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TP ON BU CHNH VIN THNG

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

BI GING
TRUYN DN S
Chuyn ngnh in t truyn thng

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BI GING
(Lu hnh ni b )
TRUYN DN S
Chuyn ngnh in t Truyn thng
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(Lu hnh ni b)
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Bin son: T.S L Nht Thng

Bin son: PGS. TS. L Nht Thng
ThS. V Th Thy H
ThS. V Th Thy H
ThS. Nguyn Th Thu
Hin
ThS. Nguyn Th Thu Hin
H Ni, 12/2013
Bi ging Truyn dn s Mc lc
MC LC
MC LC ....................................................................................................................... I
CC THUT NG VIT TT................................................................................... VI
LI NI U .................................................................................................................1
CHNG 1: TNG QUAN V H THNG TRUYN THNG S ...................2
1.1 c im ca thng tin s .....................................................................................2

1.2. Cc thnh phn ca h thng truyn thng s ......................................................3
1.3 Cc knh truyn v c tnh ..................................................................................5
1.4. Cc m hnh ton cho knh truyn dn ..............................................................8
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1.5 Qu trnh pht trin ca h thng truyn dn s..................................................11
Cu hi v bi tp chng 1........................................................................................12
CHNG 2: M HA NGUN ...............................................................................13
2.1 M hnh ton hc cho ngun thng tin ................................................................13

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2.2 o thng tin ....................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Lng tin tng h trung bnh v Entropy ..................................................15
2.2.2 o thng tin cho bin ngu nhin lin tc....................................................15
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2.3 M ha cho ngun ri rc ....................................................................................16

2.3.1 M ha ngun ri rc khng nh .................................................................16
2.3.2 Entropy ca ngun dng ri rc ...................................................................19
2.3.3 Thut ton Lempel-Ziv .............................................................................19
2.4 M ha cho ngun tng t - lng t ha ti u 21
2.4.1 Hm tc - mo .....................................................................................21
2.4.2 K thut lng t ......................................................................................22
2.5 K thut m ha cho ngun tng t. .................................................................24
2.5.1 M ha dng sng thi gian: ........................................................................25
2.5.1.1 Phng php iu ch xung m PCM .....................................................25
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2.5.1.2 iu xung m vi sai DPCM ....................................................................29

2.5.1.3 iu ch Delta (DM) ...............................................................................30
2.5.1.4 iu ch xung m vi sai thch ng (ADPCM) ..........................................31
2.5.2 B m ha dng sng trong min tn s ...................................................31
2.5.3 M ha ngun da trn m hnh pht m .....................................................32
Cu hi v bi tp chng 2 ......................................................................................34
CHNG 3: M HA KNH ..................................................................................37
3.1. Pht hin li v sa li .......................................................................................37

3.1.1. Pht hin li .................................................................................................38
3.1.2. Kim tra chn l 2 chiu ..............................................................................41
3.1.3. Cc m a thc ............................................................................................42
3.1.4. Sa li ..........................................................................................................46
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3.1.5. Ghp xen ......................................................................................................46
3.1.6. Cc vector m v khong cch Hamming ...................................................47
3.1.7. H thng FEC ..............................................................................................48
3.1.8. H thng ARQ .............................................................................................51
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3.2. Cc m khi tuyn tnh .......................................................................................55
3.2.1. Cc m khi tuyn tnh h thng .................................................................58
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3.2.2. Ma trn kim tra chn l ..............................................................................59

3.2.3. Kim tra Syndrome......................................................................................60
3.3. Cc m chp........................................................................................................62
3.3.1 To m chp ..............................................................................................62
3.3.2. Biu din m chp .......................................................................................65
3.3.2.1. S hnh cy ........................................................................................65
3.3.2.2. S trng thi ......................................................................................66
3.3.2.3. S hnh li .......................................................................................67
3.3.3. Gii m m chp bng thut ton Viterbi ....................................................67
3.4. Cc m kt ni v gii m lp ............................................................................69
3.4.1. B m ha Turbo .........................................................................................70
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3.4.1.1. Tng quan ...............................................................................................70

3.4.1.2. Ghp xen Turbo ......................................................................................72
3.4.2. Gii m Turbo..............................................................................................75
3.4.2.1. Gii thiu ................................................................................................75
3.4.2.2. Kin trc b gii m ...............................................................................75
3.4.2.3. Gii m lp v b gii m SISO .............................................................76
3.5. Cc m nng cao .................................................................................................78
3.5.1. Kin trc m LDPC .....................................................................................79
3.5.2. hnh Tanner ............................................................................................80
3.5.3. M ha .........................................................................................................82
3.5.3.1. M ha s dng ma trn sinh G .............................................................82
3.5.3.2. M ha s dng ma trn chn l H .........................................................84
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3.5.4. Gii m ........................................................................................................87
3.5.4.1. Thut ton gii m tng tch trn min xc sut SPA ............................89
Cu hi v bi tp chng 3 ......................................................................................92
CHNG 4: KY THUT GHEP KNH S ...........................................................94
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4.1. Tng quan v k thut ghp knh.......................................................................94
4.1.1. Khi nim v ghp knh ..............................................................................94
4.1.2. Cc k thut ghp knh ...............................................................................95
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4. 2. ng dng k thut ghp knh trong h thng truyn dn s ..........................104

4.2.1. K thut ghp knh TDM-PCM ................................................................104
4.2.2. K thut ghp knh PDH ...........................................................................105
4.2.3. K thut ghp knh SDH ...........................................................................106
Cu hi v bi tp chng 4 ....................................................................................110
CHNG 5: M NG TRUYN .....................................................................110
5.1. Tng quan v m ng truyn ........................................................................110

5.2. Cc loi m truyn ng truyn .....................................................................115
5.2.1 M AMI ......................................................................................................115
5.2.2. M CMI (Coded Mark Inversion) .............................................................116
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5.2.3. M HDBn ..................................................................................................117

5.2.4. M BnZS (Binary N-Zero Substitution) ....................................................117
Cu hi v bi tp chng 5 ....................................................................................120
CHNG 6: IU CH V GII IU CH S ..............................................121
6.1.Tng quan v iu ch s .................................................................................121

6.2. Cc phng thc iu ch - gii iu ch ........................................................122
6.2.1. iu ch kha dch bin (ASK) ...........................................................123
6.2.2. iu ch kha dch pha (PSK) ..................................................................125
6.2.2.1 iu ch BPSK ......................................................................................125
6.2.2.2. Kha dch pha vi phn (DPSK) ............................................................128
6.2.2.3. Kha dch pha cu phng v Kha dch pha M-ary .........................128
6.2.3. iu ch kha dch tn (FSK) ...................................................................129
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6.2.4. iu bin cu phng (QAM)...................................................................130
6.3. nh gi hiu nng ca cc k thut iu ch .................................................132
6.3.1. iu ch ASK ............................................................................................132
6.3.2. iu ch PSK ............................................................................................133
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6.3.3. iu ch FSK ............................................................................................134
6.3.4. iu ch QAM ..........................................................................................135
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Cu hi v bi tp chng 6 ....................................................................................136
CHNG 7: NG B ...........................................................................................138
7.1.ng b trong truyn dn s .............................................................................138

7.2. ng b pha thu ..............................................................................................139
7.2.1. Mch vng kha pha .................................................................................139
7.2.2.1. ng b k hiu vng h .....................................................................142
7.2.2.2. ng b k hiu vng kn ....................................................................144
7.2.3. ng b khung ..........................................................................................146
7.3. ng b mng ..................................................................................................148
7.3.1. ng b pha pht vng h .......................................................................150
7.3.2. ng b pha pht vng kn ......................................................................153
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Cu hi v bi tp chng 7 ....................................................................................155
TI LIU THAM KHO.........................................................................................156
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Bi ging Truyn dn s Cc thut ng vit tt
CC THUT NG VIT TT
A/D Analog/Digital Chuyn i tng t /s

AAL ATM Adaptation Layer Lp p ng ATM
ADM Add/Drop Multiplexer B ghp xen/r
ADMo Adaptive Delta Modulation iu ch Delta thch ng
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code
ADPCM iu ch xung m vi sai thch ng
Modulation
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line ng dy thu bao s bt i xng

AM Amplitude Modulation iu ch bin
ASCII American Standard Code for Chun m trao i thng tin Hoa K
Information Interchange
ATC Adaptive Transform Coding M ha bin i thch nghi
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode Phng thc truyn ti khng ng
IT b
AUG Administrative Unit Group Nhm khi qun l
AU-n Administrative Unit-n Khi qun l mc n
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise Knh nhiu trng cng
BER Bit Error Rate Tc li Bit
T
BIP-n Bit Interleaved Parity-n T m kim tra chn l n bit xen bit
B-ISDN Broadband Integrated Services Mng s lin kt a dch v bng
Digital Network rng
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying iu ch pha nh phn
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BSC Binary Symmetric Channel Knh nh phn i xng
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function Hm phn b tch ly

CDM Code Division Multiplexing Ghp phn chia theo m
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access a truy nhp phn chia theo m
CMI Code Mark Inversion M o du
CPU Central Processing Unit Khi x l trung tm
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check Kim tra s d chu trnh
CVSD Continuously Variable Slope Delta Bin thin lin tc ca iu ch Delta
modulation
D/A Digital / Analog Chuyn i s/tng t
DCC Data Communication Channel Knh truyn d liu
DCT Discrete Cosine Transform Bin i Cosin ri rc
vi
DFT Discrete Fourier Transform Bin i Fourier ri rc

DM Delta Modulation iu ch Delta
DMS Discrete Memoryless Source Ngun hn ch b nh ri rc
DMUX DeMUltipleXer B tch knh
DPCM Differential Pulse Code Modulation iu ch xung m vi sai
DSL Digital Subcriber Line ng dy thu bao s
Digital Subscriber Line Access

DSLAM B tp trung ng dy thu bao s
Multiplexer
DSM Digital Storage Media Phng tin lu tr s
DSP Digital Signal Processing X l tn hiu s

DVB Digital Video Broadcasting Truyn hnh s th h mi
DVD Digital Video Disc a nh s (quang)
DWDM Dense WDM Ghp knh theo bc sng mt
DWT
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Descrete Wavelet Transform
cao
Bin i Wavelet ri rc
DXC Digital cross- Connect Ni cho s

E/O Electrical- to- Optical Chuyn i in thnh quang
FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface Giao din d liu phn phi si quang
T
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing Ghp knh phn chia theo tn s
FFT Fast Fourier Transfrom Bin i Fourier nhanh
Hybrid Concatenated Convolutional Kt ni hn hp cc b m tch chp
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HCCC
Code
HDB-3 High Density Bipoler -3 zero M hai cc mt cao- ti a c 3 bit
0 lin tip
HDLC High-level Data Link Control Giao thc iu khin tuyn d liu
Protocol mc cao
HEC Header Error Control Kim tra li u
HI HIgh- priority u tin cao
IP Internet Protocol Giao thc Internet
ISI Intersymbol Interference Nhiu xen k hiu
International Organization for
ISO T chc tiu chun Quc t
Standardization
ITU International Telecommunication Lin minh Vin thng Quc t
vii
Union
KLT Karhunen Loeve Transform Chuyn i Karhunen Loeve
LAPS Link Access Procedure -SDH Th tc truy nhp tuyn SDH

LCP Link Control Protocol Giao thc iu khin tuyn
LLR Log Likelihood Ratio T s xc sut log
LOS Line Of Sight Tm nhn thng

LPC Linear Predictive Coder M ha d on tuyn tnh
LTI Linear Time Invariant H thng tuyn tnh bt bin theo thi
gian
LZW Lempel Ziv-Wench Transform Chuyn i Lempel Ziv-Wench
MAC Media Access Control iu khin truy nhp phng tin

MAP Maximum A Posteriori Xc sut hu nghim ti a
MS-DOS
MSED Minimun
Distance
Squared
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Microsoft Disk Operating System H iu hnh a t Microsoft
Euclidean Khong cch Euclidean bnh phng
ti thiu
MSOH Multiplex Section OverHead Mo u on ghp
MTU Maximum Transmission Unit Khi truyn dn cc i
T
MUX MUltipleXer B ghp
NG-SDH Next- Generation SDH SDH th h tip theo
NMS Network Management Systems Cc h thng qun l mng
NRZ Non-Return-to-Zero Khng tr v khng
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NRZI Non Return to Zero Khng tr v zero

O/E Optical -to- Electrical Chuyn i quang thnh in
OA&M Operation, Administration and Vn hnh, qun l v bo dng
Maintenance
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Ghp phn chia theo tn s trc giao
Multiplexing
OLTM Optical Line Terminal Multiplexer B ghp u cui quang
P Parity Tnh chn l
PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation iu bin xung
PCCC Parallel Concatenated Convolutional Kt ni song song cc m tch chp
Code
PCM Pulse Code Modulation iu ch xung m
viii
PDF Probability Density Funtion Hm mt xc sut

PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierachy Phn cp s cn ng b
PDS Power Density Spectral Mt ph cng sut
PDU Protocol Data Unit Khi d liu giao thc
pFCS payload Frame Check Sequence Dy kim tra khung ti trng
PFI Payload FCS Indicator B ch th dy kim tra khung ti
trng
PLD PayLoaD Ti trng
PLI Payload Length Indicator B ch th chiu di ti trng
PLL Phase - Locked Loop Vng kho pha
PO Primary Out u ra s cp
PON Passive Optical Networks Mng quang th ng
POS Packet Over SDH Gi trn SDH

PPP
PRI
PSK
PRIority
Phase Shift Keying
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Point-to-Point Protocol Giao thc im - im
u tin
iu ch kha dch pha
PTI Payload Type Identifier B nhn dng kiu ti trng
PTR Pointer Con tr
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QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation iu ch bin cu phng
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying iu ch kha dch pha vung gc
RCR CLK ReCeiver Recovery CLoK ng h hi phc t tn hiu thu
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RCT Reversible Color Transform Chuyn i thun nghch
RLC/ RLE Run Length Coding/ Encoding M ha di chy
RMS Root Mean Square Cn qun phng
RSC Recursive Systematic Convolutional M chp h thng quy

Code
RSOH Regenerator Section OverHead Mo u on lp
SA Source Address a ch ngun
SBC Subband Coding M ha bng con
SCCC Serial Concatenated Convolutional Kt ni ni tip cc m chp
Code - SCCC
SD Starting Delimiter B gii hn u khung
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy H thng phn cp s ng b
ix
SED Squared Euclidean Distance Khong cch Euclidean bnh phng

SNR Signal to Noise Ratio T s tn hiu trn nhiu
SONET Synchronous Optical Network Mng quang ng b

SOVA Soft Output Viterbi Algorithm Viterbi ng ra mm
SPM Self phase Modulation Hiu ng t iu ch dch pha
SSED Sum of Squared Euclidean Distance Tng bnh phng khong cch
Euclidean
STM-N Synchronous Transmistion Module - Mun truyn dn ng b mc N

N
TCM Trellis Coded Modulation iu ch m li
TDM Time-Division Multiplexing Ghp knh phn chia theo thi gian
UDP User Datagram Protocol Giao thc gi d liu ngi s dng
VC Virtual Container IT Conten o
VCG Virtual Concatenation Group Nhm kt chui o
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator B to dao ng iu khin bng in
p
Very High Speed Digital Subscriber
VDSL Line ng thu bao s tc rt cao
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VLAN Virtual LAN Mng din cc b o
VLC Variable Length Code M ha di thay i
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VPI/VCI Virtual Path Identifier/ Virtual B nhn dng tuyn o/B nhn dng
Channel Identifier knh o
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing Ghp phn chia theo bc sng
x
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Bi ging Truyn dn s Li ni u
LI NI U
Cc h thng thng tin s hin ang pht trin rt mnh m trn ton th gii v
thay th hu ht cc h thng thng tin tng t. nc ta, c th ni rng hin
nay gn nh tt c cc h thng chuyn mch v truyn dn u c s ho. Vic
nghin cu v cc h thng thng tin s ni chung v cc h thng truyn dn s ni
ring v th tr thnh mt ni dung c bn ca chng trnh o to K s ngnh
in t - Truyn thng.
Ti liu ging dy ny c bin son theo cng mn hc "Truyn dn s"

trong chng trnh o to i hc ngnh in t - Truyn thng ca Hc vin Cng
ngh Bu chnh Vin thng nhm trnh by nhng vn c bn nht v mt h thng
truyn dn s cng vi cc k thut lin quan. Bi ging c t chc thnh 7 chng
c th nh sau:
Nhng vn chung v cc h thng thng tin s c trnh by mt cch khi

qut trong chng u, xoay quanh s khi chc nng tng qut tiu biu ca cc
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h thng truyn dn s. M hnh knh truyn cng c gii thiu trong chng ny;
Chng hai trnh by cc phng php m ho ngun c bn trong cc h
thng truyn dn s, trong i su vo mt s phng php m ho dng sng tiu
biu nh iu ch xung m (PCM), iu ch xung m vi sai (DPCM) v iu ch xung
m vi sai t thch nghi (ADPCM). Phng php m ho ngun da trn m hnh cng
c gii thiu mt cch khi qut trong chng ny.
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Chng ba trnh by v nhng k thut iu khin li ci thin t l li trong
cc ng dng yu cu cao m t l li vn c ca cc knh truyn dn s l khng
c nh mong mun. Cc loi m khi tuyn tnh, m chp v m Turbo cng c
gii thiu trong chng ba.
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Nhng vn lin quan n ghp knh trong h thng tuyn dn s c trnh

by trong chng bn, bao gm ghp knh s cp, phn cp tc s cn ng b
PDH v gii thiu s b v phn cp tc s ng b SDH.
Chng nm phn tch vn biu din tn hiu s ph hp truyn qua knh
thng tin. Cc bt nh phn 0 v 1 c th c biu din nhiu dng khc nhau gi l
m ng truyn. Cc m loi m AMI, CMI, HDBn, BnZS c trnh by k trong
chng.
Chng su ca bi ging c dnh m t cc k thut iu ch s, bao
gm: iu ch kha dch bin (ASK), iu ch kha dch pha (PSK), iu ch kha
dch tn (FSK), iu bin cu phng (QAM).
Vn ng b trong cc h thng truyn dn s c cp n trong chng
by.
Sau mi chng c cc bi tp hoc cu hi sinh vin t kim tra v nh

gi kin thc ca mnh.
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Bi ging Truyn dn s Li ni u
Tuy nhin, do y l ln bin son u tin nn bi ging khng trnh khi

khim khuyt v ni dung v hnh thc.
Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n tt c cc kin ng gp ca cc bn c

hon thin hn bi ging ny.
Cc kin gp qua e-mail xin c gi v: thangln@ptit.edu.vn,

havt@ptit.edu.vn; hiennt@ptit.edu.vn .
H Ni, thng 12 nm 2013
Nhm tc gi bin son
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Bi ging Truyn dn s Chng I: Tng quan v h thng truyn thng s
CHNG 1: TNG QUAN V H THNG TRUYN THNG S

Trong chng 1, trnh by cc nguyn l c bn lm nn tng cho vic phn
tch v thit k ca cc h thng truyn thng k thut s. Cc ni dung ca truyn
thng k thut s lin quan n vic truyn thng tin di dng s t mt ngun thng
tin ti mt hoc nhiu ch n. c bit quan trng trong phn tch v thit k ca h
thng truyn thng l nhng c tnh ca cc knh vt l thng qua thng tin c
truyn i. Cc c im ca cc knh ni chung nh hng n thit k ca cc khi
chc nng c bn ca h thng truyn thng.
1.1 c im ca thng tin s
Cc h thng thng tin c s dng truyn a tin tc t ni ny n ni

khc. Tin tc c truyn a t ngun tin ti ni nhn tin di dng cc bn tin. Cc
bn tin c to ra t ngun c th dng lin tc hay ri rc, tng ng chng ta c
cc ngun tin lin tc hay ri rc. i vi ngun tin lin tc, tp cc bn tin l mt tp
v hn, cn i vi ngun tin ri rc tp cc bn tin c th c l mt tp hu hn. Biu
din vt l ca mt bn tin c gi l tn hiu. C rt nhiu loi tn hiu khc nhau
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ty theo i lng vt l c s dng biu din tn hiu, th d nh cng dng
in, in p, cng nh sng... Tu theo dng ca cc tn hiu c s dng
truyn ti tin tc trong cc h thng truyn tin l cc tn hiu tng t hay tn hiu s
v tng ng s c cc h thng thng tin tng t hay h thng thng tin s. c
im cn bn ca mt tn hiu tng t l tn hiu c th nhn v s gi tr, lp y
lin tc mt gii no . Thm vo , thi gian tn ti ca cc tn hiu tng t l
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mt gi tr khng xc nh c th, ph thuc vo thi gian tn ti ca bn tin do ngun
tin sinh ra. Tn hiu tng t c th l tn hiu lin tc hay ri rc ty theo tn hiu l
mt hm lin tc hay ri rc ca bin thi gian. Tn hiu in thoi li ra ca mt
micro l mt th d tiu biu v tn hiu tng t lin tc, trong khi tn hiu iu
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bin xung PAM ca chnh tn hiu li ra micro ni trn l mt tn hiu tng t ri rc.
Trong trng hp ngun tin ch gm mt s hu hn (M) cc tin th cc bn tin ny c
th nh s c v do vy thay v truyn i cc bn tin ta ch cn chuyn i cc k
hiu (symbol) l cc con s tng ng vi cc bn tin . Tn hiu khi ch biu din
cc con s (cc k hiu) v c gi l tn hiu s.
c trng cn bn ca tn hiu s l:
a) tn hiu s ch nhn mt s hu hn cc gi tr;
b) tn hiu s c thi gian tn ti xc nh, thng l mt hng s k hiu l TS
(vit tt ca Symbol Time-interval: Thi gian ca mt k hiu).
Tn hiu s c th nhn M gi tr khc nhau. Trong trng hp M=2, chng ta

c h thng thng tin s nh phn cn trong trng hp tng qut chng ta c h thng
M mc. So vi cc h thng thng tin tng t, cc h thng thng tin s c mt s u
im c bn sau: th nht, do c kh nng ti sinh tn hiu theo ngng sau tng c ly
2
nht nh nn tp m tch ly c th loi tr c, tc l cc tn hiu s kho hn i

vi tp m so vi tn hiu tng t ; th hai, do s dng tn hiu s, tng thch vi
cc h thng iu khin v x l hin i, nn c kh nng khai thc, qun tr v bo
tr (OA&M) h thng mt cch t ng cao ; th ba, tn hiu s c th s dng c
truyn a kh d dng mi loi bn tin, ri rc hay lin tc, to tin cho vic
hp nht cc mng thng tin truyn a cc loi dch v thoi hay s liu thnh mt
mng duy nht.
Nhc im cn bn ca cc h thng thng tin s so vi cc h thng thng tin

tng t trc y l ph chim ca tn hiu s khi truyn cc bn tin lin tc tng
i ln hn so vi ph ca tn hiu tng t. Do cc hn ch v k thut hin nay, ph
chim ca cc tn hiu s cn tng i ln hn ph chim ca tn hiu tng t khi
truyn cc bn tin lin tc, tuy nhin trong tng lai khi cc k thut s ho tn hiu
lin tc tin tin hn c p dng th ph ca tn hiu s c th so snh c vi ph
ca tn hiu lin tc.
1.2. Cc thnh phn ca h thng truyn thng s

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c trng c bn ca h thng thng tin s l: cc tn hiu c truyn a v
x l bi h thng l cc tn hiu s, nhn cc gi tr t mt tp hu hn cc phn t,
thng c gi l bng ch ci (alphabet). Cc phn t tn hiu ny c di hu
hn xc nh TS v trong cc h thng thng tin s hin nay, ni chung di TS l nh
nhau i vi mi phn t tn hiu. Trong thc t c rt nhiu loi h thng thng tin s
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khc nhau, phn bit theo tn s cng tc, mi trng truyn dn... Ty theo loi h
thng thng tin s thc t, hng lot chc nng x l tn hiu s khc nhau c th c
s dng nhm thc hin vic truyn a cc tn hiu s mt cch hiu qu v phng
din bng tn chim cng nh cng sut tn hiu. Cc chc nng x l tn hiu nh th
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c m t bi cc khi trong s khi ca h thng. Mi mt khi m t mt thut

ton x l tn hiu. S khi tiu biu ca mt h thng thng tin s c m t trn
hnh 1.1, trong th hin tt c cc chc nng x l tn hiu cn thit ca cc h
thng thng tin s hin nay.
3
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Hnh 1.1: S khi tiu biu h thng truyn thng s
Trong , ngun tin l ni to ra cc bn tin cha ng nhng thng tin cn

pht i, cc bn tin ny c th l cc t, cc k hiu m u ra ca ngun tin l
chui cc k hiu c bin i t bng ch ci no , thng thng l cc k hiu
nh phn.
T
u ra ca ngun tin c nhiu thng tin d nn b m ngun c thit k
chui u ra ca ngun tin tr thnh chui cc ch s nh phn c d tha t nht.
Nu b m ngun to ra rb bit/giy th rb c gi l tc d liu.
P
Knh truyn l nguyn nhn ch yu gy ra li cho tn hiu thu, nn b m knh

(gii m knh) thc hin thm cc bit kim tra vo chui thng tin nhm gim ti thiu
cc li xut hin trn ng truyn. B m knh n nh bn tin k ch s u vo
thnh bn tin mi n ch s u ra di hn gi l t m. Mt b kim sot li c gi
l tt khi n to ra cc t m c khong cch sai khc nhau (khong cch Hamming
k
ln). Mi b m c m t bng t s R 1 c gi l tc m. Nh vy, b
n
m knh lm tng tc truyn d liu v lm tng rng bng tn trn knh.
tn hiu u ra b m knh ph hp vi knh truyn, b iu ch thc hin
sp xp cc chui s u ra b m knh thnh chui dng sng tng t (cc k hiu)
ph hp vi c tnh knh truyn. tng tc truyn, mi k hiu (symbol) c th
mang nhiu bt thng tin nh cc h thng iu ch nhiu mc (QPSK, MPSK, QAM,
TCM...). Mt b iu ch M mc thc hin sp xp khi n ch s nh phn u ra b
m knh thnh mt trong M cc dng sng c th, trong M 2m . Qu trnh iu
ch c th c thc hin bng cch thay i gi tr bin , pha hoc tn s ca dng
4
sng hnh sin cn c gi l ti tin. Chu k dng sng u ra b iu ch l T giy v

rs 1T c gi l tc k hiu.
Knh l phng tin c s dng truyn ti tin. V d: knh hu tuyn
in, knh v tuyn in, knh si quang... Hai nh hng quan trng nht ca knh l
nhiu v rng bng tn. Ngoi ra, trong knh thng tin di ng cn b hn ch bi
truyn lan a ng, trong cp si quang cn b tn sc tn hiu...
Ty theo yu cu u vo b gii m knh, b gii iu ch to ra chui nh phn
hay lng t. B gii m knh thc hin nh gi bn tin thu c, vi mc tiu lm
gim ti thiu nh hng tp nhiu trn knh, qu trnh gii m c da trn nguyn
tc m ho v c tnh ca knh. Sau , b gii m ngun bin i chui u vo
thnh chui u ra v phn phi ti ni nhn tin.
1.3 Cc knh truyn v c tnh
Cc knh truyn thng cung cp kt ni gia b pht v b thu. Knh vt l c

th l mt cp dy mang tn hiu in, hoc si quang mang thng tin v mt chm
nh sng c iu ch, hoc mt knh di nc hoc khng gian m tn hiu mang
IT
thng tin bc x bng cch s dng mt anten. Phng tin truyn thng khc c th
c m t knh truyn thng nh cc phng tin lu tr d liu, chng hn nh
bng t, a t, a quang.
Cc knh dy dn kim loi: Mng in thoi s dng rng ri cc ng dy
truyn tn hiu thoi, nh ging ni, d liu v truyn ti video. ng dy xon i
v cp ng l cc ng truyn dn in c bn, chng truyn bng thng tng i
T
khim tn. Cp in thoi thng c s dng kt ni t khch hng n tng i
trung tm c bng thng vi trm KiloHertz (KHz). Mt khc, cp ng trc c bng
thng n vi MegaHertz (MHz).
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Hnh 1.2: Di tn ca knh c dy

Tn hiu truyn qua cc knh s dng dy dn c th b mo c v bin v
pha hn na cn chu nh hng ca nhiu cng. Knh dy xon i cng d b nhiu
xuyn m can thip t cc knh lin k. Bi v cc knh dy mang theo mt t l phn
5
trm ln cc thng tin lin lc hng ngy ca chng ta trn khp t nc v trn th
gii, nhiu nghin cu c thc hin trn cc c tnh ca cc tnh cht truyn ca
chng gim thiu s mo bin v mo pha gp phi trong qu trnh truyn ti tn
hiu.
Knh si quang: Si quang s dng cht liu thy tinh lm lp li truyn tia sng,
da trn nguyn l phn x ca tia nh sng khi i t mi trng ny sang mi trng
khc. Khi tia sng i t mi trng c h s phn x cao hn sang mi trng c h s
phn x thp hn th s b un v pha mi trng c h s phn x cao hn, nn xung
nh sng c truyn trong si quang. Si quang l vt liu cch in, ch truyn nh
sng. Suy hao tn hiu trong si quang l rt nh, ch vo c 0,2 dB/Km v khng chu
nh hng ca giao thoa sng in t. Mi trng si quang c rng bng gn nh
khng gii hn. y chnh l u im vt tri ca si quang so vi cp ng trc.
Ngoi ra truyn dn trn si quang cn c cc u im khc na l khng b nh
hng bi nhiu in t trng, an ton, kch thc nh v nh,
IT
T
Hnh 1.3: Di tn ca knh quang
Knh v tuyn: S dng sng in t trng mang thng tin trong khng gian t
P
do. C ba loi knh v tuyn in hnh l: knh viba, knh di ng v knh v tinh.
Knh viba thng hot ng di tn t 1 GHz n 30 GHz trong tm nhn thng
(LOS-Line Of Sight).
Knh di ng l knh kt ni vi ngi dng di ng. Knh dng ny chu nh hng
nhiu bi hiu ng a ng. y l loi knh kh phc tp trong thng tin v tuyn.
Knh v tinh: cao ca v tinh a tnh vo khong 30000 km. Tn s thng dng
bng C cho ng ln l 6 GHz v ng xung l 4 GHz. rng bng tn ca
knh truyn ln vo c 500 MHz. Khi tia sng lan truyn trong khng gian, c th i
theo cc hng khc nhau ph thuc vo iu kin mi trng v tn s.
Ph sng v tuyn c th c chia thnh ba bng tn rng c mt trong ba c tnh
truyn lan c bn: sng mt t, sng tri v sng trc tip theo tm nhn thng (LOS).
Truyn lan sng mt t: Truyn lan cc sng in t c tn s di 2 MHz. y
sng in t c khuynh hng i theo ng cong ca tri t. S nhiu x ca sng
s lm cho sng lan truyn theo b mt ca tri t. C ch ny c dng trong pht
6
thanh AM, vic ph sng a phng theo ng cong mt t. bc x c hiu sut

cao th anten cn di hn 1/10 bc sng.
Truyn lan sng tri: Lan truyn cc sng in t c tn s t 2 n 30 MHz, t
c khong cch ph sng xa bng phn x sng t tng in li v ti cc ng bin
ca tri t. Tng in ly ng vai tr nh mt tng phn x. i pht s c cc vng
ph sng dc theo b mt ca tri t. Trong vng ph sng gn anten pht l do c
ch sng mt t, cn cc vng ph sng khc l do sng tri, s c cc vng khng
c ph sng dc theo b mt tri t gia anten pht v anten thu. Truyn lan ca
sng tri ch yu l do phn x t tng F (tng in ly c cao t 144 km n 400
km). Nh tng ny ta c th thu c cc i pht thanh quc t bng tn HF t mt
bn kia ca tri t vo bt c thi gian no trong ngy hoc m.
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T
P
Hnh 1.4: Di tn ca cc knh khng dy

Truyn lan sng trc tip: c trng cho s truyn lan cc sng c tn s trn 30
MHz. y sng in t c lan truyn theo ng thng. Trng hp ny rt t c
s khc x bi tng in ly. Thc t, tn hiu s lan truyn xuyn qua tng in ly.
Phng php ny c bt li i vi thng tin gia hai trm mt t, l qu o tn hiu
phi nm trn ng chn tri. Nu khng tri t s chn tm nhn thng. Do vy, cc
anten cn c t trn cc thp cao anten thu c th nhn thy anten pht.
7
Ngoi phng thc truyn lan theo sng trc tip ca tm nhn thng, sng c th
c truyn theo phng thc tn x t tng in ly hoc tn x trong tng i lu. S
truyn lan theo phng thc tn x ph thuc vo cc iu kin kh tng thy vn
ca tng kh quyn.
IT
Hnh 1.5: Di tn ca cc knh sng t v sng tri
T
P
Hnh 1.6: Di tn ca cc knh truyn lan LOS

Ngoi cc knh thng tin trn, trong thc t cn c mt s knh thng tin nh knh
truyn tin m thanh di nc (underwater acoustic channels), v d nh tn hiu m
tn pht ra t c voi c lan truyn trong mi trng nc; knh lu tr (storage
channels), v d nh thng tin c th c lu vo b nh (a quang, a t,) sau
c vn chuyn bi cc phng tin truyn tin.
1.4. Cc m hnh ton cho knh truyn dn

Trong thit k ca cc h thng truyn thng truyn thng tin thng qua cc
knh vt l, mt vn t ra l xy dng cc m hnh ton hc phn nh c nhng
8
c tnh quan trng ca mi trng truyn dn. Cc m hnh ton hc cho knh c
s dng trong thit k b m ha v iu ch knh ti pha pht v b gii iu ch v
b gii m knh pha thu. Trong phn ny m t ngn gn v cc m hnh knh
thng xuyn c s dng m t cc knh vt l m chng ta gp phi trong thc
t.
M hnh knh nhiu cng: M hnh ton hc n gin cho mt knh truyn thng l
m hnh knh nhiu cng. Trong m hnh ny, tn hiu u vo s(t) b nhiu bi mt
qu trnh thm vo tp m ngu nhin n(t). Theo tnh vt l, nhiu cng c th pht
sinh t cc thnh phn in t v b khuch i ti my thu ca h thng thng tin lin
lc
IT
Hnh 1.7: M hnh knh nhiu cng
Nu tp m ch yu gy ra bi cc thnh phn in t v b khuch i ngi nhn,
n c th c m t nh tp m nhit. y l loi tp m c c trng thng k
nh l mt qu trnh nhiu Gauss. Do , kt qu m hnh ton hc cho cc knh
T
thng c gi l cc knh nhiu cng Gauss. M hnh ny c s dng rng ri,
n gin v d tnh ton .
r (t ) s(t ) n(t ) (1.1)
P
trong l thnh phn suy hao.

