47

Signal Conditioning

47.1 Linear Operations

Amplitude Scaling Impedance Transformation Linear
Stephen A. Dyer Filtering
Kansas State University 47.2 Nonlinear Operations

Kelvins first rule of instrumentation states, in essence, that the measuring instrument must not alter the
event being measured. For the present purposes, we can consider the instrument to consist of an input
transducer followed by a signal-conditioning section, which in turn drives the data-processing and display
section (the remainder of the instrument). We are using the term instrument in the broad sense, with the
understanding that it may actually be a measurement subsystem within virtually any type of system.
Certain requirements are imposed upon the transducer if it is to reproduce an event faithfully: It must
exhibit amplitude linearity, phase linearity, and adequate frequency response. But it is the task of the
signal conditioner to accept the output signal from the transducer and from it produce a signal in the
form appropriate for introduction to the remainder of the instrument.
Analog signal conditioning can involve strictly linear operations, strictly nonlinear operations, or some
combination of the two. In addition, the signal conditioner may be called upon to provide auxiliary
services, such as introducing electrical isolation, providing a reference of some sort for the transducer,
or producing an excitation signal for the transducer.
Important examples of linear operations include amplitude scaling, impedance transformation, linear
filtering, and modulation.
A few examples of nonlinear operations include obtaining the root-mean-square (rms) value, square
root, absolute value, or logarithm of the input signal.
There is a wide variety of building blocks available in either modular or integrated-circuit (IC) form
for accomplishing analog signal conditioning. Such building blocks include operational amplifiers, instru-
mentation amplifiers, isolation amplifiers, and a plethora of nonlinear processing circuits such as com-
parators, analog multiplier/dividers, log/antilog amplifiers, rms-to-DC converters, and trigonometric
function generators.
Also available are complete signal-conditioning subsystems consisting of various plug-in input and output
modules that can be interconnected via universal backplanes that can be either chassis- or rack-mounted.

47.1 Linear Operations

Three categories of linear operations important to signal conditioning are amplitude scaling, impedance
transformation, and linear filtering.

Amplitude Scaling
The amplitude of the signal output from a transducer must typically be scaledeither amplified or
attenuatedbefore the signal can be processed.

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Amplification
Amplification is generally accomplished by an operational amplifier, an instrumentation amplifier, or an
isolation amplifier.

Operational Amplifiers
A conventional operational amplifier (op amp) has a differential input and a single-ended output. An
ideal op amp, used often as a first approximation to model a real op amp, has infinite gain, infinite
bandwidth, infinite differential input impedance, infinite slew rate, and infinite common-mode rejection
ratio (CMRR). It also has zero output impedance, zero noise, zero bias currents, and zero input offset
voltage. Real op amps, of course, fall short of the ideal in all regards.
Important parameters to consider when selecting an op amp include:

1. DC voltage gain K0.

2. Small-signal gain-bandwidth product (GBWP) fT , which for most op amps is fT  K0 f1, where f1
is the lower break frequency in the op amps transfer function. The GBWP characterizes the closed-
loop, high-frequency response of an op-amp circuit.
3. Slew rate, which governs the large-signal behavior of an op amp. Slew rates range from less than
1 V/s to several thousand volts per microsecond.

Other parameters, such as input and output impedances, DC offset voltage, DC bias current, drift voltages
and currents, noise characteristics, and so forth, must be considered when selecting an op amp for a
particular application.
There are several categories of operational amplifiers. In addition to garden-variety op amps there
are many op amps whose characteristics are optimized for one or more classes of use. Some categories
of op amps include:

1. Low-noise op amps, which are useful in the portions of signal conditioners required to amplify
very-low-level signals.
2. Chopper-stabilized op amps, which are useful in applications requiring extreme DC stability.
3. Fast op amps, which are useful when large slew rates and large GBWPs are required.
4. Power op amps, which are useful when currents of greater than a few mA must be provided to
the op amps load.
5. Electrometer op amps, which are used when very high (>10 ) input resistances and very low
13

(<1 pA) input bias currents are required.

An introduction to op amps and basic circuit configurations occurs in essentially any modern text on
circuit theory or electronics, and the reader can find detailed theoretical developments and many useful
configurations and applications in Roberge (1975), Graeme et al. (1971), Graeme (1973, 1977), Horowitz
and Hill (1989), and Stout and Kaufman (1976).

