does not need to be deconvoluted from received signal r(t) inorder to determine multipath
signal strength.
The received power delay profile in a local area is given by
maximum excess delay is large, then you will either have to do some kind of an equalization
to overcome the ISI - the inter-symbol interference or you have to slow down your data rate
or do both.
Delay Spread
Each multipath signal travels through different path lengths and the time of arrival for
each path is different.
A single transmitted pulse will be spread in time when it reaches the receiver. This
effect which spreads out the signal is called a delay.
The delay spread is a property of the wireless communication channel. please note
this will cause inter symbol interference
The delay spread is a property of the wireless communication channel and leads to
increase in signal bandwidth.

40
Inter symbol interference(ISI)
Delay spread of the channel is comparable with the symbol length, we get ISI or inter
symbol interference.
The second multipath is delayed and is received during the next
symbol. ISI has an impact on the burst error rate of the channel.
For low bit error rate (BER) R1/2
For low bit error rate, R should be less than 1 over t tau d because R, the digital
transmission rate is limited by the delay spread. so if we have avoided intersymbol
interference, we must have either restricted R transmission rate or do something to
overcome the effects of ISI
Proper equalization and Shaping must also be done to overcome the effects of ISI
in a fading environment.

41
TYPES OF SMALL SCALE FADING
Parameters of mobile multipath channels

Multipath channel parameters which are Determined from Power Delay Profile
Power Delay profile represented as plots of relative received power as a
function of excess delay with respect to a fixed time delay reference.
Power Delay profile are found by averaging instaneous power delay
measurements over a local area inorder to determine an average small scale
power delay profile.

42
This power delay profile can be measured either in the time domain or in the frequency
domain.
In order to compare different multipath channels we need parameters which quantify the
multipath channel, they are:
1. Delay spread/Time Dispersion Parameters

2. Coherence bandwidth
3. Doppler spread
4. Coherence time
Delay spread/Time Dispersion Parameters
Grossly quantifies the multipath channel and it is Determined from Power

Delay Profile time dispersion parameters which are
Mean excess delay,

RMS or the root mean square delays spread and
The maximum excess delay
Mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is defined by the
equation
( )( )
= ( )

43
RMS delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power delay
profile and is defined by the equation:
=() ( )
( )
() = =
( )
Where
The second important time dispersion parameter is the root mean square - RMS delay spread
given by
Each multipath signal travels through different path lengths. So the time of arrival for each
path is different.
When it reaches the receiver, this effect which spreads out the signal is called the delay
spread .
The delay spread leads to an increase in the signal bandwidth preserved at the receiver.
These are some of the effects of the time dispersion.
It is the square root of second central moment of the power delay profile.
Maximum excess delay of X dB , is the time delay during which the multipath energy falls to
X dB below the maximum.
The maximum excess delay is nothing but .
represents the first marker for the received signal. is the first arriving signal. is the
maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X dB of the strongest arriving
multipath signal.

44
Maximum excess delay defines the temporal extent of the multipath that is above a
particular threshold. is called the excess delay spread of a power delay profile.
The values of time dispersion parameters also depend on the noise threshold (the
level of power below which the signal is considered as noise).
If noise threshold is set too low, then the noise will be processed as multipath
and thus causing the parameters to be higher.
Coherence Bandwidth
* Analog to the delay spread parameters in the time domain, coherence

bandwidth is used to characterize the channel in the frequency domain.
* The rms delay spread and coherence bandwidth are inversely proportional to
each other.
* Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies

over which the channel can be considered flat (I.e., a channel which
passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear
phases.)
* In other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over
which two freq components have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation.