M hnh knh lc tuyn tnh: Trong mt s knh vt l, chng hn nh cc knh in
thoi c dy, cc b lc c s dng m bo rng cc tn hiu truyn khng vt
qu gii hn bng thng c ch nh v do khng nh hng ln nhau. Knh ny
thng c trng ton hc nh cc knh lc tuyn tnh vi nhiu cng. Do , nu cc
knh u vo l cc tn hiu s(t), cc knh u ra l tn hiu:

r (t ) s(t )* c(t ) n(t ) c(t )s(t )d n(t )
(1.2)
c(t) l p ng xung ca b lc tuyn tnh v * biu th tch chp.
9
Hnh 1.8: Knh lc tuyn tnh vi nhiu cng

M hnh knh lc tuyn tnh vi c(t) thay i theo thi gian: Chng hn nh cc ng
dng di ng, knh truyn l bin i theo thi gian v s di chuyn ca pha pht v
pha thu dn n s thay i ng truyn sng. Cc knh ny c m t ton hc
nh cc b lc tuyn tnh thay i theo thi gian. c( ; t ) p ng xung ca knh thay
i theo thi gian.

r (t ) s(t )* c( ; t ) n(t ) c( ; t )s(t )d n(t )

(1.3)
IT
Mt m hnh tt truyn tn hiu qua cc knh vt l, chng hn nh tng in
ly ( tn s di 30 MHz) v knh v tuyn di ng t bo, l mt trng hp c bit
ca cng thc trn, trong cc p ng xung thi gian c dng:
L
c( ; t ) ak (t ) (t k )
T
k 1
(1.4)
Trong ak (t ) l yu t suy hao theo thi gian cho cc ng dn truyn a

ng L v tk l thi gian tr tng ng. T 2 cng thc trn ta c dng tn hiu thu:
P
L
r (t ) ak (t ) s(t k ) n(t )
k 1
(1.5)
Do , tn hiu nhn c bao gm thnh phn a ng, mi thnh phn b

suy gim bi ak (t ) v tr bi tk
Hnh 1.9: Knh lc tuyn tnh thay i theo thi gian
10
1.5 Qu trnh pht trin ca h thng truyn dn s
Qu trnh pht trin h thng thng tin s ni chung v cc h thng truyn dn

s ni ring t nn mng cho cc h thng truyn dn s hin i ngy nay.
Hai qua trnh pht trin nh hng ti h thng truyn dn s l qu trnh s

ha tn hiu truyn dn v qu trnh pht trin ca cc loi m.
Mng in thoi c xy dng da trn c ch truyn ting ni gia cc my
in thoi. n nhng nm 1970, mng ny hon thin bng vic thc hin
truyn tn hiu tng t trong cp ng xon i v ghp knh phn chia tn s
(FDM-Frequency Division Multiplexing) dng trong cc tuyn ng di kt
hp truyn nhiu knh thoi trong mt cp ng trc. Thit b truyn dn loi ny
rt t so vi gi ca mt tng i in thoi, v vy, chuyn mch c xem nh
mt thit b nhm tit kim s dng ti nguyn khan him lc by gi l bng thng
truyn dn. Vo u nhng nm 1970, cc h thng truyn dn s bt u xut hin, s
dng phng php iu ch xung m (PCM) do Alec Reeves nu ra ln u tin vo
nm 1937. PCM cho php truyn tn hiu tng t (nh ting ni ca con ngi)
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dng nh phn. S dng phng thc ny, tn hiu thoi tng t chun 4 KHz c th
truyn di dng lung tn hiu s 64 Kbit/s. Cc nh k thut nhn thy kh nng
h gi thnh sn xut cc h thng truyn dn bng cch kt hp mt s knh PCM v
truyn chng trong mt i cp ng xon m trc y ch dng truyn mt tn
hiu tng t duy nht. Hin tng ny c gi l li dy. Do gi thnh thit b in
t s bt u gim nn s dng cc cng ngh ny tit kim c rt nhiu chi ph.
T
chu u v sau l rt nhiu ni trn th gii, s TDM chun c p
dng ghp knh 64 Kbit/s, cng vi hai knh thng tin iu khin kt hp to
thnh mt knh c tc 2,048 Mbit/s. Do nhu cu s dng in thoi tng ln, lu
P
lng trn mng tng, knh chun tc 2 Mbit/s khng p ng cho lu lng
ti trn mng trung k. trnh khng phi s dng qu nhiu kt ni 2 Mbit/s th
cn to ra mt mc ghp knh cao hn. Chu u a ra chun ghp 4 knh 2 Mbit/s
thnh mt knh 8 Mbit/s. Mc ghp knh ny khng khc bao nhiu so vi mc
ghp knh m cc tn hiu u vo c kt hp tng bit ch khng phi tng byte,
ni cch khc l mi p dng chn bit ch cha thc hin chn byte. Tip , do nhu
cu ngy cng tng, cc mc ghp knh cao hn na c xy dng thnh
chun, to ra mt phn cp y cc tc bit l 34 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s v 565
Mbit/s.
Mt s mc pht trin ca vic m ha tn hiu trong h thng truyn thng s c tm
tt nh sau:
Nm 1837: H thng in bo u tin ra i, l mt h thng truyn thng k thut
s. in bo in c pht trin bi Samuel Morse v c chng minh vo nm
1837. Morse pht minh ra m nh phn c di thay i, trong ch ci ca
bng ch ci ting Anh c i din bi mt chui cc du chm v du gch ngang
11
(t m). Trong on m ny, th t thng xuyn xy ra hn c i din bi cc t

m ngn, trong khi th xy ra t thng xuyn c i din bi cc t m di hn. V
vy, m Morse l tin thn ca m ha c di thay i.
Nm 1875: Gn 40 nm, sau thi k ca Morse, Emile Baudot xut mt loi m
dnh cho truyn thng in tn trong cc mu t trong bng Alphabet Ting Anh
c m ha bi cc t m nh phn c chiu di t m c nh bng 5. Vi m
Baudot, cc thnh phn ca t m nh phn ny l cc bit du 1 hoc bit trng 0.
Nh vy, Samuel Morse khi xng cho s pht trin ca h thng truyn thng s
bng in u tin l h thng in tn (Telegraphy), cng c xem nh l truyn
thng s hin i lc by gi.
Nm 1924: Nyquist tp trung vo vic xc nh tc truyn tn hiu ti a c th
t c qua mt knh truyn in tn vi rng bng knh cho trc m khng c
nhiu lin k hiu (ISI). ng a ra c m hnh ton hc ca mt h thng
truyn thng in tn (Telegraph) trong tn hiu pht i c dng:
s(t ) an g (t nT ) (1.6)
ITn
Trong g(t) l mt hnh dng xung c bn v an l mt chui d liu nh phn { 1}

truyn vi tc ca 1/T bits/s. Nyquist xc nh c dng xung ti u c bng
tn gii hn W Hz m bo tc bt ti a m khng gy nhiu giao thoa gia cc k
hiu (ISI) ti cc thi im ly mu k/T ( trong k = 0, 1, 2) ... Nghin cu ca
ng dn ng n kt lun rng. Tc truyn xung cc i l 2W xung / s v c
T
gi l tc Nysquist. Hn na, tc ny c th t c khi s dng cc xung
sin(2 Wt )
g (t ) . V dng xung ny cho php khi phc li d liu m khng c ISI
2 Wt
ti cc thi im ly mu. Kt qu nghin cu ca Nyquist l ph hp vi l thuyt
P
ly mu i vi cc tn hiu gii hn bng do Shannon a ra vo nm 1948. Nh

vy, c th ni rng cc cng trnh nghin cu ca cc tc gi ni trn t nn mng
cho s pht trin ca cc h thng thng tin s hin i ngy nay.
Cu hi v bi tp chng 1
1. Trnh by cc phn t c bn ca h thng truyn thng s?
2. Phn tch cc tham s nh gi hiu nng ca h thng truyn dn s?
3. Trnh by cc m hnh knh truyn trong h thng truyn dn s?
4. Trnh by qu trnh pht trin ca h thng truyn dn s?
12
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13
Bi ging Truyn dn s Chng II: M ha ngun
CHNG 2: M HA NGUN
H thng thng tin s dng truyn tin tc t ngun n ni nhn tin. Ngun
tin sinh ra tin di nhiu dng khc nhau, v d m thanh trong h thng radio, tn hiu
video trong h thng v tuyn truyn hnh Tin ny c th c a trc tip vo
knh truyn i, nhng trong thc t, tin ny thng c bin i ri a vo knh
truyn. V d nh tin l vn bn ting Anh, ngun tin c khong 40 k t khc nhau,
gm cc mu k t alphabet, con s, du chm cuV nguyn tc ta c th dng 40
dng sng in p khc nhau biu th 40 k t ny. Tuy nhin trong thc t th
phng php ny khng ph hp, qu kh thc hin hay thm ch khng th c v:
- Knh truyn khng ph hp v mt vt l c th mang nhiu k t khc
nhau nh vy.
- Di tn i hi s rt rng.
- Vic lu tr hay x l tn hiu trc khi truyn rt kh, trong khi nu chuyn
sang nh phn th mi vic s d dng hn nhiu.
Vy ta thy cn phi i dng ca tin khc i so vi dng ban u do ngun cung cp
cng vic ny c gi l m ha. Tuy nhin, trong chng 2 tp trung vo phn m
IT
ha ngun da trn m hnh ton ca ngun thng tin v o lng tin ca ngun.
Trong chng cn cp n m ha cho cc ngun thng tin ri rc v ngun thng
tin tng t. u ra ca ngun l tn hiu tng t th c gi l ngun tng t.
Ngc li, my tnh v cc thit b lu tr nh a t hoc quang hc cung cp tn
hiu u ra ri rc (thng l nh phn hoc cc k t ASCII) v do chng c gi
l cc ngun ri rc. Cho d mt ngun l tng t hay ri rc, mt h thng truyn
T
thng k thut s c thit k truyn ti thng tin dng s. Do , u ra ca
ngun phi c chuyn i sang mt nh dng m c th c truyn qua cc h
thng truyn thng s. Vic chuyn i tn hiu ca ngun u ra thnh tn hiu s
P
c thc hin bi khi m ha ngun. u ra ca khi m ha ngun l mt chui

cc s nh phn.
2.1 M hnh ton hc cho ngun thng tin

Loi n gin nht ca ngun ri rc l mt trong s pht ra mt chui cc
k hiu c la chn t mt bng ch ci hu hn. V d, mt ngun nh phn pht
ra mt chui cc bt nh phn c dng 100101110... t bng ch ci bao gm hai k t
{0, 1}. Tng qut hn, mt ngun thng tin ri rc vi mt bng c th tn ti L k t,
ta ni ngun s pht ra mt chui cc k t x1 , x2 ,.... xL c chn t bng ch ci.
xy dng c m hnh ton hc cho mt ngun ri rc, gi s rng mi
ch ci trong bng ch ci x1 , x2 ,.... xL c xc sut xut hin l Pk . Vi:
Pk P( X xk ),1 k L (2.1)
y:
13
L
(2.2)
P
k 1
k 1
Xt hai m hnh ton hc ca ngun ri rc. Ngun ri rc khng nh (DMS)

nu k hiu xut hin mt cch c lp vi nhau. Ngun dng ri rc nu cc mi
lin h thng k gia cc thi im khng ph thuc vo thi gian. Vi ngun ri
rc, vn c bn l thay i bng ch ci v phn b xc sut gim bt s lng
k hiu cn dng.
Ngun lin tc to ra mt tn hiu, mt th hin ca mt qu trnh ngu nhin.
Ngun lin tc c th c bin thnh mt chui cc bin ngu nhin (lin tc) bng
php ly mu. Lng t ha cho php bin i cc bin ngu nhin ny thnh cc bin
ngu nhin ri rc, vi sai s nht nh.
2.2 o thng tin

Nu mt s kin xy ra vi xc sut thp s gy ra ngc nhin ln v v th
cha ng lng thng tin ln hn. Kh nng xut hin ca mt s kin l o ca
yu t bt ng v v th c mi lin quan ti ni dung thng tin. Do t cch nhn
IT
nhn theo kha cnh thng thng th lng thng tin nhn c t mt bn tin c
mi lin quan trc tip ti khng chc chn hay t l nghch vi kh nng xut hin
cc s kin. Gi P l xc sut xut hin ca mt bn tin v I l lng thng tin cha
trong bn tin . Theo nh cch phn tch trn th khi P 1; I 0 v khi
P 0; I v P c gi tr nh hn th s cho I ln hn. iu ny cho ta mi quan
T
1
h: I log
P
- I ( xi y j ) c gi lng tin c iu kin, n c c khi s kin X xi xy ra

sau khi quan st s kin Y y j : I ( xi y j ) log P( xi y j )
P
- I ( xi ; y j ) c gi l lng tin tng h gia xi v y j . Lng tin c c v

s kin X xi t vic xy ra s kin Y y j
P ( xi )
I ( xi ; y j ) I ( xi ) I ( xi y j ) log
P( xi y j )
n v ca lng tin: Ty vo c s hm logarit (c s 2: n v l bit, c s e:

n v l nat, c s 10: Hartley). Khi cc hm logarit c bn l 2 th n v ca
I ( xi ; y j ) l cc bit v khi cc hm c bn l e th n v ca I ( xi ; y j ) c gi l nat
1hartley log 2 10 3.32bits
1nat log 2 e 1.44bits
14
2.2.1 Lng tin tng h trung bnh v Entropy

Lng tin trung bnh phn nh c gi tr tin tc ca c ngun tin. Lng tin
ring trung bnh cha trong mt k hiu bt k ca ngun c biu din:
n
(2.3)

I ( X ) P( x ) log P( x )
i 1
i i
Lng tin tng h trung bnh

n m
I( X ,Y ) P( xi y j )I( xi y j )
(2.4)
i 1 j 1
Lng tin tng h trung bnh gia X v Y. Quan st thy rng I(X, Y) =0 khi X
v Y l c lp thng k. Mt c tnh quan trng ca lng tin tng h trung bnh l
I(X, Y)0 . Gi s ngun ri rc X gm n k hiu {x1, x2,, xn}, Entropy ca ngun X
c nh ngha l:
n n
(2.5)
H ( X ) P( xi ) log P( xi ) P( xi ) I ( xi )
i 1 i 1
IT
Khi X c trng cho mt bng k hiu ca cc k t u ra ca mt ngun, H(X)
c trng cho lng tin ring trung bnh ca ngun k t v c gi l Entropy ca
ngun. Nu cc k hiu ca ngun c xc sut xut hin bng nhau th Entropy s t
1
gi tr cc i. P( xi ) vi mi i v do ta c:
n
n
1 1 (2.6)
T
H ( X ) log log n
i 1 n n
Thng thng, H(X) log n cho mi tp hp xc sut cc k t ca ngun.

P
2.2.2 o thng tin cho bin ngu nhin lin tc

nh ngha lng tin tng h ca bin ngu nhin ri rc c th c m rng
mt cch n gin cho bin ngu nhin lin tc. Nu X v Y l hai bin ngu nhin vi
hm mt xc xut ng thi l P(x, y) v xc sut bin l P(x), P(y) th lng tin
trung bnh tng h gia X v Y s c xc nh nh sau:

p( y x )p( x ) (2.7)
I( X ;Y )
p( x )p( y x )log

dxdy
p( x )p( y )
Mc d nh ngha lng tin tng h trung bnh thc hin trn cc bin ngu
nhin lin tc, khi nim v lng tin ring l khng c. Vn l mt bin ngu
nhin lin tc yu cu mt s lng v hn cc s nh phn i din n mt cch chnh
xc. V vy, lng tin ring ca n l v hn v do Entropy ca n cng l v hn.
Tuy nhin chng ta c th xc nh c mt s lng m chng ta gi l vi sai
Entropy ca bin ngu nhin lin tc X nh sau:
15

(2.8)
H( X ) p( x )log p( x )dx

2.3 M ha cho ngun ri rc

Trong phn trc gii thiu o thng tin cho bin ngu nhin ri rc X.
Khi X l u ra ca mt ngun ri rc, Entropy H(X) c trng cho lng tin trung
bnh pht ra bi ngun. Trong phn ny xem xt qu trnh m ha u ra ca mt
ngun.
Gi s ngun ri rc X gm L k hiu x1 , x2 ,.... xL , vi xc sut xut hin cc
k hiu tng ng l p1 , p2 ,.... pL . M ha ngun X chnh l qu trnh biu din cc k
hiu xi ca ngun bi cc chui bi c chiu di Ri (bi = [b1, b2,, bRi], bi = 0/1)
Yu cu ca b m ha ngun:
IT
Hnh 2.1: M ha ngun ri rc
- Cc t m biu din dng nh phn.

- Qu trnh m ha sao cho vic gii m l duy nht.
T
- nh gi hiu qu ca b m ha ngun thng thng qua vic so snh s lng
bit trung bnh dng biu din t m vi Entropy H(X).
2.3.1 M ha ngun ri rc khng nh

P
Gi s rng DMS gm L k hiu x1 , x2 ,.... xL , vi xc sut xut hin cc k hiu

tng ng l p1 , p2 ,.... pL . Entropy ca DMS l:
L
(2.9)
H ( X ) P( xi ) log P( xi ) log 2 L
i 1
a) M ha vi t m c chiu di bng nhau:

Tt c cc k hiu ca ngun c m ha bng cc t m c chiu di bng
nhau (t m R bit). y l qu trnh m ha khng tn hao, v vic gii m l d dng
v duy nht. V d: m ASCII, m EBCDIC, m BaudotGi s ngun gm L k
hiu ng xc sut. Ta mun m ha dng R bit th c hai kh nng: R log 2 L khi L l
ly tha ca 2 ( L 2m ). V khi L khng phi l ly tha ca 2, th R log 2 L 1
Lc , hiu sut m ha ca ngun DMS:
16
H ( X ) log 2 L (2.10)

R R
Quan st thy rng khi L l ly tha ca 2 v cc k hiu ng xc sut, R =

H(X), do t hiu sut 100%. Tuy nhin nu L khng phi l ly tha ca 2 nhng
cc k hiu ngun ng xc sut. Hiu sut m:
H(X ) log 2 L (2.11)
1
R log 2 L 1
Khi L ln th log 2 L ln v vy hiu sut m ha cao. Ngc li, khi L nh, hiu
sut s rt thp. thc hin m ha mong mun th phi m ha tng khi J k hiu
mt lc. Qu trnh m ha J k hiu cng mt lc c thc hin nh sau:
- S k hiu c th c ca ngun: LJ
- Chn chiu di t m m ha N, yu cu gi tr ca N phi tha mn:
2 N LJ N log 2 LJ J log 2 L (2.12)
Do N phi l s nguyn, nn hiu sut m ha:

IT
H ( X ) JH ( X ) J log 2 L (2.13)

R N log 2 L 1
V vy, chn J ln th hiu sut s cao (d cho L nh)

b) M ha vi t m c chiu di thay i:
T
Khi cc k t ca ngun c xc sut xy ra khng ging nhau, mt phng
php m ha hiu qu hn l s dng cc t m c di thay i VLC. Mt v d
nh vy v m ha l m Morse. Trong VLC, cc t m ngn c gn tng ng cc
gi tr xc sut cao v cc t m di ng vi cc gi tr xc sut thp . T c bit c n
P
m ha cc k hiu ny l nghch o ca logarit ca xc sut , tc la log 2 p . Do o ,

Entropy cua cac ki hi u la s bit trung binh t i thi u c n bi u din cac ki hi u:
n
(2.13)
H ( x) pi log 2 pi
i 1
Thut Ton M Ha Huffman: M hoa Huffman l m t phng phap ma hoa dai

thay i c s du ng ph bi n . N da trn bng tn xut xut hin cc k hiu cn
m ha xy dng mt b m nh phn cho cc k hiu sao cho s bt sau khi m
ha l nh nht. S bt ti u s dng m ha cho mi ki hiu l log2p, trong o p l
xc sut ca mt k hiu . Tuy nhin, v cc t m c gn phi l m t s nguyn cac
bt, khi n cho ma hoa Huffman tr nn kem t i u . V d, n u xac su t cua m t ki hi u
l 0,33 th s bt ti u dng m ha k hiu l 1,6 bit, nhng v i ma hoa
Huffman thi ta phai gan ho c 1 bt hoc 2 bit cho ma . Tnh trung bnh th c hai trng
h p nay u phai dung nhi u bit hn so vi Entropy cua no . Khi xac su t cua m t ki
hi u cang ln thi ma hoa Huffman cang tr nn km ti u . V d, vi ki hi u co xac
17
su t la 0,9, kch c m ti u nn l 0,15 bt, nhng vi ma hoa Huffman thi phai gan
t nht 1 bt cho mt k hiu,tc la ln g p khoang 6 l n so vi mc c n thi t .
Cc bc thc hin ca m Huffman:
- Lit k cc k hiu theo th t xc sut gim dn.
- Hai k hiu cui c xc sut b nht c hp thnh k hiu mi c xc sut
mi bng tng hai xc sut.
- Cc k hiu cn li cng vi k hiu mi li c lit k theo th t xc sut
gim dn.
- Qu trnh c tip tc cho n khi hp thnh mt k hiu mi c xc sut xut
hin bng 1.
Xt mt DMS vi 7 k t c th xy ra x1, x2,, x7 c xc sut xy ra c
minh ha trong hnh v di y. Sp xp k t ngun theo xc sut gim dn l P(x1)
> P(x2) >> P(x7). Chng ta bt u qu trnh m ha vi hai k t c kh nng xy
ra t nht x6 v x7. Hai k t ny c kt hp vi nhau nh trong hnh 2.2, vi nhnh
trn c ch nh l 0 v nhnh di c ch nh l 1. Cc xc sut ca hai nhnh
ny c thm vo ti nt m hai nhnh giao nhau mang li xc sut 0,01. By gi
IT
chng ta c ngun k t x1 x5 cng vi mt k t mi gi l x6' l tng ca x6 v x7.
Bc tip theo l chng ta kt hp hai k t c kh nng xy ra t nht t x1, x2, x3, x4,
x5, x6'. Khi x5 v x6 c t hp xc sut l 0,05. Nhnh x5 c ch nh l 0 v nhnh
x6' c ch nh l 1. Qu trnh ny c tip tc cho n ht tp hp cc k t c th.
Kt qu l mt cy m vi cc nhnh c cha cc t m mong mun. Cc t m thu
c bng cch bt u ti nt ngoi cng bn phi ca cy v tin ti bn tri. S
T
lng bt trung bnh biu din cho mt k t cho m ny l R 2,21 bit/k t. H(X)
Entropy ca ngun l 2,11 bit/ k t.
P
Hnh 2.2: V d v m ha ngun c chiu di thay i cho mt DMS

Quan st thy rng cc m ny khng nht thit phi l duy nht. V d nh ti
bc cui cng trong qu trnh m ha, c mt rng buc gia x1 v x3' khi cc k t
18
ny u c xc sut xy ra nh nhau. Ti mt im, ta chn cp x1 v x2. Mt thay th

khc l cp x2 vi x3'. Nu chng ta chn cp i ny, kt qu c minh ha trong
hnh 2.3. S bit trung bnh trn mt k t ngun cho m ny cng l 2,21.
IT
Hnh 2.3: Mt m thay th cho DMS
2.3.2 Entropy ca ngun dng ri rc

Xt ngun c nh (cc bin ngu nhin ti cc thi im ph thuc thng k).
Entropy ca mt khi cc bin ngu nhin lin tip c tnh:
k
(2.14)
H ( X 1 X 2 ... X k ) H ( X i X 1 X 2 ... X i 1 )
T
i 1
Entropy trung bnh cho tng k hiu

1 (2.15)
Hk ( X )
P
H ( X 1 X 2 ... X K )
k
1
Cho k , H ( X ) lim H k ( X ) lim H ( X 1 X 2 ... X k )
k k k
Mt khc Entropy ca tng k hiu cng c th c nh ngha theo:
H ( X ) lim H ( X k X 1 X 2 ... X k 1 ) (2.16)
k
D dng chng minh hai gii hn ny tn ti v bng nhau vi ngun dng (sinh vin
t chng minh v tham kho chng 2 ca ti liu [1].
2.3.3 Thut ton Lempel-Ziv
thit k mt m Huffman cho mt DMS, chng ta cn phi bit xc sut xy

ra ca cc k hiu ngun. Trong trng hp ngun ri rc c nh, chng ta cn phi
bit c xc sut ca mt khi c chiu di l n 2. Tuy nhin, trong thc t cc s
19
liu thng k ca mt ngun thng khng r. Do ng dng phng php m ha

Huffman vi m ha ngun cho nhiu ngun c nh ni chung l khng thc t.
Ngc li vi thut ton Huffman, thut ton m ha Lempel-Ziz l c lp vi cc
thng k ca ngun. Thut ton c Jacob Braham Ziv a ra ln u tin nm 1977,
sau pht trin thnh mt h gii thut nn t in l LZ. Nm 1984, Terry Welch
ci tin gii thut LZ thnh mt gii thut tt hn LZW. Khng cn bit trc xc sut
phn b ca cc k hiu.Thut ton c thc hin bng cch xy dng cc t in.
T in c xy dng ng thi vi qu trnh c d liu. S c mt ca mt chui
con trong t in khng nh rng chui tng xut hin trong phn d liu
c. Thut ton lin tc tra cu v cp nht t in sau mi ln c mt k t d
liu u vo. Do kch thc b nh khng phi v hn v m bo tc tm kim,
t in ch gii hn 4096 phn t dng lu ln nht l 4096 gi tr ca cc t m.
Nh vy di ln nht ca m l 12 bt ( 4096 212 ) . c ng dng rng ri trong
nn s liu cc file my tnh, cc tin ch nn/gin trong UNIX. Thng c dng
nn cc loi vn bn, nh en trng, nh mu, nh a mc xm... V l chun nn cho
cc dng nh GIF v TIFF.
V d: Xt mt chui s nh IT
phn:10101101001001110101000011001110101100011011.
- Chia d liu ng vo thnh cc cm: 1,0,10,11,01,00,100,111,010, 1000, 011,
001, 110,101, 10001, 1011
C 16 cm, dng 4 bit biu din v tr trong t in.

- Lp bng m ha nh hnh sau:
T
Ct v tr: in gi tr nh phn 4 bit tng dn, loi tr 0000.
Ct ni dung: in vo gi tr cc cm, mi cm trn mt hng.
Th t V tr trong t Ni dung t To m
P
in in
1 0001 1 00001
2 0010 0 00000
3 0011 10 00010
4 0100 11 00011
5 0101 01 00101
6 0110 00 00100
7 0111 100 00110
8 1000 111 01001
9 1001 010 01010
10 1010 1000 01110
11 1011 011 01011
20
12 1100 001 01101

13 1101 110 01000
14 1110 101 00111
15 1111 10001 10101
16 1011 11101
m ha nhng chui ny: Cc t m c xc nh qua vic lit k v tr t in (

dng nh phn) ca chui trc ging ht vi chui mi ch khc v tr cui cng +
m ha k t sai khc . Khi u, v tr 0000 c s dng m ha mt chui cha
xut hin trc . B gii m ngun cn phi xy dng li t in pha thu ging
nh pha pht v sau gii m ln lt cc t m nhn c.
Nhn xt:
- V d trn m ha 44 k hiu nh phn ca ngun thnh 16 t m, mi t m c
di 5 bit. v d ny khng thc hin nn s liu , do chui k hiu qu
ngn.
- Thut ton s hiu qu hn v c nn s liu u ra ca ngun khi chui k
hiu ln. IT
2.4 M ha cho ngun tng t - lng t ha ti u
Ngun tng t l mt qu trnh ngu nhin lin tc. Trong cc h thng truyn
thng ngun tng t c bin thnh ngun tin ri rc, x l ri li c bin i
thnh ngun lin tc.
T
- Ri rc ha ngun lin tc: Bng cch ly mu ngun tng t, bin i ngun
tng t thnh mt chui cc gi tr ngu nhin lin tc ti cc thi im thi
gian ri rc. Sau lng t ha ngun tng t bng cch m ha cc gi tr
P
lin tc bng ngun ri rc.

- Ti ch, ngun ri rc c tng hp thnh ngun tng t, ti to li gi tr
lin tc ca chui gi tr ban u t cc k hiu ca ngun ri rc. Kt ni cc
gi tr lin tc thnh mt tn hiu ngu nhin u ra.
- Do qu trnh lng t, u ra sai khc vi u vo: Sai s lng t
2.4.1 Hm tc - mo
Hm tc to - mo R(D): Biu din tc lp tin l thuyt nh nht c sai
s nh hn D, lng tin ti thiu biu din ngun vi sai s D:
~
R( D) ~ min ~ I(X, X ) (2.17)
p ( x x:E d ( xk , xk ) D )
~ ~
trong I ( X , X ) l lng tin tng h trung bnh X gia X .
- L tc bt nh nht m bo mt sai lch xc nh.
21
- Cho mt ngun tin vi phn b xc sut ngun cho truc, cc mu tn hiu

c lng t ha vi sai s d ( x, ~
x) .
- Sai s nh i hi tc truyn tin ln v ngc li.
- Hm tc to tin sai lch biu din lin h gia sai s v tc truyn tin.
Xc nh sai s:
- Ngun sau khi ly mu gm nhiu mu
- Vi mi mu, k hiu sai lch l d ( xk , ~
xk )
- Sai lch c th c nh ngha theo nhiu cch: sai lch bnh phng
d ( xk , ~
xk ) ( xk ~
xk ) 2 (2.18)
- Sai s trn tp cc bin ngu nhin l k vng ton hc ca D:

1 n (2.19)
D E d ( xk , ~
xk ) E d ( xk , ~
xk ) E d ( xk , ~
xk )
n k 1
2.4.2 K thut lng t

Lng t l php din t mt di lin tc cc gi tr ca bin tn hiu bng
IT
mt tp hu hn cc gi tr bin ri rc. Lng t tn hiu s lm mo tn hiu trong
phm vi m ngi thit k c th nh trc. B lng t n bit c th c L = 2n mc
bin ri rc.
a) Lng t tuyn tnh
Trong lng t tuyn tnh cc gi tr lng t phn b u trong ton b tn
T
hiu, khong cch gia hai gi tr gn nhau nht c gi l bc lng t. mo
tn hiu lng t t l vi bnh phng bc lng t, bc lng t t l nghch vi
s gi tr ri rc. Mo lng t ha c tnh l li trung bnh bnh phng nh sau:

1
T (2.20)
MSE E ( x f Q ( x )) [ f ( x ) x(t )] dt
P
2 2
Q
T 0
Trong x(t) l bin tn hiu c ly mu ti thi im t, fQ(x) biu din

gi tr lng t gn x(t) nht. Mo lng t v cht lng ca b lng t c nh
gi qua t s cng sut tn hiu / nhiu lng t (SNR). B iu ch xung m (PCM)
dng php lng t 8 bit / mu trong in thoi thng mi. Nu php lng t l
tuyn tnh th ta c cng thc lin h nh sau:
(SNR)dB = 6.02n + (2.21)
Trong = 4.77 i vi gi tr nh ca SNR v = 0 i vi SNR trung bnh. T

phng trnh trn ta thy l c thm mt bit lng t th SNR c tng thm 6 dB.
b) Lng t phi tuyn
Mo lng t c th c gim thiu nu phn b cc gi tr lng t mt cch
thch hp (khng phi cch u nh lng t tuyn tnh). Phn b ny da trn hm
mt pdf nh sau:
22
(2.22)
E[( x f Q ( x)) 2 ] [ x f Q ( x)]2 p( x)dx
T phng trnh trn ta thy mo trung bnh c th c gim thiu bng cch
gim gi tr (x fQ(x))2 ti nhng ni c gi tr p(x) ln. Tc cc ga tr lng t phi
nhiu ti nhng vng bin c xc sut cao (ting ni nh), cn t ti nhng vng
bin c xc sut thp (ting ni ln). Mt phng php thng dng trong in
thoi l b lng t Loga vi hai k thut l lut dng M v lut A dng chu
u. Tn hiu trc ht c i qua b khuch i nn (dng hm Loga) v sau i
vo b lng t tuyn tnh.
c) Lng t thch nghi
Nh ni trn l c s khc nhau ca pdf trong thi gian di v thi gian
ngn i vi ting ni. S thay i theo thi gian ca ting ni to nn mt di ng
ln (c 40 dB). Do vy b lng t cn c iu chnh thch hp bng cch tng
bc lng t khi cng sut tn hiu li vo tng v gim khi cng sut tn hiu li vo
gim (khi s mc lng t khng thay i) ta gi l lng t thch nghi.
IT
fQ(x) fQ(x)
T
a. b.
Hnh 2.4: Lng t thch nghi

d) Lng t vector
P
Trong php lng t thng thng mi mu bin tng ng vi mt gi tr

lng t hay mt t hp bit biu din. php lng t vector th mt nhm mu
bin ng vi mt nhm mu lng t mi c tng ng vi mt t hp bit c
gi l mt vector lng t trong khng gian vector lng t (vi lng t thng s
mu = 1). S mu trong nhm lng t c gi l mt vector mu c lng t.
Do tnh cht tng quan gia cc mu trong ting ni m php lng t vector to nn
m c nn cao vi:
log 2 n (2.25)
R bit / mu
L
Trong n l khng gian lng t; L l di vector lng t v R l s bit m

ha trn mt mu.
Li lng t vector c coi l khong cch Euclit gia vector lng t v
vector li vo. c s dng cho b m ha ngun m c tc bit thp.
23
2.5 K thut m ha cho ngun tng t.

Thut ton m ho ngun tng t c th xem xt c thng qua dng tiu
biu ca n l m ho tn hiu ting ni (bin i tn hiu thoi tng t thnh tn hiu
s). Cc b m ho ting ni thng c chia thnh 3 loi chnh l b m ho dng
sng min thi gian v m ha dng sng min tn s, m ho da trn m hnh. Ni
dung ca phng php m ho dng sng thi gian l dng sng ca tn hiu ting ni
lin tc c ri rc ho nh ly mu v sau c s ho nh m ho nh phn cc
gi tr i din cho mc ca cc mu dng sng ting ni. Phng php m ha dng
sng min tn s dng sng tn hiu c chia thanh cc di con c tn s khc nhau,
m ha c lp cho cc di bng. C s ca phng php m ho da trn m hnh
ngun pht m l vic phn tch c quan pht thanh ca con ngi v qu trnh to ra
m thanh ting ni. Hin nhin, ting ni hon ton c xc nh bi cc thng s
ca mch lc v cc thng s kch thch. M ho ngun pht thanh l vic m ho cc
thng s kch thch v lc ca m hnh ting ni ni trn thnh cc tn hiu s. Thay v
truyn i cc chui bt m cc gi tr mu dng sng ting ni nh trong phng php
m ho dng sng nu trn, cc chui bt m cc thng s ca m hnh to ting ni
IT
c truyn i trong phng php m ho ngun pht m. Ting ni in t c ti
to li phn thu nh cc mch in t thc hin tng hp ting ni da trn cc
thng s kch thch v lc nhn c. Mt trong cc b m ho ting ni tiu biu cho
phng php m ho ngun pht m l b m ho d on tuyn tnh LPC (Linear
Predictive Coder), u tin c pht trin cho cc ng dng qun s. Tuy nhin k
thut ny kh phc tp, c tr cao, gi thnh t b li c t l nn ln v cho tc
bit m ha thp.
T
P
Hnh 2.5: Phn loi cc phng php m ha ngun tng t
24
2.5.1 M ha dng sng thi gian:
2.5.1.1 Phng php iu ch xung m PCM

PCM c c trng bi ba qu trnh. l ly mu, lng t ho v m ho.
Ba qu trnh ny gi l chuyn i A/D. Mun khi phc li tn hiu analog t tn hiu
s phi tri qua hai qu trnh: Gii m dn s v lc thng thp. Hai qu trnh ny
gi l chuyn i D/A.
B ly B lng B m B gii m B lc
Tn hiu mu t ho ho-nn ng - dn s thp Tn hiu
VPAM s truyn
analog Chuyn i A/D Chuyn i D/A analog
Hnh 2.5: S khi qu trnh chuyn i A/D v D/A trong h thng PCM
a) Chuyn i A/D
IT
- Ly mu: y l qu trnh chuyn i tn hiu tng t thnh dy xung iu
bin (VPAM). Chu k ca dy xung ly mu (Tm) c xc nh theo nh l ly mu
ca Nyquist:
1 (2.26)
T m
2 f max
T
trong f-max l tn s ln nht trong bng ph ca tn hiu tng t.
P
S(t) Xung ly mu
Tn hiu analog
t
Tm
Hnh 2.6: Ly mu tn hiu tng t

Tn hiu thoi c bng tn hu hiu t 0,3 n 3,4 KHz. T biu thc (2.26), c
th ly chu k ly mu tn hiu thoi l:
1 1 (2.27)
Tm 125s
2 4000 Hz 2 3400 Hz
Hoc tn s ly mu tn hiu thoi:
25
f m 1 / Tm 8KHz (2.28)
- Lng t ha: Lng t ha ngha l chia bin ca tn hiu thnh cc

khong u hoc khng u, mi khong l mt bc lng t, bin tn hiu ng
vi u hoc cui ca mi bc lng t gi l mt mc lng t. Sau khi c cc mc
lng t th bin ca cc xung mu c lm trn n mc gn nht. Mc ch ca
lng t ho khi thc hin m ho gi tr mi xung ly mu thnh mt t m c s
lng bit t nht.
C hai phng php lng t ho: u v khng u.
S(t)
Xung lng t
7
6
- Bc lng t u
5
4 Tn hiu analog
3
2
1
IT Mc lng t
0 t
Tm
Hnh 2.7: Lng t ho u
T
Lng t ho u l chia bin cc xung ly mu thnh cc khong u nhau,
mi khong l mt bc lng t u, k hiu l . Cc ng song song vi trc
thi gian l cc mc lng t. Sau lm trn bin xung ly mu ti mc lng t
P
gn nht s nhn c xung lng t. Nu bin ca tn hiu analog bin thin trong
khong t -a n a th s lng mc lng t Q v c mi quan h sau y:
2a (2.29)

Q
Lm trn bin xung ly mu gy ra mo lng t. Bin xung mo lng

t nm trong gii hn t - /2 n +/2. Cng sut mo lng t PMLT c xc nh
theo biu thc sau y:
/ 2 (2.30)
P MLT a WLT a da
2
/ 2
trong : a l bin ca tn hiu tng t, WLT(a) l xc sut phn b gi tr

tc thi ca bin xung ly mu trong mt bc lng t. WLT(a) = 1/. Thay biu
thc (2.30) vo kt qu ly tch phn nhn c:
26
2 (2.31)
PMLT
12
T biu thc (2.31) thy rng cng sut mo lng t ch ph thuc vo ,

khng ph thuc vo bin tn hiu. Nh vy t s cng sut tn hiu c bin ln
trn cng sut nhiu lng t s ln hn t s cng sut tn hiu c bin yu trn
cng sut mo lng t. Theo phn tch ph th tn hiu thoi ch yu do cc thnh
phn tn hiu c cng yu to thnh. V th nu s dng lng t ho u s lm
gim cht lng tn hiu thoi ti u thu. Mun khc phc nhc im ny, trong
thit b ghp knh PCM ch s dng lng t ho khng u.
Lng t ho khng u: Tri vi lng t ho u, lng t ho khng u chia bin
xung ly mu thnh cc khong khng u theo nguyn tc khi bin xung ly
mu cng ln th di bc lng t cng ln, nh trn hnh 2.8. Lng t ho
khng u c thc hin bng cch s dng b nn.
S(t) Xung lng t
6
7
IT i - Bc lng t khng u
5
Tn hiu analog
4
3 Mc lng t
2
T
1
0 t
Tm
Hnh 2.8: Lng t ho khng u

P
- M ha:
c tnh bin b m ho - nn s
Chc nng ca m ho l chuyn i bin xung lng t thnh mt t m
gm mt s bit nht nh. Theo kt qu nghin cu v tnh ton ca nhiu tc gi th
trong trng hp lng t ho u, bin cc i ca xung ly mu tn hiu thoi
bng 4096 . Do mi t m phi cha 12 bit, dn ti hu qu l tc bit mi knh
thoi ln gp 1,5 ln tc bit tiu chun 64 Kbit/s. Mun nhn c tc bit tiu
chun, thng s dng b nn c c tnh bin dng logarit, cn c gi l b nn
analog. Biu thc ton hc ca b nn analog theo tiu chun Chu u c dng:
Ax 1
1 ln A khi 0 x A
y (2.32)
1 ln Ax khi 1 x 1
1 ln A A
27
trong : A= 87,6 c trng cho mc nn, x = Vvo/ Vvo max ; y = Vra/ Vra max.
T biu thc (2.32) xy dng c ng cong th hin c tuyn b nn A. c
tuyn b nn phi i xng vi c tuyn b dn khng gy ra mo tn hiu khi
khi phc tn hiu ti u thu. Dng ng cong c tuyn ca b nn v b dn nh
hnh 2.9.
Bin ra c tuyn nn
+1
-1
IT +1
c tuyn dn
Bin vo
T
-1
Hnh 2.9: c tuyn b nn v b dn analog

Tuy nhin, do b nn tng t ti pha m ho v b dn tng t ti pha gii
P
m cha cc diode bn dn nn gy ra mo phi tuyn. Trong PCM s dng b m ho

- nn s v b gii m- dn s loi tr mo phi tuyn. Tm li, s dng m ho- nn
s va t c mc tiu lng t ho khng u, va t c mc tiu mi t m
ch c 8 bit.
Da vo c tnh bin b nn analog lut A xy dng c tnh bin b
m ho - nn s bng cch gn ng ho ng cong logarit thnh 13 on thng. V
vy c tnh bin ca b m ho - nn s c tn l b m ho - nn s A = 87,6/13.
b) Chuyn i D/A
B gii m - dn s c chc nng chuyn i mi t m 8 bit thnh mt xung
lng t b nn v sau dn bin xung ti gi tr nh khi cha b nn. Dy
xung u ra b gii m - dn s qua b lc thng thp c tn s ct bng 3,4 KHz
khi phc li tn hiu thoi tng t.
28
2.5.1.2 iu xung m vi sai DPCM

Nh ta bit, PCM c thc hin bng cch m ha cc gi tr mu c
lng t ha ca tn hiu lin tc li vo. S bit m cn thit, chng hn cho tn hiu
in thoi, nh phn trc trnh by, c CCITT xc nh phi l 8 bt. Tc
tn hiu thoi PCM nh vy l 64 Kbit/s, chim ph tn kh ln. Nhng rung ng
chun chu k ca thanh huyn v cc chuyn ng hn ch ca cc b phn thuc c
quan pht m nh mi v li thc t to ra cc mu m thanh rt tng quan trong tn
hiu m hu thanh. Ngc li, cc m v thanh th c xu hng khng tng quan.
Trong m thoi, mt ngi m thoi tiu biu thng ni trong 40% thi gian
v i vi cc giai on ting ni tch cc (giai on c ni trong cuc m thoi)
th cc m hu thanh xy ra gp 4 ln so vi cc m v thanh. S tri hn hn ca cc
m hu thanh c ngha l tnh tng quan trong cc tn hiu m thoi c th khai
thc c mt cch c hiu qu. Do tnh tng quan cao ca cc mu ting ni, sai
lch gia hai mu k nhau thng kh nh so vi gi tr ca tng mu.V vy, thay v
m ha cc gi tr mu ting ni nh vi PCM, ch cn m ha sai lch gia cc mu
ting ni lin tip. Do , ch cn mt s bit t hn m.
IT
M ha: y chnh l nguyn tc ca iu ch xung vi sai DPCM. DPCM s
dng b lc hn ch di tn tn hiu thoi analog n 3,4 KHz. B ly mu c tn s
~
ly mu fm = 8 KHz. Xn l gi tr bin xung ly mu hin ti. X ni l gi tr bin
cc xung ly mu trc . X n l gi tr d on ca bin xung ly mu tip theo:
p
~ (2.33)
X n a i X n i

i 1
T
trong : ai l h s d on, c chn ti thiu ho sai s gia gi tr bin
xung ly mu hin ti Xn v gi tr d on ca bin xung ly mu tip theo. X n
l gi tr d on bin xung ly mu tip theo, c ngoi suy t p gi tr xung ly
P
mu trc . en l hiu s, hay cn gi l vi sai gia Xn v X n . en c m ho thnh

