mumbai

Mumbai (/mmba/; also known as Bombay) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra.
It is the most populous city in India, most populous metropolitan area in India, and the eighth most
populous city in the world, with an estimated city population of 18.4 million and metropolitan area
population of 20.7 million as of 2011.[8] Along with the urban areas, including the cities of Navi
Mumbai, Thane, Bhiwandi, Kalyan, it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world.[9]
Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2009, Mumbai was named
an alpha world city.[10] It is also the wealthiest city in India,[11] and has the highest GDP of any
city in South, West or Central Asia.[citation needed]
The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies.
[12] For centuries, the islands were under the control of successive indigenous empires before being
ceded to the Portuguese and subsequently to the British East India Company. During the mid-18th
century, Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project,[13][13] which undertook reclamation
of the area between the seven islands from the sea.[14] Along with construction of major roads and
railways, the reclamation project, completed in 1845, transformed Bombay into a major seaport on
the Arabian Sea. Bombay in the 19th century was characterized by economic and educational
development. During the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence
movement. Upon India's independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State. In
1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with
Bombay as the capital. The city was renamed Mumbai in 1996.[15]
Mumbai is the financial, commercial and entertainment capital of India. It is also one of the world's
top ten centres of commerce in terms of global financial flow,[16] generating 6.16% of India's
GDP[17] and accounting for 25% of industrial output, 70% of maritime trade in India (Mumbai Port
Trust & JNPT),[18] and 70% of capital transactions to India's economy.[19] The city houses
important financial institutions such as the Reserve Bank of India, the Bombay Stock Exchange, the
National Stock Exchange of India, the SEBI and the corporate headquarters of numerous Indian
companies and multinational corporations. It is also home to some of India's premier scientific and
nuclear institutes like BARC, NPCL, IREL, TIFR, AERB, AECI, and the Department of Atomic
Energy. The city also houses India's Hindi (Bollywood) and Marathi film and television industry.
Mumbai's business opportunities, as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living,[20]
attract migrants from all over India, making the city a melting pot of many communities and
cultures.
Etymology
The name Mumbai is derived from Mumba or Maha-Ambathe name of the Koli goddess
Mumbadeviand Aai, "mother" in the language of Marathi, the mother tongue of the Kolis and the
official language of Maharashtra.[12][21]
The temple of local Hindu goddess Mumbadevi, from whom the city of Mumbai derives its name
The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja; these are sometimes still
used.[22][23] Ali Muhammad Khan, in the Mirat-i-Ahmedi (1507) referred to the city as Manbai.
[24] In 1508, Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim, in his Lendas da ndia
("Legends of India").[25][26] This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom
baim, meaning "good little bay",[27] and Bombaim is still commonly used in Portuguese.[28] In
1516, Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana-Maiambu: Tana appears to refer to
the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi.[29]
Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include: Mombayn (1525), Bombay
(1538), Bombain (1552), Bombaym (1552), Monbaym (1554), Mombaim (1563), Mombaym
(1644), Bambaye (1666), Bombaiim (1666), Bombeye (1676), Boon Bay (1690),[28][30] and Bon
Bahia.[31] After the British gained possession of the city in the 17th century, the Portuguese name
was officially anglicised as Bombay.[32]
By the late 20th century, the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in Marathi, Konkani,
Gujarati, Kannada and Sindhi, and as Bambai in Hindi, Persian and Urdu.[citation needed] The
English name was officially changed to Mumbai in November 1995.[33] This came at the insistence
of the Marathi nationalist Shiv Sena party that had just won the Maharashtra state elections and
mirrored similar name changes across the country.[citation needed] According to Slate, "they argued
that 'Bombay' was a corrupted English version of 'Mumbai' and an unwanted legacy of British
colonial rule."[34] Slate also said "The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to
strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region."[35] While the city is still referred to as
Bombay by some of its residents and Indians from other regions,[36] mention of the city by a name
other than Mumbai has been controversial, resulting in emotional outbursts sometimes of a violently
political nature.[37][38]
History
Main articles: History of Mumbai and Timeline of Mumbai history
Early history
A white Buddhist stupa.
