Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Landscape Archeology is concerned with both the conscious and unconscious shaping of the
land: with the processes or organizing space or altering the land for a particular purpose, be it
religious, economic, social, political, cultural, or symbolic; with the unintended consequences of
land use and alteration; with the role and symbolic content of landscape in its various contexts
and its role in the construction of myth and history; and with the enactment and shaping of
human behavior within the landscape.
-Oxford Companion to Archeology
Although many times seen as separate from rural historic districts, or forgotten because they are
often invisible, archeological resources may be an integral aspect of many landscapes.
Archeological resources may
III define the landscape and/or support additional areas of significance (ie,
archeological resources might BE the landscape);
What do landscape archaeologists look for? Physical evidence of land use over time. The types
of evidence sought vary according to the scale and focus of a particular study. Significant
features may include
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i tree planting holes or garden beds that appear as stains in the soil,
i walkways, alles, and roads,
i evidence of deforestation,
i changes in yard surfaces or changes in land-use practices over time,
i foundations,
i depressions,
i graves,
i trash dumps, and
i archeobotanical remains.
i archaeological remains of early homesteading sites such as foundations, trash dumps, and
archeobotanical remains, may illuminate the patterning of structures and settlement of the
land;
i archeological evidence of early trail systems in the form of distinct vegetation patterns
might help us understand the ways in which an area was accessed and/or settled by
Native American groups, settlers, and early explorers;
i the above and below ground structural remains of railroads and canals may illustrate the
evolution of technology (for instance, the engineering of trains, railroads, and canals
through rugged mountainous terrains often involved technological innovations and
transfers that became national standards) through above and below ground structural
remains;
i the above and below ground remains of industrial sites. This might involve examining
how an industry distinctly modified the land and may contain the remains of several key
components such as landforms, buildings, and structures, objects, and transportation
networks.
i Native American sacred landscapes, many of which have been used for hundreds and
even thousands of years and are still used today as traditional cultural properties (tcps).
Such a landscape might also include evidence of land use before contact with Europeans
in the form of domestic camp sites, processing stations, trail systems leading between
different types of sites (for instance from a domestic camp to a sacred site), and sacred
areas.
i The archeological resources of a watershed area may illustrate the use of particular
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resources or a geographic area through time. For example, the Native American use of
an area as a corridor of human travel, trade or resource procurement, as well as
EuroAmerican use of the same area which may include settlement, construction of dams
and/or reservoirs and logging.
Adding time depth adds perspective to the interpretation and significance of particular resources.
Often, archeology is the only way to examine time-depth in a landscape. Archeologists are
trained to survey landscapes with both precontact and postcontact periods in mind and may be
able to suggest resources that exist below the surface. Being able to see certain subsurface
resources comes from experience in archeological survey and in knowing how precontact
peoples lived. Archeologists may be able to pick out subtle changes in the landscape and provide
ideas about what might be there that is not visible to the untrained eye. Without a firm grasp of
this type of sequencing, we could not adequately deal with issues of behavioral process,
evolution, and rates of change in past human cultures. Time depth allows for the development of
cohesive chronologies for exploring regional, social and cultural evolution through time.
i archeology provides morphological and environmental data on earlier landscapes that are
available no-where else;
i landscape archeology can be closely linked to the interests of preservation groups and
historical societies;
Archeologists have used a landscape approach for decades. Those studying precontact periods
have long been interested in environmental studies, settlement patterns and interpretive
approaches to the landscape, while archaeologists studying postcontact periods have excavated
gardens since the 1930s for the purpose of restorations and reconstructions (for instance, the
William Paca garden in Annapolis, Maryland). Since the 1970s and 1980s, however,
archeologists have broadened the scope, breadth and theoretical perspectives of landscape
archeology. While the formal gardens of the elite initially were the focus of postcontact
archaeological landscape studies, today, landscape archeology considers the precontact period
landscape, urban landscape, the agricultural or rural landscape, the industrial landscape, the
battlefield, African-American landscapes, and the landscape at the point of contact between
Native Americans and Europeans, among others.