45
* For frequency correlation function 0.9, then correlation bandwidth
= where is rms delay spread
* If we define Coherence Bandwidth as the range of frequencies over which the

frequency correlation is above 0.5, then
If two sinusoids with a frequency separation of greater than Bc are propagating in the same
channel, they are affected quite differently by the channel.
Delay Spread And Coherence Bandwidth
delay spread and the coherence bandwidth describe the time dispersive nature of the
multipath channel on a local area.
The Doppler Spread and the coherence time which is associated with the time varying nature
of the channel in a small scale region.
It is usually caused by the relative motion of the transmitter and receiver.
Doppler Spread Bd:
When a signal of frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal spectrum, called the
Doppler spectrum, will have components fc - fd to fc + fd, where fd is the Doppler
shift.

46
velocity v, however signal is impinged on the mobile station at an angle theta then, the fd
the Doppler frequency spread is given by the velocity divided by the wavelength times cosine
theta
The Doppler spread is nothing but the maximum Doppler
shift. Doppler shift depends on the relative velocity of the
receiver with respect to the transmitter and the wavelength of
transmission.
The angle theta at which the arriving signal reaches the receiver also is important
It characterizes the frequency dispersiveness of the channel as opposed to time
dispersiveness of the channel or the spreading of the transmitted frequency due to different
Doppler shifts.
It is obtained from the Doppler spectrum
It indicates the range of frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum is above a
certain value.
If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than B D - the maximum Doppler shift,
in that case the effects of the Doppler spread are negligible at the receiver . This is a Slow
Fading Channel.
It depends on the signal
bandwidth.
Coherence time Tc:
It is used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness

of the channel in the time domain
Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is essentially time invariant
a symbol period and the coherence time is a symbol period is greater than the coherence
time of the channel.
The popular thumb rule
= =
47
is the maximum Doppler spread. This is popularly used.

Then the channel will change during the transmission of the signal. Hence there will be
distortions at the receiver.
Then the channel will change during the transmission of the signal. Hence there will be
distortions at the receiver.
The coherence time is defined as 1 over where is the maximum frequency spread due
to the Doppler shift
The definition of coherence time implies that two signals arriving with a time separation
greater than Tc are affected differently by the channel.
Large coherence time implies the channel changes slowly.
RAKE RECEIVER
There is useful information in multipath components.
A Rake reciver / CDMA recivers is used to combine time delayed version of original
signal transmission in order to improve the signal to noise ratio at the receiver.
Rake receiver attempts to collect the time shifted versions of original signal transmission
by providing a separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath signals.

48
A RAKE receiver utilizes multiple correlators to separately detect the M strongest

multipath components.
The outputs of each correlator are weighted to provide a better estimate of the
transmitted signal than is provided by a single component.
Demodulation and bit decisions are then based on weighted output of the M correlators.
In outdoor environments the delay between multipath components is usually large

and if chip rate is properly selected the low auto correlation property of a CDMA
assure that multipath components will appear uncorrelated with each other.
There are M correlators used in CDMA receiver to capture M strongest multipath
components. A weighting network is used to provide a linear combination of
correlator output for bit detection.
Correlator 1 is synchronized to strongest multipath component m1. Correlator 2 with
m2 and so on.
If a single correlator is used in the receiver and once the output of single correlator is
corrupted by fading , the receiver cannot correct the value.

49
In a RAKE receiver if the output from correlator by fading the others may not
be and the corrupted signal may be discounted through the weighting process
Decisions are based on combination of the M separate decision offeres by the RAKE
which can overcome fading and there by improve CDMA reception
The outputs of the M correlators are denoted as Z1,Z2, and Zm
They are weighted by 1,2,.and m
The weighting coefficients are based on the power or the SNR from each
correlator output, The overall ZI
The weighting coefficients m are normalized to the output signal power of correlator
Choosing weighting coefficients based on actual outputs of the correlators yields better RAKE .
Equalization , Diversity and Channel Coding
Multipath Propagation causes fading
Fading cause poor signal quality or bit errors o system using digital modulation
Wireless systems need to use one or more techniques to reduce the effects of multipath
The most effective techniques are Equalization , Diversity and Channel Coding and these
techniques is to improve radio link performance

50
Equalization, Diversity and Channel coding are three techniques which can be
used independently to improve received signal quality and also to improve radio link
performance.
EQUALISATION:
ISI has been recognized as a major obstacle to high speed data

transmission
Equalization is used for compensating inter symbol

interference.
In Other words, they are used to overcome the effects of fading & to improve the
quality of information or to improve the receive signal quality.