4 bit.
Gii m: Tn hiu DPCM ti u vo l cc t m 4 bit. Sau khi gii m, mi t m
c chuyn thnh mt xung c bin bng en v c a ti b cng. Mt u vo
khc ca b cng c ni ti u ra b d on. u ra b cng xut hin mt xung
ly mu c bin bng xung ly mu pha pht. Dy xung ly mu qua b lc
khi phc li tn hiu tng t.
B ly Xn en B m
B lc
Tn hiu mu ho Tn hiu
tng t DPCM
p
~
X n ai X n i B gii
i
My pht m
en
B d
~
Xn 29
on
~
Tn hiu e X
Hnh 2.10: S khi m ha v gii m DPCM
2.5.1.3 iu ch Delta (DM)

Khc vi PCM v DPCM, trong iu ch Delta mi t m ch c mt bit (-1
hoc +1). Mt khc trnh mo tn hiu analog ti pha thu, tn s ly mu ti pha
pht ln hn nhiu ln so vi tn s ly mu ca PCM v DPCM (fm = 8 KHz). Tn s
IT
ly mu ca DM c xc nh theo biu thc sau y:
fm(DM) 2 f(TH) amax / (2.34)
trong : fm(DM) (KHz) l tn s ly mu ca DM, f(TH) (KHz) l tn s cc i ca tn

hiu tng t, amax (V) l bin cc i ca tn hiu tng t, (V) l bc lng t
u.
T
M ha: Tn hiu tng t c ly mu theo chu k Tm(DM) (Tm(DM) = 1/fm(DM) ). Thit
lp hm bc thang, mi bc bng theo nguyn tc khi sn tn hiu tng th bc
thang i ln, khi sn tn hiu nm ngang th bc thang cng nm ngang, khi sn tn
P
hiu gim th bc thang i xung. Ti thi im ly mu nu gi tr tn hiu X(t) ln

hn gi tr hm bc thang trc mt chu k th nhn c V 0 v m ho V
thnh +1. Ngc li, ti thi im ly mu m gi tr ca X(t) b hn gi tr hm bc
thang th V 0 v c m ho thnh -1. Trong qung thi gian sn tn hiu tng
hoc gim nhanh th hm bc thang tng hoc gim khng kp v gy ra qu ti sn.
Gii m: Ti pha thu ti lp li hm bc thang da vo kt qu gii m. Nhn c
mt dy cc bit 1, b tch phn ti my thu to ra dy bc thang i ln, nhn c dy
cc bit 1 v -1 an xen nhau th b tch phn to ra dy bc thanh nm ngang v nhn
c dy cc bit -1 th b tch phn to lp dy bc thang i xung. Tn hiu dng bc
thang qua b lc tch ra gi tr trung bnh ca hm bc thang v l ng tc khi
phc li tn hiu tng t. V tn hiu tng t ti u ra b lc l gi tr trung bnh ca
hm bc thang nn trong qung thi gian qu ti sn th dng sng tn hiu tng t
thu c b lch so vi dng sng tng t ti pha pht. Do qu ti sn gy ra
mo tn hiu. khc phc mo tn hiu do qu ti sn cn s dng k thut iu ch
Delta thch ng (ADMo).
30
Bin
Qu ti sn Tn hiu analog

Hm bc thang
Tn hiu DM
0
t
Hnh 2.11: Chuyn i A/D trong DM
2.5.1.4 iu ch xung m vi sai thch ng (ADPCM)

Nh ta trnh by trong phn trn, tc bit ca tn hiu PCM gm cc t
m 8 bit v tn hiu ting ni c ly mu vi tn s 8 KHz bng 64
Kbit/s. Nu s lng bit ca t m gim cn 4 nh trong iu ch m xung vi sai
(DPCM) th tc bit gim v ch bng 32 Kbit/s. C xu hng tiu chun ha quc t
IT
tc 32 Kbit/s i vi tn hiu m ting ni nh s dng ADPCM. Vn ny
c phn nh trong khuyn ngh G.721 ca CCITT, c lin quan n iu ch m
xung vi sai t thch nghi 32 Kbit/s v cc ti liu khc.
B lng t ha t thch nghi thay i bc lng t ca n ph hp vi
phng sai ca cc xung ly mu tn hiu i qua. Cc thut ton c pht trin
cho iu ch m xung vi sai khi m ha tn hiu ting ni bng cch s dng b
T
lng t ha v b d on t thch nghi, trong cc h s thay i c chu k
phn nh thng k ca tn hiu vo. Hn na truyn cc h s d on n my
thu, v nh vy lm tng s bit truyn v tc bit, b d on thu tnh cc h s
ring ca n.
P
2.5.2 B m ha dng sng trong min tn s

M ha c tin hnh theo cc vng tn s. Ph ca tn hiu ting ni c
chia thnh cc di hp hoc bin i thnh cc tn s ri rc v c m ha c lp
vi nhau. Ty theo mc quan trng ca cc di tn con hay tn s ri rc m s bit
s dng m ha nhiu hay t
a) M ha theo bng con (SBC)
Ph ca tn hiu c chia thnh 4 n 8 di con bng cc b lc. Cc bng con
c di chuyn bin tri v 0 c th dng tc ly mu Nyquist trong min thi
gian v c ly mu vi s bt khc nhau ph thuc bin ph v tiu chun thnh
gic ca con ngi.
b) M ha bin i thch nghi
M ha bin i thch nghi l k thut m ha trong min tn s dng phng
php chuyn i ton hc. C tc m ha trong khong 9,6 20 Kbit/s. Cc mu
31
tn hiu trong mt ca s c bin i thnh mt tp cc tn s ri rc, bin ca

cc tn s ny c lng t v m ha ring bit truyn i. Ti b thu cc h s
lng t c bin i ngc to li tn hiu ban u. V d nh m ha bin i
cosin ri rc (DCT). Trn thc t DCT hay IDCT c tnh theo thut ton nhanh
p ng thi gian thc t v vic thit k bc lng t khc nhau cc tn s khc
nhau cng c thc hin theo thi gian c truyn nh thng tin tiu (c 2
Kbit/s) s bit lng t tn s ri rc t l vi nng lng ca n. Ngoi ra cn c cc
php chuyn i KLT, DFT...
2.5.3 M ha ngun da trn m hnh pht m
K thut ny dng tch cc thng s ca ngun m v m ha cc thng s
ny truyn n ni thu. Ti ni thu cc thng s ny c gii m iu khin mt
ngun m tng t nh ni pht ti to li tn hiu. Cc Vocoder c tc bit rt
thp nhng phc tp v ph thuc vo ngun m. B m ha da trn m hnh lm
vic rt tt vi tc bit thp t 2 n 5 Kbit/s v v d in hnh ca cc b m ha
tham s l b m ha d on tuyn tnh LPC v b m ha d on tuyn tnh kch
thch hn hp MELP.
a) M ha LPC
IT
M hnh ny coi c quan pht m nh b lc cc vi hm truyn c m t:
G
H ( z) M
1 bk z k (2.35)
k 1
T
y, G l h s khuch i, z-1 biu din ton t tr n v. Kch thch b lc
hoc l xung vi tn s pitch hoc n trng ngu nhin ty thuc on ting ni l hu
thanh hay v thanh. Cc h s ca b lc c xc nh dng k thut d on tuyn
P
tnh ging nh trong b ADPCM. Song thay cho vic truyn cc gi tr lng t ca
tn hiu li gia mu tin on v my thc (ADPCM), h thng LPC truyn ch
nhng c tnh chn lc ca tn hiu li l cc thng s nh: h s khuch i, tn
s pitch, quyt nh hu thanh hay v thanh, cho php xp x tn hiu li chnh xc.
Ti b thu cc thng tin trn c dng ti to li tn hiu li kch thch b lc
tng hp. Cn b lc tng hp ti b thu c iu khin bi cc h s on nhn
c. Trn thc t nhiu b LPC pht cc h s b lc trong biu din tn hiu
li v c th tng hp trc tip ti b thu. Xc nh h s d on: tn hiu d on l
mt tng c trng s ca p mu trc (p di t 10 15).
Hnh 2.13: S b m ha LPC
32
Hnh 2.14: S b gii m LPC
p (2.36)
s n a k s n k en
k 1
y, en l li d on. Cc h s d on c xc nh qua vic lm ti

thiu nng lng trung bnh E ca tn hiu li:
N N
p IT
2
E en2 a k s n k
n 1 n 1 k 0
(2.37)
Vi a0 = -1. Thng li c tnh trong ca s 10ms tng ng vi N = 80.

Cho vi phn ca E theo am bng 0 ta c:
E N p
(2.38)
2sn m ak sn k 0
T
am n 1 k 0
p N p
s n m s n k a k C mk a k 0
k 0 n 1 k 0
P
Vi Cm l h s tng quan gia cc mu r, m. Sau khi xc nh Cm gii phng

trnh trn c th xc nh c cc h s d on. Cc h s d on thng khng
c m ha truyn i trc tip (v cn n 8 -10 bit/h s) m truyn cc h s phn
nh (chng c di ng nh hn ch cn 6 bit / h s). Nh vy mt b d on bc 10
tng s bit dng cho cc thng s m hnh trn 1 frame l 72 (bao gm 5 cho khuch
i v 6 cho chu k pitch). Nu cc thng s c c lng li c sau 15 30ms th
tc bit s l 2400 4800 bit/s. Vic m ha cc h s phn nh c th c ci tin
khi dng thm cc b bin i phi tuyn (t trc b m ha) s lm gim nhy
ca cc h s phn nh i vi li lng t. Chng thng dng l bin i t s loga
(LAR).
1 1 Rn (k ) (2.39)
LARn (k ) tanh ( Rn (k )) log 10
1 Rn (k )
33
Cc LPC khc nhau trong cch to ra tn hiu li ti b thu. C 3 cch c bn:

cch th nht rt ph bin dng 2 ngun kch thch ti b thu, mt ngun l n trng
v ngun kia l on xung c chu k pitch, vic chn ngun ny hay ngun kia kch
thch ph thuc vo quyt nh voice/unvoice ca b pht. K thut ny gp kh khn
trong vic tch thng tin v pitch b pht (ngoi ra s ng pha gia cc thnh phn
hi ca xung kch thch to nn ting trong ting ni tng hp).
b) LPC kch thch bng a xung
Vic kch thch bng xung n/chu k pitch lun lm mo tn hiu. Atal
ngh dng nhiu xung (8 xung/chu k) v iu chnh v tr v bin cc xung ny
ti thiu li trung bnh bnh phng c tnh ti trng s th cm. K thut ny c
gi l MPE LPC lm cht lng ting ni tt hn khng ch do li d on c xp
x tt hn m cn do n khng i hi tch pitch. S xung c th gim vi voive c
pitch cao bng cch kt hp mt b lc tuyn tnh vi vng pitch trong b tng hp.
c) LPC kch thch bng m (CELP)
phng php ny b m ha v gii m c chung mt bng m (code book)
IT
tn hiu kch thch ngu nhin (nhiu trng Gauss). Vi mi tn hiu ting ni b pht
s tm trong bng m tn hiu kch thch ln b lc LPC cho tn hiu gn ging nht,
sau ch vic truyn ch s ca tn hiu kch thch ny n b thu. Da vo ch s
ny b thu s tm ra tn hiu kch thch thch hp. B m ha theo k thut ny i hi
hn 500 triu php tnh nhn v cng / giy. Chng c th cho cht lng ting ni
cao vi vic kch thch c m ha 0,25 bit/mu v c tc 4,8 Kbit/s.
T
1. V s khi v trnh by nguyn tc m ha v gii m ca phng php iu

ch xung m vi sai thch ng ADPCM?
P
2. V s khi v trnh by nguyn tc m ha v gii m ca phng php iu

ch xung m vi sai DPCM?
3. V s khi v trnh by nguyn tc m ha v gii m ca phng php m ha
d on tuyn tnh LPC?
4. Mt ngun tin ri rc trong mt h thng thng tin s pht ra cc k hiu vi tc
5000 k hiu/giy. Cc k hiu cng vi xc sut xut hin ca chng c cho
nh bng sau:
Xi X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
pX i
0,1 0, 1 0,13 0,33 0,15 0,08
a. Xc nh Entropy H(X) [bit] v tc thng tin (information rate) ca ngun?

b. Hy thc hin m ho ngun trn theo phng php t m c chiu di c
nh. Phng php ny c hiu qa khng? Ti sao?
c. Nu cc k hiu ny c m ho sang cc bit nh phn dng phng php m
34
ho Huffman, hy thc hin qu trnh m ho v cho bit hiu sut b m
5. Cho ngun khng nh A 5; 3; 1;0;1;3;5 vi xc sut tng

ng 0,05;0,1;0,1;0,15;0,05;0,25;0,3
a. Tm Entropy ca ngun?
b. Nu ngun c m ho sang cc bit nh phn dng phng php m ho

Fano, hy thc hin qu trnh m ho v cho bit hiu sut b m?
c. Gi s ngun c lng t theo nguyn tc:

Q ( 5 Q ( 3) 4
Q ( 1) Q (0) Q (1) 0
Q (3) Q (5) 4
Tm Entropy ca ngun lng t?

6. Cho chui nh phn sau:
00010010000001100001000000010000001010000100000011010000000110
IT
Hy thc hin m ha ngun Lempel-Ziv?
7. Nu ngha ca hm tc mo R(D). V th nh gi hm tc mo cho knh
D 1
i xng M mc khi D PM v R( D) log 2 M D log 2 D (1 D) log 2
M 1
vi gi tr ca M l 2, 4, 8 v 16; PM xc sut li bit.
T
P
35
IT
T
P
36
Bi ging Truyn dn s Chng III: M ha knh
CHNG 3: M HA KNH
3.1. Pht hin li v sa li

Trong hu ht cc knh truyn thng u khng th trnh c mt lng tp
m hoc nhiu no . K c sau khi mt h thng truyn dn s c thit k ti
u ha th vic xut hin cc bt li trong lc truyn thng tin vn xy ra, c th vi
tn sut nh nhng khng bao gi t c tuyt i bng 0. V d, t l bit li thng
thng cho mt h thng s dng cp ng l 10-6, ngha l, c mt bit li trn mt
triu bit c truyn i. Nhng h thng truyn dn bng si quang hin i c t l
bit li mc 10-9, thm ch thp hn. Ngc li, vi nhng h thng thng tin v
tuyn th t l bit li tng ln ti 10-3, thm ch l t hn. T l bit li c th chp nhn
c ph thuc vo tng ng dng c th. V d, vic truyn thng tin s ca tn hiu
thoi c th chp nhn mt t l bit li tng i cao, nhng mt s ng dng lin
quan n cc thng tin quan trng nh trong vn v ti chnh chng hn, s yu cu
mt knh truyn vi t l bit li ti thiu. Trong phn ny chng ti s gii thiu v
nhng k thut iu khin li ci thin t l li trong cc ng dng yu cu cao m
t l li vn c ca cc knh truyn dn s l khng c nh mong mun.
IT
C hai hng tip cn c bn iu khin li. Cch tip cn th nht lin
quan n vic pht hin ra cc li v t ng yu cu truyn li ARQ (Automatic
Retransmission request) khi nhn thy cc li ny. Hng tip cn ny ngm nh
rng c sn mt knh phn hi ngoi knh truyn chnh c th chuyn cc thng
bo yu cu truyn li. Trn thc t, do vy, k thut ARQ ny c s dng rng ri
T
trong cc h thng truyn thng my tnh thng qua cc ng dy in thoi (vn c
sn knh bo hiu km theo). Cch tip cn th hai, l sa li trc - FEC
(Forward Error Correction), lin quan n vic pht hin li v c gng sa li
. FEC l k thut c s dng n khi m mt knh phn hi khng tn ti, do
P
vic truyn cc thng bo yu cu truyn li l khng th thc hin d dng, v k c

khi c sn mt knh nh vy, th k thut ny vn ti u hn nhiu, v nhiu khi ch v
sai mt vi bit m phi truyn li c mt lng thng tin ln, th rt khng hiu qu.
Mt trng hp s dng FEC l trong thng tin v tinh v thng tin v tr. Mt ng
dng gn y ca FEC l trong cc a CD audio. N cung cp mt kh nng ng
kinh ngc, l kh nng ti to li m thanh hon ho, k c khi mt a c b xc
hoc dnh bi bn. Tuy nhin, vi c hai hng tip cn ny, chng ta nhn thy rng
u cn bc u tin: pht hin li. S khc bit gia 2 hng tip cn ny ch l
ARQ lng ph bng thng truyn li, trong khi FEC th yu cu cc bt d tha
c a vo thng tin truyn i thng qua cc qu trnh x l c th sa c li
pha thu.
Phn ny s gii thiu v cc m kim tra chn l v m a thc dng pht
hin v sa li. Ngoi ra, tng quan v cc h thng FEC v ARQ cng c trnh
by.
37
3.1.1. Pht hin li

Trong mc ny chng ta s cp v tng ca vic pht hin li. Trong a
s cc trng hp, m kim tra chn l n c s dng lm v d minh ha. tng
c bn ca qu trnh pht hin li rt n gin. Nh c miu t trn hnh 3.1, nhng
thng tin c to ra bi cc ng dng c m ha c th truyn trn cc knh
truyn thng, thnh cc k t hoc thnh cc tn hiu vt l. My thu kim tra dng d
liu ti t knh truyn thng xem liu cc k t ny c chnh xc hay khng. Nu
khng, my thu s nhn nh l c li xut hin v do to ra mt cnh bo bo
cho ngi dng. tng ny ngm nh rng khng mt thng tin no c th c
truyn m khng thng qua qu trnh m ha.
M n gin nht l m kim tra chn l n. Vi mt chui k bit thng tin, n
s thm vo 1 bit kim tra to nn mt t m. Kim tra chn l m bo rng tng
s bit 1 trong t m l chn. Bit kim tra trong trng hp ny gi l bit chn l. M
pht hin li ny c s dng trong bng m ASCII, vi mi k t s c th hin
bng 7 bit, v 8 bit nu tnh c 1 bit chn l c thm vo. M ny l mt v d v
mt m tuyn tnh in hnh v bit chn l c tnh ton bng vic cng modulo 2 ca
ton b cc bit thng tin.
IT
bk 1 b1 b2 ... bk mod 2 (3.1)
Vi b1, b2,, bk l cc bit thng tin.

Nhc li v php cng modulo 2: 0 + 0 = 0; 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1; 1 + 1 =0. Do
T
, nu nh s bit mang thng tin c chn s 1 th bit chn l s mang gi tr l 0, v
ngc li. Kt qu l, da theo lut trn, ta thy rng, vi mt dng bit s dng m
chn l kim tra, th s bit 1 (k c bit chn l) th lun l s chn. y l tng
v m kim tra chn l n.
P
Hnh 3.1: H thng pht hin li thng thng
Nu mt t m b 1 li n trong qu trnh truyn dn, th pha thu s nhn

c dng bit vi s bit 1 l s l, v li c pht hin. Ni cch khc, tng qut
hn, nu nh t m c mt s l cc li th chui bit u ra s c mt s l bit 1. Do
, bit chn l n c th cho php chng ta pht hin ra tt c cc k t b li nu nh
s li l s l. Tuy nhin, n s hon ton khng c tc dng trong cc trng hp s
li xut hin l chn. Trong cc trng hp , s bit 1 vn l chn, v m ny s
khng th pht hin c li. D sao th bit chn l n vn c th cung cp mt kh
38
nng pht hin li no , c th l mt na s trng hp c th xy ra li, v s li

c th pht hin ph thuc vo gi tr k ca tng chui m c gn bit kim tra.
Hnh 3.2 ch ra cch thay th xem xt v d ny. u pht mt tng kim
tra c tnh ton t cc bit thng tin v c truyn i cng vi cc bit ny. pha
thu, tng kim tra c tnh ton li, da trn thng tin thu nhn c. Tng kim tra
nhn c v tng kim tra c tnh ton li c em ra so snh, v s c thng bo
li nu chng khng khp vi nhau.
IT
Hnh 3.2: H thng pht hin li s dng cc bit kim tra
V d n gin ny c th c s dng trnh by v hai yu t c bn cn
thit trong vic nhn nhn vic pht hin li. Th nht l vic pht hin li yu cu
v s tn ti ca s d tha, ngha l phi thm vo cc bit kim tra ch khng n
T
thun tn dng ton b bng thng cho vic truyn cc bit thng tin. Vi mt m kim
tra chn l n c di l k+1, k bit l cc bit thng tin, cn 1 bit cn li l bit chn
l. Do , 1/(k+1) cc bit pht b tha.
Yu t th 2 c th nhn ra l tt c cc k thut pht hin li u khng th
P
pht hin c mt s li. Thng thng, mt k thut pht hin li s lun lun tht
bi trong vic pht hin cc li truyn dn lm bin i mt t m thnh mt t m
khc. V d vi m kim tra chn l n, nu nh s li xut hin l chn th t m s
b bin i thnh mt t m khc c hiu l ng, v m s khng th pht hin
c li.
Hnh 3.3: Cc thuc tnh khong cch ca cc m
39
Do , trong vic la chn m pht hin li, ngi ta lun c gng la chn cc
m t c kh nng bin i cc li thnh cc t m hp l, da trn cc li thng xy
ra trn knh truyn dn hin c. minh ha cho vic ny, chng ti gi s miu t
mt tp cc khi bit nh phn nh trn hnh 3.3, vi cc t m c k hiu bi x v
cc t khng phi t m k hiu l o. gim thiu kh nng pht hin sai li, chng
ti mun rng cc t m c sinh lun cch cng xa nhau cng tt. Do trn hnh
3.3a l mt m khng tt, v cc t m qu gn nhau. hnh 3.3b th khc, y l
mt tp m tt v khong cch gia cc t m l ti a. S hiu qu ca mt m ph
thuc hon ton vo loi li m n s gp phi trn knh truyn. Tip theo, chng ta s
xem xt hiu qu ca b m kim tra chn l c em ra lm v d nh th no.
Hiu qu ca cc m pht hin li
Hiu qu ca mt m pht hin li c o bng kh nng m h thng tht bi
trong vic pht hin li t knh truyn s dng m . tnh ton xc sut ny,
chng ta cn bit v xc xut xut hin ca cc loi li. Nhng xc sut ny da vo
cc tnh cht c trng ca knh truyn. Chng ta s nhn nhn ba dng li ca knh:
li vector ngu nhin, li bit ngu nhin v li lin hon.
IT
Gi s chng ta truyn mt t m c n bit. Ta nh ngha vector e = (e1, e2,, en)
vi mi phn t ei=1 l tng ng vi mt li xut hin li bit c v tr i trong s cc
bit truyn i v ei=0 nu nh ngc li. Trong trng hp tng qut, ta c s vector li
c th xut hin l 2n. Trong m hnh knh xc sut ca vector li e xut hin khng
ph thuc vo s li m n c. Do vector li (1, 0, 0,, 0) cng c xc sut xy ra
ging nh xc sut ca vecto li (1, 1, 1,, 1). M kim tra chn l n s tht bi
T
trong vic pht hin ra cc vector li vi s s 1 l chn. Do , vi m hnh knh c
vector li ngu nhin, xc sut pht hin li sai l .
By gi chng ta s xem xt m hnh li bit ngu nhin, vi cc li bt xut
P
hin c lp vi cc li khc. Truyn thng v tinh cho ta mt v d ca knh loi ny.

Ta coi p l xc sut xut hin mt li trong knh truyn n bit. Lc ny xc sut ca
mt vector li vi j li s l pj(1 p)n-j, v vi mi li trong j li xut hin s c xc
sut p v mi php truyn ng trong s n-j php truyn ng s c xc sut l 1 p.
Vit li xc sut ny ta s c:
p w (e)
p[e] (1 p)n w ( e ) p w ( e ) (1 p)n ( ) (3.2)
1 p
y, w(e) c nh ngha l trng s, hay s s 1 c trong vector e. Vi
nhiu knh truyn thng ang c s dng, xc sut ca bit li nh hn rt nhiu so
vi mt, do p<1/2 v p/(1-p)<1. iu ny c ngm hiu rng trong knh li bit
ngu nhin, xc xut ca mt vector e gim khi s bit li tng (s s 1 trong vector
tng). iu c ngha l, mt li xy ra t k t s c kh nng cao hn so vi mt
li xy ra nhiu k t cng lc. Do vy, knh ny c mc ch nh x mt t m
c truyn vo trong mt khi bit nh phn c phn b xung quanh t m.
40
M kim tra chn l n s tht bi nu s li l s chn. Do , trong m hnh

bit li ngu nhin, ta s c cng thc:
P[pht hin li sai] = P[cc k t li khng pht hin c]
= P[cc k t li vi vector e c s chn s 1]
n n (3.3)
= p 2 (1 p)n2 p 4 (1 p)n4 ...
2 4
Tng ny c cng ti khi n t c s li ln nht m knh c th mc phi

cng 1 lc. Trong cng thc trc chng ta cp n vic tnh biu thc:
n n!

j j ! n j ! (3.4)
Vi n l s bit 1 v n-j l s bit 0 tn ti trong vector li. Trong bt k mt h

thng truyn dn no ang c s dng, xc sut ca mt bit li (p) lun lun nh
hn rt nhiu so vi 1. Do chng ta c th s dng mt cng thc tnh gn ng:
pi (1 p) j pi (1 pj ) pi
IT (3.5)
V d, nu nh p = 10-3 th p 2 (1 p)n2 10-6 v p 4 (1 p)n4 10-12. Do xc

xut ca vic pht hin sai li s c quyt nh hu ht bi hng t u tin trong
cng thc trn. V d, nu ta c n=32 v p=10-4. Lc ny ta s c xc xut ca vic
pht hin sai li s ch l 510-6, gim i khong 2 bc.
Chng ta nhn thy mt khong cch ln gia hiu nng t c khi s dng 2
T
m hnh knh c nu trn. Nhiu knh truyn thng tng hp cc yu t ca c
hai dng knh ny, v n c gi l m hnh knh kt hp (burst). Thi gian truyn
vi t l li thp an xen vi thi gian c s xut hin ca nhiu cm li. Thi gian
P
truyn dn vi t l li thp tng t nh m hnh knh li bit ngu nhin, v thi gian
cn li th tng t vi m hnh knh vector li ngu nhin. Xc sut ca vic pht
hin li sai i vi m chn l n s nm u gia xc sut ca 2 m hnh knh
ny. Ni chung, cc php o phi thng k c th phn loi v s dng c tng
loi knh ring bit.
3.1.2. Kim tra chn l 2 chiu

Mt phng php n gin nng cao nng lc pht hin li ca m chn l
n l sp xp cc bit thng tin theo tng ct, mi ct c k bit, nh ta thy trn hnh
3.4. Bit cui cng mi ct l bit kim tra cho cc bit thng tin nm trong ct . Lu
rng ct cui cng l mt t m kim tra cho m ct pha trc n. Cc bit ngoi
cng bn phi ca mi dng l bit kim tra cho ton b cc bit trong dng . Ma trn
m ha cui cng m bo rng mi hng u c kim tra chn l.
Nu mt, hai, hoc 3 li xut hin bt c u trong ma trn bit trong qu trnh
c truyn i, n s khin cho t nht mt hng c m kim tra sai, nh ta thy trn
41
hnh 3.5. Tuy nhin, mt vi trng hp vi 4 bit li vn khng th c pht hin,

cng c th hin trn hnh v.
Hnh 3.4: M kim tra chn l hai chiu

M kim tra chn l hai chiu l mt v d khc v m tuyn tnh. N c u
im l kh nng pht hin li c th c nh ngha mt cch trc quan, tuy nhin
hiu nng khng thc s tt. Nhng loi m tt hn s c cp n trong mt
phn khc, ni v cc m tuyn tnh.
IT
T
P
Hnh 3.5: Cc k t li c th v khng th b pht hin ca m hai chiu
3.1.3. Cc m a thc
By gi chng ta s xem xt h cc m a thc c s dng rng ri trong

pht hin li v sa li. Cc m a thc c th c thc hin d dng thng qua cc
mch thanh ghi dch v th chng l cc m iu khin li c thc thi rng ri nht.
M a thc bao gm vic to ra cc bit kim tra di dng mt s kim tra cc bit d
theo chu k - CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check). V vy m chng cn c bit n
nh l cc m CRC.
42
Trong m a thc, cc k hiu thng tin, t m v vector li c biu din

bng cc a thc nh phn. Bit thng tin th k (ik-1, ik-2,, i1, i0) c s dng hnh
thnh nn a thc thng tin ca mc k-1:
i(x) = ik-1xk-1 + ik-2xk-2 ++ i1 + i0 (3.6)
Qu trnh m ha ly i(x) v to ra a thc t m b(x) cha cc bt thng tin v
cc bit b sung kim tra, v n tha mn mt khun mu no . pht hin li,
pha thu kim tra xem khun mu c c p ng khng. Trc khi gii thch
c th qu trnh ny, chng ti cn xem li v a thc s hc.
M a thc s dng a thc s hc tnh ton t m tng ng vi a thc
thng tin. Hnh v 3.6 a ra v d v a thc cng, nhn v chia s dng cc h s nh
phn. Ch rng vi h nh phn, chng ti c x j x j (1 1) x j 0 . C th hn, khi
php chia c hon thnh, phn d r(x) s c bc nh hn mc ca a thc chia.
Trong v d ny a thc chia c bc 3, v vy qu trnh chia tip din cho n khi phn
d c bc nh hn hoc bng 2.
IT
T
P
Hnh 3.6: S hc a thc

Mt a thc m c xc nh bng a thc sinh g(x) ca n. y, gi s
rng chng ta ang lm vic vi m trong c n bit t m, bao gm k bit thng tin v
n-k bit kim tra. Chng ta nhc ti loi m (n, k). a thc sinh cho loi m ny c bc
n v c dng:
g(x) = xn-k + gn-k-1xn-k-1 ++ g1x + 1 (3.7)
Trong : gn-k-1, gn-k-2, l cc s nh phn.
Trong phn tip theo l v d biu din cho m (7, 4) vi a thc sinh g(x) = x3
+ x + 1.
Vic tnh ton cc bit kim tra d tha theo chu k c m t nh sau:
Bc 1: u tin a thc thng tin c nhn vi xn-k.
xn-k i(x) = ik-1xn-1 + ik-2xn-2 ++ i1 xn-k+1 + i0xn-k (3.8)
43
Nu hnh dung rng k bit thng tin ang v tr k thp hn trong chui ghi c
di n, php nhn a cc bit thng tin ti v tr cao nht ca k, v s hng cao nht
ca i(x) c t c l n-1. Trng hp ny c th hin trong hnh 3.7. a thc
thng tin l i(x) = x3 + x2, do kt qu u tin thu c l x3.i(x) = x6 + x5. Sau 3
bc dch sang bn tri, thnh phn ca thanh ghi dch l (1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0).
Bc 2: Bao gm chia xn-k.i(x) cho g(x) xc nh phn d r(x). Cc s hng
bao gm trong php chia c a ra trong gii thch sau:
xn-ki(x) = g(x).q(x) + r(x) (3.9)
a thc d r(x) cung cp cc bit kim tra d theo chu k (CRCs). Trong v d
a ra hnh 3.7, chng ta c x6 +x5 = g(x).(x3 +x2 +x) +x ; c ngha l r(x) = x.
Bc 3: Thu c t m nh phn b(x) bng cch cng thm phn d r(x) vo
n-k
x i(x).
b(x) = xn-ki(x) + r(x) (3.10)
IT
T
P
Hnh 3.7: V d v m ha CRC
V a thc chia g(x) c bc n-k nn phn d r(x) c th c bc cao nht l n-k-1.

V vy r(x) c nhiu nht l n-k s hng. Ni v thanh ghi c chiu di n nh c
gii thiu pha trn, r(x) c th c bc thp hn n-k. Nhc li rng bc k cao hn
c chim bi cc bit thng tin. Do chng ta thy rng qu trnh m ha ny gii
thiu mt a thc nh phn trong s hng c v tr k cao hn l cc bit thng tin v
cc s hng n-k c v tr thp hn l cc bit kim tra d tha theo chu k. Trong v d
hnh 3.7, php chia x3.i(x) cho g(x) cho a thc d r(x) = x. a thc t m s l x6 +
x5 + x, tng ng vi chui t m nh phn (1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0). Ch rng 4 v tr u
tin cha 4 bit thng tin cn 3 bit sau cha cc bit CRC.
44
Trong hnh v 3.6, chng ta thy rng php chia thng thng chia 122 cho
35 ta c thng s l 3 v d 17 (122 = 3.35 +17). Ch rng bng cch tr i phn
d 17 c 2 bn, chng ta c 122-17 = 3.35 do 122 17 chia ht cho 35. Tng t,
a thc t m b(x) chia ht cho g(x) v:
b(x) = xn-ki(x) + r(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) + r(x) = g(x)q(x) (3.11)
Trong chng ta s dng mt thc t l php tnh ton trong c s 2 c
r(x) + r(x) = 0. S tng ng ny c ngha l tt c t m c nhn vi a thc
sinh g(x). chnh l mu s c kim tra pha thu. My thu c th kim tra
xem mu ny c c tha mn khng bng cch chia a thc nhn c cho g(x).
Nu phn d khc 0 th mt li c pht hin.
Mt thut ton quen thuc hn v vic mang cc on ch vit c th c s
dng to ra mch cc thanh ghi dch hi tip thc thi php chia. Cc tap hi tip
trong mch ny c xc nh bng cc h s ca a thc sinh. Hnh 3.8 l mt mch
chia c a thc sinh g(x) = x3 + x + 1. Hnh v cng ch ra trng thi ca cc thanh ghi
bi v thut ton thc hin php chia tng t nh trong v d m ha trc .
IT
T
P
Hnh 3.8: Mch cc thanh ghi dch cho a thc sinh

Mt mch chia tng t nh vy dng b m ha c th c s dng pha
thu lm r a thc nhn c c khp vi a thc t m hay khng.
Bng 3.1 di y gii thiu cc a thc sinh sau khi chun ha. Cc a thc CRC-
12 v CRC-16 c gii thiu nh mt phn ca giao thc ng b bit IBM cho iu
khin li trong tuyn truyn thng. a thc CCITT-16 c s dng trong chun
HDLC v trong XMODEM. a thc CCITT-32 c s dng trong chun IEEE 802
LAN v trong modem chun CCITT V.42. Cui cng CRC-8 v CRC-10 gn y
c s dng trong cc mng ATM.
45
Bng 3.1: Cc a thc sinh chun
3.1.4. Sa li
Vic pht hin li v sa li trn ng truyn c bt u bng vic x l
xc nh c v tr c kh nng xy ra li cao nht.
Nh mt v d kim tra tnh chn l cho vic sa li, hnh 3.9 minh ha mt s
sa li m trong t m c hnh thnh bng cch sp xp k bit bn tin trong mt
IT
mng vung c cc hng v ct c kim tra bi 2 k cc bit chn l. Mt li truyn
trong mt bit bn tin to ra sai lch v tnh chn l ca hng v ct vi li ti cc giao
ca hng v ct, do vy cc li n c th c sa cha. M ny cng pht hin li
i.
T
P
Hnh 3.9: Mng vung sa li bng kim tra tnh chn l
3.1.5. Ghp xen

T trc n nay, chng ta gi nh rng cc li truyn xut hin ngu nhin
v c lp trong mt t m.
Tuy nhin, nhiu xung sinh ra bi tia sng v cc chuyn tip chuyn mch gy
ra li xy ra dng cm bao gm mt vi bit lin tip nhau. Li cm xut hin trong h
thng truyn dn v tuyn tri qua pha inh nhanh hoc nu knh c nh k hiu d
liu hin ti l mt hm ca cc k hiu hin ti v trong qu kh.
Mt hng gii quyt l phn tn cc t m pht i qua vic s dng mt h
thng ghp xen (Interleaver) nh hnh 3.10. y, cc bit bn tin c phn tn trn
ng cong kt ni bn tin ban u v chui bit chn l vo vo mt t chn l. Nhng
46
bit kim tra ny gip chng ta sa cc li bit n. Mt li cm xy ra th nhiu bit s

b hng. Nu iu ny xy ra vi chui bit ban u, h thng c th b hng v khng
th sa c li. Khi thc hin vic ghp xen, cc bit trong li cm c phn tn trn
cc bn tin khc nhau v c sa ti pha thu nh s dng m knh; sau khi gii ghp
xen, bn tin khng c li ban u c khi phc. Do vy, c th ni rng, nh ghp
xen m vic sa cc li n dn n vic sa c mt vi li bit khc nhau (li cm).
Hnh 3.10: Dy bit kim tra xen k iu khin li vi cm li
3.1.6. Cc vector m v khong cch Hamming
Mt t m n-bit ty c th c hnh dung trong mt khng gian n-chiu nh

IT
l mt vector m cc thnh phn ta chnh bng cc bit trong t m. Nh vy,
chng ta vit cc t m 101 dng vector hng c k hiu X = (1 0 1). Hnh 3.11 miu
t tt c t m 3-bit dng cc chm trn tng ng vi cc vector trong mt khng
gian ba chiu. Cc chm trn en hnh 3.11a c trng cho m lp li ba (triple-
repetition code), trong khi hnh 3.11b c trng cho mt m kim tra chn l.
Lu rng cc vect m lp li ba c s phn tch ln hn so vi cc vector
T
m kim tra chn l. S phn tch ny c o bng khong cch Hamming c lin
quan n nng lc iu khin li ca mt m. Khong cch Hamming d(X, Y) gia hai
vector X v Y c xc nh bng s cc phn t khc nhau. V d X= (1 0 1), Y= (1 1
P
0) th d(X, Y)= 2 bi v v tr th 2 v 3 khc nhau.

Khong cch nh nht - dmin ca m l khong cch Hamming nh nht gia
cc vector m. Pht hin li l c th khi m s li truyn trong mt t m t hn dmin
v vy t li khng phi l mt vector ph hp. Ngc li, khi s li bng hoc ln
hn dmin th t li c th tng ng vi vector ph hp khc v cc li khng th pht
hin c.
L do na l cc ng dn ti la chn khong cch yu cu cho cc mc
khc nhau ca kh nng iu khin li:
Pht hin l li trn t:
dmin l 1 (3.12)
Sa t li trn t:
dmin 2t 1 (3.13)
47
Sa t li v pht hin l > t li trn t:

dmin t l 1 (3.14)
Hnh 3.11: Cc vector i din cho cc t m 3 bit;

(a) M lp li ba; (b) M kim tra chn l
Chng ta c th xem xt hnh 3.11, m lp li ba c dmin=3. V vy m ny c
IT
th s dng pht hin l 3-1=2 li trn t hoc sa li t (3-1)/2=1 li trn t. Mt
m mnh hn vi dmin= 7 c th sa 3 li hoc 2 li v pht hin li gp 4 ln.
Nng lc ca m ph thuc vo s bit thm vo t m cho mc ch iu
khin li. V d, cc t m c k<n cc bit bn tin v n-k bit chn l cho vic kim tra
cc bit bn tin. Cu trc ny c bit n nh l mt m khi (n, k). Khong cch nh
nht ca mt m khi (n, k) c xc nh bi biu thc di y:
T
dmin n k 1 (3.15)
v hiu sut m c xc nh bi tc m:
P
Rc k / n (3.16)
3.1.7. H thng FEC

By gi chng ta xem xt h thng sa li trc FEC c m t hnh 3.12.
Cc bit bn tin t mt ngun thng tin c tc rb. B m ha ly ra cc khi k bit bn
tin v hnh thnh nn mt m khi (n, k) vi tc m Rc= k/n <1. Do vy, tc bit
trn knh ln hn so vi rb.
r = (n/k)rb = rb/Rc (3.17)
M c dmin= 2t+1 n-k+1 v b gii m hot ng theo phng thc sa li.
48
Hnh 3.12: H thng FEC

Chng ta nghin cu v nh gi hiu nng ca h thng FEC khi nhiu trng
cng AWGN gy ra cc li ngu nhin vi xc sut <<1. Gi tr ca ph thuc vo
nng lng tn hiu v mt nhiu b thu. Nu Eb c trng cho nng lng trung
bnh trn bit bn tin, nng lng trung bnh trn bit m l RcEb v t l ca nng lng
bit trn mt nhiu l:
vi b Eb / N0 .
IT
c Rc Eb / N0 Rc b (3.18)
y chng ta cn xc nh hiu nng qua xc sut li bit bn tin u ra Pbe.