Kanheri Caves served as a centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient times
Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands: Bombay Island, Parel,
Mazagaon, Mahim, Colaba, Worli, and Old Woman's Island (also known as Little Colaba).[39] It is
not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited. Pleistocene sediments found along the
coastal areas around Kandivali in northern Mumbai suggest that the islands were inhabited since the
Stone Age.[40] Perhaps at the beginning of the Common era (2,000 years ago), or possibly earlier,
they came to be occupied by the Koli fishing community.[41] Native Christians include East Indians
Catholics, who were converted by the Portuguese during the 16th century, are also koli people.[12]
In the third century BCE, the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire, during its expansion in the
south, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha.[42] The Kanheri Caves in Borivali were
excavated in the mid-third century BCE,[43] and served as an important centre of Buddhism in
Western India during ancient Times.[44] The city then was known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A
Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE.[45]
Between the second century BCE and ninth century CE, the islands came under the control of
successive indigenous dynasties: Satavahanas, Western Kshatrapas, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Kalachuris,
Konkan Mauryas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas,[46] before being ruled by the Silhara dynasty from
810 to 1260.[47] Some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are, Jogeshwari
Caves (between 520 to 525),[48] Elephanta Caves (between the sixth to seventh century),[49]
Walkeshwar Temple (10th century),[50] and Banganga Tank (12th century).[51]
The Haji Ali Dargah was built in 1431, when Mumbai was under the rule of the Gujarat Sultanate
King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital
in Mahikawati (present day Mahim).[52] The Pathare Prabhus, among the earliest known settlers of
the city, were brought to Mahikawati from Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev.[53] The
Delhi Sultanate annexed the islands in 134748 and controlled it until 1407. During this time, the
islands were administered by the Muslim Governors of Gujarat, who were appointed by the Delhi
Sultanate.[54][55]
The islands were later governed by the independent Gujarat Sultanate, which was established in
1407. The Sultanate's patronage led to the construction of many mosques, prominent being the Haji
Ali Dargah in Worli, built in honour of the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431.[56] From 1429 to 1431,
the islands were a source of contention between the Gujarat Sultanate and the Bahamani Sultanate
of Deccan.[57][58] In 1493, Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Bahamani Sultanate attempted to conquer
the islands but was defeated.[59]
Portuguese and British rule
Main articles: History of Bombay under Portuguese rule (15341661) and History of Bombay under
British rule
The Madh Fort built by the Portuguese, was one of the most important forts in Salsette.
The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during
the mid-16th century.[60] Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun,
Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the
Portuguese Empire on 23 December 1534. According to the treaty, the seven islands of Bombay, the
nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese. The
territories were later surrendered on 25 October 1535.[61]
The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic
religious orders in Bombay.[62] They called the islands by various names, which finally took the
written form Bombaim. The islands were leased to several Portuguese officers during their regime.
The Portuguese Franciscans and Jesuits built several churches in the city, prominent being the St.
Michael's Church at Mahim (1534),[63] St. John the Baptist Church at Andheri (1579),[64] St.
Andrew's Church at Bandra (1580),[65] and Gloria Church at Byculla (1632),.[66] The Portuguese
also built several fortifications around the city like the Bombay Castle, Castella de Aguada (Castelo
da Aguada or Bandra Fort), and Madh Fort. The English were in constant struggle with the
Portuguese vying for hegemony over Bombay, as they recognized its strategic natural harbour and
its natural isolation from land-attacks. By the middle of the 17th century the growing power of the
Dutch Empire forced the English to acquire a station in western India. On 11 May 1661, the
marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of
Portugal, placed the islands in possession of the English Empire, as part of Catherine's dowry to
Charles.[67] However, Salsette, Bassein, Mazagaon, Parel, Worli, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala still
remained under Portuguese possession. From 1665 to 1666, the English managed to acquire Mahim,
Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala.[68]
In accordance with the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668, England leased these islands to the English
East India Company in 1668 for a sum of 10 per annum.[69] The population quickly rose from
10,000 in 1661, to 60,000 in 1675.[70] The islands were subsequently attacked by Yakut Khan, the
Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire, in October 1672,[71] Rickloffe van Goen, the Governor-
General of Dutch India on 20 February 1673,[72] and Siddi admiral Sambal on 10 October 1673.
