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Chapter 1.2
1.2.1.1. Igneous Rock - resulted from the cooling and hardening of molten rock called magma.
1.2.1.2. Sedimentary Rocks - are formed from the accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains
of certain organisms that have become hardened by pressure or cemented by minerals. It has
a stratified appearance.
Pressure - deposit is compacted and consolidated, and strong attractive bonds are
established.
Cementing materials - silica, calcium carbonates and iron oxides
1.2.1.3. Metamorphic Rock - changes brought about by the combination of heat, pressure and
plastic flow so that the original rock structure and mineral composition are changed
Plastic flow - refers to slow viscous movement and rearrangement within the rock mass as it
changes and adjusts to the pressures created by external forces.
1.2.2.1. Residual or Sedentary Soils - have formed from the weathering of rock or accumulation of
organic material and remain at the location of their origin. Primarily a result of chemical and
solution weathering.
Weathering process:
a. mechanical weathering - refers to physical disintegration resulting from the effects of
wind, rain, running water, ice and frost wedging, tectonic forces
b. chemical and solution weathering - rock decomposition due to chemical reactions in the
rock that occurs from exposure to atmosphere, temperature changes, water, or other
materials
Characteristics:
a. wide range of sizes
b. wide range of shapes
c. wide range of composition
d. typically includes fine-grained particles (silt or clay)
e. thick residual layers are prone to landslide in periods of heavy rainfall
f. care and special treatment required when used in construction sites
1.2.2.2. Transported Soils - materials that have been moved from their place of origin.
- good source of sand for some construction purposes but may not be highly
suitable for all construction purposes if of uniform size and rounded
a.2. loess (lo'is)
- deposits of wind-blown silts laid down in a loose condition that has been
retained because of particle-bonding or cementing minerals
- poor foundation material since settlement or subsidence results if subjected to
excessive water and severe ground vibrations.
a.3. volcanic ash
- has mineral characteristics of igneous rocks
- greatly affected by weathering agents
Characteristics:
excellent foundation support
good construction materials if composed of coarse particles but if containing
large percentage of silt and clay materials, it is relatively difficult to handle and
compact.
c. River deposits
- moving considerable volume of soil by carrying the particles in suspension or by
rolling, sliding and skipping them along the river bottom
- known as alluvial deposits
ex. c.1. alluvial fans - gravel and sand for construction purposes
c.2. natural levee - source of gravel and sand
c.3. flood plain - fine-grained soil
c.4. meander bends - deposits are made of coarse soils
c.5. ox-bow lake - filled with fine-grained soil, poor foundation site
ex. delta - if made of coarse soils it provides good foundation support and
soils for construction use
d. Lacustrine deposits
- soil formations remaining at the location of former lake areas
- weak, compressible and make poor foundation
f. Beach deposits
- predominantly sand materials
- marine sands are rounded and smooth and of uniform size
- corrosion potential due to salinity may affect their usefulness for certain
construction purposes
- ideal for waterfront and marine structures because excavation is uncomplicated and
transportation economical
ex. g.1. peat - partially decomposed vegetation and is normally spongy and relatively
light
g.2. muck - geologically older than peat, fully decomposed vegetation and is
relatively dense
Figure 1.2-1 Methods for burying and covering solid waste in sanitary (solid waste) landfill.
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
ex. i.1. radon - carcinogenic substance resulting from decay of uranium, radium and
polonium and from radioactive wastes
i.2. methane - explosive gas
i.3. carbon dioxide - causes asphyxiation
i.4. ammonia - obnoxious odor
i.5. hydrogen - toxic substance
i.6. sulfide and nitrous oxide and acidic fluids - generated from natural
decomposition processes
These gases and liquids are results of accidents and poorly planned human activities
like:
establishment of waste dumps and landfills
application of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides
discharge of inadequately treated sewage, industrial and commercial
compounds
See Fig. 1.2-2 for the interrelationships between rock and soil formation.
rift - develops where plates of lithosphere are moving apart, creating the condition
where molten rock from the asthenosphere rises to create new lithosphere and crust;
volcanism is involved
trenches - boundaries where subduction occurs
transform faults - boundaries where plate edges slide past each other
The creation of new lithosphere where plates diverge must be balanced by an equivalent loss
of lithosphere at other plate boundaries (Fig. 1.2-3)
Ocean crust is developed by subduction and created where plate divergence occurs, but
continental crusts tend to be permanent
When two continental crust plates converge, the two masses stay afloat but undergo a
condition of collision over a sustained period, causing the crust material to fold slowly and
giving rise to a mountain range. Said to be an earthquake zone.
When two ocean plates converge or where an ocean plate dips below a plate carrying
continental crust, the boundary region becomes an area of active volcanism and earthquake
activity
It becomes evident that most of the earth's existing rock and soil represents the influence of
plate movements.