Instrumentation Amplifiers
Instrumentation amplifiers (IAs) are gain blocks optimized to provide high input impedance, low output
impedance, stable gain, relatively high common-mode rejection (CMR), and relatively low offset and
drift. They are well suited for amplification of outputs from various types of transducers such as strain
gages, for amplification of low-level signals occurring in the presence of high-level common-mode
voltages, and for situations in which some degree of isolation is needed between the transducer and the
remainder of the instrument.
Although instrumentation amplifiers can be constructed from conventional op amps [a three-op-amp
configuration is typically discussed; see, for example, Stout and Kaufman (1976)], they are readily available
and relatively inexpensive in IC form. Some IAs have digitally programmable gains, whereas others are
programmable by interconnecting resistors internal to the IA via external pins. More-basic IAs have their
gains set by connecting external resistors.

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Isolation Amplifiers
Isolation amplifiers are useful in applications in which a voltage or current occurring in the presence of
a high common-mode voltage must be measured safely, accurately, and with a high CMR. They are also
useful when safety from DC and line-frequency leakage currents must be ensured, such as in biomedical
instrumentation.
The isolation amplifier can be thought of as consisting of three sections: an input stage, an output stage,
and a power circuit. All isolation amplifiers have their input stages galvanically isolated from their output
stages. Communication between the input and output stages is accomplished by modulation/demodulation.
An isolation amplifier is said to provide two-port isolation if there is a DC connection between its
power circuit and its output stage. If its power circuit is isolated from its output stage as well as its input
stage, then the amplifier is said to provide three-port isolation. Isolation impedances on the order of 10
10

are not atypical.

Isolation amplifiers are available in modular form with either two-port or three-port isolation. Both
single-channel and multichannel modules are offered.
Attenuation
Although the majority of transducers are low-level devices such as thermocouples, thermistors, resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), strain gages, and so forth, whose outputs require amplification, there
are many measurement situations in which the input signal must be attenuated before introducing it
to the remainder of the system.
Voltage Scaling
Most typically, the signals to be attenuated take the form of voltages. Broadly, the attenuation is accom-
plished by either a voltage divider or a voltage transformer.
Voltage Dividers
In many cases a simple chain divider proves adequate. The transfer function of a two-element chain of
impedances Z1(s) and Z2(s) is

Vo ( s ) Z1 ( s )
- = ------------------------------
------------- -
V in ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z2 ( s )
where the output voltage Vo(s) is the voltage across Z1(s) and the input voltage Vin is the voltage across
the two-element combination.
Of course, the impedances of the source (transducer) and the load (the remainder of the system) must
be taken into account when designing the divider network.
Resistive Dividers
If the elements in the chain are resistors, then the divider is useful from DC up through the frequencies
for which the impedances of the resistors have no significant reactive components. For Z1(s) = R1 and
Z2(s) = R2,

Vo ( s ) R1
- = ----------------
------------- -
V in ( s ) R1 + R2

Other configurations are available for resistive dividers. One example is the KelvinVarley divider,
which has several advantages that make it useful in situations requiring high accuracy. For a detailed
description, see Gregory (1973).
Capacitive Dividers
If the elements in the chain divider are capacitors, then the divider has as its transfer function

Vo ( s ) C2
- = -----------------
------------- -
V in ( s ) C1 + C2

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 This form of divider is useful from low frequencies up through frequencies of several megahertz. A
common application is in the scaling of large voltages.
Inductive Dividers
If the elements in the chain divider are inductors, then an autotransformer results. Inductive dividers
are useful over frequencies from a few hertz to several hundred kilohertz. Errors in the parts-per-
billion range are achievable.

Voltage Transformers
Voltage transformers constitute one of the most common means of accomplishing voltage scaling at line
frequencies. Standard double-wound configurations are useful unless voltages above about 200 kV are
to be monitored. For very high voltages, alternative configurations such as the capacitor voltage transformer
and the cascade voltage transformer are employed (Gregory, 1973).

Current Scaling
Current scaling is typically accomplished via either a current shunt or a current transformer.
A current shunt is essentially an accurately known resistance through which the current to be measured
is passed. The voltage developed across the shunt as a result of the current is the quantity measured.
Shunts are useful at DC and frequencies through the audio range. Two disadvantages are (1) the shunt
consumes power, and (2) the measurement circuitry must be operated at the same potential as the shunt.
The current transformer overcomes the mentioned disadvantages of the current shunt. Typically, the
current transformer consists of a specially constructed toroidal core upon which the secondary (sense)
winding is wrapped and through which the primary winding is passed. A single-turn primary is com-
monly used, although mutiturn primaries are available.

Other Attenuators
In addition to the aforementioned means of voltage and current scaling are attenuator pads, which
provide, in addition to voltage or power reduction, the ability to be matched in impedance to the source
and load circuits between which it is connected. The common pads include the T, L, and types, either
balanced or unbalanced. Resistive attenuator pads are discussed in most textbooks on circuit design (e.g.,
Cuthbert, 1983). They are useful from DC through several hundred megahertz.