[71]
In 1687, the English East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Bombay. The
city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency.[73] Following the transfer,
Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company's establishments in India.[74] Towards the end
of the 17th century, the islands again suffered incursions from Yakut Khan in 168990.[75] The
Portuguese presence ended in Bombay when the Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I captured
Salsette in 1737, and Bassein in 1739.[76] By the middle of the 18th century, Bombay began to
grow into a major trading town, and received a huge influx of migrants from across India.[77] Later,
the British occupied Salsette on 28 December 1774. With the Treaty of Surat (1775), the British
formally gained control of Salsette and Bassein, resulting in the First Anglo-Maratha War.[78] The
British were able to secure Salsette from the Marathas without violence through the Treaty of
Purandar (1776),[79] and later through the Treaty of Salbai (1782), signed to settle the outcome of
the First Anglo-Maratha War.[80]
Ships in Bombay Harbour (c. 1731). Bombay emerged as a significant trading town during the mid-
18th century.
From 1782 onwards, the city was reshaped with large-scale civil engineering projects aimed at
merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass. This project, known as Hornby
Vellard, was completed by 1784.[13] In 1817, the British East India Company under Mountstuart
Elphinstone defeated Baji Rao II, the last of the Maratha Peshwa in the Battle of Khadki.[81]
Following his defeat, almost the whole of the Deccan came under British suzerainty, and was
incorporated into the Bombay Presidency. The success of the British campaign in the Deccan
marked the liberation of Bombay from all attacks by native powers.[82]
By 1845, the seven islands coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard project via large
scale land reclamation.[14][83] On 16 April 1853, India's first passenger railway line was
established, connecting Bombay to the neighbouring town of Thane.[84] During the American Civil
War (18611865), the city became the world's chief cotton-trading market, resulting in a boom in
the economy that subsequently enhanced the city's stature.[85]
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the
Arabian Sea.[86] In September 1896, Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the
death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week.[87] About 850,000 people fled Bombay and the
textile industry was adversely affected.[88] As the capital of the Bombay Presidency, the city
witnessed the Indian independence movement, with the Quit India Movement in 1942 and The
Royal Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events.[89][90]
Independent India
Main article: History of Bombay in Independent India
A stone statue of torch-bearers as seen at night. A fountain with a white base is in the background
The Hutatma Chowk memorial, built to honour the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra
movement. (Flora Fountain is on its left in the background.)
After India's independence in 1947, the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was
restructured into Bombay State. The area of Bombay State increased, after several erstwhile
princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into the state. Subsequently, the city
became the capital of Bombay State.[91] On April 1950, Municipal limits of Bombay were
expanded by merging the Bombay Suburban District and Bombay City to form Greater Bombay
Municipal Corporation.[92]
The Samyukta Maharashtra movement to create a separate Maharashtra state including Bombay was
at its height in the 1950s. In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955, the Congress party demanded that
the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state.[93] The States Reorganisation Committee
recommended a bilingual state for MaharashtraGujarat with Bombay as its capital in its 1955
report. Bombay Citizens' Committee, an advocacy group of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied
for Bombay's independent status.[94]
Following protests during the movement in which 105 people were killed by police, Bombay State
was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960.[95] Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State
were partitioned into the state of Gujarat.[96] Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was
formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central
Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed
between them.[97] As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, Flora
Fountain was renamed as Hutatma Chowk (Martyr's Square), and a memorial was erected.[98]
The following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs. In the late 1960s,
Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed.[99] The Bombay Metropolitan
Region Development Authority (BMRDA) was established on 26 January 1975 by the Government
of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co-ordination of development activities in the
Bombay metropolitan region.[100] In August 1979, a sister township of New Bombay was founded
by City and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDCO) across Thane and Raigad districts to help
the dispersal and control of Bombay's population. The textile industry in Bombay largely
disappeared after the widespread 1982 Great Bombay Textile Strike, in which nearly 250,000
workers in more than 50 textile mills went on strike.[101] Mumbai's defunct cotton mills have since
become the focus of intense redevelopment.