1.2.4. Earthquake
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
- is the phenomenon of vibration, shaking or movement of the ground that occurs when a
release of energy in to the earth results in the transmission of shock, or seismic waves.
a. tectonic
b. volcanic
c. explosion - man induced explosions such as the detonation of nuclear devices
hypocenter or focus - the location within the earth where the rock fracture or rupture
develops to trigger an earthquake
epicenter - the location on the earth's surface directly above the hypocenter
1.2.4.2. Earthquake Magnitude - refers to the numerical scaling system to rate the severity of a
seismic event on the basis of the total strain energy released
- the scaling system permits evaluation regardless of the location of the focus or
epicenter
- concept of earthquake magnitude was presented by Charles Richter in 1935 and included a
numerical scale which ranged upward from zero, with no upper limits (but the severest
known earthquake was approximately a magnitude 9)
Local magnitude value - is defined as the logarithm (base 10) of the maximum seismic wave
amplitude, expressed in mm, recorded on a torsional-type seismograph at a distance of 100 km
from an earthquake epicenter
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
Additional earthquake magnitude scales have been developed in an attempt to obtain better
definition of occurrences. (see Table 1.2-1)
Illustration 1.2 - 1
Illustration 1.2 - 2
Determine the surface magnitude, Ms, value corresponding to a local (Richter) magnitude ML 6 earthquake,
and, approximate the earthquake energy associated with that Ms value
and
E = 104.8 + 1.5Ms
E = 104.8 + 1.5(6.14) 1014 joules or 74 x 1012 ft-lb
- the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (see Table 1.2-2) includes the experience data obtained
from investigating damages and other after-effects of earthquakes
Significance:
Intensity scales have become a source of good experience-related information for
establishing construction standards appropriate to the geographic area.
- the direction of transmitted wave may be altered when it moves from one material into a
different material (phenomenon of refraction)
- the size of the seismic waves may increase or decrease as transmission occurs from sound
dense rock into surficial weathered rock or soil
- seismic waves that reach an area shake or move the surface zones more than the deeper
earth zones
- the energy possessed by seismic waves dissipate with distance from the earthquake
hypocenter
a. the body waves lose their energy over distance
b. the surface wave tends to propagate over long distance
- ground surface motions resulting from seismic waves are greater in the horizontal direction
than in the vertical direction
- on the ground surface the effect of an earthquake is a cyclic or oscillating motion
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
b. The building codes of many areas of the world have evolved to include the procedures for
providing a level of earthquake resistance considered appropriate for the region.
For Uniform Building Code (UBC), refer to Fig. 1.2-8 and Table 1.2-3
ZICVW 1.25S
V where C 2.75 (1.2 2)
Rw T 2/3
For Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA), refer to fig. 1.2-9 and Table 1.2-4
1.2 Av S 2.5 Aa
V C sW where C s 2/3
(upper limit) (1.2 3 )
RT R
For National Basic Building Code and National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) refer to
Fig. 1.2-10 and Table 1.2-5
In these expressions
Z = seismic zone factor
I = building occupancy importance factor (between 1 and 1.25 for UBC,
between 1 and 1.50 for NBCC)
C, Cs = factor relating to the fundamental time period T for the structure
S = soil profile or site coefficient (UBC, BOCA) or seismic response factor
relating fundamental period and seismic zoning (NBCC)
F = foundation factor, soil profile coefficient (NBCC)
Ve = equivalent seismic force representing elastic response
U = 0.6, a calibration factor
Av = effective peak velocity-rated acceleration (ground motion) expected from
a seismic event
Aa = effective peak acceleration (ground motion) expected from a seismic
event
R, Rw = structural factors (between 4 and 12 in UBC, between 1 1/4 and 8 in
BOCA. between 1 and 4 in NBCC), a coefficient reflecting ability of a
structure to absorb energy
v = zonal velocity ratio (ratio of peak horizontal ground velocity to 1 m/sec)
W = weight of the structure; dead load plus code-specified percent of live load
T = fundamental time period for the structure
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
in UBC
T = Ct (height of building in feet 3/4) (1.2 - 5)
with Ct = .035 for steel moment-resisting frames
= .030 for reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames
= .020 for all other buildings
in NBCC
T = 0.09h/D 0.5 (1.2 - 6)
with h = height in m
D = dimension of building measured parallel to direction of
seismic force, in m
More recent NEHRP (National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program) provisions not yet
included in all building codes recommend that the method to determine base shear V be
modified from Equation 1.2-2 to
1.2 Cv 2.5Ca
W W (1.2 - 7)
V= RT 2/3 R
where Ca = FaAa
Cv = FvAv
Refer to Table 1.2-6a for values of F a and Fv
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
Illustration 1.2 - 3
A three-story hospital building is planned for an area indicated by the UBC seismic map to be in a 2A seismic
zone. The building will be 200 ft by 150 ft in plan area and 40 ft high. The structural type will be steel, moment
resistant frame construction. The total seismic weight for the building, based on dead loads, is 18,000 kips.