Impedance Transformation
Oftentimes the impedance of the transducer must be transformed to a value more acceptable to the
remainder of the measurement system. In many cases maximum power must be transferred from the
transducers output signal to the remaining circuitry. In other cases it is sufficient to provide buffering
that presents a very high impedance to the transducer, a very low impedance to the rest of the system,
and a voltage gain of unity.
Matching transformers, passive matching networks such as attenuator pads, and unity-gain buffers are
standard means of accomplishing impedance transformation. Unity-gain buffers are available in IC form.

Linear Filtering
Although, in general, digital signal processing offers many advantages over analog techniques for filtering
signals, there are many relatively simple applications for which frequency-selective analog filtering is well
suited.
Filters are used within signal conditioners (1) to reduce the effects of noise that corrupts the input
signal, (2) as part of a demodulator, (3) to limit signal bandwidth, or (4) if the signal is to be sampled,
to limit its bandwidth in order to prevent aliasing. These filters can be built either entirely of passive
components or based on active devices such as op amps.

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There are many good references that discuss methods of characterizing, specifying, and implementing
frequency-selective analog filters. See Van Valkenburg (1960) for design of passive filters; for the design
of active-RC filters, see Sedra and Brackett (1978) and Stephenson (1985).

47.2 Nonlinear Operations

There is a wide variety of nonlinear operations useful to signal-conditioning tasks. Listed below are some
typical nonlinear blocks along with brief descriptions. Most of the blocks are available as ICs.
1. Comparator. A comparator is a two-input device whose output voltage, Vo, takes on one of two
stable values, Vo0 and Vo1, as follows:

V o0 , if V 2 < V 1
Vo =
V o1 , otherwise

where V1 and V2 are the voltages at the two inputs.

2. Schmitt trigger. A Schmitt trigger is a comparator with hysteresis. It can be constructed from a
comparator by applying positive feedback.
3. Multiplier. A two-input multiplier supplies an output voltage that is proportional to the product
of its input voltages.
4. Divider. A two-input divider has as its output a voltage proportional to the ratio of its input
voltages. The functions of multiplication and division are usually combined within a single device.
5. Squarer. A squarer has as its output a voltage proportional to the square of its input. Squarers can
be constructed by a number of means: from multipliers, based on diode-resistor networks, based
on FETs, and so forth.
6. Square-rooter. A square-rooter has as its output a voltage proportional to the square root of its
input. A square-rooter can be built most easily from either a divider or a log/antilog amplifier.
7. Logarithmic/antilogarithmic amplifier. A log/antilog amplifier produces an output voltage propor-
tional to the logarithm or the antilogarithm of its input voltage.
8. True RMS-to-DC converter. A true RMS-to-DC converter computes the square root of the average,
over some interval of time, of the instantaneous square of the input signal. The averaging operation
is generally accomplished via a simple low-pass filter whose capacitor is selected to give the desired
interval.
9. Trigonometric function generator. Generators are available in IC form that produce as their outputs
any of the standard trigonometric functions or their inverses, taken as functions of the differential
voltage at the generators inputs.
10. Sample-and-hold and track-and-hold amplifiers. A sample-and-hold amplifier (SHA) is a device
that samples the signal at its input and holds the instantaneous value whenever commanded by
a logic control signal. A track-and-hold amplifier is identical to an SHA but is used in applications
where it spends most of its time tracking the input signal (i.e., in sample or track mode), in
contrast to the SHA, which spends most of its time in hold mode.
11. Precision diode-based circuits. Circuits such as precision half-wave rectifiers, absolute-value circuits,
precision peak detectors, and precision limiters are relatively easy to design and implement based on
diodes and op amps. See Horowitz and Hill (1989), Stout and Kaufman (1976), and Graeme (1977).
A detailed description of these and other nonlinear circuit blocks can be found in Sheingold (1976).

Example
We provide briefly an example of a device that has embedded within it several signal-conditioning circuits.
Figure 47.1 shows the basic block diagram of a therapeutic ultrasound unit, which finds widespread use
in physical medicine.

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 front panel
display and switches

application probe
and transducer
intermodule bus

digital module RF module

power supply/
battery pack

FIGURE 47.1 Basic block diagram of the therapeutic ultrasound unit discussed as an example.

modulator AGC amplifier power amplifier transducer

sinewave

oscillator
AGC

RF-voltage pickoff
and peak detector
integrator
frequency
counter feedback amplifier
and sample/hold

desired +
power
(reference)

FIGURE 47.2 Simplified block diagram of the RF module used in the ultrasound unit of Fig. 47.1.