51
equalization can help overcome the effects of inter symbol interference that is the
primary use of equalization and equalizer within a receiver compensates for the
average range of expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics
Equalizers require periodic retraining in order to maintain effective ISI
cancellation. They are commonly used in digital communication systems.
TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for
equalizers.
NEED FOR EQUALIZATION:
To reduce ISI & additive

noise.
To compensate the delay characteristics.
Must be adaptive as channel is time
varying,
The primary use of equalization and equalizer within a receiver compensates for the
average range of expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics.
The channel is generally unknown and even if it is measured it will change with time. So
we must have a method to have adaptive equalization.
Since the mobile fading channel is random and time varying, equalizers must track the
time varying characteristics of the mobile channel & thus are called adaptive
equalizers.
ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION
The operating modes of adaptive equalizers are
1) Training Mode
2) Tracking Mode
TRAINING MODE:

52
The training mode proceeds the tracking

mode.
In the training mode the training sequence is typically a pseudo random binary signal
or a fixed bit pattern a known fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter
so that the receivers equalizer may average to a proper setting
Immediately following this training sequence the user data is

sent
The adaptive equalizer at the receiver utilizes a recursive algorithm to evaluate
the channel & estimate filter coefficients to compensate for the channel.
The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at the receiver to acquire
the proper filter coefficients in the worst possible channel conditions.
So that when training sequence is finished, the filter coefficients are near the
optimal values for reception of user data..
The training mode proceeds the tracking mode, in the training mode we have to
send a known sequence or a PN sequence in order to understand how the channel is,
its basically a method to measure the frequency response and then fix a weights
accordingly in order to overcome the effects of channel and then is a tracking mode.
TRACKING MODE :
As user data are received, the adaptive algorithm of the equalizer tracks the
changing channel.
As a consequence, the adaptive equalizer is continually changing its filter
characteristics over time.
The weights of the filter changes continuously with time in the tracking mode.
Mainly used in TDMA system.

53
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM WITH AN ADAPTIVE
EQUALIZER IN THE RECEIVER
An adaptive equalizer is a time varying filter which must constantly be retuned
The figure shows the block diagram of a communication system with an

adaptive equalizer in the receiver.

54
We have the original baseband message signal x(t) passes through the modulator &
transmitter, reaches to the radio channel.
Here the noise & fading effect get added leading to distorted signal, then goes through
the RF receiver, IF and then to the equalizer.
Equalizer works either at the IF stage or at the baseband message signal.
The equalizer, decision maker & error e(t) which track & finally construct the
message signal.
If x(t) is the original information signal,
o f(t) is the combined complex baseband impulse response of
the transmitter,channel & the RF/IF sections of the
receiver.
o Therefore the signal received by the equalizer may be expressed
as,
Where f* (t) is the complex conjugate of f(t)

( ) is the baseband noise at the input of the equalizer
If the impulse response of the equalizer is ( ),then the output of the equalizer
is,
Where g(t) is the combined impulse response of transmitter,channel & equalizer

The complex baseband impulse response of a transversal filter equalizer is given by
Where is complex filter coefficients of the equalizer

Assume that nb(t)=0, then inorder to force
(t) =x(t)
( ) must be equal to zero
AHALIA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