Within North American postcontact archeology, the study of the landscape has coalesced into a
distinct specialization particularly concerned with addressing the landscape as a culturally
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constructed artifact. Landscape archeologists who study this period endeavor to reconstruct and
interpret the historical and cultural meaning of past landscapes from the time of contact between
Europeans and Native Americas to the present day.
i Paleoethnobotany is used to recover and interpret the remains of long-vanished plants and
trees.
i Phytoliths, pollen, and macrofloral remains may reveal what plants were grown or used
on a site (for this reason, flotation and soil sampling are standard practices in landscape
projects).
i Tree coring and modern vegetation surveys are frequently used to discover modern
survivals of historical plants, while casts of root cavities are used to identify tree species.
i Chemical analysis of archaeological soils, such as phosphate and pH testing are used to
reconstruct earlier soil conditions.
i Geographical Information Systems and other computer simulations have the potential to
help archaeologists recreate and visualize landscapes over time and space.
References Cited
Fagan, Brian M. (editor in chief)
1996 The Oxford Companion to Archeology. Oxford University Press, New York.
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Selected Readings for Those Interested in Learning More about Landscape Studies in
Archeology:
Adams, W.H.
1990 Landscape Archeology, Landscape History, and the American Farmstead. Historical
Archeology 24(4):92--101.
Bender, B. (editor)
1993 Landscape: Politics and Perspectives, Berg, Providence.
Carson, C., N.F. Barka, W.M. Kelso, G.W. Stone, and D. Upton
1981 Impermanent Architecture in the Southern American Colonies. Winterthur Portfolio 16
(2/3):135--196.
Chapman, F.
1999 The Bighorn Medicine Wheel 1988-1999. CRM 22(3) 5--9.
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Delle, J.
1998 Archeology of Social Space, Analyzing Coffee Plantations in Jamaicas Blue Mountains.
Plenum Press, New York.
1994 A Spatial Analysis of Sugar Plantations on St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles. In Spatial
Patterning in Historical Archeology: Selected Studies of Settlement, edited by D.W. Linebaugh
and G.G. Robinson, pp. 33--62. King and Queen Press, Williamsburg.
Ellwood. B.B.
1990 Electrical Resistivity Surveys in Two Historical Cemeteries in Northeast Texas: A Method
for Delineating Unidentified Burial Shafts. Historical Archeology (24(3):91--98.
Ernstein, J.
1998 Shifting Land Use, Shifting Values, and The Reinvention of Annapolis. In Annapolis
Pasts, Historical Archeology in Annapolis, Maryland, edited by P.A. Shackel, P.R. Mullins, and
M.S. Warner, pp. 147--168. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Evans, Michael.
1998 Voices of Sacred Geography. Minnesota Common Ground. 17(2/3):64--69.
Fiero, K.
1998 A Legacy in Danger. Minnesota Common Ground. (2/3):2--31.
Fitts, R. K.
1996 The Landscapes of Northern Bondage. Historical Archeology 30(2):54--73.
Hardesty, D.L.
1990 Evaluating Site Significance in Historical Mining Districts. Historical Archeology
24(2):42--51.
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1999 Beyond the Great Blue Mountain: Historical Archeology and 18th Century Settlement in
Virginia West of the Blue Ridge. In The Archeology of 18th-Century Virginia, edited by T.R.
Reinhart, pp. 209--240. Spectrum Press, Richmond, Virginia.
Hood, J.E.
1996 Social Relations and the Cultural Landscape. In Landscape Archeology: Reading and
Interpreting the American Historical Landscape, edited by R. Yamin and K.B. Metheny, pp.
121--146. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Hudgins, C.L.
