For

GATE PSU

Chemical Engineering

Fluid Mechanics

GATE Syllabus

Fluid statics, Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids,

Bernoulli equation, Macroscopic friction factors, energy
balance, dimensional analysis, shell balances, flow
through pipeline systems, flow meters, pumps and
compressors, elementary boundary layer theory, packed
and fluidized beds.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1
FLUIDS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Fluids 2
1.3 Newtons Law of Viscosity 3
1.4 The Continuum Concept of a Fluid 5
1.5 Types of Fluid 5
1.5.1 Ideal Fluid 5
1.5.2 Real Fluid 5
1.5.3 Compressible Incompressible Fluid 6
1.6 Physical Properties 6
1.6.1 Density 6
1.6.1.1 Mass Density 6
1.6.1.2 Specific Weight 6
1.6.1.3 Specific Gravity 7
1.6.2 Viscosity 7
1.6.2.1 Dynamic Viscosity 8
1.6.2.2 Kinematic Viscosity 8
1.6.3 Surface Tension 9
1.6.3.1 Capillary 9
1.6.4 Vapor Pressure 10
1.6.5 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus 10
1.7 Difference Between Solids And Fluids 11
1.8 Types of Fluid Behavior 11
1.8.1 Newtonian Fluids 11
1.8.2 Non Newtonian Fluids 12
1.8.3 Plastic Fluids 12
1.8.4 Dilatants Fluids 12
1.8.5 Bingham Plastic Fluids 12
1.8.6 Pseudo Plastic Fluids 12
1.9 Time Dependent Fluids 12
1.9.1 Thixotropic Fluids 12
1.9.2 Rheopectic Fluids 13
1.10 Temperature Dependency of Viscosity 13
1.10.1 Liquids 13
1.10 Gases 13

Chapter 2
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SCALE UP 16
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Dimensions And Units 16
2.3 Dimensional Homogeneity 18
2.4 Rayleighs Method 18
2.5 Buckinghams Theorem 19

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Chapter 3
FLUID STATICS 21
3.1 Pressure 21
3.2 Pascals Law For Pressure At a Point 22
3.3 Hydrostatic Law 24
3.4 Classification of Pressure 24
3.5 Pressure Measuring Devices 25
3.5.1 Piezo Meter 25
3.5.2 Barometer 26
3.5.3 Manometer 26
3.5.3.1 U Tube Manometer 26
3.5.3.2 Tilted Manometer 27
3.5.3.3 U- Tube Manometer With One Leg Enlarged 28
3.5.4 Pressure Gauge 29
3.6 Buoyancy 29
3.6.1 Centre of Buoyancy 30
3.6.2 Type of Equilibrium of Floating Bodies 30
3.6.2.1 Stable Equilibrium 30
3.6.2.2 Un-stable Equilibrium 30
3.6.2.3 Neutral Equilibrium 30

Chapter 4
FLUID KINEMATICS 32
4.1 Introduction 32
4.2 Types of Fluid Flow 32
4.2.1 Steady And Unsteady Flow 32
4.2.2 Uniform And Non Uniform Flow 32
4.2.3 One, Two And Three Dimensional Flow 33
4.2.4 Rotational And Irrotational Flow 33
4.2.5 Laminar And Turbulent Flow 34
4.2.6 Compressible And Incompressible Flow 34
4.3 Types of Flow Lines 35
4.3.1 Path Line 35
4.3.2 Stream Line 35
4.3.3 Stream Tube 35
4.3.4 Streak Line 35
4.4 Continuity Equation 36
4.4.1 Continuity Equation in Cartesian Coordinates 36
4.5 Velocity Potential 38
4.6 Stream Function 40
4.6.1 Properties of Stream Function 42
4.6.2 Cauchy Riemann Equations 42
4.7 Relation Between Stream Function And Velocity Potential 42

Chapter 5
FLUID DYNAMICS 45
5.1 Introduction 45

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5.2 Types of Heads of Liquid in Motion 45

5.2.1 Potential Head 45
5.2.2 Velocity Head 45
5.2.3 Pressure Head 45
5.3 Bernoullis Equation 46
5.4 Eulers Equation of Motion 48
5.5 Bernoullis Equation For Real Fluid 49

Chapter 6
FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID IN PIPES 51
6.1 Flow Regimes 51
6.2 Navier Stokes Equation of Motion 52
6.3 Relation Between Shear Stress And Pressure Gradient 53
6.4 Flow of Viscous Fluid in Circular Pipes Hagen Poiseuille Equation 54
6.5 Laminar Uni Directional Flow Between Stationary Parallel Plates 58
6.6 Laminar Uni Directional Flow Between Parallel Plates Having Relative Motion 61
6.7 Flow Losses in Pipes 63
6.8 Darcy Equation For Head Loss Due to Friction 63
6.9 Empirical Correlations For Coefficient of Friction 65
6.10 Minor Head Losses 67
6.10.1 Sudden Enlargement 67
6.10.2 Sudden Contraction 68
6.11 Pipes in Series And in Parallel 70
6.12 Concept of Equivalent Pipe 71
6.13 Prandtl Mixing Length Theory For Shear Stresses in Turbulent Flow 72