55
The goal of equalizer is to satisfy this equation. In frequency domain this equation can
be expressed as,
where Heq(f) & F(f) are fourier transforms of heq(t) & f(t) respectively.
This equation indicates that an equalizer is actually an Inverse Filter of the channel.
If the channel is frequency selective, the equalizer enhances the frequency
components with small amplitudes & attenuates the strong frequencies in the received
frequency spectrum inorder to provide a flat, composite, received frequency response
& linear phase response.
The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal . The error signal is derived by
comparing the output of the equalizer with some signal which is either replica
of the transmitted signal or which represents a known property of the
transmitted signal.
The adaptive algorithm uses error signal to minimize the cost function and uses the
equalizer weights in such a manner that it minimizes the cost function .
CHANNEL CODING:
A very popular method to overcome the impairments put in by the channel is called the
channel coding.
Also refers to as error control coding because the objective is to detect and recover
from errors introduced by noise and fading
Channel coding improves mobile communication link performance by adding redundant
data bits in the transmitted message.
At the baseband portion of the transmitter, a channel coder maps a digital message
sequence into another specific code sequence containing a greater number of bits than
originally contained in the message.
The coded message is then modulated for transmission in wireless channel.

56
Channel coding is used by the receiver to detect or correct some of the errors introduced by
the channel in a particular sequence of message bits.
Because decoding is performed after the demodulation portion of the receiver, coding
can be considered to be a post detection technique.
The added coding bits lowers the raw data transmission rate through the
channel. There are two general types of channel codes
Block codes
Convolutional codes
Channel coding is generally treated independently from the type of modulation used,
although this has changed recently with the use of trellis coded modulation schemes that
combine coding and modulation to achieve large gains without any bandwidth expansion.
Diversity Techniques
Diversity is a powerful communication receiver technique that provides

wireless link improvement at relatively low cost
Unlike equalization, diversity requires no training overhead since a training
sequence is not required by the transmitter
It is a method that is used to develop the information from several input signals
transmitted over the independent fading path
Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propogation by finding
independent(or at least highly uncorrelated) signal paths for communication. In
virtually all applications,diversity decisions are made by the receiver ,and are
unknown to the transmitter.
The diversity concept can be explained simply. If one radio path undergoes a deep
fade,another independent path may have a strong signal.By having more than one
path to select from,both the instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver may be
improved,often by as much as 20dB to 30 dB.
There are two types of fading- small scale fading and large scale fading.

57
Microscopic Diversity Technique
Prevent small scale fading
These fades are caused by multiple reflections from the surrounding in the vicinity of
the mobile. Small scale fades are characterized by deep and rapid amplitude
fluctuations which occur as the mobile moves over distances of just a few
wavelengths.
Small scale fading typically results in a Rayleigh fading distribution of signal
strength over small distances
Prevented by selecting an antenna which gives strong signal that eliminates small scale
fading.
Macroscopic Diversity Techniques
Prevent large scale fading
Large scale fading is caused by shadowing due to variation in both the terrain
profile and the nature of the surroundings
In deeply shadowed conditions, the received signal strength at a mobile can drop
well below that of free space
By selecting a base station which is not shadowed when others are, the mobile can
improve the average signal to noise ratio on the forward link. This is called
macroscopic diversity, since the mobile is taking advantage of large seperations
between the serving base stations.
Types of Diversity
- Space Diversity or Antenna Diversity
- Time Diversity
- Code Diversity
- Polarization Diversity

58
- Frequency Diversity
Space Diversity
Space diversity is also known as antenna diversity,is one of the most popular forms of diversity
used in wireless systems.
Conventional cellular radio systems consist of an elevated base station antenna and
a mobile antenna close to the ground.
The existence of direct path between the transmitter and the receiver is not
guaranteed and the possibility of a number of scatters in the vicinity of the mobile
suggests a Rayleigh fading signal.
The signals received from spatially separated antennas on the mobile would have
essentially uncorrelated envelopes for antenna separations of one half wavelength
or more.
The concept of antenna space diversity is also used in base station design .At each cell
site, multiple base station receiving antennas are used to provide diversity reception.
However, since the important scatters are generally on the ground in the vicinity of the
mobile, the base station antennas must be spaced considerably far apart to achieve
decorrelation. Separations on the order of several tens of wavelengths are required at
the base station.
Space diversity can thus be used at either the mobile or base station, or both.