M sa t li trn t v mt vi mu li nhiu hn t li c th c sa ph
T
thuc vo vector m ha c th. Do vy, xc sut gii m li t (word error
probability) b gii hn trn bi biu thc di y:
Pwe P(i, n) (3.19)

P
i t 1
Chng ta c th ly xp x:
n t 1
Pwe P(t 1, n) (3.20)
t 1
Ngha l mt t khng sa c in hnh c t+1 bit li. Trung bnh c
(k/n)(t+1) li bit bn tin trn t khng sa, cc li cn li trong cc bit kim tra. Khi
N.k bit c pht i trong N>>1 t, trung bnh tng s bit bn tin li u ra l
(k/n)(t+1)NPwe v vy chng ta c:
t 1 n 1 t 1
Pbe Pwe (3.21)
n t
Nu nhiu tun theo phn b Gauss v h thng truyn dn l ti u, xc sut
li truyn dn c xc nh:
49
Q( 2 c ) Q( 2 Rc b )
(3.22)
(4 Rc b )1/ 2 e R / ; Rc b 5
c b
V vy xc sut li bit u ra ca h thng FEC l:
n 1
t 1
Pbe Q ( 2 R )
t
c b (3.23)
n 1 ( t 1)/ 2 ( t 1) Rc b
(4 Rc b ) e
t
Truyn dn khng m ha trn cng knh c xc sut li bit c xc nh theo
biu thc di y:
Pube Q( 2 b ) (4 b )1/ 2 e b
(3.24)
v tc tn hiu c th gim t rb/Rc n rb.
S so snh gia biu thc (3.23) v (3.24) cho thy s quan trng ca cc tham
IT
s m t = (dmin 1)/2 v Rc= k/n. y, phc tp thm vo ca h thng FEC c
iu chnh qua cc tham s t v Rc to ra gi tr ca Pbe t hn Pube. Cc xp x theo
hm m cho thy yu cu quan trng l (t+1)Rc>1. Do vy, mt m ch c th sa mt
hoc hai li khi c mt tc m tng i cao, trong khi cc m mnh hn c th
thnh cng mc d c tc m thp hn. Tham s knh b Eb / N0 tham gia vo vic
so snh c minh ha v d sau y:
T
V d 3.1: Gi s chng ta c m khi (15, 11) vi dmin= 3, t = 1 v Rc= 11/15. Mt h
thng FEC s dng m ny c Q( 2 c ) Q( 2Rc b ) Q( (22 /15) b ) v Pbe 14 2
trong khi truyn dn khng s dng m knh din ra trn cng knh c
P
Pube Q
2 b .
50
Hnh 3.13: Cc ng cong xc sut li

C 3 ng cong xc sut c v theo quan h vi b theo dB c minh ha
IT
hnh 3.13. Nu b 8dB , chng ta thy vic s dng m ha lm gim xc sut
li. C th ti b 10dB truyn dn khng s dng m knh c Pube 4 106 trong khi
h thng FEC c Pbe 107 thm ch tc bit knh cao hn lm tng xc sut li
truyn dn 6 105 .
T
Nu b 8dB , vic s dng m knh khng ci thin ng k tin cy v trn
thc t vn cn ti hn khi b 4dB . Hn na, mt h thng khng s dng m
knh c th t c tin cy hn h thng FEC bng vic tng t l tn hiu trn
nhiu khong 1.5 dB. Do , m ha ny khng tit kim nhiu cng sut tn hiu
P
nhng n mang li hiu qu nu b c chn c gi tr trong phm vi 8 10dB.
3.1.8. H thng ARQ

Chin lc yu cu lp li t ng iu khin li da trn vic pht hin li
v truyn li thay cho vic sa li trc . V vy, h thng ARQ khng ging vi h
thng FEC 3 vn quan trng. u tin, mt m khi (n, k) c thit k cho pht
hin li thng thng yu cu 1 vi bit kim tra v t s k/n cao hn m c thit k
sa li. Th 2, h thng ARQ cn 1 ng truyn tr v v phn cng thm vo
thc hin truyn li t m khi li c pht hin. Th 3, t l truyn bit trc phi
c s cho php truyn lp t. Nhng tc ng thc khc nhau tr nn r rng
ngay sau khi chng ta miu t s hot ng ca h thng ARQ nh hnh 3.14 di
y.
Mi t m cu trc bi b m ha c lu tr tm thi v truyn n ch ni
m b gii m tm kim cc li. B gii m pht ra mt bn tin ACK
(Acknowledgment) nu khng c li no c pht hin, hoc 1 bn tin NAK
51
(Negative Acknowledgment) nu c li c pht hin. Bn tin NAK khin b iu

khin u vo truyn li nhng t thch hp t b lu tr bi b m u vo. Mt t
c bit c th truyn ch 1, 2 hoc nhiu ln, ph thuc vo s ln xut hin li
truyn. Chc nng ca b iu khin v b m u ra l ghp cc dng bit ra t
nhng t m c chp nhn bi b gii m.
Hnh 3.14: H thng ARQ

So snh vi ng truyn thun, ng truyn ngc li tn hiu ACK/NAK c
tc bit thp v chng ta c th gi thit hp l rng xc sut li khng ng k trn
ng truyn ngc li ny. Vi iu kin , tt c cc t m vi nhng li pht hin
IT
c truyn li nhiu ln nu cn thit, v vy ch nhng li u ra xut hin trong t
mi khng b pht hin. Khi s dng mt m khi (n, k) vi dmin = l +1, xc sut li
u ra c xc nh:
n
n
Pwe P( i,n ) P( l 1,n ) l 1 l 1
(3.25)
T
i l 1
l 1 n 1 l 1
Pbe Pwe
P
(3.26)
n l
Cc xc sut li u ra ny l ng nht vi cc biu thc (3.20) v (3.21) ca
h thng FEC vi l thay th cho t. Do b gii m chp nhn nhng t m hoc khng
c li hoc nhng li khng c pht hin, xc sut truyn li t c xc nh:
P 1 P(0,n ) Pwe
Nhng 1 m pht hin li tt c Pwe P(0, n) . Do vy,
p 1 P(0, n) 1 (1 a)n n (3.27)
y, chng ta s dng gn ng (1 ) 1 n vi
n
n 1 .
52
V qu trnh truyn li t din ra, c 3 s ARQ c bn c minh ha theo

biu thi gian hnh 3.15. Nhng t nh du hoa nhn c vi li pht hin,
nhng t ny phi truyn li. Gin dng v i (hnh 3.15a) yu cu my pht dng
sau khi truyn tt c cc t v ch bn tin xc nhn t my thu. Ch 1 t cn c lu
tr bi b m vo, nhng thi gian tr truyn dn td trong mi kt qu hin th trong 1
khong thi gian ri ca chu k D 2td gia nhng t vi nhau. Thi gian ri c
loi b bi gin li li N (hnh 3.15b) ni nhng t m c truyn lin tc. Khi
my thu nhn c 1 tn hiu NAK, my pht pht ngc li N t trong b m v
truyn li bt u t im . My thu loi b N 1 t gia, sa li hoc khng,
gi c s lin tc thch hp. Gin chn lc lp li (hnh 3.15c) t ch tiu s lin
tc trn b iu khin v b m ra, v vy ch nhng t pht hin li cn phi truyn
li.
R rng l, h thng ARQ chn lc lp li c hiu sut thng lng cao nht.
Thit lp ny c da trn c s nh lng, chng ta thy rng tng s ng truyn
ca 1 t nht nh l 1 bin ngu nhin ri rc c chi phi bi xc sut s kin P(m
= 1) = 1 p, P(m = 2) = p(1 p). S ng truyn trung bnh cho mi t:
IT
m 1( 1 p ) 2 p( 1 p ) 3 p 2 ( 1 p ) ...
1
(3.28)
( 1 p )( 1 2 p 3 p 2 ...)
1 p
T
P
Hnh 3.15: S ARQ; (a) Dng v i; (b) Li li N; (c) Chn lc lp li
53
2
Ta c: 1 2 p 3 p ... 1 p
2
. Bnh thng, h thng phi truyn nm
bit cho tt c k bit bn tin, v th hiu sut thng lng s l:
k k
Rc' (1 p)
nm n (3.29)
vi p nu, t cng thc (3.22)
y chng ta s dng k hiu Rc th hin quan h gia tc truyn bit
trc r v tc bit bn tin rb c xc nh bi:
r rb / Rc'
so snh quan h vi r = rb /Rc trong h thng FEC. Do , khi nhiu phn b

theo hm Gauss, li truyn dn c th c tnh theo cng thc (3.22) S dng Rc
thay th R, = k/n. Hn na, nu p << 1 th Rc k/n. Nhng 1 m pht hin li c t l
k/n ln hn nhiu so vi m pht hin li ca ngun iu khin li tng ng.
Biu thc m cng thc (3.28) cng c p dng cho h thng dng i
ARQ. Tuy nhin, thi gian ri lm gim i hiu sut bi h s Tw / (Tw + D) vi D
IT
2td l thi gian tr vng v Tw khong thi gian thc hin t vi Tw = n/r k / rb . T
:
k 1 p k 1 p
Rc'
n 1 ( D / Tw ) n 1 (2td rb / k ) (3.30)
T
y, D / Tw 2td rb / k
Mt h thng li li N (NARQ) khng c thi gian ri, nhng N t phi c

truyn li tng t 1 vi nhng li c pht hin. Bi vy, chng ta thy rng:
P
Np
m 1 (3.31)
1 p
v
k 1 p k 1 p
R 'c
n 1 p Np n 1 p (2td rb / k ) p (3.32)
vi N 2td / Tw
Khng ging nh ARQ chn lc lp li, hiu sut qu trnh dng i v li li
N ph thuc vo thi gian tr vng. Cng thc (3.30) v (3.32) th hin c nhng
gin c hiu nng hp l nu tr v tc bit tha mn quan h 2td rb k . Tuy
54
nhin, ARQ dng i c hiu sut rt thp khi 2td rb k , trong khi h thng li
li N vn m bo c yu cu vi xc sut truyn li p l nh.
Cui cng, chng ta m t thm khi nim v h thng ARQ lai (hybrid ARQ).
Nhng h thng ny bao gm mt phn h FEC trong khung ARQ, bng cch ghp
nhng thuc tnh cn c ca c hai chin lc iu khin li. V d, mt h thng
ARQ lai c th s dng m khi vi dmin = t + l +1, v vy b gii m c th sa n t
li trn mt t v pht hin ra nhng khng sa c nhng t c l > t li. Vic sa li
lm gim s t th phi truyn li, do lm tng thng lng ca h thng.
V d 3.2: Gi thit rng h thng ARQ chn lc lp li s dng m kim tra chn l
n gin vi k =9, n = 10, v l = 1. Knh truyn b gin on bi nhiu Gauss v cn
5
phi xc nh gi tr b c pbe 10 . Cng thc (3.26) cho bit xc sut li
5 3
ng truyn a (10 / 9) 1.110 , xc sut truyn li t tng ng vi cng
1/2
thc (3.27) p 10 1 . Hiu sut ng truyn s l: R c k / n 0.9 , t cng

'
thc (3.28). Do a Q( 2 R c b ) chng ta cn tra bng hm Q a ra kt qu cui

'
IT
cng b 3.1 /1.8 5.3 hoc 7.3 dB. Nh c minh ha hnh 3.13 cho thy
2
truyn dn khng m ha c pube 6 104 nu b 7.3 dB v yu cu

b 9.6dB Pube 105 . H thng ARQ t c tit kim cng sut khong 2.3
dB.
T
3.2. Cc m khi tuyn tnh
Trong l thuyt m ha, m khi l mt tp hp bao gm nhiu m sa li m
ha d liu theo tng khi. C rt nhiu loi m khi khc nhau, c s dng rng
P
ri trong nhiu ng dng thc tin. Mt nguyn nhn khin m khi hu ch nh vy

l n cho php s dng mt cch thng nht cc phng php t l thuyt m ha,
ton hc, v khoa hc my tnh nghin cu v cc gii hn ca m khi. Cc gii
hn thng dng bt ng thc lin h cc tham s ca m, chng hn nh t l v
kh nng pht hin v sa li.
M sa li c dng truyn d liu s mt cch ng tin cy trn mt knh
lin lc c nhiu. Khi cn truyn nhiu d liu bng m khi, ngi gi chia d liu
thnh nhiu phn nh. Mi phn nh c gi l mt thng ip v thut ton m ha
khi m ha mi thng ip thnh mt t m cn c gi l mt khi trong m ha
khi. Ngi gi gi tt c cc khi cho ngi nhn, sau ngi nhn s dng thut
ton phc hi li thng ip ban u t cc khi c li.
M khi c gi l tuyn tnh nu tha mn s kt hp tuyn tnh bt k hai t
m no cng l mt t m thuc m . Trong trng hp nh phn, tng ca 2 t
55
m bt k cng l mt t m. M khi tuyn tnh c c trng bi cc tham s di

y:
+ di khi bn tin k
+ di t m n
+ Khong cch Hamming cc tiu dm
+ T l m r =k/n
S khi tng qut b m khi tuyn tnh (n, k):
Hnh 3.16: S khi tng qut b m khi tuyn tnh (n, k)

y, cc bn tin k bit hnh thnh nn 2k chui cc bn tin ring bit nhau hay
cn gi l k-tuples. Cc khi n bit cng hnh thnh nn 2n cc chui bit ring bit hay
IT
cn gi l n-tuples. Qu trnh m ha c nhim v gn mi mt trong s 2k cc bn tin
- k-tuples vo mt trong s 2n cc chui bit ring bit - n-tuples.
V d 3.3: Xem xt vic gn m ha sau y cho m khi tuyn tnh (6, 3). C 2k = 23
= 8 vector bn tin v do tng ng vi 8 t m. C 2k = 26 = 64 6- tuples trong
khng gian vector V6.
T
Chng ta c th thy rng tm t m th hin trong Bng 3.2 di y hnh
thnh nn mt khng gian con ca V6 (vector c cc thnh phn ton 0 v tng ca hai
t m bt k to nn mt t m thnh phn khc trong khng gian con). Do vy, cc t
P
m ny i din cho mt m khi tuyn tnh.
Vector bn tin T m
000 000000
100 110100
010 011010
110 101110
001 101001
101 011101
011 110011
111 000111
Bng 3.2: Cp pht cc t m cho cc bn tin
56
Do mt tp hp cc t m to thnh mt m khi tuyn tnh l mt khng gian

con k chiu ca khng gian vector nh phn n chiu (k <n). Chng ta lun c th tm
thy mt tp hp cc n-tuples, t hn 2k c th to ra tt c 2k t m ca khng gian
con. Tp cc vector (t m) c to ra c xem nh l s m rng ca cc khng
gian con. Tp nh nht ca cc t m c lp tuyn tnh c gi l mt c s ca
khng gian con, v s lng cc vect trong tp c s ny l kch thc ca khng
gian con. Bt k tp c s no ca k c lp tuyn tnh trong n-tuples: V1, V2. V k c
th c s dng to ra cc vect m khi tuyn tnh theo yu cu, v mi vector
m l t hp tuyn tnh ca V1, V2. V k . Do vy, mi mt tp ca 2k t m (U) c th
c m t bi:
U=m1V1+m2V2+..+mkVk
vi mi= 0 hoc 1 l cc ch s bn tin v i = 1, ..., k.
Trn thc t, hot ng ca b lp m c biu din ton hc dng ma trn

to m/ma trn sinh G hay a thc to m g(x).Tng qut, chng ta c th nh ngha
IT
mt ma trn sinh qua ma trn kn sau y:
V1 v11 v12 v1n

V v v22 v2n
G 2 21
(3.33)

T
Vk vk 1 vk 2 vkn
Cc vector m, theo quy c, thng c xem nh l cc vector hng. Nh

vy, bn tin m, mt chui k bit tin, c hin th di y nh l mt vector hng (ma
P
trn 1k: ma trn c mt hng v k ct):

m = m1, m2, . , mk
Vic to ra t m U c vit bng k hiu ma trn nh l tch m v G:
U = mG (3.34)
V d, chng ta c th c mt ma trn sinh:
V1 1 1 0 1 0 0
G V2 0 1 1 0 1 0 (3.35)
V3 1 0 1 0 0 1
y, V1, V2, V3 l ba vect c lp tuyn tnh (mt tp hp con ca 8 vector m)

c th to ra tt c cc vect m. V d, t m U4 cho vector bn tin th t 1 1 0 s
dng ma trn sinh ca biu thc (3.35):
57
V1
U 4 1 1 0 V2 1.V1 1.V2 0.V3
V3
110100 011010 000000
1101110
3.2.1. Cc m khi tuyn tnh h thng
M khi tuyn tnh h thng (n, k) l nh x t mt vector bn tin k bit thnh

t m n bit m k bit ca bn tin trng vi k bit ca t m. Cc s cn li (n-k)
ginh cho cc bit kim tra chn l. Mt m khi tuyn tnh h thng s c ma trn sinh
c biu din c dng:
p11 p12 ... p1,( n k ) 1 0 ... 0
p p22 ... p2,( n k ) 0 1 ... 0
G P I k
21
(3.36)
IT

pk1 pk 2 ... pk ,( n k ) 0 0 ... 1
Trong , P l ma trn chn l v l mt phn ca ma trn sinh; pij = 0 hoc 1,

v ma trn Ik (c kch thc kk) l ma trn n v (nhng phn t trn ng cho
chnh c gi tr bng 1 cn cc phn t khc c gi tr li bng 0). Lu rng ma trn
T
sinh dng h thng th phc tp m ha gim v khng cn thit phi lu tr ma
trn n v trong ma trn sinh. Bng cch kt hp cc biu thc (3.35) v (3.36) mi t
m c th hin nh sau:
p11 1 0 ... 0
P
p12 ... p1,( n k )

p p22 ... p2,( n k ) 0 1 ... 0
u1 , u2 ,..., un [m1 , m2 ,..., mk ]
21

pk1 pk 2 ... pk ,( n k ) 0 0 ... 1
y:
ui m1 p1i m2 p2i mk pki i 1,...,(n k )

mi n k i (n k 1),..., n
vi cc bn tin m = m1, m2,, mk v vector t m U = u1, u2,..., un
Vector t m h thng c th c biu din nh sau:
58
U p1 , p2 ,..., pn k , m1 , m2 ,..., mk
(3.37)
parity bits message bits
vi
p1 m1 p11 m2 p21 mk pk1
p2 m1 p12 m2 p22 mk pk 2 (3.38)
pn k m1 p1( n k ) m2 p2( n k ) mk pk ( n k )
Cc t m h thng i khi c vit sao cho cc bit tin phn bn tri ca t

m v cc bit chn l vo phn bn phi. Sp xp ny khng c nh hng n thuc
tnh pht hin li hoc sa li ca m.
i vi v d 3.3 v m (6, 3) trn, cc t m c m t nh sau:

1 1 0 1 0 0

U [m1 , m2 , m3 ] 0 1 1 0 1 0 (3.39)
1 0 1 0 0 1
IT

P I3
U m1 m3 , m1 m2 , m2 m3 , m1 , m2 , m3
(3.40)
u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 u6
T
Biu thc (3.40) cho ta bit thng tin c th v cu trc ca m khi tuyn tnh.
Chng ta thy rng cc bit d phng c to ra theo nhiu cch. Cc bit chn l u
tin l tng ca cc bit tin u tin v th ba ca bn tin, tng ng, bit chn l th hai
l tng ca cc bit tin u tin v th hai, v bit chn l th ba l tng ca cc bit tin
P
th hai v th ba. Cu trc nh vy cho chng ta bit rng so snh vi kim tra tnh
chn l n hoc ti to cc ch s lp li n gin, kh nng pht hin v sa li
ca m khi tuyn tnh l ln hn.
3.2.2. Ma trn kim tra chn l
Ma trn H, c gi l ma trn kim tra chn l, cho php gii m cc vector

nhn c. i vi mi ma trn sinh G (kn), tn ti mt ma trn H (n-k)n, sao
cho cc hng ca G l trc giao vi cc hng ca H, ngha l G.HT = 0, vi HT l ma
trn chuyn v ca H, v 0 l ma trn vi k(n-k) phn t c gi tr 0. HT l ma trn
n(n-k) c cc hng l cc ct ca H v c cc ct l cc hng ca H. thc hin y
cc yu cu trc giao cho mt t m h thng, cc thnh phn ca ma trn H c
vit nh sau:
H [I nk PT ] (3.41)
59
Do , ma trn HT c vit nh sau:
I nk
HT

(3.42a)

P
1 0 0
0 1 1

0 0 1
H
T
(3.42b)
p11 p12 p1,( n k )

p21 p22 p2,( n k )

pk 1 pk 2 pk ,( n k )
iu chng t rng UHT l kt qu ca mi t m U c to ra bi G v ma

IT
trn HT:
UH T p1 p1 , p2 p2 ,..., pnk pn k 0
y, cc bit chn l p1, p2, , pn-k c xc nh trong biu thc (3.38). Do
vy, ma trn kim tra chn l H c xy dng p ng yu cu trc giao ni
trn v chng ta c th s dng n kim tra xem mt vector nhn c c l mt t
T
m hp l ca tp cc t m cha. U l mt t m c to ra bi ma trn G nu v ch
nu UHT = 0.
3.2.3. Kim tra Syndrome

P
Gi r r1 , r2 ,..., rn l mt vector nhn c (mt trong s 2n b t m n-tuples)

kt qu t vic truyn ti ca U u1 , u2 ,..., un (mt trong s 2k b t m) Do , chng ta
c th biu din r qua biu thc di y:
r U e (3.43)
y, e e1 , e2 ,..., en l mt vector li hoc mu li gy ra bi knh truyn dn.
C tng cng 2n 1 kh nng cc mu li khc khng trong khng gian ca 2n t m.
Syndrome ca r c nh ngha l:
S rH T (3.44)
Syndrome l kt qu kim tra chn l, thc hin trn r xc nh xem liu r c
l mt t m hp l ca b t m. Nu trn thc t, r l mt t m ca b t m th
Syndrome S c gi tr bng 0. Nu pht hin r c bit li th Syndrome c gi tr khc 0.
Nu r cha cc li c th sa c, Syndrome s c mt s gi tr khc khng trong
thnh phn dnh cho cc mu bo li c th. B gii m, ty thuc vo li thc
hin FEC hoc ARQ, sau s thc hin cc bin php xc nh v tr cc li v
60
sa cha chng (FEC), hoc nu khng n s yu cu truyn li (ARQ). Kt hp cc

biu thc (3.43) v (3.44), Syndrome ca r c xc nh:
S (U e) H T
(3.45)
UH T eH T
Tuy nhin, UHT = 0 cho tt c cc t m ca tp t m, do :
S eH T (3.46)
T cc bin i trn, bt u vi biu thc (3.43) v kt thc vi biu thc

(3.46) l bng chng cho thy rng cc kim tra Syndrome, cho d thc hin trn
vector m b li hoc trn cc mu li u mang li Syndrome tng t nhau. Mt tnh
cht quan trng ca m khi tuyn tnh, nn tng cho qu trnh gii m, l nh x gia
cc mu li c th sa c v Syndrome l nh x 1:1.
Di y l 2 thuc tnh bt buc ca ma trn kim tra chn l:

IT
(1) Khng c ct no ca H cha ton cc phn t c gi tr 0, hoc mt li v tr
t m tng ng khc s khng nh hng n Syndrome v s khng pht
hin c.
(2) Tt c cc ct ca H phi l duy nht. Nu hai ct ca H ging ht nhau, cc li

trong hai v tr t m tng ng s khng th phn bit c.
T
V d 3.4: Kim tra Syndrome
P
Gi s t m U = 1 0 1 1 1 0 t v d nu trn c truyn v nhn c

vector
r = 0 0 1 1 10, cc bit tn cng bn tri nhn c b li. Tm gi tr vector Syndrome
S rH T v xc minh rng n bng eH T .
Ta c:
S rH T
1 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 1
0 0 111 0
1 1 0
0 1 1

1 0 1
1, 1 1, 1 1 1 0 0 (Syndrome ca vector
t m b hng)
61
Tip theo, chng ta xc minh rng Syndrome ca vector t m b hng ging

nh Syndrome ca cc mu li gy ra li:
S eH T 1 0 0 0 0 0 H T 1 0 0 (Syndrome ca m hnh li)
3.3. Cc m chp
Mt m khi tuyn tnh c c trng bi hai s nguyn, n v k, v mt ma
trn hay a thc to m. S nguyn k l s bit hay k hiu ca khi bn tin u vo
ca b lp m, cn s nguyn n l tng s bit hay k hiu ca t m u ra ca b lp
m. R=k/n c gi l tc m, l s o nh gi lng d c b sung. Khc
vi m khi tuyn tnh, m chp c c trng bi ba s nguyn: n, k v N, trong
N c gi l di rng buc (Contraint length); n th hin s ln dch cc i ca
nhm k bit bn tin m sau nhm k bit ny khng cn gy nh hng n u ra ca
b to m. Mt c tnh quan trng ca cc m chp khc bit so vi cc m khi l b
to m ca chng c b nh, nn qu trnh to ra n phn t u ra ca cc b lp m
ny khng ch ph thuc vo k bit u vo m cn ph thuc vo (N-1) tp hp k bit
u vo trc . IT
3.3.1 To m chp
M chp c to ra bng cch cho chui thng tin truyn qua h thng cc
thanh ghi dch tuyn tnh c s trng thi hu hn. Cho s lng thanh ghi l N, mi
thanh ghi dch c k nh v u ra b m chp c n hm i s tuyn tnh. S nh
ca b ghi dch l Nk.
T
Gi thit, b m chp lm vic vi cc ch s nh phn, th ti mi ln dch s
c k bit thng tin u vo c dch vo thanh ghi th nht v tng ng c k bit
thng tin trong thanh ghi dch cui cng c y ra ngoi m khng tham gia vo qu
trnh to chui bit u ra. u ra nhn c chui n bit m t n b cng module 2.
P
Nh vy, gi tr chui knh u ra khng ch phc thuc vo k bit thng tin u vo

hin ti m cn ph thuc vo (N-1)k bit trc , c gi l m chp (n, k, N).
Hnh 3.17: S tng quan b m chp

Gi s u l vector u vo, x l vector t m tng ng c m ha, by gi
chng ta m t cch to ra x t u. m t b m ha chng ta phi bit s kt ni
62
gia thanh ghi u vo v u ra. Cch tip cn ny c th gip chng ta ch ra s

tng t v khc nhau vi m khi. iu ny c th dn ti nhng k hiu phc tp v
nhm nhn mnh ti cu trc i s ca m chp, n s lm gim i tnh quan tm cho
mc ch gii m ca chng ta. Do vy, chng ta ch phc ha tip cn ny mt cch
s lc. Sau , m t m ha s c a ra vi nhng quan im khc.
m t b m ha nh hnh 3.17, chng ta s dng N ma trn b sung
G1, G2 ..., GN bao gm k hng v n ct. Ma trn Gi m t s kt ni gia on th i ca
k nh trong thanh ghi li vo vi n ca thanh ghi li ra. Kt qu l 1 trong Gi
ngha l c kt ni, l 0 ngha l khng kt ni. Do chng ta c th nh ngha ma
trn sinh ca m chp nh sau:
G1 G2 ... GN
G1 G2 ... GN

G G1 G2 ... GN (3.47)

G1 G2 ... GN
... ... ... ...
IT
V tt c cc li vo khc trong ma trn bng 0. Do nu li vo l vector u,
tng ng vector m ha l:
x uG (3.48)
Ta xt mt s v d minh ha:
V d 3.5: Xt m chp (3, 1, 3). Hai gin tng ng c b m ha c minh
T
ha hnh 3.18.
P
Hnh 3.18: Gin tng ng cho b m chp (3, 1, 3)

B th nht s dng thanh ghi vi 3 nh, ngc li b th hai s dng 2
nh, mi coi nh mt b tr n v. Li ra thanh ghi c thay th bi b tnh ton
c c chui ra ca 3 b cng. B m ha c quy nh bi 3 ma trn b sung
(trong thc t l 3 vector hng do k=1).
G1 1 1 1
G2 0 1 1
63
G3 0 0 1
Do ma trn sinh t (3.47) l
111 011 001 000 ... ... ...
000 111 011 001 000 ... ...
G
000 000 111 011 001 000 ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ...
T (3.48) ta c th suy ra: Nu chui thng tin u vo l u = (11011 ) c
m ha thnh chui x = (111100010110100). Lu rng, chui m ha c th c
to bng tng modul 2 cc hng ca G tng ng vi 1 trong chui thng tin.
V d 3.6: Xt m (3, 2, 2). B m ha c minh ha hnh 3.19. By gi m c
xc nh thng qua 2 ma trn:
1 0 1
G1
0 1 0
IT 0 0 1
G2
0 0 1
T
P
Hnh 3.19: B m chp (3, 2, 3)

Ma trn sinh c to ra:
101 001 000 ... ...
010 001 000 ... ...

000 101 001 000 ...

G 000 010 001 000 ...
000 000 101 001 000

000 000 010 001 000
... ... ... ... ...
64
Chui thng tin u = (11011011) c m ha thnh chui m x=

(111010100110).
Mt cch tng t ta cng c th biu din ma trn sinh: G (G1,G 2 ,...,G N ) .
V d 3.7: Cho b m chp c chiu di rng buc N = 3, s nh trong mi thanh ghi
dch k=1, chiu di chui u ra n = 3 tc l m (3, 1, 3) v ma trn sinh ca m chp
c dng sau:
g1
g 100
G G 101 G (4,5,7)
2
(3.49)
...
111
3
g
S m chp c biu din nh sau:
IT
Hnh 3.20: S b m chp vi n = 3, k = 1, N = 3
T
3.3.2. Biu din m chp
C ba phng php biu din m chp l: s li, s trng thi v
s hnh cy. lm r phng php ny chng ta tp trung phn tch da trn v d
P
3.6.
3.3.2.1. S hnh cy
T v d 3.7, gi thit trng thi ban u ca thanh ghi dch trong b m u l
trng thi ton 0. Nu bit vo u tin l bit 0 (k=1) th u ra ta nhn c chui 000
(n=3). Cn nu bit u tin vo bng 1 th u ra ta nhn chui bit 111. Nu bit vo
u tin l bit 1 v bit vo tip theo l bit 0 th chui th nht l 111 v chui
th hai l chui 001. Vi cch m ha nh vy, ta c th biu din m chp theo s
dng hnh cy hnh 3.21. T s hnh cy ta c th thc hin m ha bng cch
da vo cc bit u vo v thc hin ln lt theo cc nhnh ca cy, ta s nhn c
tuyn m, t ta nhn c dy cc chui u ra.
65
Hnh 3.21: S hnh cy ca b m chp vi n = 3, k = 1, N = 3 (v d 3.7)
3.3.2.2. S trng thi

IT
S trng thi c thc hin bng cch n gin s 4 trng thi c th c
ca b m (a, b, c v d tng ng vi cc trng thi 00, 01, 10, 11) v trng thi
chuyn tip c th c to ra t trng thi ny chuyn sang trng thi khc, qu trnh
chuyn tip c th l:
a
0
a,a
1
c,b
0
a,b
1
c,c
0
b,c
1
d,d
0
b,d
1
d
T
(3.50)
K hiu 1
l qu trnh chuyn tip t trng thi sang trng thi
vi bit u vo l bit 1.
P
Kt qu thu c s trng thi nh trong hnh 3.22 nh sau:
Hnh 3.22: S trng thi ca b m chp vi n = 3, k = 1, N = 3 (v d 3.7)

T s trng thi hnh 2.10, cc ng lin net c k hiu cho bit u vo l bit
0 v ng nt t c k hiu cho cc bit u vo l bit 1.
66
3.3.2.3. S hnh li
Do c tnh ca b m chp, cu trc vng lp c thc hin nh sau: chui n
bit u ra ph thuc vo chui k bit u vo hin hnh v (N-1) chui u vo trc
hay (N-1)k bit u vo trc . T v d 3.6 ta c chui 3 bit u ra ph thuc vo 1
bit u vo hoc l 1 hoc l 0 v 4 trng thi c th c ca hai thanh ghi dch, k
hiu l a = 00; b = 01; c = 10; d = 11. Nu ta t tn cho mi nt trong s
hnh cy tng ng vi 4 trng thi ca thanh ghi dch, ta thy rng ti tng th 3 c 2
nt mang nhn a v 2 nt mang nhn b, 2 nt mang nhn c v 2 nt mang nhn d. By
gi ta quan st tt c cc nhnh bt ngun t 2 nhnh c nhn ging nhau (trng thi
ging nhau) th to ra chui u ra ging nhau, ngha l hai nt c nhn ging nhau th
c th coi nh nhau. Vi tnh cht ta c th biu din m chp bng s dng
hnh li gn hn, trong cc ng lin nt c k hiu cho bit u vo l bit 0
v ng cn li ng vi bit u vo l bit 1.
IT
T
Hnh 3.23: S hnh li b m chp vi n = 3, k = 1, N = 3 (v d 3.6)

(Trng thi ban u ton bng 0)
P
So vi s hnh li v hnh cy th s trng thi l n gin nht.
3.3.3. Gii m m chp bng thut ton Viterbi

Gii m m chp bng thut ton Viterbi l phng php gii m ph bin nht
hin nay. y, thut ton Viterbi da trn c s gii m ln cn gn nht (nearest
neighbour). Thut ton tnh khong cch Hamming (gi l metric) gia cc tn hiu
thu vo thi im ti v tt c cc ng trong li dn n mi trng thi cng thi
im ti. Khi hai ng cng dn n mt trng thi, chn ra ng c khong cch
Hamming ngn hn, gi l ng sng st (surviving path). Vic chn ng sng st
c thc hin cho tt c cc trng thi vo tt c cc thi im.
V d 3.8: Xt qu trnh gii m Viterbi cho m tch chp (2, 1, 2); Pha pht cn
truyn bn tin gm 12 bits; Chui d liu thu c pha thu gm 24 bits nh sau:
Y = 110111000110001111101100
Qu trnh thc hin nh sau:
67
+ Xy dng li m theo thi gian nh sau:
+ Bt u t trng thi a (c gi tr chy (running metric) bng 0), ln lt tnh ch s

o (metric) ca cc nhnh c th c da vo d liu thu v s li m.
+ Tnh ch s o ca tng nhnh da vo khong cch Hamming.
+ Tnh gi tr chy ti mi node bng cch cng gi tr chy ca node trc vi ch
s o ca nhnh chuyn trng trng thi gia hai node ny.
IT
T
+ Lp li qu trnh tnh ton cho tt c cc chuyn trng thi c th c ti cc node.
P
+ Lp li qu trnh tnh ton nh phn trc.

+ Khi c nhnh n cng mt node, nhnh no to ra gi tr chy ti node ln hn
s b loi b.
68
+ Qu trnh c lp li cho n khi ht d liu.