Chapter 7
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY 74
7.1 Boundary Layer Theory 74
7.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics 74
7.2.1 Boundary Layer Thickness 75
7.2.2 Displacement Thickness 75
7.2.3 Momentum Thickness 75
7.2.4 Energy Thickness 75
7.2.5 Energy Loss 76
7.3 Laminar Boundary Layer 76
7.4 Turbulent Boundary Layer 76

Chapter 8
FLOW MEASUREMENT 79
8.1 Introduction 79
8.2 Units of Flow 79
8.3 Measurement of Flow 79
8.4 Mechanical Flow Meters 80
8.4.1 Variable Head Flow Meters 80
8.4.1.1 Flow of Incompressible Fluid in Pipe 81

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8.4.1.2 Ratio 82
8.4.1.3 Discharge Coefficient 83
8.4.1.4 Flow Coefficient 83
8.4.1.5 Orifice Flow Meter 84
8.4.1.6 Venturi Meter 85
8.4.1.7 Pitot Tube 87
8.4.2 Variable Area Flow Meter 87
8.4.2.1 Types of Variable Area Flow Meter 87
8.4.2.2 Basic Equation 88

Chapter 9
FLOW PAST IMMERGED BODIES 92
9.1 Introduction 92
9.2 Lift And Drag Concept 92
9.3 Drag Coefficient 93
9.4 Stokes Law 94
9.4.1 Terminal Velocity 95
9.4.2 Applications of Stokes Law 96
9.5 Stagnation Point 96

Chapter 10
FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA 99
10.1 Description of Porous Media 99
10.2 Hydraulic Diameter 100
10.3 Porous Medium Friction Factor 101
10.4 Porous Medium Reynolds Number 101
10.5 Friction in Flow Through Beds of Solids 101
10.5.1 Kozney Carman Equation 101
10.5.2 Burke Plummer Equation 102
10.5.3 Ergun Equation 102
10.6 Packed Column 102
10.7 Fluidization 103
10.7.1 Minimum Fluidization Velocity 104

Chapter 11
TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS 106
11.1 Pumping Equipments of Liquids 106
11.2 Positive Displacement Pumps 106
11.3 Centrifugal Pumps 107
11.3.1 Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps 108
11.3.2 Specific Speed 109
11.3.3 Operating Characteristics 109
11.3.4 Affinity Laws For Pumps 110
11.4 Cavitations And NPSH 110
11.4.1 Vapor Lock And Cavitations 110
11.4.2 NPSH 111

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Chapter 12
LEVEL 1 127
LEVEL 2 138

Chapter 13
UNSOLVED QUESTIONS 150

Chapter 14
QUESTIONS (2004 TO 2015) 153
2004 153
2005 155
2006 157
2007 159
2008 161
2009 163
2010 164
2011 166
2012 168
2013 170
2014 171
2015 172

Chapter 15
SOLUTIONS 174

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CHAPTER 3

FLUID STATICS
Fluid statics deals with the fluids at rest. There are following points should be
noted:

i. A static fluid can have no shearing force acting on it, and that
ii. Any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at right angles to
the boundary.
iii. For an element of fluid at rest, the element will be in equilibrium - the sum of the
components of forces in any direction will be zero.
iv. The sum of the moments of forces on the element about any point must also be
zero.

3.1 PRESSURE

A fluid will exert a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with. Since
these boundaries may be large and the force may differ from place to place it is
convenient to work in terms of pressure, p, which is the force per unit area.

If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the pressure
is said to be uniform.

Force
p
Area over which the force is applied
F
p
A

Units: Newtons per square metre, N m2, kg m-1 s-2

(The same unit is also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1Pa = 1 N m2)

(Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where 1 bar = 105 N m2)

Dimensions: ML-1 T-2

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3.2 PASCALS LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT

For a fluid having no shear forces, the direction of the plane over which the
force due to pressure acts has no effect on the magnitude of the pressure at a point.
This result is known as the Pascals
Law and its derivation is given
below.

By considering a small
element of fluid in the form of a
triangular prism which contains a
point P, we can establish a
relationship between the three
pressures px in the x direction, py in
the y direction and ps in the direction
normal to the sloping face.

The fluid is a rest, so we

know there are no shearing forces, and we know that all force are acting at right
angles to the surfaces .i.e.

ps acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,

px acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and

py acts perpendicular to surface FECD.