59
Figure shows block diagram of a space diversity scheme.
Space diversity reception methods can be classified into four categories
1. Selection Diversity
2. Feedback Diversity
3. Maximal Ratio Combining
4. Equal Gain Combining
Selection Diversity
Simplest diversity technique, a block diagram of this method is similar to
that shown in above figure. Where m demodulators are used to provide m
diversity branches whose gains are adjusted to provide the same average
SNR for each branch.

60
The receiver branch having the highest instantaneous SNR is connected to
the demodulator. The antenna signals themselves could be sampled and the
best one sent to a single modulator.
In practice, the branch with the largest (S+N)/N is used, since it is
difficult to measure SNR.
Here Eb is the average carrier energy and No is the noise power spectral
energy.
The instantaneous SNR= instantaneous signal power.
Mean noise power
A practical selection diversity system cannot function on a truly
instantaneous basis, but must be designed so that the internal time
constants of the selection circuitry are shorter than the reciprocal of the
signal fading rate.
Feedback or Scanning Diversity
Scanning diversity is very similar to selection diversity except that
instead of always using the best of M signals, the M signals are scanned
in a fixed sequence until one is found to be above a predetermined
threshold.
This signal is then received until it falls to be below threshold and
the scanning process is again initiated.
The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those obtained
by the other methods
But the advantage with this method is that it is very simple to
implement- only one receiver is required.
A block diagram of this method is shown in figure

61
Fig: Basic form of scanning diversity

Maximum ratio combining diversity
Signals from all of the M branches are weighted according to their individual
signal voltage to noise power ratios and then summed
The individual signal must be co-phased before being summed which generally
requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna element
The maximal ratio combining produces an output SNR equal to the sum of the
individual SNR.
It has the advantage of producing an output with an acceptable SNR even when
none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable

62
This technique gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known linear
diversity combiner
Modern DSP technique and digital receivers are making this optimal form of
diversity protocol
Equal gain combining diversity
Combining all the signals in a co-phased manner with unit gain for all the signal in
order to achieve the highest available SNR at the receiver
In some cases it is not convenient to provide for the variable weighting
capability required for true maximal ratio combining
The branch weights are all set to unity but the signals from each branch are co-
phased to provide equal gain combining diversity
This allows the receiver to exploit signals that are simultaneously received on
each branch
The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable
inputs is still retained
The performance is inferior to maximum ratio combining and superior to
selection diversity
Frequency diversity
Frequency diversity transmits information on more than one carrier frequency
The frequencies are separated by more than one coherence bandwidth of the channel
will not experience the same bandwidth
If the channels are uncorrelated, the probability of simultaneous fading will be
the product of individual fading probabilities
Frequency diversity is often employed in microwave line of sight links which
carry several bandwidth in FDM mode

63
Due to tropospheric propagation and resulting refraction, deep fading occurs
1:Nprotection switching is provided by a radio license
One frequency is nominally idle but is available on a standby basis to provide

frequency diversity switching of any one of the N other carriers being used on the
same link
When the diversity is needed,, the appropriate traffic is simply switched to the
backup frequency
Disadvantages
It not only requires the spare BW but also requires that many receivers as there
are channels used for the frequency diversity
The OFDM modulation exploits the frequency diversity by providing the
simultaneous modulation with error control coding across the large BW