1990 Robert King Carter and the Landscape of Tidewater Virginia in the Eighteenth Century.
In Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archeology, edited by W.M. Kelso and R. Most, pp. 59--
70. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
Jones, K.
1996 Ecological Approaches to the Stabilization of Civil War Earthworks. CRM 19(1):15--19.
Jopling, Hannah
1998 Remembered Communities: Gotts Court and Hell Point in Annapolis, Maryland, 1900--
1950. In Annapolis Pasts, Historical Archeology in Annapolis, Maryland, edited by P.A.
Shackel, P.R. Mullins, and M.S. Warner, pp. 49--68. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Kelso, G.K.
1993 Pollen-Record Information Processes, Interdisciplinary Archeology and Land Use by Mill
Workers and Managers: The Boott Mills Corporation, Lowell, Massachusetts, 18361942.
Historical Archeology 27(1):70--94.
Kelso, W.
1992 Big Things Remembered: Anglo-Virginian Houses, Armorial Devices and the Impact of
Common Sense. In The Art and Mystery of Historical Archeology: Essays in Honor of Jim
Deetz, edited by A. Yentsch and M.C. Beaudry, pp. 127--145. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
1989 Why Are You Digging Way Out Here? The Role of Landscape Archeology. Courier
34(8):20--22.
1984 Landscape Archeology: A Key to Virginias Cultivated Past. In, British and American
Gardens in the Eighteenth Century, edited by R.P. Maccubbin and Peter Martin, pp 159--169.
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King, J.A.
1996 The Transient Nature of All Things Sublunary: Romanticism, History, and Ruins in
Nineteenth-Century Southern Maryland. In Landscape Archeology, Reading and Interpreting
the American Historical Landscape, edited by R. Yamin and K.B. Metheny, pp. 249--272.
University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Krakow, J. L.
1993 Identifying and Evaluating Historic Corridors and Trails. CRM 16(11):14,20.
Kryder-Reid, E.
1998 The Archeology of Vision in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Gardens. In Annapolis
Pasts, Historical Archeology in Annapolis, Maryland, pp. 268--290, edited by P. A. Shackel, P.
R. Mullins, and M. S. Warner. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Leone, M.P.
1987 Rule by Ostentation: The Relationship between Space and Sight in 18th Century Landscape
Architecture in the Chesapeake Region of Maryland. In Method and Theory for Activity Area
Research, edited by S. Kent, pp. 604--633. Columbia University Press, New York.
1984 Interpreting Ideology in Historical Archeology: The William Paca Garden In Annapolis,
Maryland. In Ideology, Power, and Prehistory, edited by D. Miller and C. Tilley, pp. 25--35.
Cambridge University Press, London.
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Lightfoot, D.R. and F.W. Eddy
1995 The Construction and Configuration of Anasazi Pebble-Mulch Gardens in the Northern Rio
Grande. American Antiquity 60(3):459--470.
Little, B. J.
1998 Cultural Landscapes of Printers and the Heavn-Taught Art in Annapolis, Maryland. In
Annapolis Pasts, Historical Archeology in Annapolis, Maryland, pp. 225--243, edited by P. A.
Shackel, P. R. Mullins, and M. S. Warner. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Matero, F.
1997 Managing Change: Conservation of Surface Finishes at Mesa Verdes Cliff Dwellings.
CRM (20(10):39--42.
McKee, L.W.
1996 The Archeology of Rachels Garden. In Landscape Archeology: Reading and Interpreting
the American Historical Landscape, edited by R. Yamin and K.B. Metheny, pp. 70--90.
University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Milbauer, J.A.
1997 Material Culture. Material Culture (29(3):19--28.
Miller, H.M.
1994 The Countrys House Site: An Archaeological Study of a Seventeenth-Century Domestic
Landscape. In Historical Archeology of the Chesapeake, edited by P.A. Shackel and B.J. Little,
pp. 65--83. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
1988 Baroque Cities in the Wilderness; Archeology and Urban Development in the Colonial
Chesapeake. Historical Archeology. 22 (2):57--73
Neiman, F.D.