And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction
is zero.

Summing forces in the x-direction:

Force due to px, Fxx px AreaABCD Sin

Component of force in the x-direction due to ps,

Fxs ps AreaABCD Sin

y y
ps s z Sin
s s
ps y z

Component of force in x-direction due to py, Fxy 0

To be at rest (in equilibrium)

Fxx Fxs Fxy 0

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px x y ps y z 0
px py

Similarly, summing forces in the y-direction. Force due to py,

Fyy py AreaABCD py x z

Component of force due to ps,

Fys ps AreaABCD Cos

x x
ps s z Cos
s s
ps x z

Component of force due to px,

Fyx 0

Force due to gravity,

Weight = specific weight volume of element

1
g xy z
2

To be at rest (in equilibrium)

Fyx Fys Fyy weight 0

1
py x z ps x z g xy z 0
2

The element is small i.e. x , y and z are small, and so x y z is very small
and considered negligible, hence

py ps

Thus px py ps

The element is so small that it can be considered a point so the derived expression
px py ps , indicates that pressure at any point is the same in all directions.

Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascals
Law and applies to fluids at rest.

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3.3 HYDROSTATIC LAW

Consider a hypothetical differential cylindrical element of fluid of cross

sectional area A and height (z2 - z1).

Upward force due to pressure P1 on the element = P1A

Downward force due to pressure P2 on the element = P2A

Force due to weight of the element = mg = A(z2 - z1)g

Equating the upward and downward forces,

P1A = P2A + A (z2 - z1) g

P2 - P1 = - g (z2 - z1)

P g z

Thus in any fluid under gravitational acceleration, pressure increases, with

increasing depth z in the down-ward direction.

3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE

Pressure can be
classified on the basis of the
atmospheric pressure, as
positive or negative
pressure.

Positive pressure is
termed as Gauge
pressure i.e. pressure
above atmospheric
pressure.
Negative pressure is
termed as Vacuum Pressure i.e. Pressure below atmospheric pressure.

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge (Vacuum) Pressure

pabsolute patm gh pgauge gh

As g is (approximately) constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating

the vertical height of any fluid of density which is equal to this pressure.

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p gh

This vertical height is known as head of fluid.

3.5 PRESSURE MEAUSRING DEVICES

The relationship between pressure and head is used to measure the pressure
of any fluid and pressure can be measure with the help of following devices:

3.5.1 PIEZOMETER

The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to the
top of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be
measured. An example can be seen in the figure below. This simple device is known
as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the
atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to
atmospheric so is gauge pressure.

Pressure at A = Pressure due to column of

liquid above A

pA gh1

Pressure at B = Pressure due to column of liquid

above B

pB gh2

This method can only be used for liquids

(i.e. not for gases) and only when the liquid
height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and pressure
changes must be detectable.

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3.5.2 BAROMETER

A barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. A simple

barometer consists of a tube more than 30 inch (760 mm) long inserted in an open
container of mercury with a closed and
evacuated end at the top and open tube end
at the bottom and with mercury extending
from the container up into the tube. Strictly,
the space above the liquid cannot be a true
vacuum. It contains mercury vapor at its
saturated vapor pressure, but this is
extremely small at room temperatures

(e.g. 0.173 Pa at 20 0C).

The atmospheric pressure is calculated from the relation Patm = gh where

is the density of fluid in the barometer.

3.5.3 MANOMETER

A somewhat more complicated device for measuring fluid pressure consists of

a bent tube containing one or more liquid of different specific gravities. Such a device
is known as manometer.

In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be

atmospheric) is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown
pressure to be determined is applied to the other end.

In some cases, however, the difference between pressures at ends of the

manometer tube is desired rather than the actual pressure at the either end. A
manometer to determine this differential pressure is known as differential pressure
manometer.

3.5.3.1 U TUBE MANOMETER

Using a U-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be

measured with the same instrument. The U is connected as in the figure below and
filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being
measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the
two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible.

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Pressure in a continuous static fluid is

the same at any horizontal level so,

Pressure at B = Pressure at C

PB = P C

For the left hand arm

Pressure at B = Pressure at A + Pressure

due to height h of fluid being measured

pc patm man gh2

As we are measuring gauge pressure we can

subtract patm giving

Pressure at B = Pressure at C

PB = P C

pA man gh2 gh1

If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in
comparison to the density of the manometric fluid i.e. man >> . In this case the term
gh1 can be neglected, and the gauge pressure given by

pA man gh2

3.5.3.2 TILTED MANOMETER

When the pressure to be

measured is very small then tilting
the arm provides a convenient way
of obtaining a larger (more easily
read) movement of the manometer.
The above arrangement with a
tilted arm is shown in the figure
below.