Subsurface conditions at the site are not uniform, consisting of variable thicknesses of medium-stiff clay and
medium-compact sands (no soft clay or loose sand). Determine the value for the seismic base shear force
using the UBC criteria.
ZICW 1.25S
V= where C =
Rw T 2/3
Solution:
T = Ct(h) 3/4
= (.035)(40)3/4 = (.035)(15.91) = .56
1.25S 1.25(1.5) 1.875
C= = = =2.76
T 2/3 (.56) 2/3 .68
C
= 2.75/12 = .229 .075 (okay)
Rw
ZICW (.15)(1.5)(2.75)(18,000)
V= = = 928 kips = 4170 kN
Rw 12
Some generalized concepts have evolved from correlating the physical events that occur within the
earth during a seismic incident and the effects on structure:
a. Building structures have a natural frequency where harmonic motion results (i.e., a smooth
undulating movement occurs along a pattern of flow through the height and length of the
structure). Seismic frequencies that are similar to the natural frequency of the foundation
soil or rock and that of a structure will cause a greatest movement or vibration in the
structure (a seismic frequency similar to the building's natural frequency will amplify
motion, while dissimilar frequencies tend to dampen movement). Low-rise buildings tend to
have a higher natural frequency than tall buildings.
b. Low-rise buildings tend to be damaged by the high-frequency body waves, while tall
buildings tend to be damaged by the low-frequency surface waves. High frequency waves
(body waves) dissipate energy over distance faster than low-frequency waves (surface
waves). As a consequence, low-rise buildings are most prone to damage when located close
to the earthquake epicenter, while tall buildings can be damaged at relatively great distance
from the epicenter.
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
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for high ratio of acceleration to velocity: velocity is the dominant ground motion type
(as occurs from a distant, large-magnitude earthquake)
for low ratio of acceleration to velocity: acceleration is the dominant ground motion
type (as occurs from an earthquake close to the site)
(Refer to Fig. 1.2-10b and c)
c. Ground vibrations tend to be amplified when the seismic waves pass from a rock into soil
(though not always). Commonly, structural damage is greater for buildings constructed on
soil than for buildings situated on rock; the potential for greater damage exists where a
building is constructed over deposits of weak soil.
a. the velocity of normally ongoing P-waves traveling through the rock in the earthquake
region decreases, but shortly prior to the event reverts to normal
b. the surfaces of regions underlain by the rock that is undergoing strain and movement
often experience some uplifting and tilt
c. the emission of radon gas to the surface increases prior to an earthquake
d. the electrical resistivity of the rock materials may decrease prior to the event because of
the increase in pressure throughout the zone being strained
e. large earthquakes show the tendency to be preceded by a series (swarm) of smaller
quakes throughout the general region, a phenomenon attributed to the occurrence of
rock ruptures on a somewhat limited scale
a. the type and condition of soil deposits underlying any proposed construction site must
be an important consideration to the engineering and construction personnel concerned
with the project, for it is the soil or rock that provides the support for the structure
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
b. proper design for a structure includes investigation and evaluation of soil conditions
underlying the proposed structure, as well as the probability and extent of significant
natural occurrences such as seismic activity, site flooding and so on
c. knowledge of geology and the manner in which land forms and the soils in them have
been created can frequently serve to provide preliminary evaluation of an area and the
potential advantages or problems.
Problems:
1.2.1. Compare the energy released during the earthquake where M L is equal to 5.5 and the
earthquake where ML is equal to 7.5.
1.2.2. A planned building, 45 feet high, will be steel, moment-resisting frame construction.
Determine the design value of base shear, V. to apply for the study of effects of an
earthquake event if the site is in an area where the seismic zone factor is 0.20 and other
conditions are as identified. Assume the UBC applies.
Building importance factor, I = 1.25
Design building weight for earthquake, W = 11,000 kips
Structural factor, moment-resisting frame, Rw = 6
Soil profile site coefficient, S = 1.2
1.2.3. Determine the earthquake event base shear, V, for a structure where the conditions shown
below apply. Calculate V using UBC, BOCA, and NEHRP formulae, then compare results
Steel-frame, moment-resistant structural design
Earthquake design building weight, W = 5,000 kips
Fundamental time period, T = 0.45 seconds
Building importance factor, I = 1.25
Site coefficient or soil profile use S3 (UBC), S3 (BOCA), type E (NEHRP)
Structural factor, R = 5 (UBC), R = 3 (BOCA)
Seismic factors, use 2B (UBC) = 0.20; Av = Aa = 0.10 (BOCA, NEHRP)
Guide Questions:
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CE 45/L SOIL MECHANICS Chapter 1.2 THE SOIL AND THE ROCK OF
PLANET EARTH: Geologic Overview
Table 1.2-6 Seismic related conditions and factors for determining base shear (NEHRP, 1994)
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