+ T trng thi cui cng (trng thi a), i ngc li (t phi sang tri) xc nh
ng m cn tn ti y l ng m ti u.
+ T ng m ti u, ta xc nh c d liu thu.
IT
T
+ Ta thu c s y nh sau:
+ Chui d liu thu c: 110111001000
P
3.4. Cc m kt ni v gii m lp
Trong phn ny, chng ta s tp trung gii thiu v m Turbo.
Nm 1993, m Turbo hay l m chp kt ni song song i din cho mt cch
thc kt ni khc hai m chp h thng quy n gin qua mt b ghp xen to
thnh mt m mnh, p dng nhng tng lin quan n m khi v m li,
c gii thiu ti ICC1993 bi C. Berrou, A. Glavieux v P. Thitimajshima. M
Turbo c xem nh l c c tnh gn vi gii hn Shannon trong knh AWGN vi
k thut gii m lp kh n gin. M Turbo v k thut gii m lp da trn thut
ton MAP (Maximum A Posteriori) vi b gii m u vo mm, u ra mm SISO
(Soft-In Soft-Out) l m mnh c kh nng chng li cao, hiu qu vi phc tp
gii m mc va phi ti t s tn hiu trn nhiu (SNR) rt thp.
V l mt k thut m ha kh mnh, nn ngay t khi xut hin, m Turbo
c xut p dng cho cc h thng thng tin c yu cu tit kim cng sut hoc
hot ng vi t s tn hiu trn nhiu mc thp nh thng tin v tinh, viba s, nhn
69
tin cng nh cc ng dng hn ch nhiu nh h thng thng tin di ng th h th

ba v cc dch v trao i thng tin c nhn...
S dng cng cc m chp thnh phn v b ghp xen nhng khc cch thc
kt ni, m chp kt ni ni tip c xut. Ti mc t s tn hiu trn nhiu
cao, m chp kt ni ni tip c tng ch m ha cao hn so vi m Turbo, do s
dng m chp kt ni ni tip c th trnh c hin tng hiu ng nn - floor effect
(BER gim khng ng k khi SNR tng ti phm vi SNR cao), mt nhc im chnh
ca m Turbo. iu ny gi vic dng m chp kt ni ni tip cho nhng p dng
yu cu BER rt thp nh truyn s liu v cc ng dng v tuyn trong tng lai.
3.4.1. B m ha Turbo
3.4.1.1. Tng quan

B m ha Turbo bao gm hai b m ha thnh phn c phn tch bi mt
b ghp xen (hnh 3.24). C hai b m ha thnh phn ny l cc m chp vi tc
m R1 k / n1 v R2 k / n2 tng ng. Thng qua cc ghp xen, b m ha thnh phn
th hai han chuyn ton b khung thng tin u vo. Bng vic tch (puncturing) hp
IT
l cc bit chn l to ra t cc b m ha thnh phn, chng ta c th c c m vi
tc m mong mun.
Cc bit thng tin Cc bit h thng C1k,s
uk(k)
Cc bit chn l th nht

C1k,p
Encoder 1 n1-k
T
Cc bit
chn l
Ghp xen Puncturing
Cc bit h thng
P
C2k,s
(Khng dng)
Encoder 2
Cc bit chn l th hai C2k,p
n2-k
Hnh 3.24: S khi ca b m ha Turbo

Do hai b m ha u c tnh h thng, nn khng cn thit phi truyn ti cc
bit thng tin hai ln. V vy, ch n2 k bit chn l ca b m ha th hai c truyn
i. Cho nn tc ca m Turbo l R k / (n1 n2 k ) hoc:
1 n1 n2 k n1 n2 1 1
1 1 (3.51)
R k k k R1 R2
Trc khi m t cc thnh phn ca b m ha Turbo, chng ta s gii thiu

mt s khi nim lin quan n m chp.
M chp h thng v phi h thng
Mt m chp c tnh h thng SC (Systematic Convolutional) khi cc bit thng
tin c ghi trc tip ti u ra. Ngc li, m chp l phi h thng NSC (Non
70
Systematic Convolutional). BER ca m chp phi h thng tt hn so vi m chp c

tnh h thng vi cng b nh ti SNR ln do khong cch t do ca m chp c tnh
h thng nh hn so vi m chp phi h thng. Tuy nhin, ti SNR thp th ngc li.
M chp h thng quy
Cc m chp h thng quy RSC (Recursive Systematic Convolutional) kt
hp cc thuc tnh ca m chp phi h thng (NSC) v m chp c tnh h thng cung
cp trc. Ni chung, m chp h thng quy tt hn so vi m chp phi h thng
tng ng ti bt k SNR no ca m c tc ln hn 2/3.
Xem xt m chp phi h thng c tc R = 1/2 m NSC vi ma trn sinh
G g ,g ,
1,i 2,i i 0,...K 1 ; K l chiu di gii hn ca m v K m 1 , m l s
b nh m.
uk l u vo b m ha ti thi im k , sau cc bit u ra tng ng
Ck , j , j 1,2 c xc nh:
K 1
C k , j g j ,i u k i mod 2 (3.52)
IT i 0
M chp phi h thng c tc vi chiu di gii hn K 3 , v a thc sinh

G (1,1,1),(1,0,1) , G (1 D D2 ,1 D2 ) hoc G (7,5)octal c m t trong hnh
3.25.
Ck,1
T
uk T T
Ck,2
P
Hnh 3.25: M chp phi h thng vi K 3 , G (7,5)octal

Trong khi b m chp thng thng l b lc c p ng xung hu hn FIR
(Finite Impulse Response), b m chp h thng quy l b lc c p ng xung v
hn IIR (Infinite Impulse Response) bi v cc bit thng tin m ha trc c lin
tc a vo u vo ca b m ha. Mt v d ca m chp h thng quy tng
ng c th xy dng t m chp phi h thng bng cch s dng mt vng hi tip
v thit lp mt trong s cc u ra, Ck ,1 t bit u vo uk vi chiu di gii hn v ma
trn sinh c th hin trong hnh 3.26.
71
Ck,1
T T
uk
ak
Ck,2
Hnh 3.26: M chp h thng quy vi K 3 , G (1,5 / 7)octal

Cc bit u ra h thng nhn c l:
C k ,1 u k (3.53)
v cc bit chn l:
K 1
C k , 2 g 2,i a k i mod 2 (3.54)
i 0
ak c tnh ton quy nh sau:

K 1
IT
a k u k g1,i a k i mod 2
i 1
(3.55)
y, tnh cht thng k ca ak tng t nh ca uk . Cu trc li ca cc m

chp h thng quy v m chp phi h thng l ging nhau v do c cng khong
cch t do.
Cc ma trn sinh ca cc m h thng quy thng c m t bi mt t l ca
T
cc a thc sinh (1, G2 / G1 ) , G2 i din tnh chn l v G1 a thc hi tip.
V d, m chp h thng quy trong hnh 3.26 c a thc sinh G (1,5 / 7)octal ,
hoc theo k hiu h nh phn: (1,101/111) c ngha l kt ni, khng kt ni v kt
P
ni cho ng tin v tt c u l kt ni cho ng hi tip,

G 1,(1 D2 ) / (1 D D2 ) .
3.4.1.2. Ghp xen Turbo

ci thin hiu nng ca m Turbo, ngi ta chn b ghp xen d liu gia
hai b m ha v gii ghp xen d liu gia hai b gii m. Bng cch ny, cc li khi
gii m c phn tn v thu c hiu nng gii m tt hn.
Ghp xen l mt tnh nng thit yu ca m Turbo v hiu nng ca m Turbo
ph thuc vo di v kiu ghp xen c s dng v cu trc b ghp xen c nh
hng trc tip n cc thuc tnh khong cch ca cc m Turbo. Do vy, s la
chn ghp xen l rt quan trng. c c hiu nng tt, iu cn thit l phi c
mt b ghp xen tt.
C nhiu loi ghp xen, trong s , ghp xen gi ngu nhin c la chn
v n cho php t c khong cch ti thiu ln hn. V vy, khng ging nh
72
ghp xen c in (ghp xen xon hoc ghp xen khi) m sp xp li cc bit theo
cch c h thng, l iu quan trng t c gi ngu nhin. iu ny rt
quan trng ph v cc mi tng quan ca cc bit lin tip trc khi m ha bi
b m ha th hai, l kh quan trng ci thin hiu nng trong khi s dng gii
m lp ti cc b gii m Turbo.
Mc d cc b ghp xen gi ngu nhin th hin c hiu nng tt, mt s n
lc thit k b ghp xen tt hn c nghin cu, nhng thnh cng cn hn ch.
Mt tham s quan trng ca m Turbo l kch thc b ghp xen N . Ngi ta
chng minh c rng, t l li bit ti b gii m t l nghch vi N v hiu nng
ca cc m Turbo c ci thin khi tng N . Hn na, hiu ng nn (floor effect) ca
m Turbo c th c iu chnh bng cch tng kch thc ca b ghp xen m
khng thay i khong cch t do ca m.
Khi tng chiu di b ghp xen th xc sut li bit gim l do tn sut xut hin
cc t m c trng lng Hamming thp. Cc kt qu m phng khc nhau cng
khng nh s nh hng ca chiu di b ghp xen n hiu nng m Turbo.
IT
Tuy nhin, do ghp xen l ngu nhin nn vic truyn ti t m khng th bt
u cho n khi b ghp xen c in y v gii m khng th han thnh cho
n khi ton b t m nhn c. iu ny dn n tr tng th 2N bit (cng vi tr
truyn lan v tr gii m). tr ny lm hn ch cc ng dng nhy cm vi tr nh
truyn dn thoi chng hn v khi cn c s tha hip gia tr v chiu di b ghp
xen.
T
Sau khi chiu di b ghp xen c chn, mt yu t thit k quan trng khc
l loi ghp xen s dng. Cc nh nghin cu thy rng b ghp xen gi ngu nhin
cho hiu nng m rt tt trong phn ln cc trng hp. Trong thc t, ngoi b ghp
xen gi ngu nhin, cn c mt s b ghp xen khc c gii thiu vn tt di y.
P
Ghp xen gi ngu nhin

Mt mu ghp xen gi ngu nhin c xy dng bng cch to ra mt dy cc
s ngu nhin gia 0 v N 1 . iu ny c thc hin hiu qu bng cch xy dng
hai mng. Mng u tin cha dy ghp xen v ban u rng. Mng th hai c cha
cc con s t 0 n N 1 theo th t. Mt s ngu nhin tun theo phn b u gia 0
v 1 c to ra v c nhn vi kch thc ca mng th 2 (trong trng hp ny
l N ). S ngu nhin c lng t ha thnh s nguyn v hnh thnh nn a ch
cho vic la chn con s t mng th 2 v c nhp vo mng th nht. Mng th 2
c xo trn li sao cho c kch thc N 1 . Mt s ngu nhin c to ra gia 0
v 1 v nhn vi kch thc ca mng th hai (trong trng hp ny N 1 ). iu ny
to ra cc a ch cho mng th hai v s la chn c t vo mng u tin. Qu
trnh ny lp i lp li cho n khi cc mng th hai rng v mng u tin c in
y. Lc ny, mng u tin hnh thnh nn mu ghp xen ngu nhin.
Mt vn vi cc mng c to ngu nhin l chng c th c mt s mu
li c trng s rt thp m khng th sa cha c. Mc d nhng mu ny khng
73
xy ra thng xuyn, nhng dn n tnh trng m c khong cch t do nh lm cho

ng cong BER suy gim rt chm so vi SNR gy ra hin tng hiu ng nn cho
m Turbo.
Ghp xen ngu nhin - S
Mt cch thc hiu qu ngn nga cc vn ca b ghp xen gi ngu
nhin l s dng b ghp xen ngu nhin - S. B ghp xen ngu nhin - S c to ra
ging nh b ghp xen ngu nhin, ngoi tr vic kim tra c thc hin trn mi s
ngu nhin to ra. Nu s khc bit gia s ngu nhin to ra v s ngu nhin trc
nm trong khong (-S S), th s ngu nhin mi b loi b v mt s ngu nhin
khc c la chn cho n khi p ng c tiu ch yu cu. iu ny m bo
rng, bt k cp bit no lun c phn tch cch nhau t nht S v tr sau khi ghp
xen.
Lu rng thut ton ny khng phi lun c m bo hon thnh. Gi tr
ln hn ca S tng ng vi vic c t hn kh nng mu c th c tm thy. Mt
gi tr hp l cho S c la chn l: S N 2 .
Ghp xen ngu nhin - S i xng

IT
Do cc b ghp xen v gii ghp xen ngu nhin - S thc hin rt phc tp.
Mt thay i c ngha hn l s dng b ghp xen ngu nhin - S i xng. Mt b
ghp xen i xng c thuc tnh nu I J , th J I vi I ,J 0,...,N 1. iu ny
c ngha l mu gii ghp xen l chnh xc ging nh mu ghp xen. Cc thuc tnh
T
ngu nhin - S cng c th c p dng cho cc b ghp xen i xng.
Tm li cu trc chi tit ca b m ha Turbo c tc m 1/3 vi cc m
thnh phn l m chp h thng quy ( 5 / 7 )octal c minh ha hnh 3.27 c cc
bit u ra l s kt hp ca cc bit u vo h thng theo sau bi cc bit chn l ca
P
hai b m ha thnh phn.

Cc bit h thng C1k,s
Cc bit thng tin uk

T T Cc bit chn l
u tin C1k,p
Ghp xen Cc bit

chn l
Puncturing
T T
Cc bit chn l th
hai C2k,p
Hnh 3.27: M ha Turbo vi tc 1/3, m = 2, 02 m RSC

Trong thc t, bng vic tch (puncturing) thch hp cc bit chn l s to ra m
Turbo c tc cao hn mong mun.
74
3.4.2. Gii m Turbo
3.4.2.1. Gii thiu

Thut ton gii m hp l cc i (maximum likelihood) p dng cho cu trc
li ca m Turbo l gii m ti u. Tuy nhin, vic s dng b ghp xen gi ngu
nhin trong b m ha Turbo lm cho biu li ca m Turbo c rt nhiu trng
thi. iu ny lm cho vic gii m Turbo bng thut ton hp l cc i l rt kh
khn v hu nh khng th thc hin c khi kch thc ca b ghp xen ln.
Mt cch tip cn thc t hn l gii m lp m thut ton gii m hp l
cc i c p dng cho cc m chp/m khi thnh phn ca cc m Turbo. Gii m
lp l mt k thut rt hiu qu gii m cc m Turbo v t c hiu nng gn
vi gii hn l thuyt ca Shannon.
T kt qu ca Shannon, chng ta bit rng cc m vi di ln c la
chn ngu nhin thng c hiu nng tt. Tuy nhin, gii m theo cch cc m c
chn ngu nhin l dng nh khng th. V bn cht, m ha Turbo l mt cch c
c m vi chiu di rt ln gn nh ngu nhin (do cc b ghp xen), nhng
IT
chng ta ch c c thut ton gii m gn ti u m thi.
3.4.2.2. Kin trc b gii m

S ca b gii m Turbo c minh ha hnh 3.28.
2
L(u)=0 1
Le ( u) Le ( u)
T
B gii I B gii D
m SISO L1 ( u) m SISO L2 ( u)
DEC1 DEC2 D
Lc .y
P
u ra gii m
I Ghp xen
D Gii ghp xen
Hnh 3.28: S khi b gii m Turbo

T s ca b m ha Turbo (hnh 3.24), do cc b ghp xen, hai b m ha
thnh phn lp c kch thch bi hai chui u vo khc nhau, do trong b gii
m Turbo chng ta cn hai b gii m ring bit (DEC1 v DEC2) kt ni ni tip v
chng c phn tch bi b ghp xen. Cc thng tin c cung cp bi b gii m
u tin c th c s dng trong b gii m th hai v cho thng tin ny l hu
ch hoc vic thc hin gii m lp c hiu qu, thng tin mm phi c chuyn
t b gii m ny ti b gii m tip theo. iu ny c ngha l c hai b gii m
thnh phn phi l cc b gii m u vo mm, u ra mm SISO (Soft-In Soft-Out)
c u vo, u ra l cc gi tr mm. Cc thut ton c s dng trong b gii m
75
SISO c th l MAP hoc thut ton Viterbi u ra mm SOVA (Soft-Output Viterbi

Algorithm).
3.4.2.3. Gii m lp v b gii m SISO

tng ca gii m lp l gim phc tp gii m v duy tr c hiu nng
m cao. K thut gii m c s dng trong m Turbo l gii m lp. Cc tnh nng
chung ca gii m lp l gii m c th c thc hin tun t, bng cch s dng mt
b gii m ti mt thi im (tc l khi thc hin xong gii m ny th mi thc hin
sang gii m tip theo). y l iu kin cn cho mt thut ton gii m n gin
thay th thut ton gii m hp l cc i. C mt s th nghim p dng tng ny
cho vic gii m cc m kt ni, m a mc Tuy nhin, tt c cc m c nhc im
l khng c thng tin trao i gia hai b gii m. Vn ny c gii quyt bi
m Turbo qua vic m ha cng mt lung thng tin hai ln nhng theo th t bit khc
nhau. iu ny lm cho vic trao i thng tin gia hai b m ha c kh thi. Lung
thng tin c han v nhiu bao nhiu (qua vic ghp xen) v c m ha bi b m
ha thnh phn th hai th vic trao i thng tin cng tr nn khng tng quan by
nhiu. y l mt trong nhng k thut chnh cho php ci tin lin tc nng lc sa
IT
li bit khi tin trnh gii m c lp i lp li.
Chng ta xem xt vn gii m mt m nh phn truyn qua knh AWGN v
knh pha-inh. nh ngha, gi tr hp l theo logarit (log-likelihood) ca bit thng tin
nh phn t {+1,-1} nh sau:
P(u 1)
L(u) Log (3.56)
P(u 1)
T
Trong P( u 1) l xc sut ca u l +1 hoc -1. T l hp l theo logarit
L( u ) l gi tr mm ca bit thng tin u. Cc du ca L( u ) l quyt nh cng v
ln ca n, L( u ) l tin cy ca quyt nh.
P
Nu bit thng tin nh phn u vi cc gi tr mm L( u ) c m ha v sau

chng ta c cc bit m ha x vi gi tr mm L( x ). i vi m h thng ( k / n ), k bit
u ra x tng ng vi cc bit thng tin u. Chui bit m ha x c truyn qua
knh AWGN hoc knh pha-inh v k hiu nh phn y thu v c tnh nh sau:
P( x 1 y ) P( y x 1) P( x 1)
L( x y ) Log Log
P( x 1 y ) P( y x 1) P( x 1)
E
exp( s ( y a ) 2 )
N0 P( x 1)
Log Log (3.57)
exp(
Es
( y a)2 ) P( x 1)
N0
E
4a s y L ( x )
N0
76
y, a biu th bin pha-inh cho knh pha-inh v vi knh AWGN

Es
a 1. Lc 4a l tin cy ca knh, cng thc (3.57) c th vit thnh:
N0
L( x y) Lc y L( x) (3.58)
Chng ta bit rng, hai thut ton MAP v SOVA c th c s dng trong
b gii m SISO v khi thut ton ny c p dng, cu trc chung ca b gii
m SISO c minh ha nh hnh 3.29.
L(u) EEEa
B gii m
Lc.y SISO
L(u)
Hnh 3.29: B gii m SISO cho m thnh phn

Cc u vo ca b gii m SISO l gi tr trc (a priori) L( u ) cho tt c cc
bit thng tin u v cc gi tr knh Lc .y cho tt c bit m ha x .
IT
u ra ca b gii m SISO l cc gi tr u ra mm L( u ) trn tt c cc bit
thng tin v cc gi tr bn ngoi (extrinsic) cho tt c cc bit thng tin Le (u) c cha
thng tin u ra mm t tt c cc bit m ha khc trong chui m v c lp trn cc
gi tr L( u ) v Lc .y ca bit hin ti.
L(u) ng thi l t l hp l theo logarit sau (a posteriori) ca cc bit thng
T
tin c truyn i v c xc nh:
P(u 1 y)
L(u) L(u y) Log (3.59)
P(u 1 y)
P
u ra mm cho bit thng tin u l:

L(u) Lc . y L(u) Le (u) (3.60)
Do vy, u ra mm ca b gii m SISO c ba c tnh c lp cho t l hp
l theo logarit ca cc bit thng tin: gi tr knh Lc .y , gi tr trc L( u ) v cc gi tr
bn ngoi Le (u) thu c bi b c tnh c lp th ba (b gii m SISO th hai
trong hnh 3.28) s dng gii hn m.
Cn c vo cng thc (3.60) gii m lp ca m Turbo trong hnh 3.28 by gi
c th c m t nh sau:
Gi s cc bit thng tin c phn b u nhau. Ti ln lp u tin, khng c
thng tin trc, L( u ) c khi to bng 0. Cc thng tin bn ngoi ca cc m thnh
phn u tin trn bit thng tin u.
Le (u) L1 (u) Lc . y
1
(3.61)
77
Le (u ) l c tnh c lp trn u v by gi tr thnh gi tr trc cho b gii

1
m th hai sau khi ghp xen. Cc thng tin bn ngoi t m thnh phn th hai c th
thu c l:
Le (u) L2 (u) ( Le (u) Lc . y)
2 1
(3.62)
T u ra mm ca DEC2, cc thng tin bn ngoi mi c a tr li u
vo ca DEC1 v s c s dng nh l gi tr trc trong gii m ca m thnh
phn u tin trong cc bc lp li tip theo v c th nh vy.
Lu rng, cc gi tr hp l theo logarit l c lp cho ln lp u tin nhng
sau s s dng cng mt thng tin gin tip v tr thnh tng quan nhiu hn v
nhiu hn na trong cc ln lp li tip theo. Cui cng, s ci thin qua s lp i lp
li s bo ha v hai thng tin bn ngoi t hai m ha thnh phn s c kt hp vi
nhau cng vi cc gi tr nhn c knh thnh:
L(u) Lc . y Le (u) Le (u)
1 2
(3.63)
Cui cng, L( u ) s c so snh vi ngng 0 quyt nh cc bit thng tin
c pht i ban u.
IT
Tnh nng chnh ca th tc gii m lp trong hnh 3.28 l do c b ghp xen
gia DEC1 v DEC2, cc bit thng tin bn ngoi Le 2 (u) u ra ca DEC2 v quan
st t knh Lc .y c tng quan yu v nu li xy ra ti u ra ca b gii m u tin
do nhiu u vo, th n c th c khc phc bi b gii m th hai. Nh mt h
qu Le 2 (u) v Lc .y c th c s dng phi hp gii m bit thng tin u.
T
Mc tiu ca tin trnh lp l loi b nhng bit li. Ni chung, hiu nng ca
m Turbo cng c th c ci thin bng cch tng s ln lp li b gii m. Tuy
nhin, da trn cc iu kin knh v kch c ca khung u vo, s c mt ngng
bo ha m vic gii m lp thm khng c nh hng ng k n hiu nng.
P
Do , xc nh s ln lp li l cn thit cho kt qu ti u v lun c xem nh l

mt vn kh khn.
3.5. Cc m nng cao

Trong phn ny, chng ta s tp trung gii thiu v m kim tra chn l mt
thp LDPC (Low Density Parity Check Codes).
Ging nh tn gi ca n, m LDPC l m khi vi ma trn kim tra chn l

ch cha mt lng rt nh cc gi tr 1.
Ngoi yu cu v ma trn H c mt 1 thp, m LDPC khng khc nhiu so

vi cc m khi khc. Thm ch cc m khi hin ti hon ton c th s dng thut
ton gii m ca LDPC nu ma trn kim tra ca chng c mt thp. Tuy nhin,
vic tm kim mt ma trn kim tra mt thp cho cc m khi tn ti l khng
78
thc t, thay vo , m LDPC c thit k ngay t u c ma trn kim tra chn

l mt thp ri sau xc nh ma trn sinh.
S khc bit ln nht gia m LDPC vi cc m khi bnh thng khc l cc

gii m chng. Cc m khi khc c th c gii m bng thut ton ML nn n
thng ngn v cc php ton i s thc hin cng t phc tp. Ma trn kim tra
chn l ca LDPC gi l (w c , w r ) regular nu mi code bit c cha trong mt
s c nh w c cng thc chn l v mi cng thc chn l s cha mt s c nh w r
code bit.
3.5.1. Kin trc m LDPC

Vic xy dng m LDPC lin quan ti vic gn mt s lng nh trong ma trn
ton 0 thnh 1 cc hng v ct c c phn b cn thit.
M LDPC nguyn bn c gii thiu bi Gallager c cu trc rt n gin.
l mt loi m c c trng bi mt ma trn rt nhiu s 0 v rt t s 1. Cc hng
ca ma trn kim tra Gallager c chia lm w c khi vi M / w c hng trong mi
IT
khi. Nhm u tin ca hng cha w r gi tr 1 lin tip t tri sang phi. Hng th i
bao gm tt c cc gi tr 1 t ct th (i 1)w r 1 n iwr . Cc khi ma trn khc l
hon v ngu nhin ca khi u tin. Nh vy mi ct ca ma trn H s c duy nht
mt gi tr 1 trong 1 khi.
V d 3.9: T m di 12 vi ma trn H c w c 3, w r 4 .
T
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0
P
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
H
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

Mt kiu xy dng m LDPC l phng php c gii thiu bi MacKay v
Neal nhm ci thin hn na hiu qu khi xy dng m LDPC. Cng chnh ng l
ngi u tin chng minh li ch khi s dng ma trn nh phn tha. Cc phng
php ca ng a ra rt nhiu, c th im qua tn mt s phng php nh sau:
1. Khi to ma trn H ton 0 sau cho gi tr 1 trt ngu nhin trn cc ct
79
2. Khi to ngu nhin ma trn H c trng lng ct bng w c

3. Khi to ma trn H ngu nhin c trng s ct l w c v trng lng hng xp
x hoc bng w c
4. Khi to ma trn H nh trn nhng trong H khng c 2 ct no trng nhau cc
v tr ca s 1.
5. Khi to ma trn H nh phng php 4 nhng chiu di chu k Tanner phi ln
hn 4
6. Khi to ma trn H nhng phng php 5 nhng H c dng H H1 , H 2
trong H2 phi l ma trn kh nghch, tc l tn ti ma trn nghch o.
Phng php ca Mackay a ra c th trnh c chu k Tanner ngn. Nhng
xt v tnh cu trc th phng php ny cha c hon ho. V mc ch mun t
c l c th to ra mt b m ha t ng tc l c th lp trnh c, ng thi
phc tp thp. Do phng php ny thiu tnh cu trc do kh m c th m bo
phc tp ca thut ton nh mong mun.
V d 3.10: T m c di 12 (3, 4) c ma trn kim tra chn l MacKay nh sau:
IT
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
H 0 1
T
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
P
0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Khi thm ct th 11, cc hng cha in l hng th 2, 4, 5, 6, 9 v 3 hng 2, 4, 6
c chn.
3.5.2. hnh Tanner

Lc u, m LDPC c biu din qua ma trn chn l H. Tuy nhin, hin nay,
mt trong nhng cch c coi l hiu qu nht biu din m LDPC chnh l
qua hnh Tanner. Trc khi tm hiu v cch biu din ca m LDPC th chng ta
s tm hiu qua v hnh Tanner. y l mt th hai pha, bn tri gi l nt bit
cn bn phi gi l nt kim tra. i vi m khi tuyn tnh th hnh tanner t ra rt
hiu qu. Tht vy, ta i xt v d sau:
V d 3.11: Cho ma trn chn l H nh sau:
80
1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
H
1 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 0 1
Khi , hnh s biu din nh sau.
IT
Hnh 3.30: hnh Tanner vi ma trn H
T
Trong hnh Tanner trn chng ta c th thy rng:

+ Cc nt bt v cc nt kim tra c b tr 2 bn i xng nhau.
P
+ Nt kim tra zi ni vi nt bt c j khi v ch khi H i, j 1

Thc cht ca vic biu din ny l biu din h phng trnh c suy ra t
ma trn kim tra H. Trong , cc nt kim tra zi tng ng vi cc hng cn cc nt
bit c j tng ng vi cc ct ca ma trn kim tra H.
Lu rng, zi y l tng nhng m l tng m un 2 ca tt c cc phn t

c j khi H (i, j ) 1 .
V d 3.12: Ta c h phng trnh sau.
z1 c1 c2 c4
z2 c2 c3 c5
z3 c1 c5 c6
z4 c3 c4 c6
81
Ti y, chng ta cng a ra mt khi nim l chu k Tanner nhm phc v

nh gi cht lng xy dng m LDPC ti cc phn tip theo.
Chu k Tanner l mt ng khp kn lin kt t mt nt bt k i mt vng ri
li quay li chnh n.
Gi s nh trong v d 3.11, chng ta c mt trong nhng chu k Tanner
chnh l c6 z4 c4 z1 c1 z3 c6 . Chiu di ca chu k ny l 6 tc l s
bc khp kn mt vng ca chu k Tanner.
3.5.3. M ha
3.5.3.1. M ha s dng ma trn sinh G

phn trc chng ta ni n vic tm ma trn sinh t ma trn kim tra chn
l bng php kh Gauss-Jordan theo dng:
H A, I nk
Trong A l ma trn nh phn (n k) k v I nk l ma trn n v. Ma trn
sinh c xc nh: IT
G I k , AT
Qu trnh m ha n y ch n gin l thc hin php nhn gia ma trn
hng n biu th chui tin u vo vi ma trn sinh tm c:
c uG u1 u2 ... uk PT \ I k
c c1 c2 ... cn
T
y chng ta s i vo chi tit qu trnh ny bng v d sau:
V d 3.13: Chng ta s m ha t m c di 10 vi t l m LDPC .
P
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

H 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Trc ht ta a ma trn H v dng ma trn bc thang hng (row-echelon) bng
php ton trn cc phn t hng trong trng nh phn GF(2). Theo i s tuyn tnh,
php ton trn cc phn t hng khng lm thay i cu trc ca m. Vi ma trn H
trn, hng 1 v hng 2 c cc gi tr 1 to thnh ng cho, ta thay th hng th
4 bng tng m un 2 ca hng 1 v hng 4, hon v hng 3 v hng 5. Cui cng thay
th hng 5 bng tng m un 2 ca hng 5 v hng 4, kt qu ta c ma trn dng
row-echelon.
82
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

H r 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
Bc tip theo ta a ma trn v dng bc thang thu gn (reduced row-echelon,
tc l bt k ct no c s 1 l gi tr 1 u tin ca hng th cc gi tr cn li u
bng 0, mc ch to ma trn n v) bng cch thc hin phng php kh
kh cc phn t pha trn ng cho. Th t thc hin nh sau: kh pha trn ng
cho ct 2 bng cch thay th hng 1 bng tng m un 2 ca hng 1 v hng 2, tng
t cho ng cho ct 3, thay th hng 2 bng tng m un 2 ca hng 2 v hng 3,
vi ct 4 thay th hng 1 bng tng m un 2 ca hng 1 v hng 4. Cui cng vi ct
5 ta thay th hng 1 bng tng m un 2 ca hng 1 , hng 5 v hng 3, hng 2 thay
bng tng m un 2 ca hng 2 v hng 5, hng 4 thay bng tng m un ca hng 4
v 5. Kt qu ta c ma trn dng thu gn:
1 0 IT
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

H rr 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
Cui cng chng ta s hon v cc ct c mt ma trn kim tra chn l dng
T
chun (m ct cui ca H std s l m ct ca ma trn H rr c cha cc gi tr 1 u
tin ca cc hng)
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
P
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

H std 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
bc cui cng php hon v ct c s dng, do t m ca H std cng
s l phin bn hon b ca t m do H to ra. Mt gii php c a ra theo di
s hon v c s dng to ra H std , trong trng hp ny l nh du theo th
t:
6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5
p dng cho th t ct trc khi php hon v c thc hin to ra H std
Mc d vy, nu knh truyn l knh khng nh th th t ca bit t m cng
khng phi l quan trng, c th c mt cch d dng hn p dng cho ma trn
H c ma trn kim tra chn l:
83
Vi cc c im ging nh H nhng c cng mt th t bit t m nh H std .

T ta c ma trn sinh G c to ra nh sau:
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

G 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Trong trng hp sau khi thc hin cc bc ca php kh Gauss-Jordan m
cho ta mt ma trn bc thang hng c mt hng ton 0 th ta c php b hng .
IT
iu ny s lm gim s hng ca ma trn sinh G t lm gim tc m.
Tuy nhin vn kh khn phng php ny l ma trn G khng bo m
c tnh tha nh ma trn H. Phng trnh m ha c = uG c thc hin b m
2
ha c phc tp gn chnh xc bng n php tnh. i vi cc m c di t m
ln, hng ngn n hng trm ngn bt th b m ha s tr nn cc k phc tp.
T
gim bt tnh phc tp trong m ha ta c th s dng cc ma trn c dng cu trc.
Tuy nhin vi nhng ma trn c tnh ngu nhin ta c th s dng phng php m
ha trc tip trn ma trn H thng qua bin i H v dng ma trn tam gic di.
Phng php ny c trnh by phn sau y.
P
3.5.3.2. M ha s dng ma trn chn l H

Khc vi phng php trn l tm ma trn G t ma trn H cho trc sau thc
hin m ha vi G. Mt m LDPC cng c th c m ha bng vic s dng trc
tip ma trn H nh bin i v dng tam gic di. tng ca phng php ny l
s dng ch cc hon v hng v ct sao cho vn gi c c im tha ca ma
trn H.
Trc ht ch hon v hng v ct a ma trn v dng gn nh tam gic
di.
A B T
Ht (3.64)
C D E
Vi T l ma trn tam gic di, ngha l T c cc gi tr 1 trn ng cho t
tri qua phi, cc phn t trn ng cho bng 0, kch thc (m-g) (m-g). B l ma
trn kch thc (m-g) g v A l ma trn kch thc (m-g) k, C c kch thc l g
84
k v D c kch thc l g g, E c thc thc l g (m-g). Trong k l chiu di

bn tin, n l di khi ca m, m l s bit kim tra m = n k v g gi l gap, ni mt
cch gn ng th g cng nh phc tp ca m ha cng thp. minh ha phng
php ny ta xt v d sau:
V d 3.14: Thc hin m ha bn tin u 1 1 0 0 1 vi chiu di t m bng
10, t l 1/2, vi H cho trc nh v d trn:
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

H 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
a v dng tam gic di ta hon v cc hng 2 v hng 3, ct 6 v ct 10,
chn gap bng 2.
1
0

H t 0
1
0
1
IT
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1

1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
T
Qu trnh nh dng trn, php kh Gaus Jordan c ng dng mt ln
I m g 0
loi b E tng ng vi vic nhn ma trn 1 vi ma trn H t
ET Ig
P
~ I m g 0 A B T
H H ~ ~
ET
1
I g t C D 0

trong
~
C ET 1 A C
v
~
D ET 1B D
Trong v d ta xt
1 0 0
T 1 1 1 0

0 0 1
85
v
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
I m g 0
ET 1 0 0
I g
0 1 0

1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
Ta nhn c:
~ ~
Khi thc hin php kh Gaus Jordan xa E th ch c C , D b nh hng
cn cc phn khc ca ma trn chn l vn gi nguyn c tnh tha ca n.
IT ~
Cui cng m ha bn tin ta s dng ma trn H , t m c c1 , c2 ,..., cn
c chia thnh cc phn nh c u, p1,p2 vi u u1 , u2 ,..., uk l k bit thng tin,
p1 p11 , p12 ,..., p1g l g bit kim tra chn l u tin v p2 p21 , p22 ,..., p2m g l
cc bit kim tra cn li. T m c u, p1, p2 phi tha mn phng trnh kim tra
T
~
chn l c H T 0 , nn ta c:
Au Bp1 Tp2 0 (3.65)
P
v
~ ~
C u D p1 0 p2 0 (3.66)
V E c kh thnh ton 0, cc bit kim tra p1 ch cn ph thuc vo cc

~
bit thng tin c th tnh c lp. Nu D l ma trn kh o ta tnh c p1 theo cng
thc:
~ ~
p1 D 1 C u
~ ~
Nu D khng phi l ma trn kh o th ta hon v cc hng ca H n khi
c th. Khi tm c p1 ta tnh p2 theo biu thc (3.66):
p2 T 1 ( Au Bp1 )
86
Vi A, B v T l ma trn rt tha do phc tp ca phng trnh ny rt

thp, khi T l ma trn tam gic trn nn p2 c th c tnh bng php thay th ngc
li.
Tr li v d trn ta c t m vi di 10: c c1 , c2 ,...,c10 , c [u,p1, p2 ] ,
y p1 c6 , c7 v p2 [c8 , c9 , c10 ] . Cc bit kim tra p1 c6 , c7 v p2 [c8 , c9 , c10 ]
c tnh nh sau:
1
1
~ ~
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
p1 D 1 C u T 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1
0
1
p 2 c tnh nh sau:
p21 u1 u2 u4 u5 1 1 0 1 1
IT
p22 u4 p11 p21 0 1 1 0
p23 u2 u3 u5 p21 1 0 1 0 0
T m thu c l c 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
3.5.4. Gii m
T
Thut ton gii m LDPC s dng phng php lp tnh ton cc bin trn
th v n c nhiu tn gi khc nhau nh:
- Thut ton tng - tch - SPA (Sum - Product Algorithm).
- Thut ton lan truyn nim tin - BPA (Belief Propagation Algorithm).
P
- Thut ton chuyn bn tin - MPA (Message Passing Algorithm).

Chng ta nhc li mt s k hiu s s dng trong gii thut gii m:
cn l k hiu ca nt bt th n v zm l nt kim tra th m trn hnh Tanner
Mn l tp cc ch s ca cc nt kim tra ni ti nt bt cn trn hnh Tanner
hay n l tp cc ch s m vi H(m, n) =1 trong ma trn H.
Nm l tp cc ch s ca cc nt bt ni ti nt kim tra zm trn hnh Tanner
hay l tp cc ch s n vi H(m, n) = 1 trong ma trn H.
Mn/m l tp hp Mn tr i phn t c gi tr bng m.
Nm/n l tp hp Nm sau khi loi i phn t c gi tr n.
Gii m LDPC s dng thut ton tng tch l vic tm ra t m c c chiu di
n trong mi bt m cn phi cc i ha xc sut ca cn vi iu kin biu thc kim
tra chn l tng ng vi cn phi c tha mn:
P(cn \{zm=0, m Mn})
87
Gii thut gii m tng tch gm vic tnh hai xc sut c iu kin. Xc sut
th nht k hiu l qmn(x). N l xc sut m nt bt m th n (cn) bng x (x {0, 1})
vi iu kin cc nt kim tra zm c tha mn bng 0 vi mi m Mn/m:
qmn(x)=P(cn=x \ {zm = 0, m Mn/m})
Xc sut th hai k hiu l rmn(x) l xc sut nt kim tra zm tha mn bng 0
iu kin vi mi t hp ca vector nh phn c. Trong c l vector gm tt c cc
nt bt ni ti zm tr nt bt th n l cn:
rmn(x)=P(zm=0\c)
Tng t nh thut ton gii m ti u theo tng k hiu (symbol - by -
symbol) dng cho cc b m li, thut ton gii m LDPC cn phi c u vo l xc
sut tin nghim (A Priori Probability - APP) cho tng bit trong chui t m pht c =
[c1, c2,..., cn] bng 1 khi nhn c chui thu y = [y1, y2,, yn]. khng mt tnh tng
qut, chng ta k hiu xc sut tin nghim APP ca bit ci l:
Pr(ci=1\y)
hoc t l c lng Likelihood Ratio (LR):
IT Pr(c i 0 \ y)
l(ci)=
Pr(c i 1 \ y)
Trong cc tnh ton ngi ta thng s dng t l c lng theo hm log (Log
- Likelihood Ratio - LLR):
Pr(ci 0 \ y)
L(ci)=log
Pr(ci 1 \ y)
T
vi hm log c ly theo c s t nhin.
Thut ton MPA l thut ton lp da trn th Tanner ca b m dng
tnh Pr(ci=1\y), l(ci) hoc L(ci) trong cc nt c = [c1,, cn] (nt bt) l cc b x l
cng mt loi v cc nt z = [z1,, zm] (nt kim tra) l cc b x l cng mt loi
P
khc, cc nhnh l cc ng truyn tin. u tin th cc xc sut qmn c khi to

bng xc sut tin nghim APP tng ng. Trong mt na ln lp, tng nt c x l cc
tin u vo v gi kt qu ti cc nt lin quan (hai nt c ni vi nhau th gi l
hai nt lin quan). Hnh 3.31 m t tin m13 c truyn t nt c1 ti nt z3 (du mi
tn ch hng ca tin). Thng tin c truyn i chnh l xc sut q13. Trn hnh v ta
thy thng tin c truyn ti nt z3 l tt c cc thng tin c ti nt c1 t knh truyn
v t cc nt lin quan ti n, v vy n c gi l thng tin ngoi (extrinsic
information). Nh vy thng tin ngoi mij c tnh cho tng cp nt ci v zj ti mi
na ln lp.Trong na ln lp cn li, tng nt z x l cc tin u vo v gi kt qu
ti cc nt c lin quan. Nguyn tc tnh ton c m t trn hnh 3.32 i vi tin m15
t nt z1 ti nt c5. Trn hnh thng tin m15 chnh l xc sut r15.
88
Hnh 3.31: Mt phn ca hnh Tanner tng ng vi ma trn H c ct th nht l

[1 1 1 0 0 ...0]T. Cc mi tn ch hng truyn tin t nt c1 ti nt z3
IT
Hnh 3.32: Mt phn ca hnh Tanner tng ng vi ma trn H c hng th nht l
[1 1 1 0 1 ...0]. Cc mi tn ch hng truyn tin t nt z1 ti nt c5.
Sau khi t c s ln lp cc i cho trc hoc mt ch tiu dng lp no

, b gii m tnh ton APP, LR hoc LLR cho cc bit ci. Ch tiu dng thng c

s dng l H c T , trong c l t m thm d c gii.
T
Vic tnh ton cc xc sut qmn, rmn cng nh cc bc trong thut ton gii m
lp c trnh by k phn tip theo.
3.5.4.1. Thut ton gii m tng tch trn min xc sut SPA
P
Thut ton gii m SPA gii m LDPC l mt thut ton gii m lp. N bao
gm ba bc l bc khi to, bc ngang, bc dc. iu kin thot khi vng

lp l to ra c t m c tha mn H c T hoc t c s vng lp gii hn cho
trc.
Bc khi to
Cc xc sut qmn(x) c khi to bng xc sut fn(x). Trong , fn(x) =
P(cn=x\yn) chnh l xc sut tin nghim APP ca nt bt th n. Vi yn l symbol th n
thu c sau khi truyn qua knh truyn. i vi knh AWGN iu ch BPSK th xc
sut tin nghim ny c tnh nh sau:
1
fn(1) =P(cn=1\yn)= 2
1 e 2 yn /
1
fn(0) =P(cn=0\yn)= 2
1 e 2 yn /
89
Nh vy fn(1)+ fn(0) = 1
i vi knh AWGN v iu ch QPSK th:
1 2 1 2
1 [( yn( I ) ) ( yn( Q ) ) ] / 2 2
f n( 00 ) e 2 2
2
1 2 1 2
1 [( yn( I ) ) ( yn( Q ) ) ] / 2 2
f ( 01 )
e 2 2
2
n
1 2 1 2
1 [( yn( I ) ) ( yn( Q ) ) ] / 2 2
f n( 11 ) e 2 2
2
1 2 1 2
1 [( yn( I ) ) ( yn( Q ) ) ] / 2 2
f ( 10 )
e 2 2
2
n
Trong 2 =1 l phng sai ca tp m Gauss, yn(I) v yn(Q) ln lt l thnh

phn cng pha v vung pha ca symbol thu c. S hp l ca cc bt thu c s
c t trong vector f:
f1( 0 ) f 2( 0 ) f n(01) f n( 0 )
f= (1)
f1 IT f 2(1) f n(1)1 f n(1)
Cc xc sut qmn(x) c t trong mt ma trn Q c gi tr khi to t f nh
sau:
f1( 0 ) f 2( 0 ) f 3( 0 ) f n(01) f n( 0 )
(1)
f1 f 2(1) f 3(1) f n(1)1 f n(1)

T
Q

f1( 0 ) f 2( 0 ) f 3( 0 ) f n(01) f n( 0 )
(1)
f1 f 2(1) f 3(1) f n(1)1 f n(1)
P
Nu ma trn kim tra chn l H c kch thc mn th ma trn Q c kch thc

2mn.
Bc ngang
Bc ngang ca gii thut ny s i xc nh gi tr cc xc sut rmn(x):
rmn (x) P(z
c:cn x
m 0 \ c)P(c \ c n x)
Trong c l vector gm tt c cc nt bt ni ti zm tr nt bt th n l cn. Nh

vy, di ca vector bng trng lng hng tr i 1 tc l wr-1. Do ta c 2 w r 1 t
hp vector c c th c. Nhng khng phi vi cn = x cho trc th tt c cc t hp
u lm tha mn zm = 0 m ch c mt s t hp c tha mn m thi. V d nu ta tnh
rmn(1) tc l x = 1 khi cn = 1 th ch c cc t hp no m c s lng bt 1 l mt s
l th mi lm tha mn zm = 0 v zm l tng modun 2 ca cc nt bt ni ti zm.
Cng thc trn c th trin khai thnh:
90
rmn (x) P(z

c:cn x
m 0 \ c)
n 'N m \n
q mn ' (c n ' )
Trong P(zm=0/c) bng 1 vi nhng t hp c lm tha mn zm = 0 cn bng 0

trong trng hp ngc li. Cc xc sut rmn(x) c t trong mt ma trn R:
r11 (0) r12 (0) r1( n 1) (0) r1n (0)
r (1) r (1) r1( n 1) (1) r1n (1)
11 12

R=

rm1 (0) rm 2 (0) rm ( n 1) (0) rmn (0)

rm1 (1) rm 2 (1) rm ( n 1) (1) rmn (1)
Nh vy mi phn t trong ma trn kim tra chn l H tng ng vi 1 vector
ct 12 gm cc xc sut rmn(0) v rmn(1) (hoc vector ct 1q i vi m LDPC xy
dng trn GF(q)).
Bc dc IT
Bc dc ca thut ton gii m xc nh gi tr cc xc sut qmn(x). p
dng cng thc Bayes ta c:
qmn=P(cn=x\{zm =0,m Mn/m})
P(cn x)P({z m ' 0,m' M n / m} \ c n x)
=
P({z m 0,m' M n / m})
T
qmn(x)= mn f n( x ) r m 'n
m 'M n / m
(x)
Trong mn c tnh da vo biu thc qmn(0)+qmn(1) = 1

P
1
Suy ra mn =
f
x
(x)
n r
m 'M n \ m
m 'n
(x)
Cc xc sut qmn(x) c t trong ma trn Q nh sau:

q11 (0) q12 (0) q1( n 1) (0) q1n (0)
q (1) q (1) q1( n 1) (1) q1n (1)
11 12

Q=

q m1 (0) q m 2 (0) q m ( n 1) (0) q mn (0)

q m1 (1) q m 2 (1) q m ( n 1) (1) q mn (1)
Trong mi phn t trong ma trn kim tra chn l H ng vi mt vector ct
12 gm cc xc sut qmn(0) v qmn(1) (hoc vector ct 1q i vi m LDPC xy
dng trn GF(q)).
91
Tip theo chng ta i xc nh cc xc sut gi hu nghim qn(x) bi cng thc

sau:
qn(x)= n f n( x ) r
mM n
mn
(x)
Trong n l h s c xc nh da theo biu thc qn(0)+qn(1)=1.