The Jawaharlal Nehru Port, which currently handles 5560% of India's containerised cargo, was
commissioned on 26 May 1989 at Nhava Sheva with a view to de-congest Bombay Harbour and to
serve as a hub port for the city.[102] The geographical limits of Greater Bombay were coextensive
with municipal limits of Greater Bombay. On 1 October 1990, the Greater Bombay district was
bifurcated to form two revenue districts namely, Bombay City and Bombay Suburban, though they
were administered by same Municipal Administration.[103]
The past two decades have seen an increase in violence in the hitherto largely peaceful city.
Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, the city was rocked by the Hindu-Muslim
riots of 199293 in which more than 1,000 people were killed. On 12 March 1993, a series of 13 co-
ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Bombay underworld
resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries.[104] In 2006, 209 people were killed and over 700
injured when seven bombs exploded on the city's commuter trains.[105] In 2008, a series of ten
coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths, 308 injuries, and
severe damage to several heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels.[106] The blasts that occurred at
the Opera House, Zaveri Bazaar, and Dadar on 13 July 2011 were the latest in the series of terrorist
attacks in Mumbai.[107]
Today, Mumbai is the commercial capital of India and has evolved into a global financial hub.[108]
For several decades it has been the home of India's main financial services, and a focus for both
infrastructure development and private investment.[109] From being an ancient fishing community
and a colonial centre of trade, Mumbai has become South Asia's largest city and home of the world's
most prolific film industry.[110]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Mumbai
refer caption
The Bombay Stock Exchange is the oldest stock exchange in Asia.
Mumbai is India's largest city (by population) and is the financial and commercial capital of the
country as it generates 6.16% of the total GDP.[17][108][140] It serves as an economic hub of India,
contributing 10% of factory employment, 25% of industrial output, 33% of income tax collections,
60% of customs duty collections, 20% of central excise tax collections, 40% of India's foreign trade
and INR4000 crore (US$650 million) in corporate taxes.[141] Along with the rest of India, Mumbai
has witnessed an economic boom since the liberalisation of 1991, the finance boom in the mid-
nineties and the IT, export, services and outsourcing boom in 2000s.[142] Although Mumbai had
prominently figured as the hub of economic activity of India in the 1990s, the Mumbai Metropolitan
Region is presently witnessing a reduction in its contribution to India's GDP.[143]
As of 2008, Mumbai's GDP is $209 billion,[144] and its per-capita (PPP) income in 2009 was
INR486,000 (US$7,900),[11][145] which is almost three times the national average.[83] Its nominal
per capita income is INR125,000 (US$2,000),[146] (US$2,094). Many of India's numerous
conglomerates (including Larsen and Toubro, State Bank of India (SBI), Life Insurance Corporation
of India (LIC), Tata Group, Godrej and Reliance),[108] and five of the Fortune Global 500
companies are based in Mumbai.[147] This is facilitated by the presence of the Reserve Bank of
India (RBI), the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), the National Stock Exchange of India (NSE), and
financial sector regulators such as the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).[143]
Until the 1970s, Mumbai owed its prosperity largely to textile mills and the seaport, but the local
economy has since then diversified to include finance, engineering, diamond-polishing, healthcare
and information technology.[148] The key sectors contributing to the city's economy are: finance,
gems & jewellery, leather processing, IT and ITES, textiles, and entertainment. Nariman Point and
Bandra Kurla Complex (BKC) are Mumbai's major financial centres.[143] Despite competition
from Bangalore, Hyderabad and Pune, Mumbai has carved a niche for itself in the information
technology industry. The Santacruz Electronic Export Processing Zone (SEEPZ) and the
International Infotech Park (Navi Mumbai) offer excellent facilities to IT companies.[149]
State and central government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce.