The pressure difference is still

given by the height change of the
manometric fluid but by placing the

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scale along the line of the tilted arm and taking this reading large movements will be
observed. The pressure difference is then given by

p1 p2 gz2 gxSin

3.5.3.3 U TUBE WITH ONE LEG ENLARGED

The U-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in height of
the liquid in both sides must be read.
This can be avoided by making the
diameter of one side very large
compared to the other. In this case
the side with the large area moves
very little when the small area side
move considerably more.

Assume the manometer is

arranged as above to measure the
pressure difference of a gas of (negligible density) and that pressure difference is p1
p2. If the datum line indicates the level of the manometric fluid when the pressure
difference is zero and the height differences when pressure is applied is as shown,

The volume of liquid transferred from the left side to the z 2 d 2 / 4

And the fall in level of the left side is
Volume moved
z1
Area of left side

z1

z2 d 2 / 4 zd
2

2
D 2
/4 D

We know from the theory of the U tube manometer that the height different in the
two columns gives the pressure difference so

d
2

p1 p2 g z2 z2
D
d 2
p1 p2 gz2 1
D

Clearly if D is very much larger than d then (d / D)2 is very small so

p1 p2 gz2

3.5.3.4 LIMITATIONS TO MANOMETER

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The manometer in its various forms is an extremely useful type of pressure

measuring instrument, but suffers from a number of limitations.

While it can be adapted to measure very small pressure differences, it cannot

be used conveniently for large pressure differences - although it is possible to
connect a number of manometers in series and to use mercury as the
manometric fluid to improve the range. (limitation)
A manometer does not have to be calibrated against any standard; the
pressure difference can be calculated from first principles. ( Advantage)
Some liquids are unsuitable for use because they do not form well-defined
menisci. Surface tension can also cause errors due to capillary rise; this can
be avoided if the diameters of the tubes are sufficiently large - preferably not
less than 15 mm diameter. (limitation)
A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which makes it
unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures.(limitation)
It is essential that the pipes connecting the manometer to the pipe or vessel
containing the liquid under pressure should be filled with this liquid and there
should be no air bubbles in the liquid.(important point to be kept in mind)

3.5.4 PRESSURE GAUGE

The pressure to be measured is applied to a curved tube, oval in cross

section. Pressure applied to the tube tends to cause the tube to straighten out, and
the deflection of the end of the tube is communicated through a system of levers to a
recording needle. This gauge is widely used for steam and compressed gases. The
pressure indicated is the difference between that
communicated by the system to the external
(ambient) pressure, and is usually referred to as the
gauge pressure.

3.6 BUOYANCY

Whenever a body is immersed wholly or

partially in a fluid it is subjected to an upward force
which tend to lift (or buoy) it up. This tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up
in the fluid, due to an upward force opposite to action of gravity is known as
buoyancy. The force tending to lift up the body under such conditions is known as
buoyant force or up thrust.

The magnitude of the buoyant force can be determined with help of

Archimedes Principle which states as follows:

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When a body is immersed in a fluid either wholly or partially, it is buoyed or

lifted up by a force, which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the body

3.6.1 CENTER OF BUOYANCY

The point of application of the force of buoyancy on the body is known as

center of buoyancy. It is always the center of gravity of the volume of fluid displaced.

3.6.2 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODIEES

The equilibrium of the floating bodies is of the following types:

3.6.2.1 STABLE EQUILIBRIUM

When a body is given a small angular displacement (i.e. tilted slightly), by

some external force, and then it returns back to its original position due to the
internal forces (the weight and the up thrust), such an equilibrium is called stable
equilibrium.

3.6.2.2 UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM

If the body does not return to its original position from the slightly displaced
angular position and heels further away, when given an small angular displacement,
such an equilibrium is called an unstable equilibrium.

3.6.2.3 NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM

If a body, when given a small angular displacement, occupies a new position

and remains at rest in this position it is said to possess a neutral equilibrium.

Example 3.1 A simple U tube manometer is installed across an orifice meter. The
manometer is filled with mercury (sp. Gravity = 13.6) and the liquid above the
mercury is CCl4 (sp. Gravity = 1.6). The manometer reads 200 mm. What is the
pressure difference over the manometer in Newton per square meter?

Solution: Specific gravity of heavier liquid, Shl = 13.6

Specific gravity of lighter liquid, Sll = 1.6

Reading of the manometer, y = 200 mm

Pressure difference over the manometer: p

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Differential head,
S
h y hl 1
Sll
13.6
h 200 1
1.6
h 1500 mm of CCl 4
Pressure difference over the manometer,
1500
p wh 1.6 9810
1000
p 23544 N / m 2

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