Cc xc sut gi hu nghim c t trong ma trn Q nh sau:
q1 (0) q 2 (0) q 3 (0) q n 1 (0) q n (0)
Q'
q1 (1) q 2 (1) q 3 (1) q n 1 (1) q n (1)
T cc xc sut gi hu nghim ny chng ta xc nh c gi tr t m theo
cng thc:

c n =arg max q n ( x )
x

Sau thut ton gii m s kim tra iu kin H c T =0 v s lng vng lp.

Nu H c T =0 th c l mt t m hp l v gii thut kt thc thnh cng. Nu khng:
- Nu t ti s ln lp ti a th gii thut c coi l khng thnh cng
-
v s dng.
IT
Nu cha t ti s ln lp ti a th quay tr li bc ngang bt u
mt vng lp mi.
Trnh by nguyn tc hot ng ca cc k thut ARQ dng v ch (Stop and

T
1.
Wait ARQ), ARQ quay ngc N t m (Go back N ARQ), ARQ la chn vic
lp li (Selective repeat ARQ)?
2. Tnh hiu sut ca phng php pht li theo c ch ARQ dng v ch cho
P
tuyn thng tin v tinh. Gi thit khong cch t v tinh ti mt t l 36000

km, vn tc truyn sng trong khng kh l 3.108 m / s , tc thng tin l 56
Kbit/s v khung c kch thc 4000 bits. Tng t tnh hiu sut ca ARQ,
nhng s dng kt ni trong mng LAN vi khong cch gia hai trm l 100
m, vn tc truyn sng trn cp ng l 2.108 m / s , tc truyn thng tin l 10
Mbps v khung c kch thc 500 bits?
3. Cho m tch chp (2, 1, 2) vi cc a thc sinh:
g(1) = (1, 1, 1); g(2) = (1, 0, 1)
a. V s m ha?
b. V s li m v gin trng thi?
c. Gi s chui d liu vo 1010. Hy xc nh d liu m ha?
d. Gi s d liu thu c l Y. Hy thc hin vic gii m dng gii thut
Viterbi trong cc trng hp sau: Y = 1110001011; Y = 1110101011; Y =
1110111001?
4. Cho m tch chp (3, 1, 2) vi cc a thc sinh:
92
g(1) = (1,1,1); g(2) = (1,0,1); g(3) = (1,1,0)
a. V s m ha?
b. V s li m v gin trng thi?
c. Gi s chui d liu vo 00110. Hy xc nh d liu m ha?
5. Cho m Hamming (7, 4) vi:
c1 m1 m2 m3
c2 m2 m3 m4
c3 m1 m2 m4
a. V s khi b m ha v gii thch?

b. Tm t m vi chui bit tin tc vo M = [0 1 1 1]?
c. Gi s li trn knh truyn v my thu c t m Y = [0 1 1 1 0 1 0].
Xy dng s khi gii m Syndrome v gii thch. Chng minh my
thu sa c li n? IT
T
P
93
Bi ging Truyn dn s Chng IV: K thut ghp knh s
CHNG 4: KY THUT GHEP KNH S

Trong chng nay chung ta se xem xet cach thc nhng h th ng truy n thng
n le c t chc thanh cac h th ng truy n dn s ta o ln ma ng truy n thng
ng tru c . Chng ta s kho st cc phng thc tip cn khc nhau ghp cc
lu ng thng tin , v trnh by phn cp ghp knh s nh ngha cu trc ca cc h
th ng truy n dn hi n a i . gc m hnh tham chiu OSI , nhng h th ng na o
cung c p lp v t ly truy n cac bit .
Phn c p ghep knh s a c phat tri n trong ma ng i n thoa i , v vy chng

ta se c p chi ti t v cach thc ma ng i n thoa i cung c p cac chc nng ma ng khac
nhau.
Chng nay c t chc thanh cac n i dung sau:
1. Ghp knh: Gii thic h cc k thut ghp knh c s dng chia s cc ti

nguyn truy n dn , c bi t la ghep knh phn chia t n s va ghep knh phn
chia thi gian. Chng ta gii thiu v phn cp ghp knh s.
IT
2. SONET: Gii t hch v tiu chun SONET i vi truyn dn quang , v bn
lu n v ng du ng cua cac h th ng SONET cung c p c u hin
do v phng v li.
h ma ng m m
3. Ghp knh phn chia bc sng : bn lun v ghp knh phn chia bc s ng,
m t ky thu t lam tng dung l ng truy n dn cua s i quang g p hn 100 l n.
V cng bn lun v nh hng ca WDM trong vic thit k mng .
T
4. Cc k thut ghp knh TDM PCM , PDH, SDH: l cc k thut minh ha c
th cho k thut ghp knh phn chia theo thi gian TDM .
4.1. Tng quan v k thut ghp knh

P
4.1.1. Khi nim v ghp knh

Ghp knh l k thut lin quan n vic chia s cc ti nguyn c chi ph cao
ca mng qua mt s tuyn truyn dn thng tin. Ti nguyn mng , v n quan tm
u tin i vi chung ta la bng thng , c n v l Hz i vi cc h thng truyn
dn tng t va la bit /s i vi cac h th ng truy n dn s . Trong ph n nay chung ta
xem xet cc k thut ghp knh c s dng chia s cc tuyn truyn dn kt ni
m t nhom ngi s du ng . Nhng ky thu t nay c ban c s du ng trong cac ma ng
i n thoa i va trong cac dich
vu quang ba .
Hnh 4.1a chi ra vi d trong ba cp ngi s dng trao i thng tin qua vic
s du ng ba c p ng dy . Vi c b tri nay se hoan toan danh ring cac tai nguyn
mng, o la cac ng dy i vi mi c p ngi s du ng , l kiu in hnh trong
mng thoi thi k pht trin u . Tuy nhin, cch thc tip cn nhanh chng tr thnh
khng ph bi n va khng hi u qua khi s ngi s du ng tng . Phng thc ti p c n
94
hi u qua hn la chia se ng cac tai nguyn nay , o la cac tuy n truy n dn k t n i

m t nhom ngi s du ng.
Trong Hnh 4.1b cho th y cach thc b ghep knh cho phep chia se tai nguyn
ny. Khi m t ngi s du ng m t u cu i nay mu n trao i thng tin vi m t ngi
s du ng m t u khac , b ghep knh se gan m t tuy n truy n dn nao o trong su t
khong thi gian c cuc gi. Khi cu c go i hoan thanh, tuy n truy n dn nay c a
tr v tra ng thai sn sang phu c vu cac yu c u tuy n truy n dn mi .
Hnh 4.1: Ghp knh

IT
Lu y: hai b ghep knh c n phai trao i thng tin vi nhau thi t l p va giai
phng tuyn truyn dn .
Tuy n truy n dn u n i hai b ghep knh c go i la trung k . Ban u, mi

trung k chi co m t tuy n truy n dn n , khi o , tn hiu bo hiu cho mt kt ni s
c mang trn tuy n truy n dn nay . Tuy nhin, nhng ti n b v cng ngh truy n
T
dn a lam cho tuy n truy n dn n co bn g thng ln co th truy n dn nhi u k t
n i. Trn quan i m thi t l p k t n i , m t tuy n nh v y c xem la tng ng vi
m t s trung k . Bn lun v mt s cch tip cn khc thng tin t nhiu kt ni
vo mt tuy n truy n dn n se c p n sau y .
P
4.1.2. Cc k thut ghp knh

a. K thut ghp knh phn chia theo tn s FDM
Gi s tuyn truyn dn c bng thng (Hz) ln hn nhi u so vi bng thng

c yu c u bi m t k t n i n . V d, trong Hnh 4.2a, mi ngi s du ng co tin
hi u vi bng thng W Hz, v knh c bng thng kh dng ln hn 3W Hz. Trong
ghp knh phn chia tn s (FDM), bng thng nay c chia thanh m t s khoang t n
s , mi khoang co th cung c p cho tin hi u cua m t k t n i ring le . B ghep knh
gn khong tn s cho mi kt ni v s dng iu ch t tn hiu ca kt ni
o vao khoang t n s thic h h p . Qu trnh ny a n mt t n hi u k t h p toan ph n
mang t t ca cac k t n i nh chi ra Hinh 4.2b. Tn hiu ghp hp c truyn , v b
tch knh khi phc cc tn hiu tng ng i vi mi kt ni . Vi c giam s l ng
tuy n truy n dn c n c thc hin gim chi ph tng ca h thng .
95
IT
Hnh 4.2: Ghp knh phn chia theo tn s FDM
FDM c a vao ma ng i n thoa i vao nhng nm 1930. B ghep knh tng

T
t a thc hi n ghep 12 knh thoa i vao m t tuy n truy n dn . Mi tin
hi u thoa i chi m
m t khoang bng thng 4 KHz. B ghep knh nay i u ch mi tin h i u toa i sao cho
mi tin hi u chi m m t khoang bng thng 4 KHz trong dai t 60 n 108 KHz. Tn
hi u ghep h p nay c go i la m t nhom . Phn c p cac b ghep knh tng t cung
P
a c inh nghia . V d , siu nhom (mang 60 tn hiu thoi ) c ta o ra qua vi c

ghp 5 nhm, mi nhom co bng thng 48 KHz, vo di tn s t 312 n 552 KHz.
Lu y, vi mu c ich ghep knh, mi nhom c x ly nh tin hi u ring le . Sau o, 10
siu nhom co th c ghep thanh siu siu nhom g m co 600 tn hiu thoi chim di
t n s t 564 n 3084 KHz.
Cc v d tng t v FDM l pht thanh qung b , truy n hinh quang ba va

truy n hinh cap . Trong o , mi tra m co dai t n s a c gan . Cc trm trong AM ,
FM va truy n hin h c gan tng ng cac dai t n s la 10 KHz, 200 KHz va 6 MHz.
FDM cung c s du ng trong i n thoa i di ng g m nhi u khoang t n s , i n hinh
mi khoang la 25 n 30 KHz, c dung chung bi nhng ngi s du ng trong cung
m t vung ia d . Mi ngi s du ng c gan khoang t n s cho mi hng . Lu y :
trong FDM thng tin cua ngi s du ng co th da ng tng t ho c da ng s .
V d v h th ng FDM g m 3 knh c m ta Hinh 4.3. Trong o mi tin

hi u thng c nhn vi cac t n s song mang khac nhau , ch ng ha n fc1 i vi
96
vm1(t), fc2 i vi vm2(t) v fc3 i vi vm3(t). u ra ca b nhn s l tn hi u DSBSC

(Double SideBand Supressed Carrier). Sau o c chuy n qua b lo c BPF co bng
thng fc+fm ho c fc-fm. u ra ca b lc BPF se la tin hi u LSB (Lower SideBand)
ho c USB (Upper SideBand). Cc tn hiu ny s c ghp knh vi nhau.
Bng thng cua tin hi u ghep knh FDM phu thu c vao s l ng song mang s
dng v c xc nh theo (4.1) (trong o: N l s sng mang):
BWFDM N . f m (4.1)
IT
Hnh 4.3: H th ng FDM ghep 3 knh thng tin u vao
T
b. K thut ghp knh phn chia theo thi gian (TDM)
Trong ghep knh phn chia theo th i gian (TDM), truy n dn gia cac b ghep
knh c cung c p bi tuy n truy n dn s t c cao . Mi m t k t n i ta o ra lu ng
P
thng tin s c chen vao tuy n t c cao . V d trong Hnh 4.4a, mi k t n i ta o ra

tn hiu m t n vi thng tin vi chu ky 3T giy. n vi thng tin nay co th la bit ,
byte ho c kh i bit co kich thc c inh
. i n hinh, tuy n truy n dn c toeer chc
thnh cc khung, l n l t c chia thanh cac khe co dai thi gian nh nhau . V d,
trong Hin h 4.4b, tuy n truy n dn co th gi m t n vi thng tin vi chu ky T giy,
v tn hiu ghp hp c cu trc khung gm 3 khe, mi khe cho m t ngi s du ng.
Trong khoang thi gian thi t l p k t n i , mi k t n i c gan m t khe thich h p vi
thng tin c ta o ra bi k t n i .
97
IT
Hnh 4.4: Ghp knh phn chia thi gian
T
P
Hnh 4.5: H th ng TDM ghep 3 knh thng tin
V d v h th ng TDM ghep 3 tn hiu thng tin c m t Hnh 4.5. Gi s

tn hiu thng tin c ly mu vi tn s 8 KHz va c ma hoa t c 8 Kbit/s.
Chu ky cua 1 khe thi gian: Tknh = Tl y mu = 1/8KHz = 125 s.
98
Chu ky cua m t khung: Tkhung = s knh Tknh = 375 s
S bit trong mi knh: 8 bit
S bit trong mi khung: 24 bit
T c bit cua mi knh: fb(knh) = fb = 8 Kbit/s
T c bit cua mi khung: fb(khung) = s knh fb = 24 Kbit/s
Bng thng cua h th ng TDM: BWTDM= fb(khung) = 24 Kbit/s
TDM c s du ng trong ma ng i n thoa i vao nhng nm 1960. H th ng

truy n dn T 1 truy n 24 k t n i i n thoa i s nh chi ra Hinh 4.6. Lu y , tn hiu
thoi s c c nh ly mu tn hiu thoi tng t vi tc 8000 l n/giy va mi
mu c bi u din la 8 bit.
IT
Hnh 4.6: H th ng truy n dn T1
T
H th ng T 1 s du ng khung truy n dn g m 24 khe thi gian 8 bit. Mi khe
mang m t mu PCM i vi m t k t n i n . Khi u mi khung c ch ra bi 1
bit. T c cua tuy n truy n dn :
P
(1+248) bit/khung 8000 khung/giy = 1,544 Mbit/s
H th ng truy n dn T 1 c s du ng vao nm 1961 truyn lu lng gia

cc tng i in thoi. S gia tng cua lu l ng mng in thoi v nhng tin b v
truy n dn s a dn n s phat tri n cua phn c p ghep knh s tiu chu n . Nhng
phn c p truy n dn s nay inh nghia lu ng ghep cua lu l ng i n thoa i .
Hnh 4.7 cho th y cac p hn c p truy n dn a c phat tri n B c My va

Chu u. Bc M v Nht , lu ng tin hi u s 1 (DS1) tng ng vi u ra cua b
ghp knh T1, v l khi xy dng c bn . Lu ng tin hi u DS2 c c qua vic ghp
4 tn hi u DS1, v DS3 c tc 44,736 Mbps c ghep t 28 lu ng tin hi u DS 1,...
Chu u , CCITT (nay la ITU ) a phat tri n m t phn c p s tng t . Lu ng tin
hi u CEPT-1 (E1) g m 32 knh t c 64 Kbit/s to thnh khi xy d ng c bn. Ch
c 30 trong 32 knh c s du ng lam knh thoa i ; m t knh khac dung cho bao hi u
99
v mt knh cn li ng b khung v bo dng tuyn truyn dn . Cc mc cp 2,

3, 4 ca phn cp c c qua vic ghp 4 tn hiu trong mc thp hn.
IT
Hnh 4.7: Cc phn cp s c bn
T
P
Hnh 4.8: Thi i m tng i cua cac lu ng u vao va u ra trong b ghep knh
TDM
Hot ng ca b ghp knh TDM lin quan cht ch n cc vn ng b

ca lung u vo . Hnh 4.8 ch ra 2 lu ng s , mi lu ng co t c danh nghia la 1
bit/T giy, c ghep h p thanh m t lu ng t ng gi i 2 bit/T giy. i u gi se xay ra
n u m t trong hai lu ng thanh ph n co t c ch m hn 1/T bps? Mi T giy, b ghep
knh yu c u mi u vao cung c p 1 bit, ti mt im no u vo chm khng
cung c p c bit a vao . Hi n t ng nay go i la tr t bit . Lu y , bit n mu n c
xem la bit n sm trong khoang T giy k ti p .
100
Ng c la i , n u m t trong hai lu ng thanh ph n co t c nhanh hn 1/T bps,

tc la cac bit n nhanh hn vi c chung c gi i , cc bit s tch ly ti b ghp
knh va th m chi bi rt.
giai quy t cac v n v ng b , thng thng cac b ghep knh TDM a

c thi t k hoa t ng t c cao hn m t chut t c ghep cua cac lu ng u vao .
C u truc khung cua tin hi u u ra b ghep knh se cha cac bit c s du ng chi
th i vi hin tng trt . Phng phap nay cho phep cac lu ng c tach knh
ung. Lu y , vi c a vao cac bit phu giai quy t v n tr t ham y r ng c u truc
khung cua lu ng u ra khng ng b hoan toan vi c u truc khung cua t t ca cac
lu ng vao . tach lu ng u vao thanh ph n t tin hi u a ghep , th cn tch ton b
tn hiu ghp , to ra s iu chnh i vi trt , v sau ly ra tn h i u mong
mu n. Ki u b ghep knh nay go i la khng ng b bi vi cac khung u vao khng
ng b vi khung u ra.
c. Cc k thut ghp knh khc
IT
T
P
Hnh 4.9: M i quan h gia suy hao va bc song s i quang
Cc h thng truyn dn s i quang hi n nay co th hoa t ng t c t hang

chc Gbps n hng chc Tbps. Trong Hinh ve 4.9 cho th y dai cac bc song suy hao
th p r ng khoang 100 nm trong dai 1300 nm. Di ny tng ng vi bng thng 18
THz. Di khc khong 100 nm trong dai 1550 nm, cung c p bng thng 19 THz. R
rng cng ngh hin nay cha khai thc trit bng thng kh dng ny .
Thng tin c mang bi m t s i quang n co th c tng qua vi c s du ng

ghp kn h phn chia bc song (WDM). WDM c xem la phin ban cua FDM
mi n quang, trong o nhi u tin hi u thng tin i u ch cac tin hi u quang ta i cac bc
sng quang khc nhau (cc mu ). Tn hiu kt qu c ghp v c truy n ng
thi qua cung s i quang nh chi ra Hin h 4.10.
101
Hnh 4.10: Ghp knh phn chia bc sng WDM
IT
T
Hnh 4.11: Tn hiu quang trong h thng WDM

P
Lng knh v nhiu x c th c s dng kt hp v tch cc tn hiu mu.

V d, cc h thng WDM s dng 16 bc song ta i OC-48 cung cp tc ln ti
16x2,5 Gbps = 40 Gbps. Hnh 4.11 ch ra tn hiu quang trong mt h thng nh vy .
Cc h thng WDM c 32 bc song ta i OC -192 c th cho t c la 320 Gbps. S
h p dn cua WDM la s tng ln ang k v bng thng kha du ng ma khng phai u
t ln cung nh tri n khai thm s i quang. Bng thng b sung co th c s du ng
truy n tai nhi u lu l ng.
B xen re quang a c thi t k cho cac h th ng WDM . Vi c gan cac bc

sng trong cc cu hnh b ghp knh khc nhau c th c s dng to ra cc
mng c cu hnh logic khc nhau . Trong nhng c u hinh nay , ng truy n d n
quang gia 2 nt c to ra bng vic chn thng tin ti bc sng gn ti nt
ngu n, chuy n qua cac nut trung gian va l y ra thng tin ta i nut ic h . Hnh 4.12a chi ra
m t chui cac b ghep knh xen re trong o s i quang n k t n i cac b ghep knh
102
ln c n . Mi s i co 4 bc song c l y ra va chen vao cung c p tuy n truy n

thng m t hng t nut trn n nut di . V vy, a co m t tuy n ti mi nut b , c, v
d; b co m t tuy n ti mi nut c va d, c co m t tuy n ti mi nut d.
Hnh 4.12b cho th y ma ng vong WDM , trong o ba nut c u n i bi 3 s i

quang mang 3 bc song. Mi nut se l y ra 2 bc song va chen vao 2 bc song sao
cho mi c p nt c u ni bi lung thng tin theo 1 bc song . Trong thc t ,
mng logic kt ni hon ton c to ra . Chng ta thy rng c th c c cc cu
hnh logic khc so vi cu hnh vt l qua vic gn bc sng . Kh nng ny c th
c khai thac cung c p tin h nng phong v li va kha nng c u hin
h la i nh m ap
ng vi nhng yu cu mng thay i .
IT
T
P
Hnh 4.12: Cc cu hnh mng s dng cc b ghp knh WDM
Trong WDM , mi bc song c i u ch ring bi t , nn mi bc song

khng c n mang thng tin theo khun da ng truy n dn gi ng nhau . Do v y , m t s
bc song co th mang cac lu ng thng tin theo khun da ng SONET , trong khi cac
bc song khac c th mang thng tin khun dng Gigabit Ethernet hoc khun dng
truy n dn khac .
103
4. 2. ng dng k thut ghp knh trong h thng truyn dn s
4.2.1. K thut ghp knh TDM-PCM

K thut ghp knh TDM -PCM tin hi u thoa i c th hi n s Hnh 4.13.
K thut ny thc hin ghp knh TDM 30 knh thoi, knh ng b v knh bo hiu
thnh lung u ra c tc 2048 Kbit/s.
Ti phia pht c b lc thng thp hn ch bng tn ting ni t 300 n

3400 Hz, tn hiu u ra ta i b lc thng thp c chuy n n b l y mu. B l y
mu ong vai tro l m t thi t bi chuy n mch in t ng m theo chu k 125s, to
ra cc xung mu c chu k 125s. B m ho bin i mi xung ly mu thnh cac t
m 8 bit v a n khi ghp knh TDM tin hi u tho i, tn hiu ng b v tn hiu
bo hiu thnh mt khung PCM-30 c thi hn 125s. Lu ng bit nhi phn ta i u ra
b ghp knh TDM c a qua B ma hoa ng dy chuy n i khun da ng
thch hp vi mi trng knh truy n .
IT
T
P
Hnh 4.13: B ghp knh TDM PCM-30
Ti phia thu lu ng bit thu c chuy n vo B gi i m ng dy chuyn

thnh cac lu ng bit nhi phn . Mt phn tn hiu u ra b gi i m ng dy c
a vo khi tch xung ng b tch ra xung ng b v a ti khi to xung thu
kch thch b chia xung v to ra cc khe thi gian ng b vi pha pht. Phn tn
104
hiu cn li c a vo khi tch knh TDM tch lung bit u vo thnh 30

knh thoi, knh bo hiu. Sau o cc t m 8 bit ca 30 knh thoi a ti b gii m
chuyn thnh cc xung lng t, qua b chn xung knh v b lc thng thp tch
ra tn hiu thoi analog ca tng knh. B chn xung knh l mt chuyn mch in t
ng m theo tc v pha ca b ly mu pha pht. u vo b chn xung knh
u song song vi nhau v mi b ch cho xung knh mnh i qua, tc l tch knh
theo thi gian c thc hin ti y.
4.2.2. K thut ghp knh PDH

K thut ghp knh PDH l k thut ghp knh khng s dng ng b tp
trung, ngha l tt c cc phn t trong mng khng b khng ch bi mt ng h ch.
Mi thit b ghp knh trong mng c mt ng h ring . Chnh v vy m cc lung
s to ra c s chnh lch v tc bit , ch ng ha n nh cho cac t c bit 2048 Kbit/s
+ 510-5; 2048 Kbit/s - 510-5. Mun ghp cc lung s c tc bit khc nhau ny
thnh mt lung s c tc cao hn th phi hiu chnh sao cho tc bit ca chng
bng tc bit ca ng h b ghp knh nh chn bit . Sau khi chn bit th cc lung
s u vo b ghp xem nh a ng b v tc bit , nhng pha ca chng khng
IT
ng b vi nhau . K thut ghp knh nh vy c gi l k thut ghp knh cn
ng b PDH (Hnh 4.14).
Lung s 2Mbit/s c
tc bit nh mc Chn 6 5 4 3 2 1
6 5 4 3 2 1
T
Thi t bi
Bit chuyn mch
J- Cc bit chn
Tn hiu ra
Cc bit d
P
liu u vo B to xung ng h
B ghp knh
Chn J 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
Lung s 2Mbit/s c tc Bit
bit thp hn nh
mc
Hnh 4.14: K thut ghp knh cn ng b PDH
V tiu chun tc bit PDH, hin nay trn th gii c 3 tiu chun. l tiu
chun Chu u, tiu chun Bc M v tiu chun ca Nht Bn. C th c th hi n
Hnh 4.15. ITU-T cng nhn 4 mc u tin theo tiu chun Chu u v 3 mc u
tin theo tiu chun Bc M l cc mc truyn dn PDH quc t.
105
Hnh 4.15: Qui inh

cac mc truy n dn PDH
4.2.3. K thut ghp knh SDH

IT
k thut ghp knh ng b SDH, pha pht v pha thu c duy tr ng b
lin tc v t ng vi cc b phn phi ca b ghp knh v b phn knh . Tc
lu ng bit t ng u ra ca b ghp knh ng bng N ln tc lu ng bit ca cc
lu ng bit nhnh c ng vi tc ca cc thng tin ph (ghp N lu ng bit nhnh). iu
ny c ngha l, nu khng k ti cc thng tin ph th tn s nhp ca b ghp/tch
T
knh ng bng N ln t n s nhp ca cc lu ng nhnh c ghp v quan h tc
ny phi c duy tr mt cch lin tc v t ng trong sut qu trnh ghp/tch knh.
C th, cc bit hoc cc t m ca cc lu ng nhnh c s p x p lin ti p to

P
nn lu ng bit ghep (tr cc khe dnh cho ng b khung, thng tin bo hiu v nghip
v). Hn na, v tr ca cc bit /t m ca mi lu ng nhnh chim mt v tr xc nh
trong lu ng bit ghep , c bit trc pha thu . Do o , k thut ghp knh ng b
SDH c nhng u i m n i b t hn so vi ky thu t ghep knh PDH la :
o Hiu qu s dng ng truyn cao;

o Vic tch/ghp ti cc trm trung gian c thc hin m t cach thu n
ti n va linh hoa t.
S Hin h 4.16 th hi n ky thu t ghep knh ng b SDH .
106
Hnh 4.16: K thut ghp knh SDH (Khuy n nghi G.709 ca ITU-T)
ITU-T qui nh ba lp phng tin truyn dn chung cho SDH la : cc lung

ng b mc 1 (STM-1) v hai mc k ti p l STM -4 v STM-16. Trong SDH, VC-3
IT
c s dng truyn cc lu ng t c bit mc 3 l 34368 Kbit/s; VC-4 c s
dng ghp 3 VC-3 hoc 63 VC-12. VC-4 c xc nh l lp truyn dn h tr
cho cc lung ATM trong SONET v SDH . Ngoi ra, SDH h tr chuyn ti VC-11
trn cc kt ni lp VC-12 bng gii php tng thch c bit.
T
P
107
IT
T
P
Hnh 4.17: Qu trnh ghp 63 lu ng VC-12 thnh lu ng STM-1
C hai phng php hnh thnh lu ng tn hi u STM-N. Phng php th nht

qua AU-4 (Chu u) v phng php th hai qua AU-3 (Bc M, Nht Bn). Lu ng
tn hiu AU-4 c hnh thnh t mt lung nhnh 139264 Kbit/s, hoc 3 lung nhnh
34368 Kbit/s, hoc 63 lung 2048 Kbit/s thuc phn cp s PDH ca Chu u. AU-3
c hnh thnh t mt lung nhnh 44736 Kbit/s, hoc 7 lung nhnh 6312 Kbit/s,
hoc 28 lung 1544 Kbit/s. Cng c th s dng 63 lung 1544 Kbit/s thay th cho 63
lung 2048 Kbit/s ghp thnh tn hiu STM-1 qua TU-12,..., AU-4.
108
Nh v y, qu trnh hnh thnh cac lu ng STM -N c thc hi n qua hai b c

c lp. Bc th nht hnh thnh lu ng truy n dn ng b mc 1 (STM-1) t cc
lung nhnh PDH. Bc th hai hnh thnh cc lung truyn dn ng b bc cao mc
N (STM-N), thc hin bng cch ghp xen byte cc lu ng truy n dn ng b mc 1
(STM-1) hoc cc lu ng truyn dn ng b mc thp hn STM-M (M<N).
V d ghp 63 lu ng VC-12 thnh lung STM-1 nh sau (Hnh 4.17):
Mi khung C-12 c 34 byte, tip nhn t lung s cn ng b 2048 Kbit/s

trong 125s l 32 byte v n thm 2 byte. Sau o VC-12 b sung thm mt byte VC-
4 POH to thnh khung VC-12 c 35 byte. C 4 khung VC-12 to thnh mt a
khung VC-12.
TU-12 b sung thm vo u khung VC-12 th nht, th hai, th ba mt byte

con tr TU-12 v byte d tr vo u khung th t to thnh a khung TU-12. Nh
vy mi khung TU-12 c 4 ct 9 dng (36 byte).
Nguyn tc ghp xen byte N lu ng tn hi u STM-1 thnh lu ng tn hiu STM-N

IT
nh sau: u tin ghp byte th nht ca lu ng tn hiu STM-1 th nht, byte th nht
ca STM-1 th hai, byte th nht ca STM-1 th ba, byte th nht ca STM-1 th t.
Sau ghp byte th hai cng theo trnh t trn. C ghp nh vy cho ht mt chu
trnh 125s. Qu trnh trn s c l p li trong mi chu trinh . Nh vy, tc lu ng
tn hiu STM-N u ra ln gp N ln tc lu ng tn hiu STM-1 u vo.
T
aaaa ... aaaa ...
STM-1#1 STM-4#1
bbbb ... bbbb ...
STM-1#2 dcbadcba ... STM-4#2 ddddccccbbbbaaaa ...
cccc ... cccc ...
P
STM-1#3 STM- 4 STM-4#3 STM- 16

MUX MUX
dddd ... dddd ...
STM-1#4 STM-4#4
1/4 4/16
(a) (b)
Hnh 4.18: K thut ghp cc lung tn hiu STM-1 v STM-4 tng ng thnh cac
lu ng tn hiu STM-4 v STM-16
Do o, hnh thnh c lu ng tn hiu STM-4 phi ghp xen byte 4 lu ng tn

hiu STM-1 nh hnh 4.18a. Lu ng tn hiu STM-16 c hnh thnh bng cch ghp
xen byte 16 lu ng tn hiu STM-1 hoc ghp xen nhm 4 byte 4 lu ng tn hiu STM-4
nh hnh 4.18b. Lu ng tn hi u STM-64 thng hnh thnh t 4 lu ng tn hi u STM-
16. Tuy nhin cng c th s dng hn hp nhiu loi lu ng tn hi u ng b mc
thp to thnh lu ng tn hiu ng b mc cao hn.
109
Bi tp n tp chng 4
1. Cho 4 tn hiu thng tin: vm1(t), vm2(t), vm3(t) v vm4(t), vi di tn s 10 Hz x 4
kHz, c truyn s dung h thng FDM. T n s c ban fo i vi h thng FDM
ny l 900 MHz. Tnh bng thng ca h th ng?
2. Knh truy n dn tin hi u truy n hinh chi m bng thng 6 MHz.
a. Tnh s knh thoi tng t 30 KHz 2 chi u c ghep knh FDM vao m t
knh truy n hin h?
b. Tnh s knh thoi GSM 200 KHz 2 chi u c ghep knh FDM vao m t knh
truy n hin h?
3. Xt di tn s c rng W Hz c chia thanh M knh co r ng bng t n nh
nhau.
a. Tnh tc bit mi knh? Gi thit tt c cc knh c cng SNR.
b. Tnh tc bit i vi mi ngi dung trong M ngi dung khi toan b dai t n
c s du ng nh m t knh va khi TDM c s du ng?
c. Tng t nh a va b cho trng h p s du ng FDM co dai phong v chi m 10%
r ng bng t n cua knh.
4. Xt h th ng co dai bng t n kha du ng 1 GHz, c s du ng truyn dn thng
IT
tin gia m t thi t bi vin thng vi m t s l ng ln ngi dung . So sanh 2 cch
thc ti p c n sau t chc h th ng:
a. H th ng TDM.
b. H th ng lai ghep TDM /FDM trong o dai t n s c chia thanh nhi u knh
v TDM c s dng trong mi knh.
5. Xt mt thi t bi ghep knh co 2 u vao, mi u vao co t c danh inh 1 Mbit/s.
T
i u chinh l ch t t c danh inh
, b ghep knh phat tin hi u t c 2,2
Mbit/s nh sau. Mi nhom 22 bit trong u ra cua b ghep knh cha 18 v tr lun
mang thng tin , 9 v tr t mi u vo .Cn li 4 v tr l 2 bit c v 2 bit d li u .
P
Mi bit c chi thi bit d li u tng ng mang thng tin ngi dung ho c bit n.
a. Gi s 2 u vao hoa t ng t c chinh xac 1 Mbit/s. Tnh s bit n?
b. B ghep knh cho phep cac u vao sai l ch so v i t c danh inh la bao
nhiu?
6. Chng minh r ng ca s 100nm trong bc song 1300nm tng ng vi r ng
bng t n 18 THz. Tnh rng bng tn cho ca s 100nm bc song 1550nm?
7. Xt cc h th ng WDM 100, 200, v 400 bc sng hot ng vng 1550 nm va
mi h th ng mang tin hi u STS-48. Tnh s cuc gi thoi c truyn ti bi cc
h th ng trn? Tnh s lng tn hiu truyn hnh MPEG-2?
110
Bi ging Truyn dn s Chng V: M ng truyn
CHNG 5: M NG TRUYN
5.1. Tng quan v m ng truyn

Trong cac h th ng truy n thng s , thng tin c gia thi t la c ta o ra
dng d liu nh phn vi cc gi tr 0 ho c 1. Thng tin s nhi phn nay c truy n
qua cac h th ng truy n thng s co th co da ng ban u la tin hi u tng t nh : tn
hi u m thanh ho c anh tng t , c l y mu , l ng t hoa, v c bin i thnh
tn hiu s PCM ; ho c cung co th la da ng vn ban d li u s . Song du da ng thc
no i na , mc ch ca chng ny l ch c p n vn truyn dn thng tin
dng tn hiu s nh phn . M ha ng dy l qu trnh la chn cc dng xung c
th bi u din cac ky hi u 1 va 0 da trn m t ho c nhi u tiu chi di y:
1. C hay khng c thnh phn mt chiu DC: i vi cac tuy n truy n dn
ghp AC: t in, bi n ap , se ch n thanh ph n m t chi u DC gy meo
tn hiu thu.
2. M t ph cng su t PSD c bi t gia tri cua PSD ta i t n s f=0 Hz.
3. Bng thng: cng nh cng tt.
4. Hi u su t BER (t l li bit): cng nh cng tt.
5.
6.
Tnh trong sut (tc la tin
k c th c pht v thu).
D dang khi phu c tin
IT
h ch t ma m t ky hi u , ho c bit, ho c mu b t
hi u ng h ng b ky hi u.
7. C hay khng cc tnh cht pht hin li.
B ma hoa ng dy thc hi n anh xa chui d li u thng tin nhi phn u
vo ak (ak=0 ho c ak=1 vi mo i k =0, 1, 2,) thnh tn hiu vt l u ra x (t)
T
(Hnh 5.1) c bi u din bi u thc (5.1):

x(t )
k
k p(t kTb )
(5.1)
trong o : p(t) l dng xung v Tb l khong thi gian ca 1 bit, c Tb =Ts/n (Ts:
P
khong thi gian ca 1 k hiu v n l s bit/k hiu).

k l bin xung.
Hnh 5.1: B ma hoa ng dy

Khi o , mi ma ng dy se c m ta bi m t ham anh ky hi u a k (bi u
din cac mc ) v mt dng xung p(t). Do o vi c phn chia cac loa i ma ng truy n
(Hnh 5.2) c th nh sau:
Cc hm nh x k hiu (ak):
n cc
Phn cc
110
Lng cc (ao d u an xen AMI, gi tam phn)

Cc dng xung p(t):
Khng tr v 0 (NRZ: Nonreturn-to-zero)
Tr v 0 (RZ: Return to Zero)
Manchester (chia pha)
Hnh 5.2: Phn loa i ma ng truy n