Mumbai also has a large unskilled and semi-skilled self-employed population, who primarily earn
their livelihood as hawkers, taxi drivers, mechanics and other such blue collar professions. The port
and shipping industry is well established, with Mumbai Port being one of the oldest and most
significant ports in India.[150] Dharavi, in central Mumbai, has an increasingly large recycling
industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of the city; the district has an estimated
15,000 single-room factories.[151]
Mumbai has been ranked sixth among top ten global cities on the billionaire count,[152] 48th on the
Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index 2008,[153] seventh in the list of "Top Ten Cities for
Billionaires" by Forbes magazine (April 2008),[154] and first in terms of those billionaires' average
wealth.[155] As of 2008, the Globalization and World Cities Study Group (GaWC) has ranked
Mumbai as an "Alpha world city", third in its categories of Global cities.[156] Mumbai is the third
most expensive office market in the world, and was ranked among the fastest cities in the country
for business startup in 2009.[157]
Civic administration
Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) Headquarters, the largest civic organisation in the
country.
Mumbai, extending from Colaba in the south, to Mulund and Dahisar in the north, and Mankhurd in
the east, is administered by the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC).[115] The BMC is in
charge of the civic and infrastructure needs of the metropolis.[158] The Mayor is usually chosen
through indirect election by the councillors from among themselves for a term of two and half years.
The Municipal Commissioner is the chief Executive Officer and head of the executive arm of the
Municipal Corporation. All executive powers are vested in the Municipal Commissioner who is an
Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer appointed by the state government. Although the
Municipal Corporation is the legislative body that lays down policies for the governance of the city,
it is the Commissioner who is responsible for the execution of the policies. The Commissioner is
appointed for a fixed term as defined by state statute. The powers of the Commissioner are those
provided by statute and those delegated by the Corporation or the Standing Committee.[159]
A brown building with a central tower and sloping roofs surrounded by trees. A grassy ground and a
coconut tree are in front of it.
The Bombay High Court exercises jurisdiction over Maharashtra, Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra
and Nagar Haveli.
The two revenue districts of Mumbai come under the jurisdiction of a District Collector. The
Collectors are in charge of property records and revenue collection for the Central Government, and
oversee the national elections held in the city.
The Mumbai Police is headed by a Police Commissioner, who is an Indian Police Service (IPS)
officer. The Mumbai Police comes under the state Home Ministry.[160] The city is divided into
seven police zones and seventeen traffic police zones,[113] each headed by a Deputy Commissioner
of Police.[161] The Traffic Police is a semi-autonomous body under the Mumbai Police. The
Mumbai Fire Brigade department is headed by the Chief Fire Officer, who is assisted by four
Deputy Chief Fire Officers and six Divisional Officers.[113]
Mumbai is the seat of the Bombay High Court, which exercises jurisdiction over the states of
Maharashtra and Goa, and the Union Territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
[162] Mumbai also has two lower courts, the Small Causes Court for civil matters, and the Sessions
Court for criminal cases. Mumbai also has a special TADA (Terrorist and Disruptive Activities)
court for people accused of conspiring and abetting acts of terrorism in the city.[163]
Politics
Men in traditional Indian dresses posing for a photograph
First session of the Indian National Congress in Bombay (2831 December 1885)
Mumbai had been a traditional stronghold and birthplace of the Indian National Congress, also
known as the Congress Party.[164] The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in
Bombay from 2831 December 1885.[165] The city played host to the Indian National Congress six
times during its first 50 years, and became a strong base for the Indian independence movement
during the 20th century.[166]
The 1960s saw the rise of regionalist politics in Bombay, with the formation of the Shiv Sena on 19
June 1966, out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginalisation of the native Marathi
people in Bombay.[167] Shiv Sena switched from 'Marathi Cause' to larger 'Hindutva Cause' in
1985 and joined hands with Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) in same year.[168] The Congress had
dominated the politics of Bombay from independence until the early 1980s, when the Shiv Sena
won the 1985 Bombay municipal corporation elections.[169]
In 1989, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a major national political party, forged an electoral
alliance with the Shiv Sena to dislodge the Congress in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly
elections. In 1999, the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) separated from the Congress, but later
allied with the Congress, to form a joint venture known as the Democratic Front.[170] Currently,
other parties such as Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS), Samajwadi Party (SP), Bahujan Samaj
Party (BSP), and several independent candidates also contest elections in the city.[171]
In the Indian national elections held every five years, Mumbai is represented by six parliamentary
constituencies: Mumbai North, Mumbai North West, Mumbai North East, Mumbai North Central,
Mumbai South Central, and Mumbai South.[172] A Member of Parliament (MP) to the Lok Sabha,
the lower house of the Indian Parliament, is elected from each of the parliamentary constituencies.