64
Time diversity
Repeatedly transmits information at time spacing that exceed coherence

time of the channel
The multiple repetition of the signal will be received with independent fading
condition there by providing diversity
One modern implementation of time diversity involves the use of rake
receiver for spread spectrum technique CDMA where the multipath channel
provides redundancy in transmitted message
Polarization diversity
At the base station, space diversity is considerably less practical that at
the mobile because the narrow angle of incident field requires large
antenna spacing
The comparatively high cost of using space diversity at the BS leads to the
consideration of using orthogonal polarisation to exploit polarisation diversity
The decorrelation for the signal is caused by multiple reflection in the
channel between the mobile and BS antennas
Measured horizontal and vertical path between the mobile and a BS is
uncorrelated There is some dependence of the received polarisation on the
transmitted polarisation Circular and linear polarised antenna have been used
to characterize the multipath signal When the path was obstructed the
polarisation diversity reduces the multipath delay spread without significantly
decreasing the received power

65
Theoretical model of polarization diversity
It is assumed that the signal is transmitted from mobile with horizontal or vertical
polarization.
It is received at the BS by polarization diversity antenna with two branches
The polarization diversity antenna is composed of two antenna elements
V1 and V2, which makes a angle (polarization angle) with Y- axis
A mobile station is located in the direction of offset angle from the
main beam direction of the diversity antenna
Some of the vertically polarized signals transmitted are converted to the
horizontal polarized signal because of multipath propagation
The signals arriving at the BS can be expressed as
X = r1 cos
(t +1) Y
= r2 cos (t
+2)
Where x and y are signal levels which are received
when =0 r1 and r2 have independent
Rayleigh distributions and 1 and 2 have
independent uniform distributions

66
Fig. Shows the theoretical model and system coordinates

67

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1

SUJITH .P.S. ASSISTANT PROFESSOR -ECE

Radio wave propagation issues in wireless systems-basic propagation Models-

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION ISSUES IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS

Propagation means the ways in which waves travel.

Propagation is the fundamental importance to coverage ,capacity and quality of all

The Transmission path between the transimitter and receiver can

NLOS(Non Line of sight)

It presents challenges for this kind of transmissions

A signal, as it travels through the wireless channel, undergoes many kinds of

Diffraction is a phenomena occurring when the wave interacts with a surface

Propogation Models that characterize the rapid fluctuations of received signal

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

EM signals when traveling through wireless channels experience fading effects

Friis free space equation is given by

Where is the transmitted

is the transmitter antenna

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Path loss which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB

where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz,

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead of EIRP to

PL (dB) =10 log =-10 log *( +..( 5)

PL (dB) =10 log =-10 log *( +..( 6)

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.

at d0. The value ( ) may be predicted from equation (1), or may

be measured in the radio environment by taking the average received

By using equation (3)the received power in free space at a distance

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Equation (8) may be expressed in units of dBm or dBW by taking the

Where ( ) is in units of watts

Largest dimension of antenna, D = I m

Fraunhofer distance = = =6m

=-10 log *( + =47dB

( ) =log ( ) = 10 log ( ) =-24.5dBm

( )= ( ) + 20 log* + = - 24.5dBm-40 dB = -64.5dBm

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Basic Methods of Propagation (NLOS)

The most important parameter, predicted by propagation models based on above

If the medium on which the electromagnetic wave is incident on a perfect

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Electromagnetic waves are polarized ie because of passive reflectors ,they have

A Polarized wave can represented as a sum of two spatially orthogonal

Reflection From Dielectrics

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Subscripts i, r, and t to refer to the incident, reflected, and transmitted field.

, is the permittivity of medium 1 and 2.

, is the permeability of medium 1 and 2.

The intrinsic impedance of medium is [Permeability /

Permeability is the measure of ability of a material to support the formation of a

Electromagnetic energy cannot pass through conductors.

Boundary conditions require that

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Brewster angle occurs only for vertical (i.e. parallel) polarization.

Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on ground having a

AHALIA SCHOOLOF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

TWO RAY GROUND REFLECTION MODEL

Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model

The 2-ray ground reflection mode] shown in Figure 1 is a useful propagation

Figure 1:Two ray ground reflection model

In most mobile communication systems, the maximum T-R separation distance