IT
a. M n cc : s truyn i mt xung i vi bit 1 va khng co xung i vi
bit 0 trong khoang thi gian Tb. Cng thc t ng quat bi u din ma n cc (ki u
NRZ) c th hi n (5.2):

t kTb
x(t ) rect k (5.2)
k Tb
T
k l bin xung c gi tr bng A hoc 0 tng ng vi ak = 1 ho c ak = 0)
C th biu din m n cc NRZ ( r ng xung = Tb) v RZ ( r ng xung
=Tb/2) cho chui thng tin s nhi phn u vao c th hi n Hin
h 5.3. Qua o cho
P
th y ki u xung RZ yu c u bng thng ln hn ki u xung NRZ . Hn na , dng xung

c th thay i c c th s dng cc xung m tha y vi xung dng n u mong
mu n.
M t ph cng su t cua ma n cc NRZ va RZ c xac inh
l n l t theo
bi u thc (5.3), (5.4):
A2
PunipolarNRZ f P f 2 1 f
1
4T b Tb (5.3)
A2
k
PunipolarRZ f P f 2 1 1
16T b Tb
f
Tb

(5.4)
k
Trong o: P (f ) FT p (t ) T b sin c fT b
111
(a) M n cc NRZ (b) M n cc RZ
Hnh 5.3: M n cc
IT
Hnh 5.4: M t ph cng su t cua ma n cc NRZ
T
P
Hnh 5.5: M t ph cng su t cua ma n cc RZ
Qua m t ph cng su t cua ma n cc NRZ (Hnh 5.4) v RZ (Hnh 5.5)

cho th y ma n cc RZ co nh c i m la chi m bng thng g p 2 l n ma n cc
NRZ nhng co u i m la co thanh ph n ng h nn d dang cho vi c khi phu c
ng h ng b .
M t trong nhng u i m chin h cua ma n cc l tnh n gin . Song nh c
i m la co thanh ph n m t chi u DC nn khi truy n qua cac ghep n i AC thi thanh
ph n nay bi ngn la i lam cho tin hi u thu bi meo .
112
b. M phn cc : c dng biu din nh Hnh 5.7. Trong o , xung dng c

bi u din cho cac bit 1, cn xung m c s dng cho cc bit 0. Trong trng
h p ma phn cc RZ se co r ng xung nho hn Tb (Tb/2). Cng thc t ng quat bi u
din ma phn cc (ki u NRZ) c th hi n (5.2), vi k l bin xung c gi tr
b ng A ho c -A tng ng vi ak=1 ho c ak=0.
(a) M phn cc NRZ (b) M phn cc RZ
Hnh 5.7: M phn cc: (a) NRZ va (b) RZ

M t ph cng su t cua ma phn cc NRZ va RZ c xac inh
l n l t theo
bi u thc (5.5), (5.6): IT 2
A2 sin fTb
PPolar NRZ ( f ) P( f ) A2Tb
2
(5.5)
Tb fTb
2
A2 1 sin fTb
PPolar RZ ( f ) P( f ) A2Tb
2
(5.6)
4Tb 4 fTb
T
P
(a) M phn cc NRZ (A2=1) (b) M phn cc RZ (A2=1)
Hnh 5.8: M t ph cng su t cua ma phn cc

M t ph cng su t cua ma phn cc NRZ va RZ c th hi n Hinh 5.8.
Ph cua ma phn cc r t gi ng vi ph cua ma n cc , nn ma phn cc cung co
nhng tin h ch t gi ng nh ma n cc : bng thng, mo, khi phu c ng h . u i m
ca m phn cc so vi ma n cc la vi cung ty l BER , yu c u cng su t tin hi u
th p hn va mc ngng quy t inh bn thu cua ma phn cc la 0V.
c. M lng cc: bi u din cac bin khng c l p ma rang bu c vi nhau qua
cc tinh ca xung c gn cho cc bit 1, o la an xen cc tinh. Do o, k s c cc
113
gi tr 0, A ho c A vi cac xac su t xu t hi n tng ng la , va . V d biu

din ma lng cc th hi n Hin h 5.9.
Hnh 5.9: M lng cc

M t ph cng su t cua ma lng cc NRZ va RZ c th hi n (5.7),
(5.8):
A2 sin fTb 2
PBipolar NRZ ( f ) P( f ) sin 2 fTb A2Tb sin fTb
2 2
Tb fTb (5.7)
2
A2Tb sin fTb
PBipolar RZ ( f ) sin fTb
2
(5.8)
4 fTb
IT
M t ph cng su t cua ma lng cc RZ c th hi n Hin
h 5.10. u
i m cua ma lng cc khng cha thanh ph n m t chi u DC , bng thng nho hn, c
kh nng t pht hin li qua nguyn tc an xen du bit 1.
T
P
Hnh 5.10: M t ph cng su t cua ma lng cc RZ

d. M Manchester : bi u din bit 1 la m t xung dng co r ng b ng Tb/2
c theo sau bi m t xung m chi m khoang chu ky bit con la i , v bit 0 cung la
chui 2 xung nh v y nhng ng c cc tin h . V d minh ha c th hin Hnh
5.11. M Manchester cn c tn gi khc l m chia pha (split-phase) ho c ma hai pha
(bi-phase). M c t nht mt ln chuyn dch mc trong mi khong chu k Tb, d
dng khi phc ng h ng b ngay c khi truyn lin tip cc bit 0 ho c 1.
Ngoi ra, m khng c thnh phn mt chiu DC . Song la i co nh c i m la yu c u
bng thng g p i so vi tin hi u lng cc .
114
Hnh 5.11: M Machester

M t ph cng su t cua ma Manchester c th hi n cng thc (5.9) v
Hnh 5.12:
2
sin fTb / 2 (5.9)
PManch. NRZ ( f ) A Tb sin fTb / 2
2 2
fTb / 2
IT
T
Hnh 5.12: M t ph cng su t cua ma Manchester

P
Sau khi ma hoa ng dy , cc xung c th c lc hoc c nh dng

ci thin cc c tnh ca chng , ch ng ha n nh hi u su t ph , loi b nhiu lin k
hi u (ISI).
5.2. Cc loi m truyn ng truyn
5.2.1 M AMI
L loi m lng cc NRZ i du lun phin, c s dng kh ph bin. M
AMI s dng 3 mc bin xung c nh ngha nh sau:
Bit 0 ----> khng c xung (xung co bin 0V).
Bit 1------> xung co bin A an xen nhau.
V d bi u din ma AMI cho chui bit nhi phn s 01001110 c th hi n

Hnh 5.13.
115
Hnh 5.13: Bi u din ma AMI cho chui bit nhi phn s
AMI c cac c i m nh sau:
Khng c thanh ph n m t chi u DC . Trnh c hin tng tn hiu

rt (drop) qua cc tuyn ghp ni AC.
Khi chui bit u vao cha nhi u bit 0 lin ti p thi chui u ra cung
IT
l mt chui khng c xung lin tip , khng co chuy n i cc tin
o kho tach tin hi u inh
h , do
thi . Nh c i m nay co th kh c phu c c
b ng cach s du ng b ghep xen.
T
P
(a) PSD cua AMI NRZ (b) PSD cua AMI RZ
Hnh 5.14: PSD cua ma AMI
5.2.2. M CMI (Coded Mark Inversion)

CMI la ma phn cc NRZ s du ng ca hai mc bin (mi mc co r ng
xung b ng m t na: Tb/2) biu din m ha cc bit 0 va mc bin co r ng
xung b ng T b biu din cc bit 1 thc hi n an xen cc tin h gia cac bit 1 k
ti p.
CMI c ITU -T khuy n nghi s du ng cho tin hi u ghep knh mc 4 t c
139,264 Mbps (G.703). Hnh 5.15 ch ra v d minh ha biu din v PSD ca m
CMI.
116
(a) V d biu din m CMI

(b) PSD cua CMI
Hnh 5.15: M CMI
5.2.3. M HDBn
HDBn l m ng dy n s nh phn mt cao. Khi s bit 0 lin tip > n,
thng n=3, th chui bit 0 o s c thay bi m c bit. ITU khuy n nghi s
dng trong tiu chu n G.703 i vi h thng PCM 2, 8 v 34 Mbits/s. Nguyn tc
thay th c minh ho a Hinh 5.16.
IT
T
P
Hnh 5.16: Nguyn t c thay th chui 4 bit 0 lin ti p
Chui 4 bit 0 lin tip c thay bi:
000V: nu s bit 1 l (tnh n l n thay th cui cng) hoc B00V: nu s bit 1

chn (tnh n l n thay th cui cng).
V=1, lun vi phm quy tc o du lun phin AMI.
B=1, tun theo quy tc lun phin.
5.2.4. M BnZS (Binary N-Zero Substitution)

L m lng cc thay th chui N bit 0 lin ti p thanh m t ma c bi t co
di N gm mt s xung c 2 vi pha m. Khi o chui d li u nhi phn ban u giai ma
117
c qua vi c nh n bi t cac ma vi pha m lng cc va thay th chung phia thu b ng

chui N bit 0.
Vi d: M B8ZS (Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution) (Hnh 5.17)
L m BNZS vi N=8, dy 8 bit 0 lin tip c thay th bng dy cha cc bit

0 v 1, trong c 2 vi phm AMI.
Xung in p cui cng trc l dng: thay th thnh 000+0+.
Xung in p cui cng trc l m: thay th thnh 000+0+.
IT
T
Hnh 5.17: V d chuyn i m nh phn sang m B 8ZS
Nh n xet:
T ng b:
P
Cc m Manchester c tnh nh thi tt hn v chng lun c im ct 0

v tr trung tm ca xung.
Cc m phn cc RZ nhin chung l t t v mc tn hiu lun v 0 na

th 2 ca xung.
Cc ma NRZ khng tt v tnh ng b.
Xc sut li:
Cc m phn cc cho hi u nng (hiu qu v nng l ng) tt hn hn

cc m n cc hoc lng cc.
Hn na vi cac ma ng truy n a xet trn da ng xung s du ng chu y u la

xung vung, c bng thng v hn . Do o truy n cac xung nay qua knh co bng
thng hu ha n, c n phai lo c t n s nh b lo c thng th p . Vi c lo c nay a lam gian
118
r ng cua xung trong mi n thi gian, gy ra hi n t ng nhiu lin ky t ISI . Anh hng
ca nhiu ISI i vi tn hiu thu c th hin Hnh 5.18.
Hnh 5.18: Nhiu lin ky t ISI i vi tin

hi u thu
IT
T
Hnh 5.19: Bi u din ma phn cc NRZ va mu m t cho trng h p lo c ly tng

P
Anh hng ca nhiu knh truyn v cc yu t khc n m ng truyn c

th quan sat c cac ma nay trn cac thi t bi hi n song ho c qua mu m t (Hnh 5.19,
5.20, 5.21). Mu m t la cng cu cho phep anh gia ch t l ng cua ma ng truy n
thu c va kha nng tach li cua may thu qua cac thng tin nh : li inh thi , gii
hn nhiu, l ng meo t i a,
Hnh 5.20: Bi u din ma phn cc NRZ va mu m t cho trng h p lo c co ISI
119
Hnh 5.21: Bi u din ma phn cc NRZ va mu m t cho trng h p ISI c ng vi

nhiu
Bi tp n tp chng 5
1. Chng minh cac cng thc tin h m t ph cng su t cua cac ma n cc , phn
cc, lng cc, Manchester.
2. Cho chui nhi phn s sau:
01011100001011010000000000 (10 s 0) 1011010100001

IT
Bi u din chui trn qua ma HDB3 v B8ZS?
3. Cho lu ng nhi phn s : 01100010, bi t xung dng hnh ch nht c bin A, tc

bit 1/Tb. V dng xung biu din cc m ng sau: Unipolar NRZ, Unipolar
RZ, Polar NRZ, Polar RZ, AMI-NRZ, AMI-RZ, Manchester.
T
P
120
Bi ging Truyn dn s Chng VI: iu ch v gii iu ch s
CHNG 6: IU CH V GII IU CH S
6.1. Tng quan v iu ch s
iu ch s l qu trnh x l m cc k hiu s c chuyn i sang dng

sng tng thch vi cc c tnh ca knh truyn dn. Trong trng hp iu ch
bng tn c s (baseband modulation), dng sng thng l cc xung nh dng.
Nhng trong trng hp iu ch thng di (bandpass modulation), cc xung nh
dng iu ch mt ng hnh sin gi l sng mang. Trong truyn dn v tuyn th
sng mang c bin i thnh trng in t (EM) truyn n ni mong mun.
Mt cu hi t ra rng ti sao cn thit phi s dng sng mang cho truyn dn v
tuyn ca tn hiu bng tn c s?
Cu tr li l do s truyn dn ca trng in t qua khng gian c thc

hin cng vi vic s dng ng ten. Kch thc ca ng ten ph thuc vo bc sng
lamda v ng dng ca n. i vi mng in thoi di ng, kch thc ng ten in
hnh l / 4 , vi di bc sng bng c / f v c l vn tc nh sng c
IT
3.108 m / s . Xem xt vic truyn mt tn hiu bng tn c s (f=3000Hz) bng cch kt
ni n trc tip vi ng ten m khng c sng mang. Khi kch thc ca ng ten s
phi ln n mc no?
i vi tn hiu bng tn c s 3000Hz th / 4 = 25000 m ( 15 dm).

truyn mt tn hiu c tn s 3000Hz qua khng gian m khng c iu ch sng
T
mang th yu cu ng ten c rng 25000m ( 15 dm) l khng kh thi. Tuy nhin,
nu thng tin bng tn c s c iu ch ln th nht tn s sng mang cao hn,
v d 1 sng mang 900 MHz, th ng knh ng ten tng ng s l 8 cm. Chnh v
P
l do ny m iu ch sng mang hay iu ch thng di l 1 bc quan trng cho tt

c cc h thng k c h thng truyn dn v tuyn.
iu ch thng di cn em li mt s li ch khc trong truyn dn tn hiu.

Nu c nhiu hn mt tn hiu cng s dng knh truyn n, iu ch c th c s
dng tch ring cc tn hiu khc nhau qua vic ghp knh phn chia theo tn s.
iu ch c th c s dng gim thiu nh hng ca nhiu qua vic iu ch
tri ph, yu cu bng thng h thng ln hn rt nhiu bng thng ti thiu c s
dng cho cc bn tin. iu ch c th c s dng t mt tn hiu trong mt bng
tn theo yu cu thit k nh vic lc v khuch i tn hiu. y l trng hp khi tn
hiu tn s v tuyn (RF) c chuyn i sang tn s trung tn (IF) my thu.
iu ch thng di (s hoc tng t) l qu trnh trong tn hiu thng tin

c chuyn i sang mt dng sng tn hiu hnh sin; i vi iu ch s, chu k tn
hiu hnh sin T tng ng vi b rng ca k hiu s.
121
Tn hiu hnh sin c 3 c im dng phn bit gia tn hiu hnh sin ny vi
cc tn hiu hnh sin khc: bin , tn s v pha. Do vy, iu ch thng di c th
c nh ngha nh l mt qu trnh m bin , tn s hay pha ca sng mang
v tuyn RF, hoc s kt hp ca 3 yu t c bin i tng ng vi tn hiu
thng tin cn c truyn i. Dng tng qut ca tn hiu sng mang l:
s(t ) A(t ).cos (t ) (6.1)
y, A(t) l bin bin i theo thi gian v (t ) l gc pha bin i theo

thi gian. (t ) c th vit c th hn:
(t ) 0t (t ) (6.2)
Khi :
s(t ) A(t ).cos[0t (t )] (6.3)

IT
Vi 0 l tn s gc ca sng mang v (t ) l pha. f v u c s dng
biu th cho tn s. Khi f c s dng th n v l Hert z (HZ) cn khi c s
dng th n v l radian/s, gia chng c mi quan h: 2 f
6.2. Cc phng thc iu ch - gii iu ch

T
Cc loi iu ch/gii iu ch thng di c bn c minh ha hnh v 6.1.
Khi my thu bit c pha ca sng mang tch cc tn hiu th qu trnh x l
gi l tch sng kt hp (coherent detection); Khi my thu khng s dng thng tin
P
tham kho v pha, th qu trnh x l c gi l tch sng khng kt hp

(noncoherent detection). Trong truyn thng s, cc thut ng gii iu ch v tch
sng thng c dng thay th cho nhau, mc d gii iu ch nhn mnh s ti to,
khi phc dng sng, cn tch sng lin quan n qu trnh a ra quyt nh v k
hiu thu c.
Trong tch sng kt hp l tng, c sn my thu mt nguyn mu ca

mi tn hiu n. Nhng dng sng nguyn mu c gng sao chp y nguyn tn
hiu pht mi kha cnh, thm ch c pha ca sng v tuyn. My thu sau c
kha pha (phase locked) vi tn hiu n. Trong qu trnh gii iu ch, my thu nhn
v kt hp (tng quan) tn hiu n vi mi bn sao nguyn mu ca n.
iu ch/gii iu ch kt hp c phn loi l: Kha dch pha (PSK), Kha

dch tn s (FSK), Kha dch bin (ASK), iu ch pha lin tc (CPM) v lai ghp
gia cc phng php. V d v iu ch pha lin tc CPM l Kha dch pha cu
122
phng b (OQPSK), kha dch nh nht/ti thiu (MSK), v iu ch lai ghp l iu

bin cu phng (QAM).
Gii iu ch khng kt hp c cc h thng m b gii iu ch c thit

k hot ng khng cn bit v gi tr tuyt i ca pha tn hiu vo; do vy khng yu
cu vic c lng pha. Cho nn u im h thng khng kt hp so vi kt hp l
gim c phc tp, nhng xc sut li (PE) li tng ln. hnh 6.1 nhng loi
iu ch/gii iu ch c lit k trong ct khng kt hp l DPSK, FSK, ASK,
CPM, v iu ch lai.
Kt hp (Coherent) Khng kt hp (NonCoherent)

Kha dich pha - PSK Kha dch pha vi phn - DPSK
Kha dch tn s - FSK Kha dch tn s - FSK
Kha dch bin - ASK Kha dch bin - ASK
iu ch pha lin tc - CPM iu ch pha lin tc - CPM
iu ch lai - Hybrid iu ch lai - Hybrid
IT
Hnh 6.1: Phn loi iu ch/gii iu ch s
6.2.1. iu ch kha dch bin (ASK)

iu ch kha dch bin (ASK) hay cn gi l kha ng m - OOK (On-
Off Keying) c kha ng m (chuyn mch) sng mang hnh sin tng ng vi vic
T
xut hin hoc khng xut hin tn hiu nh phn n cc (hnh 6.2d). Pht sng v
tuyn m Morse l mt v d n gin ca k thut ny. Do OOK l mt trong
nhng k thut iu ch u tin c s dng v trc c cc h thng truyn thng
tng t.
P
Tn hiu iu ch ASK c minh ha bi:

s(t ) Ac m(t ) cos ct (6.4)
y, m(t) l tn hiu d liu bng tn gc n cc (m(t) c gi tr 1vi k hiu

1 v 0 vi k hiu 0, nh c ch ra trong hnh 6.1a. Do , ng bao phc ca tn
hiu ASK l:
g (t ) Ac m(t ) (6.5)
S to tn hiu iu ch ASK c miu t hnh 6.3.
123
IT
Hnh 6.2: Cc dng tn hiu iu ch s thng di
T
Hnh 6.3: S to tn hiu iu ch ASK

P
Mt ph cng sut - PSD ca ng bao phc c xc nh:
Ac2 sin fTb

2
Pg ( f ) f Tb (6.6)
2 fTb
m(t) c gi tr nh l 2 , s(t) c nng lng chun ha trung bnh l Ac2 / 2 .

PSD ca tn hiu ASK c minh ha 6.4, vi R=1/Tb l tc bit v Tb l chu k
bt. Bng thng khng khng l 2R. C ngha l, bng tn truyn ca tn hiu ASK l
BT 2 B vi B l bng tn thng di v ASK l loi tn hiu iu ch bin AM
124
Hnh 6.4: PSD ca tn hiu s thng di ASK

Tn hiu iu ch ASK c th c tch sng qua vic s dng b tch sng
ng bao (b tch sng khng kt hp), b tch sng nhn (b tch sng kt hp) bi
v n l mt dng ca iu ch tn hiu tng t AM. Cc b tch sng ny c m t
trong hnh 6.5a v 6.5b.
IT
(a) Tch sng khng kt hp
T
P
(b) Tch sng kt hp vi b lc thng thp

Hnh 6.5: Tch sng tn hiu iu ch ASK
6.2.2. iu ch kha dch pha (PSK)
6.2.2.1 iu ch BPSK
Kha dch pha nh phn (BPSK) lin quan n s dch pha ca sng mang hnh
sin 0 hoc 180o tng ng vi tn hiu nh phn n cc u vo (hnh 6.2e). S
o
to tn hiu iu ch BPSK c miu t hnh 6.6.
125
Hnh 6.6: S to tn hiu iu ch BPSK

Tn hiu BPSK c biu din bi:
s(t ) Ac cos[ct Dp m(t )] (6.7a)
Trong m(t) l tn hiu d liu bng gc lng cc (hnh 6.2c). thun tin,
m(t) c gi tr nh l 1 v l dng xung ch nht.
Gi ta s ch ra rng BPSK l mt dng tn hiu AM, khai trin biu thc 6.7a, ta
c:
s(t ) Ac cos( Dp m(t )) cos ct Ac sin( Dp m(t ))sin ct
IT
Nhc li, m(t) c gi tr 1 v cos(x) v sin(x) l hm chn v l ca x, minh ha cho
tn hiu rt gn BPSK l:
(6.7b)
T
Mc ca sng mang hoa tiu c thit lp bng chnh lch gi tr nh,
Dp .
P
i vi tn hiu s c iu ch gc, ch s iu ch s, h, c nh ngha l:

2
h
(6.8)
trong 2 l lch pha ln nht t nh n ch (rad) trong khong thi
gian yu cu gi 1 k t, Ts. . i vi tn hiu nh phn, thi gian k t c tnh bng
thi gian bit Ts = Tb.
Mc ca sng mang hoa tiu c thit lp bng lch gi tr nh,
Dp vi m(t)= 1 . Nu Dp nh, sng mang hoa tiu s c bin tng i ln so
snh vi d liu; do ; c rt t cng sut trong dng d liu (gm thng tin ngun).
ti a hiu sut tn hiu (kh nng li thp), cng sut ca dng tn hiu cn c
ti a ha. iu ny t c bng cch Dp 900 / 2 rad, tng ng ch s
iu ch s ca h=1. Trong trng hp h=1, tn hiu BPSK tr thnh:
s(t ) Ac m(t )sin ct (6.9)
126
Chm sao tn hiu BPSK c minh ha c th hnh v di y:
Hnh 6.7: Chm sao tn hiu iu ch BPSK

Trong sut phn ny, gi s 900 , h=1, c s dng cho tn hiu BPSK
(loi tr cc giai on khc). Biu thc 6.9 ch ra rng BPSK tng ng vi tn hiu
DSB-SC vi dng sng d liu bng gc lng cc. ng bao dng phc cho tn
hiu BPSK l:
g (t ) jAc m(t ) cho BPSK (6.10)
Chng ta c c mt ph cng sut - PSD ca ng bao phc l:

IT sin fTb 2 (6.11)
Pg ( f ) Ac2Tb ( ) cho BPSK
fTb
Ph ca tn hiu BPSK c minh ha hnh 6.8. Bng thng t 0 n 0 cho

BPSK l 2R, ging vi ASK.
T
P
Hnh 6.8: PSD ca tn hiu s thng di BPSK

tch BPSK, b tch kt hp c s dng nh minh ha trong hnh v di
y:
Hnh 6.9: B tch tn hiu BPSK (tch kt hp)
127
6.2.2.2. Kha dch pha vi phn (DPSK)

Tn hiu kha dch pha khng th c tch sng khng kt hp. Tuy nhin, k
thut lin kt tng phn c th c s dng khi m chun pha cho tn hiu hin ti
c cung cp bi phin bn tr ca tn hiu m xy ra trong sut qu trnh tn hiu
trc .
Hnh 6.10: B tch tn hiu DPSK (tch kt hp tng phn)

iu ny c minh ha bi my thu hnh 6.10, ni m nhng b gii m vi
phn c cung cp bi b tr (mt bt) v b nhn. Cho nn, nu d liu trn tn hiu
BPSK c m ho vi phn, d liu m ha s c phc hi u ra ca my thu.
K thut tn hiu ny bao gm vic pht i nhng tn hiu m ha BPSK vi phn c
bit n l DPSK. IT
Trong thc t, DPSK thng c dng thay th cho BPSK, v b nhn DPSK
khng yu cu mt mch mang ng b.
6.2.2.3. Kha dch pha cu phng (QPSK) v Kha dch pha M-ary (MPSK)
Nu my pht l mt my pht PM vi M = 4, kha dch pha iu ch s 4 mc
T
-MPSK c to thnh u ra my pht. Biu cc gi tr cho php ca ng bao
phc, g (t ) Ac e j (t ) , gm 4 im cho bn mc gi tr khc nhau, tng ng vi 4 pha
cho php. y, hai tp cc gi tr kh nng ca g(t) c minh ha trn hnh 6.11;
hnh 6.11a l nhng gi tr tng ng vi gc pha l 0o, 90o, 180o, 270 o , cn hnh
P
6.11b tng ng vi gc pha l 45o, 135o, 225o, 315o . C hai tp chm sao biu din
tn hiu ny c bn cht ging nhau ngoi tr s thay i pha sng mang.
Th d ny ca M-ary PSK khi M = 4 c gi l kha dch pha cu phng
(QPSK).
(a) (b)
Hnh 6.11: Chm sao tn hiu iu ch QPSK
128
MPSK cng c th c to ra bng cch s dng 2 b bin iu sng mang

vung gc xc nh bi thnh phn x v y ca ng bao phc hp (thay bng vic s
dng mt b iu bin pha):
g (t ) Ac e j (t ) x(t ) jy(t ) (6.12)
Trong gi tr c th c ca x v y l:
xi Ac cosi (6.13)
yi Ac sin i (6.14)
i, i = 1, 2, M, l cc gc pha cho php ca tn hiu MPSK. Hnh 6.12 di

y minh ha chm sao tn hiu iu ch 8PSK.
IT
Hnh 6.12: Chm sao tn hiu iu ch 8PSK
T
6.2.3. iu ch kha dch tn (FSK)
iu ch kha dch tn s (FSK) lin quan n dch tn s ca sng mang hnh
P
sin tng ng vi vic gi i bt nh phn 1 sang mt sng mang c tn s khc khi

gi i bt nh phn 0 (hnh 6.2f).
Tn hiu FSK c th c chia ra thnh 2 loi khc nhau, ph thuc vo cc
phng php to ra tn hiu FSK. Theo , tn hiu FSK c to ra bi vic chuyn
mch u ra ca my pht gia 2 b to dao ng, nh s hnh v 6.13a. Phng
php ny to ra tn hiu khng lin tc ti thi im chuyn mch.
(a) FSK pha khng lin tc
129
(b) FSK pha lin tc

Hnh 6.13: S to tn hiu iu ch FSK
Tn hiu FSK c pha khng lin tc c biu din bi:
A cos( 1t 1 ) bit 1
s( t ) c (6.15)
Ac cos( 2t 2 ) bit 0
y, tn hiu c tn s f1 xut hin trong khong thi gian ca bit nh phn 1

c pht i; cn tn hiu c tn s f2 tng ng vi bit nh phn 0.
Tn hiu FSK c pha lin tc c to ra bi vic cp tn hiu d liu vo b
iu ch tn s, nh s hnh v 6.13b. Tn hiu FSK ny c biu din bi:
IT t
(6.16)
s(t ) Ac cos[ct D f m( )d ]

hoc:
s(t ) Re{g (t )e jct } (6.17a)
T
y:
g (t ) Ac e j (t ) (6.17b)
t
(t ) D f m( ) d
P

(6.17c)
v m(t) l tn hiu s bng gc. Mc d m(t) l khng lin tc ti thi im

chuyn mch, pha (t ) l lin tuc v (t ) t l vi tch phn ca m(t). Nu tn hiu u
vo l tn hiu nh phn bng gc lng cc ta s c tn hiu u ra iu ch FSK nh
phn. Tt nhin, nu tn hiu u vo a mc s to ra tn hiu iu ch FSK a mc -
MFSK.
6.2.4. iu bin cu phng (QAM)

iu bin cu phng QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) l s kt
hp gia iu ch ASK v PSK sao cho t c s tng phn ti a gia cc n v
tn hiu (bit, dibit, tribit).
Tn hiu iu ch QAM c th c biu din nh sau:
s(t ) b(t ) cos(c t ) d (t )sin(c t ) (6.18)

vi
130

b(t ) b
n
n p(t nTb )
(6.19)
v

d (t ) d
n
n p(t nTb )
(6.20)
y, Tb l chu k tn hiu, bn v dn biu din dy tn hiu u vo.
S chm sao cho tn hiu iu ch 4-QAM c miu t hnh 6.14, vi bn
= {A,-A} v dn = {A, -A}.
IT
Hnh 6.14: S chm sao tn hiu 4-QAM
Hnh 6.15 biu din s chm sao cho tn hiu iu ch 8-QAM; y c 02
mc bin tng ng vi 4 pha.
T
P

Hnh 6.16 biu din s chm sao cho tn hiu iu ch 16-QAM, cc im
c ta bn = {-3A, -A, A, 3A} cho honh v dn = {-3A, -A, A, 3A} cho tung .
131

Cc dng biu din s chm sao khc cho tn hiu iu ch 16-QAM c
th hin hnh v di y:
IT
T
Hnh 6.17: Cc dng s chm sao tn hiu 16-QAM

P
6.3. nh gi hiu nng ca cc k thut iu ch
Phn ny tp trung ch yu vo phn tch v nh gi hiu nng ca cc k

thut iu ch s theo xc sut li bit BEP (Bit Error Probability). C th nh sau:
6.3.1. iu ch ASK
i vi tn hiu iu ch s, cng sut pht c tnh ton theo cng sut trung
bnh trn mi k hiu (symbol). Vi mt tn hiu M-ASK, xem xt cc symbols c xc
sut ngang nhau, cng sut sng mang c iu ch c cho bi:
1 M 2
PS mk p(mk )
2 k 1
(6.21)
Xc sut li bit ca tn hiu 2-ASK nh phn kt hp l:
132
1 Eb
Pe erfc (6.22)
2 N0
Trong , biu thc (6.22) Eb l nng lng xung nh phn, N 0 th hin mt
ph cng sut nhiu v erfc(u) l hm li (Error function):

2
erfc u e
z2
dz (6.23)
u
Vi mt xung vung Eb A2Tb , trong A l bin xung v Tb l chu k

xung. i vi h thng M-ary, xc sut li bit l:
M 1 Eb 3log 2 M
Pe erfc (6.24)
N0 M 1
2
M
Hnh 6.18 biu din xc sut li bit (BEP) ca cc dng iu ch M-ASK, vi

M=2, 4, 8 v 16. y, xc sut li bit tng dn theo s k hiu.
IT
T
P
Hnh 6.18: Xc sut li bit ca iu ch M-ASK
6.3.2. iu ch PSK
Xc sut li bit ca iu ch BPSK kt hp c xc nh theo nh biu thc

di y:
1 Eb
Pe erfc (6.25)
2 N0
vi Eb l nng lng xung v N 0 i din cho mt ph cng sut nhiu.
Hnh 6.19 biu din xc sut li bit (BEP) ca cc dng iu ch M-PSK vi

M=2, 4, 8, 16 v 64.
133
i vi h thng M-ary, xc sut li bit l:
1 2E
Pe Q sin 2 b (6.25a)
log 2 M M N0
y hm Q(u) c xc nh theo biu thc:
z2
1
Q u e 2
dz (6.25b)
2 u
Quan h gia hm li v hm Q(u) c cho nh sau:
1 u
erfc u 2Q u 2 ; Q u erfc
2 2
(6.25c)
IT
T
P
Hnh 6.19: Xc sut li bit ca iu ch M-PSK
6.3.3. iu ch FSK
i vi iu ch 2-FSK kt hp, xc sut li bit c gim i 3 dB so vi iu

ch PSK theo nh biu thc di y:
1 Eb
Pe erfc (6.26)
2 2 N0
i vi iu ch 2-FSK khng kt hp, xc sut li bit c xc nh:
1 E
Pe exp b (6.27)
2 2 N0
Khi truyn ti nhiu k hiu, xc sut li bit ca iu ch M-FSK b gii hn
trn theo nh biu thc di y:
134
M 1 Eb log 2 M
Pe erfc (6.28)
2 N0 2
Hnh 6.20 biu din xc sut li bit (BEP) ca cc dng iu ch M-FSK vi
M=2, 4, 8 v16.
IT
Hnh 6.20: Xc sut li bit ca iu ch M-FSK
6.3.4. iu ch QAM
Xc sut li bit ca iu ch 4-QAM c xc nh theo nh biu thc di

y:
T
Eb
Pe erfc (6.29)
N0
P
vi Eb l nng lng xung v N 0 i din cho mt ph cng sut nhiu.
i vi iu ch a mc M-QAM, xc sut li bit c xc nh:

2
1 Eb
Pe 1 1 1 erfc

(6.30)

M N0
Hnh 6.21 biu din xc sut li bit (BEP) ca cc dng iu ch M-QAM vi

M=2, 4, 8, 16 v 64.
135
Hnh 6.21: Xc sut li bit ca iu ch M-QAM
IT
1. V v gii thch s iu ch v gii iu ch BPSK?
2. V v gii thch s iu ch v gii iu ch QPSK?

T
3. V v gii thch s iu ch v gii iu ch M-ASK?
4. V v gii thch s iu ch v gii iu ch 64QAM ?

P
5. Mt h thng iu ch 2-ASK c tc bt 1000 bps, xc sut li bt = .

tng tc bt 3000bps, thit b 2-ASK c thay th bng thit b 8-ASK vi cng 1
cng sut pht.Tnh xc sut li bt ?
6. Cho h thng BPSK truyn qua knh AWGN vi mt ph cng sut

, , T l chu k ca bt v A l bin tn hiu. Xc
nh gi tr ca A xc sut li bt t c 10-6, nu tc d liu l:
a. 10Kbit/s
b. 100Kbit/s
c. 1Mbps
7. Mt h thng truyn dn QAM c tc 2400 symbols/sec (baud). Nhiu cng

c gi s l trng v phn b Gauss. Xc nh E b / N 0 t c xc sut li
10-5 vi tc bit tng ng l:
136
a. 2400 bit/sec
b. 4800 bit/sec
c. 9600 bit/sec
d. 19200 bit/sec
e. V th biu din quan h gia E b / N 0 v s bit trn mt symbol, nu nhn

xt?
IT
T
P
137
Bi ging Truyn dn s Chng VII: ng b
CHNG 7: NG B
7.1. ng b trong truyn dn s
Trong hu ht cc cuc tho lun v my thu hoc hiu nng b gii iu ch,
mt s mc ca ng b ha tn hiu c gi nh, mc d gi nh ny thng
khng c phn tch r rng. V d, trong trng hp gii iu ch pha kt hp
(PSK), my thu c gi nh l c th to ra cc tn hiu mu chun c pha ging vi
mu tn hiu ti my pht. Nhng tn hiu mu chun ny c so snh vi cc tn
hiu n trong qu trnh quyt nh a ra k hiu hp l nht.
c th to ra cc tn hiu mu chun ny, my thu phi c ng b vi

sng mang nhn c. iu ny c ngha rng phi c s ng b v pha gia sng
mang v mt bn sao ca n my thu. iu ny c bit n nh l kha pha
(phase lock) v l mt iu kin phi c thc hin cht ch nu tn hiu iu ch
c gii iu ch chnh xc my thu. Khi kha pha c thc hin, ngha l, b dao
ng ni ca my thu c ng b vi tn hiu thu c v c pha v tn s. Nu tn
IT
hiu mang thng tin khng c iu ch trc tip trn sng mang, nhng c iu
ch gin tip qua sng mang ph th c pha ca sng mang v sng mang ph phi
c xc nh. Nu sng mang v sng mang ph khng c ng b pha my
pht (thng th khng), iu ny yu cu to ra mt bn sao ca sng mang ph bi
my thu, ni m pha ca bn sao sng mang ph c iu khin ring bit t pha ca
bn sao sng mang. iu ny s cho php my thu c c s kha pha trn c sng
T
mang v sng mang ph.
Cng gi nh rng my thu bit chnh xc khi no k hiu bt u v kt

P
thc. S nhn bit ny l cn thit bit khong thi gian tch hp cc k hiu -
khong thi gian m nng lng c tch hp trc khi a ra quyt nh v k hiu.
R rng nu my thu thc hin vic tch hp trn mt khong thi gian c chiu di
khng ph hp, hoc ko di qua hai k hiu, th kh nng a ra quyt nh chnh xc
v k hiu s b suy gim.
C th thy rng ng b k hiu v ng b pha ging nhau ch c hai u

lin quan n vic to ra mt bn sao ca phn tn hiu pht. Vi ng b pha, l
mt bn sao chnh xc ca sng mang. i vi ng b k hiu, n l mt xung vung
c tc chuyn tip ca k hiu.
Trong nhiu h thng truyn thng, mt mc ng b cao hn c yu cu

v c gi l ng b khung. ng b khung c yu cu khi thng tin c t
chc dng khi, hoc bn tin ca mt s thng nht cc k hiu. V d nh mt m
khi c s dng kim sot li trc, hoc cc knh thng tin lin lc c chia s
thng xuyn bi mt s ngi s dng theo thi gian (TDMA). Trong trng hp
138
ca m ha khi, b gii m cn phi bit v tr ca ranh gii gia cc t m gii m

cc bn tin mt cch chnh xc. Trong trng hp ca mt knh chia s theo thi gian,
ng b khung l cn thit bit c v tr ranh gii gia cc ngi s dng knh,
nh tuyn ng thng tin mt cch thch hp. Tng t nh ng b k hiu,
ng b khung cng to ra xung vung c tc bng vi tc khung.
Hu ht cc h thng truyn thng s s dng iu ch kt hp yu cu cht ch

c ba cp ng b: pha, k hiu, v khung. Cc h thng s dng k thut iu ch
khng kt hp thng s yu cu ng b k hiu v khung, cn kha pha chnh xc
khng phi l yu cu cn thit. Thay vo , cc h thng khng kt hp yu cu
ng b v tn s. ng b tn s khc vi ng b pha ch bn sao ca cc sng
mang c to ra bi my thu cho php c mt hng s lch pha ty so vi sng
mang thu c.
Tt c cc cuc tho lun cho n nay u hng v u cui thu ca mt tuyn

truyn thng. Tuy nhin, trong thc t, c nhng trng hp, my pht gi nh c vai
tr tch cc hn trong qu trnh ng b qua thay i vic nh thi gian v tn s
IT
truyn ca n tng ng vi yu cu ca my thu. Mt v d ca trng hp ny l
mng li thng tin lin lc v tinh, ni c rt nhiu thit b u cui mt t, hng
tn hiu ti mt my thu v tinh duy nht. Trong hu ht cc trng hp ny, my pht
da trn s phn hi t my thu xc nh chnh xc vic ng b ca n. Nh vy,
ng b pha pht thng ng truyn thng hai chiu hoc mt mng li c
ng b thnh cng. Nh vy, ng b pha pht thng c gi l ng b mng.
T
ng b pha pht hoc ng b mng cng s c tho lun phn cui ca chng
ny.
7.2. ng b pha thu

P
Tt c cc h thng truyn thng s yu cu mt vi mc ng b i vi

cc tn hiu n bi cc my thu. Trong phn ny, cc nguyn tc c bn ca cc mc
khc nhau ca ng b pha thu c gii thiu. Ban u l cc mc ng b c
bn yu cu cho thu kt hp - ng b pha v tn s - cc nguyn tc hot ng ca
vng kha pha (PLL). Tip n l ng b k hiu v mt s mc ng b k hiu yu
cu cho cc my thu s kt hp hoc khng kt hp. Cui cng l ng b khung v
k thut t c v duy tr n.
7.2.1. Mch vng kha pha
Trung tm ca hu ht cc mch ng b l vng kha pha (PLL). Trong my

thu s hin i, vng kha pha ny c th kh nhn bit, nhng chc nng tng
ng lun hin din. S khi ca mt vng kha pha c bn c minh ha
hnh 7.1. Cc vng kha pha l nhng vng c cu iu khin ph c tham s iu
khin l pha ca bn sao cc tn hiu sng mang n c to ra. Cc vng kha pha
139
c ba thnh phn c bn: b so pha, b lc vng v b to dao ng iu khin bi

in p (VCO). B so pha l mt thit b to ra s khc bit v pha gia tn hiu n
v bn sao ni b. Khi tn hiu n v bn sao ni b thay i tng ng vi nhau, th
s khc nhau v pha (hay li pha) tr thnh mt tn hiu bin i theo thi gian v
c a ti b lc vng. B lc vng khng ch p ng ca vng kha pha theo
nhng bin i tn hiu sai lch (li) ny.
Mt vng lp c thit k tt c th theo di nhng thay i pha ca tn hiu

nhng khng c p ng qu mc i vi nhiu my thu. VCO l thit b to ra bn
sao sng mang. VCO, nh tn ca n, l mt b dao ng hnh sin c tn s c iu
khin bi mc in p ti u vo thit b. Trong hnh 7.1, b so pha c hin th nh
l b nhn, b lc vng c m t bi hm p ng xung f (t), vi bin i Fourier
F(), v VCO.
IT
T
Hnh 7.1: S khi mch vng kha pha

P
VCO l b dao dng c tn s u ra l mt hm tuyn tnh ca in p u

vo. Mt in p u vo dng to ra tn s u ra VCO ln hn gi tr khng iu
khin c ca n, 0 , trong khi mt in p m s gy ra hiu ng ngc li. Kha
pha c thc hin bng cch cung cp cho b lc s lch pha (li pha) gia tn hiu
n r(t) v tn hiu u ra ca VCO, x(t), to ra tn hiu u vo cho VCO, y(t).
Xem xt mt tn hiu u vo chun ha c dng:
r (t ) cos[0t (t )] (7.1)
Trong 0 l tn s sng mang v (t ) l pha bin i chm. Tng t, chng

ta c tn hiu u ra VCO chun ha c dng:
140
x(t ) 2sin[0t (t )] (7.2)
Nhng tn hiu ny s to ra mt tn hiu li u ra ti b tch pha c dng:
e(t ) x(t )r (t ) 2sin[0t (t )]cos[0t (t )]

(7.3)
sin[ (t ) (t )] sin[20t (t ) (t )]
Gi s b lc vng l b lc thng thp, s hng th hai pha bn phi ca

biu thc (7.3) s c lc ra v c th b loi b. Mt b lc thng thp cung cp mt
tn hiu li, l hm ca s khc bit v pha gia u vo [biu thc (7.1)] v u ra
VCO [biu thc (7.2). Tn s u ra VCO l o hm theo thi gian ca i s ca
hm sin (7.2). Nu chng ta gi nh rng 0 l tn s khng iu khin c ca
VCO (tn s u ra khi in p u vo l 0), chng ta c th th hin s khc bit v
tn s u ra VCO vi 0 qua o hm theo thi gian thnh phn pha (t ) . Tn s u
ra ca VCO l hm tuyn tnh ca in p u vo. V vy, k t khi mt in p u
IT
vo bng 0 to ra mt tn s u ra 0 , s khc bit v tn s u ra so vi 0 , s t l
thun vi gi tr ca in p u vo y (t), hoc:
d
(t ) (t ) K 0 y (t )
dt
K 0e(t ) * f (t ) (7.4)
T
K 0 (t ) (t ) * f (t )
y, (t ) biu th s khc bit tn s, v phng php xp x gc nh (ngha

P
l: e(t ) sin[ (t ) (t )] (t ) (t ) c s dng trong dng cui cng ca biu thc

(7.4). Xp x gc nh s tr nn chnh xc khi li pha u ra l nh (vng lp tim cn
ti kha pha). y l tnh trng vng lp hot ng bnh thng. K 0 : h s tng ch
ca VCO, v f (t) l p ng xung ca b lc vng. Phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh
trong (t ) (s dng xp x gc nh) c gi l phng trnh vng lp tuyn tnh.
l mi lin h hu ch nht trong vic xc nh cch x l ca vng lp trong qu trnh
hot ng bnh thng (khi li pha nh).
Xem xt bin i Fourier ca biu thc (7.4):
( ) K ( )
j ( ) F ( ) (7.5)
0
() (t ), () (t ), F () f (t ) l cc cp bin i Fourier tng ng.