The particular unit being discussed consists of five principal subsystems:

1. An application probe and ultrasound transducer, which imparts ultrasonic energy to the tissue
being treated. Note that this transducer is NOT an input transducer such as has been discussed in
relation to signal conditioners.
2. A radio-frequency (RF) module, which provides electrical excitation to the ultrasound transducer.
3. Front-panel display and switches, which allow communication between the unit and its operator.
4. A microprocessor-based digital module, which orchestrates the overall control of the ultrasound
unit.
5. A power supply/battery pack, which provides operating power to the unit.
We focus now on the RF module, whose basic block diagram is shown in Fig. 47.2. The module consists
of a sine-wave oscillator that produces a signal at the resonant frequency of the transducer, a modulator
that allows that signal to be pulse-modulated, and an amplifier with RF-voltage feedback. Incorporated
in the amplifier are a power amplifier capable of driving the transducer and automatic-gain-control (AGC)
circuitry required to adjust the output power to coincide with that selected by the operator. The AGC uses

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a standard feedback-control loop to maintain a constant-voltage envelope on the RF signal output from
the power amplifier.
Some of the signal conditioners employed within the RF module include the following:
1. The RF-voltage pickoff at the output of the power amplifier. The pickoff employs a half-wave
rectifier, followed by a simple capacitive chain divider for voltage scaling.
2. A precision peak detector, which obtains the peak value of the output from the voltage divider
during a modulation cycle and presents that value to the feedback loop.
3. An amplifier, having digitally selectable gain, which amplifies the output of the peak detector.
4. A sample-and-hold amplifier, used to hold the amplified output from the peak detector during
the off-time of the modulator. The SHA is needed since the time constant of the peak detector
is not sufficient to prevent significant droop during the off-time of the modulator.
5. An integrator (an example of frequency-selective filtering), which develops the control voltage for
the AGC loop from the output of the differencer.
6. A current shunt, not shown in Fig. 47.2, which is used to monitor the DC current supplied to the
power amplifier.
As can be seen from this simple example, several signal-conditioning functions may be employed
within a single system, and the system itself might not even be an instrument!

Defining Terms
Common-mode rejection (CMR): CMRR given in decibels. CMR = 20 log|CMRR|. CMR is a nonlinear
function of common-mode voltage and depends on other factors such as temperature.
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR): The ratio of the differential gain to the common-mode gain
of an amplifier.
Gain-bandwidth product (GBWP): The product of an amplifiers highest gain and its corresponding
bandwidth. Used as a rough figure of merit for bandwidth.
Slew rate: The maximum attainable time rate of change of an amplifiers output voltage in response
to a large step change in input voltage.

References
Cuthbert, T. R. 1983. Circuit Design Using Personal Computers. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Graeme, J. G. 1973. Applications of Operational Amplifiers. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Graeme, J. G. 1977. Designing with Operational Amplifiers. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Graeme, J. G., Tobey, G. E., and Huelsman, L. P. (Ed.) 1971. Operational Amplifiers. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Gregory, B. A. 1973. An Introduction to Electrical Instrumentation. Macmillan, London.
Horowitz, P. and Hill, W. 1989. The Art of Electronics, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Roberge, J. K. 1975. Operational Amplifiers. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Sedra, A. S. and Brackett, P. O. 1978. Filter Theory and Design: Active and Passive. Matrix, Beaverton, OR.
Sheingold, D. H. (Ed.) 1976. Nonlinear Circuits Handbook. Analog Devices, Norwood, MA.
Stephenson, F. W. 1985. RC Active Filter Design Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Stout, D. F. and Kaufman, M. (Ed.) 1976. Handbook of Operational Amplifier Circuit Design. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Van Valkenburg, M. E. 1960. Introduction to Modern Network Synthesis. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Further Information
IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement. Published bimonthly by the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers.
IEEE Transactions on Circuits and SystemsII: Analog and Digital Signal Processing. Published monthly
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

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The Best of Analog Dialogue, 19671991. 1991. Analog Devices, Norwood, MA. A collection of practical
articles covering circuits, systems, and software for signal processing.
Analog Devices Special Linear Reference Manual and Analog Devices Amplifier Reference Manual. Presents
an extensive selection of ICs, modules, and subsystems for signal conditioning.
Palls-Areny, R. and Webster, J. G. 1991. Sensors and Signal Conditioning. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Provides an excellent introduction to sensors and signal-conditioning circuits required by them.
Sheingold, D. H. (Ed.) 1980. Transducer Interfacing Handbook. Analog Devices, Norwood, MA. Covers signal-
conditioning techniques applicable to temperature, pressure, force, level, and flow transducers.

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