1993 Temporal Patterning in House Plans From the 17th Century Chesapeake. In The Archeology
of 17th-Century Virginia, edited by T.R. Reinhart, and D. J. Pogue. Special Publication 30 of the
Archaeological Society of Virginia, and the Council of Virginia Archaeologists, Deetz Press,
Richmond, Virginia.
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Nowak, T..R.
1993 Techniques of Identifying and Evaluating Corridors and Trails: Archaeological Property
Types as Contributing Elements. CRM 16(11):12--13.
Paynter, R.
1990 Afro-Americans in the Massachusetts Historical Landscape. In The Politics of the Past,
edited by Peter Gathercole and David Lowenthal, pp. 49--73. One World Archeology No. 12.
Unwin Hyman, Boston.
Pendery, S.R.
1998 Intersection of Interest. Minnesota Common Ground 3(2/3):54.
Pogue, D.
1996 Giant in the Earth: George Washington, Landscape Designer. In Landscape Archeology:
Reading and Interpreting the American Historical Landscape, edited by R. Yamin and K.B.
Metheny, pp. 52--69. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Pulsipher, L. M.
1990 They Have Saturdays and Sundays to Feed Themselves. Expedition (The University
Museum Magazine of Archeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania). 32(2):24--33.
Reeves, M.B.
1998 Views of a Changing Landscape: An Archeological and Historical Investigation of Sudley
Post Office (44PW294), Manassas National Battlefield Park, Manassas, Virginia. Occasional
Report No. 14, Regional Archeology Program, National Park Service, edited by Stephen R.
Potter.
Sanford, D.
1990 The Gardens at Germanna, Virginia. In Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archeology,
edited by W.M. Kelso and R. Most, pp. 43--58. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
Schoenwetter, J.
1990 A Method for the Application of Pollen Analysis in Landscape Archeology. In Earth
Patterns, Essays in Landscape Archeology, edited by W.M. Kelso and R. Most, pp. 277--296.
University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
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Shackel, P.A.
1994a Town Plans and Everyday Material Culture: An Archeology of Social Relations in
Colonial Marylands Capital Cities. In Historical Archeology of the Chesapeake, edited by P.A.
Shackel and B.J. Little, pp. 85--96. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
1994b Memorializing Landscapes and the Civil War in Harpers Ferry. In Look to the Earth,
Historical Archeology and the American Civil War, edited by C.R. Geier, Jr, and S.E. Winter, pp.
256--270. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
Shackel, P. A. (editor)
2001 Myth, Memory, and the Making of the American Landscape, University of Florida Press,
Gainesville.
Smith, S.D.
1990 Site Survey as a Method for Determining Historic Site Significance. Historical Archeology
(24)2:34--41.
Strangstad, L.
1990 A Graveyard Preservation Primer. Association for State and Local History. Nashville,
Tennessee.
Travis, T.
1994 Canyon de Chelly National Monument: Interpreting a Dynamic Cultural System. CRM
17(7):19--22.
Upton, D.
1990 Imagining the Early Virginia Landscape. In Earth Patterns, Essays in Landscape
Archeology, edited by W.M. Kelso and R. Most, pp. 71--86. University Press of Virginia,
Charlottesville.
Wagner, G.E.
1990 Charcoal, Isotopes, and Shell Hoes: Reconstructing a 12th Century Native American
Garden. Expedition (the University Museum Magazine of Archeology and Anthropology,
University of Pennsylvania) 32(2):34--43.
Wagstaff, J.M. (editor)
1987 Landscape and Culture: Geographical and Archaeological Perspectives.
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152. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
Wilson, J.S.
1990 Weve Got Thousands of These! What Makes an Historic Farmstead Significant?
Historical Archeology 24:23--33.
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