Sp xp li biu thc (7.5) chng ta c:
141
( )
K0 F ( ) (7.6)
H ( )
( ) j K 0 F ( )
H ( ) l hm truyn t vng lp kn ca mch vng kha pha PLL. Bc PLL

c xc nh theo bc cao nht ca j mu s ca H ( ) . Biu thc (7.6) cho thy
bc ca PLL lun ln hn bc ca cc b lc vng F ( ) . Bc ca PLL l mt yu t
quan trng xc nh trng thi n nh ca vng lp tng ng vi u vo trng
thi n nh.
7.2.2. ng b k hiu
Tt c cc my thu s cn phi c ng b vi qu trnh chuyn i k hiu

s u vo t c gii iu ch ti u. y, chng ta s xem xt mt s loi
ng b k hiu hoc d liu c bn cho cc tn hiu nh phn bng gc: ng b k
hiu vng h - khi phc bn sao xung ng h d liu pha pht trc tip t cc hot
IT
ng trn lung d liu n; ng b k hiu vng kn - c gng kha xung ng h d
liu ni b vi tn hiu n bng cch s dng cc php o tng i gia tn hiu ni
b my thu v tn hiu n h thng v phng php ng b k hiu vng kn
thng chnh xc hn, nhng chng kh tn km v phc tp hn.
7.2.2.1. ng b k hiu vng h

T
ng b k hiu vng h i khi c gi l ng b b lc phi tuyn. Loi
ng b ny to ra mt thnh phn tn s ti tc k hiu thng qua hot ng da
trn chui bng gc u vo vi s kt hp ca b lc v thit b phi tuyn. Hot ng
P
ny tng t nh vic phc hi sng mang trong mt mch vng hiu chnh sng
mang.
Hin ti, thnh phn tn s mong mun tc k hiu b tch vi b lc

thng di, c nh dng vi mt b khuch i bo ha c tng ch cao phc
hi li dng xung vung ca tn hiu d liu xung ng h.
Ba v d v cc b ng b bit vng h c minh ha hnh 7.2. Trong v d

u tin hnh (7.2a), tn hiu n s(t) c lc bi b lc hp (Matched filter). u ra
ca b lc ny s l hm t tng quan ca dng tn hiu u vo. i vi tn hiu
xung vung, v d, u ra c dng tam gic cn thng thng. Chui bit dng sng t
tng quan c tch sng/chnh lu bi thit b phi tuyn khng c nh
(memoryless even-law nonlinearity). Tn hiu kt qu c cc nh bin dng trong
khong thi gian tr tng ng vi qu trnh chuyn tip k hiu u vo. Chui tn
hiu ca tin trnh c minh ha hnh 7.3. Do vy, tn hiu u ra ca thit b phi
tuyn khng c nh s cha thnh phn Fourier tn s c bn ca xung ng h d
142
liu. Thnh phn tn s ny c phn cch vi cc hi ca n bi b lc thng di

(BPF) v c nh dng vi mt b khuch i bo ha l tng, c hm truyn t:
1 x0
sgn x
1 khc (7.7)
V d th hai trong hnh 7.2 to ra mt thnh phn Fourier tn s xung ng

h d liu bng cc mch nhn v tr. Tr c th hin trong hnh 7.2b l mt na
chu k bit v l gi tr tt nht v n to ra thnh phn Fourier mnh nht. Tn hiu m(t)
s lun dng trong na th hai ca tt c chu k bit, nhng s m na u tin nu
c s thay i trng thi trong lung bit n s(t).
IT
T
Hnh 7.2: Ba kiu ng b bit vng h

P
iu ny to ra mt tn hiu xung vung vi cc thnh phn ph v hi nh

trong hnh 7.2a. Cc thnh phn ph thch hp c th c phn tch vi b lc thng
di.
V d cui (hnh 7.2c) minh ha b tch sng bin. Hot ng ch yu l nhng

php tnh ly vi phn v tch sng. i vi tn hiu u vo l xung vung, mch vi
phn s to ra cc nh dng hoc m tt c cc qu trnh chuyn tip k hiu. Sau
khi tch sng/chnh lu th chui kt qu ca cc nh dng s c thnh phn Fourier
ti tc k hiu ca d liu. Mt vn c th trong s ny l b vi phn rt
nhy cm vi nhiu bng rng. Cho nn b lc thng thp c t trc b vi phn
(hnh 7.2c). B lc thng thp ny loi b cc thnh phn tn s cao ca cc k hiu
d liu lm cho chng mt i dng sng hnh ch nht nguyn gc. iu ny lm cho
tn hiu sau vi phn c sn ln v sn xung.
143
Hnh 7.3: Minh ha cc dng tn hiu trong ng b bit vng h
R rng, s c mt s tr phn cng kt hp vi cc bc x l tn hiu c

minh ha hnh 7.2. Ngi ta ch ra rng i vi mt
BPF: c trung bnh K k hiu u vo (bng thng = 1/KT), ln ca thi gian li
(tr) trung bnh xp x bng:
0.33 E
vi b > 5, K 18 (7.8)
T KEb N 0 N0
IT
Trong T l chu k bit, Eb l nng lng c pht hin cho mi bit, No l mt
ph nhiu nhn c. Wintz v Luecke cng ch ra rng vi t l tn hiu trn nhiu
cao th sai lch ca li trong mt chu k cho bi:
0.411 Eb

T
vi >1
T KEb N 0 N0 (7.9)
Nh vy, i vi mt BPF nht nh, khi nhn c t l tn hiu trn nhiu

P
va ln th tt c cc phng thc nh trn hnh 7.2 s cung cp chnh xc bit nh

thi.
7.2.2.2. ng b k hiu vng kn
Nhc im chnh ca ng b k hiu vng h l khng th trnh khi sai

lch ng chnh. Li ny c th nh khi t l tn hiu trn nhiu ln, nhng dng sng
ca tn hiu ng b ph thuc trc tip vo cc tn hiu n v li s khng b loi b.
ng b k hiu vng kn s dng cc php o so snh gia tn hiu n v tn

hiu ng h c to ra ti ni b my thu to ra tn hiu ng b vi qu trnh
chuyn i d liu n.
Hnh v di y m t v mch ng b k hiu vng kn b ng b cng

trc/sau (Early/late gate synchronizer). y, mch ng b thc hin 2 php tch
phn ring bit nng lng tn hiu u vo qua 2 khong thi gian khc nhau: 0 (T-
144
d) v d T vi T l khong thi gian ca mt k hiu. Php ly tch phn u tin (thc

hin ti cng trc Early gate) bt u t im u ca chu k k t (thi gian danh
nh bng 0) cho n (T-d) giy tip theo. Php tch phn th 2 tr d giy v kt thc
ti im cui ca chu k k t (thi gian danh nh bng T). S khc bit trong cc gi
tr tuyt i ca cc kt qu u ra ca 2 php tch phn y1 v y2 l s o li nh thi
k hiu ca my thu.
IT
Hnh 7.4: B ng b d liu cng trc/sau
Hot ng ca b ng b cng trc/sau c gii thiu qua hnh 7.5. Trong

trng hp ng b hon ho, hnh 7.5a cho thy rng c 2 cng nm trn trong mt
khong thi gian k hiu T. Trong trng hp ny, c 2 php tch phn s c cng mt
T
gi tr v hiu gia chng (tn hiu li e trong hnh 7.4) l khng. V vy khi thit b
c ng b, n s n nh v khng c xu hng mt ng b.
P
Trng hp c th hin trong hnh 7.5b cho thy my thu c tn hiu ng h

sm hn so cc d liu a vo. Theo , phn u tin ca cng trc ri vo khong
thi gian bit trc . Trong khi cng sau vn nm hon ton bn trong k hiu. B
tch phn cng sau s tch ly tn hiu trn ton b khong thi gian (T-d) nh
trng hp hnh 7.5a; nhng b tch phn cng trc s kt thc vi nng lng tch
ly ch trn khong thi gian [(T-d)-2] , trong l mt phn ca khong thi gian
ca cng trc ri vo khong thi gian bit trc . Nh vy, tn hiu li s l e = -
2, thp hn in p u vo b VCO (hnh 7.4). iu ny s lm gim tn s u ra
ca b VCO v lm chm thi gian nh thi ca my thu lm cho cc tn hiu n
c ng trong khong thi gian ca bit.
Nu thi gian nh thi my thu b tr, lng nng lng trong cng trc v
cng sau s o ngc v i du tn hiu li dn n tng in p u vo VCO v
tn s u ra v lm cho nh thi ca my thu ng vi tn hiu u vo.
145
Hnh 7.5: (a) nh thi my thu ng; (b) nh thi my thu trc/sm
7.2.3. ng b khung
Hu ht tt c cc lung d liu s u c cu trc khung. iu ny ni rng

IT
lung d liu c t chc thnh cc nhm cc bit c kch thc ng nht. Nu lung
d liu l tn hiu truyn hnh s, th mi im nh c i din bng 1 t m c
nhiu bit v tip n l cc ng qut ngang, ng qut dc. D liu my tnh
thng c t chc thnh cc t m l mt s nguyn ln ca 8 bit -byte v tip n
l c t chc thnh cc hnh nh th, cc gi tin, khung hnh hoc cc tp tin. Bt k
h thng s dng m khi sot li phi c t chc thnh cc t m c chiu di
T
nht nh. Thoi s c truyn trong cc gi tin hoc khung th khng th phn bit
c vi cc d liu s khc.
Khi nhn cc dng d liu n, my thu cn c ng b vi cu trc khung

P
ca lung d liu. ng b khung thng c thc hin vi s gip ca mt vi

tn hiu c bit to ra t my pht. Th tc ny c th rt n gin, ty thuc vo mi
trng m h thng c yu cu hot ng.
ng b khung n gin nht nh du khung, nh minh ha hnh 7.6. nh

du khung c th l 1 bit n hoc 1 on ngn ca cc bit m my pht a nh k
vo cc dng d liu. Pha thu phi bit cc mu tn hiu ng b ny v khong thi
gian a vo. Khi c c ng b d liu, my thu bit c c s tng quan gia
mu tn hiu ng b v thi im tn hiu ng b c a vo lung d liu. Nu
pha thu khng thc hin c ng b khung th s tng quan ny s thp.
u im ca nh du khung l n gin. Thm ch ch cn mt bit n l

cho vic nh du khung. Nhng nhc im chnh l s lng nh du c th rt
ln, do thi gian cn thit c c ng b s lu. Do vy, vic nh du khung
l hu ch cho cc h thng truyn d liu lin tc, nh kt ni in thoi, my tnh v
146
s khng ph hp cho cc h thng truyn d liu dng cc burst hoc yu cu ng

b nhanh. Mt nhc im na l cc bit chn vo c th gy rc ri cho t chc ca
lung d liu.
Hnh 7.6: nh du khung
IT
V d l lung sng mang T1 c pht trin bi Bell Labs v c s dng
trong h thng in thoi Bc M. Cu trc sng mang T1 mt khung d liu c 193
bt bao gm 1 bit nh du khung sau mi tp 24 bytes 8-bit, mi bytes i din cho 1
trong 24 cc lung d liu thoi.
Mt cch tip cn cho h thng truyn dn d liu dng burst hoc yu cu

T
ng b nhanh l dng t m ng b. T m ng b thng s c gi nh l mt
phn ca tiu bn tin. My thu phi bit t m v lin tc tm kim n trong dng
d liu vi mt b lc tng ng. Vic pht hin ra t m, s cho bit v tr (thng l
u) ca khung d liu. u im ca h thng l ng b khung c thc hin
P
nhanh. tr ch lin quan n vic x l cc t m n. im bt li l t m phi

lin quan ti nh du khung duy tr xc sut pht hin li thp. S phc tp ca
hot ng quan h ny t l thun vi chiu di ca chui.
Cc bng di y l minh ha cho cc loi t m ng b thng c s

dng:
147
Bng 7.1: Cc t m ng b Barker
IT
T
P
Bng 7.2: Cc t m ng b Willard
7.3. ng b mng
i vi cc h thng s dng k thut iu ch kt hp, truyn thng mt

hng/chiu nh l cc knh qung b, hoc truyn thng n ng nh l ng
truyn vi ba, hoc ng truyn cp si quang, vic ng b c thc hin ch yu
pha my thu.
i vi mt h thng truyn thng s dng k thut iu ch khng kt hp,

hoc c nhiu ngi s dng truy nhp vo mt nt truyn thng trung tm nh h
thng thng tin v tinh, vic ng b c thc hin ch yu pha thit b u cui.
Ngha l, cc tham s ca my pht u cui c bin i t c ng b thay
v phi sa i cc tham s nhn c nt mng trung tm. V d, h thng a truy
nhp phn chia theo thi gian TDMA, mi ngi s dng c cp pht mt khe
148
thi gian pht i thng tin ca h. Khi , my pht u cui s phi ng b vi h

thng theo th t cho cc chm d liu c pht i n nt mng trung tm ti thi
im m nt sn sng nhn d liu.
ng b my pht u cui cng din ra h thng c kt hp vic x l tn

hiu ti nt mng trung tm vi a truy nhp phn chia theo tn s - FDMA. Nu cc
thit b u cui chun ha truyn dn c ng b vi nt mng trung tm,
cc nt c th s dng mt tp c nh cc b lc knh v mt chun nh thi cho tt
c cc knh. Nu khng nt mng s yu cu c s phn tch v thi gian v tn s
nhn c cng nh nng lc theo bm i vi mi knh u vo v n s phi i
ph vi cc nh hng t nhiu ca cc knh lin k.
ng b my pht c phn loi thnh vng h v vng ng. K thut vng

h khng da vo vic o cc tham s ca tn hiu n nt mng trung tm. Thit b
u cui hiu chnh trc truyn dn ca n da trn hiu bit v cc tham s lin kt
cung cp bi cc ti liu bn ngoi, nhng c th sa i nh vic quan st tn hiu
phn hi t cc nt mng trung tm. K thut vng h da trn cc tham s c
IT
bit chnh xc v v d on. Chng lm vic tt nht khi lin kt c nh v cc lin
kt t hot ng lin tc vi chu k tng i ln. S kh khn cho vic s dng hiu
qu khi lin kt khng tnh, hoc khi thit b u cui truy nhp h thng ri rc.
u im chnh ca phng php vng h l vic thu nhn tn hiu nhanh, c

th hot ng khi khng c lin kt phn hi v tng thi gian tnh ton nh. Nhc
T
im ca phng php vng h l n yu cu cung cp cc tham s lin kt v khng
linh hot.
K thut vng kn t yu cu phi bit trc cc tham s lin kt. Nhng hiu
P
bit ny rt hu ch cho vic gim thi gian i hi cho vic d sng nhng khng i
hi chnh xc nh phng php vng h. Phng php vng kn lin quan n s ng
b chnh xc ca tn hiu n t thit b u cui trn tn hiu ti ti nt mng trung
tm v s phn hi kt qu ca cc i lng ti thit b u cui thng qua ng tn
hiu phn hi. Do phng php vng kn i hi ng tn hiu tr v cung cp
phn hi t s truyn dn thit b u cui, kh nng cc thit b u cui l nhn ra
cc tn hiu phn hi l g? v c kh nng sa i cc c tnh ca my pht cho
thch hp da trn s phn hi. iu ny yu cu mt khi lng ln x l thi gian
thc thit b u cui v ng lin kt hai chiu gia cc thit b u cui v nt
mng trung tm.
Nhc im ca phng php vng kn l n yu cu khi lng ln x l thi

gian thc, yu cu ng lin kt hai chiu ti mi thit b u cui v vic nhn d
liu mt tng i nhiu thi gian. u im l n khng s dng cc tri thc bn
149
ngoi m bo hot ng ca h thng v s p ng t cc lin kt phn hi cho

php h thng thch ng d dng v nhanh chng thay i dng v iu kin lin kt.
7.3.1. ng b pha pht vng h
Cc h thng vng h c th c phn chia thnh cc h thng s dng thng

tin c c nh quan st lin kt phn hi v h thng khng lm nh vy. Tuy nhin,
khng phi tt c u n gin kha cnh nhng yu cu x l thi gian thc, m cn
ch hiu nng truyn thng ca cc thit b u cui n gin r rng s rt ph
thuc vo cc c tnh lin kt n nh.
Mi ng b pha pht u c gng xc nh trc vic nh thi v tn s pht

ca tn hiu theo cch thc tn hiu n my thu vi tn s mong mun ti thi gian
nh k vng. Do vy, xc nh ng nh thi, my pht s chia khong cch gia
n v my thu cho tc nh sng nhn c thi gian truyn dn ri chuyn dch
vic nh thi truyn dn bn tin. Qua vic pht tn hiu sm, tn hiu s ti my thu
ti ng thi gian thch hp. Thi gian tn hiu n nt mng c tnh bi biu thc:
IT TA Tt
d
c
(7.10)
Trong Tt l thi gian thc t bt u truyn dn, d l khong cch truyn, c

l tc nh sng.
T
Tng t, xc nh trc tn s truyn dn, my pht tnh chuyn dch
Doppler do s chuyn ng tng i gia my pht v my thu. nhn c s
chnh xc th tn s gc truyn dn yu cu l:
P
V
1 0 (7.11)
c
Trong c l tc nh sng, V l vn tc tng i, 0 l tn s gc ban u.
Trn thc t, vic chun ha nh thi v xc nh trc tn s u khng chnh

xc. Ngay c v tinh trong qu o a tnh chun cng c s chuyn dch so vi mt
im no trn Tri t, nn vic nh thi gian v chun ha tn s trong thit b
u cui v nt mng trung tm khng bao gi c th d on c chnh xc hon
ton. Do , lun lun c mt thnh phn tn s v thi gian c chun ha sai. Khi
, thi gian li c xc nh:
re
Te t (7.12)
c
150
Trong re l c lng li ca ng truyn v t l s chnh lch gia thi

gian tham chiu ti my pht v my thu. Tn s li c xc nh:
Ve0
e (7.13)
c
Trong Ve l gi tr li trong o lng hoc d on tc tng i gia
my pht v my thu (hiu ng Doppler) v l tn s chnh lch gia tn s tham
chiu ca my pht v my thu.
C nhiu li v tn s v thi gian khng c cp y nhng chng

thng khng qu nghim trng. Spilke a ra cc thng k y v cc li thi
gian v tn s cho h thng v tinh.
Nhng li t v thng do s bin i ngu nhin trong tn s tham chiu

Thi gian tham chiu cho mt my pht hoc my thu th a s c ly nh m chu
k tn s tham chiu, do li trong chnh xc ca thi gian v tn s tham chiu
IT
c lin quan vi nhau. Nhng bin i trong mt tn s tham chiu rt kh m t
mt cch thng k, mc d mt ph cng sut th c xp x bi s sp xp cng
sut ca cc phn on.
Tn s tham chiu th thng c xc nh trong gii hn ln nht cho php

ca tn s phn on thay i trn ngy:
T

Hertz/Hertz/day (7.14)
0
P
Thng th gi tr ca nm trong khong t 106 n 105 vi dao ng tinh

th thng thng, t 109 n 1011 vi dao ng tinh th cht lng cao v n 1012
vi tiu chun rubidium v n 1013 vi tiu chun cesium.
Sai lch ca tn s chun ha 0 c th tng tuyn tnh theo thi gian:
T
(T ) 0 dt t (0) 0 T (0) Hertz (7.15)
0
i vi mt chu k thi gian tham chiu, sai lch gi tr thi gian tch ly th c
lin quan n li pha tch ly ca tham chiu:
151
T (t )
t (T )
0 0
dt t (0)
(0)

T
tdt
T
dt t (0) (7.16)
0 0 0
1 2 (0)T
T t (0)
2 0
Do , khi khng c s can thip, mt li thi gian tham chiu c th tng phi
tuyn tnh (bc hai) vi thi gian. Vi h thng ng b pha pht vng h, vic tng
theo bnh phng trong cng thc tnh li thi gian lm hn ch tn sut truy nhp
can thip t bn ngoi: hoc cp nht hiu bit ca thit b u cui v nh thi ti
my thu hoc thit lp li c thi gian tham chiu ca my pht v my thu gi tr
danh nh. S gia tng ca li theo hm bc hai c ngha l cc li nh thi l mt
trong nhng vn cn quan tm trong hot ng ca h thng hn l cc li tn s
li, mc d n c ph thuc vo thit k ca h thng.
Nu nh my pht khng c thng tin t cc i lng o c ca lin kt

IT
phn hi, s lch v thi gian v tn s c miu t bi cc biu thc t (7.12) n
(7.16) s cho php ngi thit k h thng kh nng xc nh khong thi gian ln
nht trong s can thip trn nn tng l cc tiu ch ca xc sut li. Vic hiu chun
li thi gian v tn s tham chiu thng l cng vic nng n, cng him khi xy ra
cng tt.
T
Nu mt thit b u cui c th truy nhp vo lin kt phn hi t nt mng
trung tm v c kh nng so snh cc tham s o c gia gi tr tham chiu ni
b vi tham s tn hiu n, th khong thi gian gia cc hiu chnh c th di hn.
P
Nhng trm iu khin v tinh ln c th o lng v m hnh cc tham s qu o

a tnh ca v tinh c c cc iu chnh chnh xc trong phm vi vi phn mi
ca feet cho khong cch v vi feet/sec cho vn tc tng i vi thit b u cui
mt t. Do , trong nhng trng hp c bit quan trng v ng b v tinh nh ti
nt mng trung tm, thnh phn v phi ca cc biu thc (7.12) n (7.13) th thng
khng ng k v c b qua. Khi iu ng th s khc nhau gia tham s tn
hiu n v nhng tn hiu pht sinh bi gi tr thi gian, tn s tham chiu ca thit b
u cui s sp x vi t v . Nhng i lng li trn lin kt ti v th thng
tnh ton xp x vi lin kt truyn dn ngc li. Trong trng hp khc, nu thi
gian v tn s tham chiu l chnh xc nhng lin kt cn cha chun bi v thit b
u cui l in thoi di ng hoc v tinh khng phi l a tnh, th cc i lng o
c lin kt phn hi gii quyt vn khong cch hoc vn tc s khng chc
chn. Cc i lng o khong cch v vn tc tng i c th c s dng
chun ha thi gian v tn s ca ng ln.
152
Trong trng hp thit b u cui c th s dng cc gi tr o lng tn hiu

trn ng lin kt phn hi th c gi l ng b pha pht vng ta ng (quasi-
closed-loop transmitter synchronization).
K thut ng b pha pht vng ta ng r rng l c kh nng thch ng vi

s bt n nh ca h thng truyn thng hn h thng vng h hon ton. H thng
vng h i hi bit trc v tt c cc tham s lin kt quan trng c th m bo
hot ng tt. Tuy nhin, ngi ta khng th lng trc c thay i cc lin kt.
H thng vng ta ng, mt khc, cng yu cu bit trc v cc tham s quan trng
ca tn s v thi gian v phn cn li c th c xc nh nh quan st cc lin kt
phn hi. iu ny lm tng s phc tp ca thit b u cui, nhng cng tng kh
nng thch ng vi nhng thay i ngoi d kin. iu ny ng ngha kh nng c
th gim rt nhiu vic hiu chnh tn s ca h thng.
7.3.2. ng b pha pht vng kn
IT
ng b pha pht vng kn lin quan n vic truyn dn cc tn hiu ng b
c bit, dng xc nh li tn s hoc thi gian ca tn hiu, lin quan n vic
nh thi gian v tn s mong mun khi tn hiu n my thu. Kt qu ca vic xc
nh ny c phn hi li ti my pht trn lin kt phn hi. Vic xc nh cc li
ng b c th r rng hoc khng tng minh. Nu nh nt mng trung tm c
nng lc x l, nt mng trung tm c th to mt bn cc i lng li thc t, cc
T
i lng ny c th l s lng hoc hng ca s chnh lch (offset). Nhng thng
tin ny s c nh dng v phn hi ti my pht trn ng lin kt phn hi. Nu
nt mng trung tm c nng lc x l thp, tn hiu ng b c bit ny c th n
gin ch l quay li v phn hi ti my pht trn lin kt phn hi. Trong trng hp
P
ny n tr thnh mt phn cng vic ca my pht t n gii ngha tn hiu phn

hi.
Cc u im v nhc im ca hai kiu h thng ng b pha pht vng kn

lin quan n nng lc x l tn hiu v hiu qu ca vic s dng knh. u im
chnh ca x l ti nt mng trung tm l kt qu ca cc i lng li truyn trn lin
kt phn hi c th l dy s ngn. Hiu qu ca vic s dng lin kt phn hi c th
quan trng nu nh lin kt phn hi n ng tun theo vic ghp knh phn chia
theo thi gian gia mt s ln thit b u cui. Mt u th th 2 l kh nng o li
nt mng trung tm c th c chia s cho tt c cc thit b u cui thng qua nt
mng. iu ny lm tng hiu qu ng k ca vic x l h thng
u th tim nng chnh trong vic x l ti thit b u cui l nt mng trung

tm khng th d dng truy cp v tin cy ca vic truy nhp ny phi c xem
xt trong qu trnh thit k h thng nht l trong cc trng hp khi m nt mng
153
trung tm l mt v tinh thng tin. Mt u im khc ca x l ti thit b u cui l

p ng ca vic x l c th nhanh hn v thng c tr x l ti nt mng trung tm.
iu ny c th quan trng nu cc tham s ca lin kt thay i rt nhanh.
Nhc im chnh ca vic s dng khng hiu qu knh phn hi l tn hiu

phn hi c th kh c din gii. Kh khn ny ny sinh khi nt mng trung tm
khng ch n gin l mt trm lp m cn a ra nhng quyt nh v k t v truyn
dn nhng quyt nh ny trn lin kt phn hi. Kh nng quyt nh v nhng k t
ny c th ci thin rt nhiu hiu nng li t thit b u cui ny ti thit b u cui
kia nhng n s lm phc tp th tc ng b. iu ny l bi v nh hng ca vic
lch thi gian v tn s tn ti trong tn hiu phn hi, gin tip nh hng n vic ra
quyt nh v cc k t.
Xem xt v d truyn dn BFSK ti mt nt mng trung tm to nn quyt nh

v cc bit khng kt hp. Quyt nh ny s ph thuc nng lng tn hiu thu v khi
tn hiu ti nt mng trung tm c th c xc nh:

r (t )
IT
sin (0 s )t
sin (0 )t

0 t t
t t T
(7.17)
Trong T l khong thi gian k hiu, 0 l tn s k hiu , 0 s l tn s

k hiu khc, l li tn s ti nt mng trung tm, t l li thi gian tn hiu n ti
T
nt mng trung tm v l gc pha ty . By gi, nu:
1 T
T 0
x r (t ) cos 0tdt (7.18)
P
v:
1 T
T o
y r (t )sin 0tdt (7.19)
l hai thnh phn cu phng ca b tch tn hiu, khi nng lng tn hiu thu c
c biu din bi biu thc di y:
z2 x2 y 2
sin (s )t / 2 sin (T t ) / 2
2 2

( s )T T (7.20)
cos(t ) cos T (s )t cos(T ) cos(s t )

2 (s )T 2
154
i vi trng hp c bit, li khi thi gian t 0 th biu thc (7.20) c

rt gn thnh:
sin(T / 2)
2
z2 (7.21)
T
i vi trng hp lch tn s 0 th:
2
T t sin(s t / 2)
2
z
2
(7.22)
2T sT
Mt im quan trng cn lu trong cc biu thc t (7.20) n (7.22) l bt

k li thi gian, lch tn s hoc kt hp c hai s lm gim nng lng tn hiu thu
c trong b tch k hiu ng v thm nng lng cho b tch k hiu sai. iu ny
dn n vic gim khong cch gia cc tn hiu trong khng gian tn hiu v lm
gim hiu nng li.
IT
1. Trnh by nguyn tc hot ng v so snh u nhc im ca hai phng php
ng b k hiu vng kn v vng h ti pha thu?
2. Trnh by cu trc v nguyn tc hot ng ca mch vng kha pha PLL.Vai tr
ca PLL trong ng b h thng truyn dn s?
T
3. Trnh by cu trc v nguyn tc hot ng ca mch vng kha pha s DPLL. So
snh vi PLL?
P
155
TI LIU THAM KHO

[1] John G. P., Digital Communications, McGraw Hill, 4th edition 2007.
[2] A. B. Carlson, P. B. Crilly and J. C. Rutledge, Communication Systems: An

Introduction to Signals and Noise in Electrical Communication, McGraw Hill, 2002,
4th Edition.
[3] Alberto Leon-Garcia and Indra Widjaja, Communication Networks: Fundamental

Concepts and Key Architectures, McGraw Hill, 2001.
[4] John Bellamy, Digital Telephony, John Wiley &Sons, Inc., 2nd edition 1991.
[5] Bernard Sklar, Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications, Prentice

Hall, 4th edition 2000.
[6] Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, John Wiley &Sons, Inc., 4th edition 2004.
IT
[7] Leon W. Couch, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Macmilan Inc., 6th
Editions, 2001.
[8] William Stalling, Data and Computer Communications, Macmilan Inc., Fifth
Editions, 2003.
T
P
156
Bi ging Truyn dn s Ti liu tham
kho
kin phn bin
- Nguyn c Nhn:
1. Bm st cng chi tit, h thng thc t ca h thng truyn

thng
2. ng tin yu cu
3. Hng b sung ng gp hon thin:
Chng 1: Tng quan
- M hnh s khi a thm khi ng b
- Khi nim c bn: Trnh by r truyn dn s thng di v bng gc
- M hnh ton hc ca knh: Trnh by ngha ca cc m hnh, ng dng

ca m hnh trong min thi gian v trong min tn s, phn loi chung
cc m hnh
-
loi m
IT
Pht trin h thng truyn thng cc mc quan trng: S ha PCM, cc
-Tham s nh gi hiu nng h thng
Chng 2: M ha ngun ( 4 tit)

T
- M hnh ton hc cho ngun thng tin: Khi nim ngun thng tin ri rc
v lin tc
- Thng nht thut ng : Lng t ha

P
- Cng thc a ra : Lm r qu trnh lng t gii thch cng thc Gi

m cho sinh vin
- M t qu trnh ton hc ca qu trnh ly mu PCM
- Lng t ha khng u: Qu trnh m ha nn gin s
Chng 3: M ha knh
- Trnh by chung v phn loi cc loi m
Chng 4: Ghp knh s
- Phn loi ghp knh CDMA, FDM, OFDM
Chng 5: M ng truyn
- ngha m ng
157
kho
- M ng truyn : Lng lun vo cc m c th ( NRZ lng cc, b
AMI )
Chng 6: iu ch v gii iu ch
- Ch biu din mt ph cng sut ( khai trin fourier)
- nh gi hiu nng ca iu ch, cng thc xc sut li ......
Chng 7: ng b
- Tham s nh gi ng b
Trnh by sng sa
Thy Sn: Trnh by d hiu,logic, vit ng tin
- Thng nht thut ng DMS
- Bt , RD- Tc mo, 4.17, 4.4 lp li ni dung
-
B ch gii ting Anh IT
ngh sa li chnh t, Vit ha hnh v, Chng 1 b sung cng thc
tnh s bt trung bnh.
- ngh thng nht phn tch
- Tm tt ni dung cui mi chng

T
- nh gi
kin ca Anh Ban: ngh nhm bin son

P
158
kho
IT
T
P
159

BG Truyen Dan So

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TP ON BU CHNH VIN THNG VIT NAM

TP ON BU CHNH VIN THNG

Chuyn ngnh in t truyn thng

Bin son: T.S L Nht Thng

CC THUT NG VIT TT................................................................................... VI

CHNG 1: TNG QUAN V H THNG TRUYN THNG S ...................2

1.1 c im ca thng tin s .....................................................................................2

CHNG 2: M HA NGUN ...............................................................................13

2.1 M hnh ton hc cho ngun thng tin ................................................................13

2.3 M ha cho ngun ri rc ....................................................................................16

2.5.1.2 iu xung m vi sai DPCM ....................................................................29

3.1. Pht hin li v sa li .......................................................................................37

3.2.2. Ma trn kim tra chn l ..............................................................................59

3.4.1.1. Tng quan ...............................................................................................70

4. 2. ng dng k thut ghp knh trong h thng truyn dn s ..........................104

CHNG 5: M NG TRUYN .....................................................................110

5.1. Tng quan v m ng truyn ........................................................................110

5.2.3. M HDBn ..................................................................................................117

CHNG 6: IU CH V GII IU CH S ..............................................121

6.1.Tng quan v iu ch s .................................................................................121

7.1.ng b trong truyn dn s .............................................................................138

TI LIU THAM KHO.........................................................................................156

A/D Analog/Digital Chuyn i tng t /s

ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line ng dy thu bao s bt i xng

BSC Binary Symmetric Channel Knh nh phn i xng

CDF Cumulative Distribution Function Hm phn b tch ly

DFT Discrete Fourier Transform Bin i Fourier ri rc

Digital Subscriber Line Access

DSM Digital Storage Media Phng tin lu tr s

DSP Digital Signal Processing X l tn hiu s

DWDM Dense WDM Ghp knh theo bc sng mt

DXC Digital cross- Connect Ni cho s

ITU International Telecommunication Lin minh Vin thng Quc t

LAPS Link Access Procedure -SDH Th tc truy nhp tuyn SDH

LOS Line Of Sight Tm nhn thng

MAC Media Access Control iu khin truy nhp phng tin

NRZI Non Return to Zero Khng tr v zero

PDF Probability Density Funtion Hm mt xc sut

POS Packet Over SDH Gi trn SDH

RCT Reversible Color Transform Chuyn i thun nghch

RLC/ RLE Run Length Coding/ Encoding M ha di chy

RMS Root Mean Square Cn qun phng

RSC Recursive Systematic Convolutional M chp h thng quy

SED Squared Euclidean Distance Khong cch Euclidean bnh phng

SONET Synchronous Optical Network Mng quang ng b

STM-N Synchronous Transmistion Module - Mun truyn dn ng b mc N

Ti liu ging dy ny c bin son theo cng mn hc "Truyn dn s"

Nhng vn chung v cc h thng thng tin s c trnh by mt cch khi

Nhng vn lin quan n ghp knh trong h thng tuyn dn s c trnh

Sau mi chng c cc bi tp hoc cu hi sinh vin t kim tra v nh

Tuy nhin, do y l ln bin son u tin nn bi ging khng trnh khi

Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n tt c cc kin ng gp ca cc bn c

Cc kin gp qua e-mail xin c gi v: thangln@ptit.edu.vn,

CHNG 1: TNG QUAN V H THNG TRUYN THNG S

1.1 c im ca thng tin s

Cc h thng thng tin c s dng truyn a tin tc t ni ny n ni

Tn hiu s c th nhn M gi tr khc nhau. Trong trng hp M=2, chng ta

nht nh nn tp m tch ly c th loi tr c, tc l cc tn hiu s kho hn i

Nhc im cn bn ca cc h thng thng tin s so vi cc h thng thng tin

1.2. Cc thnh phn ca h thng truyn thng s

c m t bi cc khi trong s khi ca h thng. Mi mt khi m t mt thut

Trong , ngun tin l ni to ra cc bn tin cha ng nhng thng tin cn

Knh truyn l nguyn nhn ch yu gy ra li cho tn hiu thu, nn b m knh