In the 2009 national elections, out of the six parliamentary constituencies, five were won by the
Congress, and one by the NCP.[173] In the 2014 national elections, all six parliamentary
constituencies were won by the BJP and Shiv Sena in alliance, both parties winning three seats each.
[174] In the Maharashtra state assembly elections held every five years, Mumbai is represented by
36 assembly constituencies.[175][176]
A Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) to the Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha (Legislative
Assembly) is elected from each of the assembly constituencies. In the 2009 state assembly elections,
out of the 36 assembly constituencies, 17 were won by the Congress, 6 by the MNS, 5 by the BJP, 4
by the Shiv Sena, 3 by the NCP and 1 by SP.[177] Elections are also held every five years to elect
corporators to power in the BMC.[178]
The Corporation comprises 227 directly elected Councillors representing the 24 municipal wards,
five nominated Councillors having special knowledge or experience in municipal administration,
and a Mayor whose role is mostly ceremonial.[179][180][181] In the 2007 municipal corporation
elections, out of the 227 seats, the Shiv Sena-BJP alliance secured 111 seats, holding power in the
BMC, while the Congress-NCP alliance bagged 85 seats.[182] The tenure of the Mayor, Deputy
Mayor, and Municipal Commissioner is two and a half years.[183]
Transport
Mumbai Suburban Railway system carries more than 6.99 million commuters on a daily basis. It has
the highest passenger densities of any urban railway system in the world.
The Mumbai Monorail opened in February 2014.
The Mumbai Metro. The first line opened on the 8th of June.
A BEST Starbus. BEST buses carry a total of 4.5 million passengers daily.
The black and yellow Premier Padmini Taxis are iconic of Mumbai.
The Bandra-Worli Sea Link is a cable-stayed bridge that connects central Mumbai with its western
suburbs
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport is India's second-busiest airport in terms of passenger
traffic.[184]
Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust is the busiest port in India

swami vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (Bengali: [ami bibekanno] ( listen), Shmi Bibeknondo; 12 January 1863
4 July 1902), born Narendra Nath Datta (Bengali: [nrenddro natd ddtd td o]), was an Indian Hindu monk
and chief disciple of the 19th-century saint Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the introduction of
the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world[2] and is credited with raising
interfaith awareness, bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion during the late 19th
century.[3] He was a major force in the revival of Hinduism in India, and contributed to the concept
of nationalism in colonial India.[4] Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Math and the
Ramakrishna Mission.[2] He is perhaps best known for his inspiring speech which began, "Sisters
and brothers of America ...,"[5] in which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's
Religions in Chicago in 1893.
Born into an aristocratic Bengali family of Calcutta, Vivekananda was inclined towards spirituality.
He was influenced by his guru, Ramakrishna, from whom he learnt that all living beings were an
embodiment of the divine self; therefore, service to God could be rendered by service to mankind.
After Ramakrishna's death, Vivekananda toured the Indian subcontinent extensively and acquired
first-hand knowledge of the conditions prevailing in British India. He later travelled to the United
States, representing India at the 1893 Parliament of the World Religions. Vivekananda conducted
hundreds of public and private lectures and classes, disseminating tenets of Hindu philosophy in the
United States, England and Europe. In India, Vivekananda is regarded as a patriotic saint and his
birthday is celebrated as National Youth Day in India.
Early life (18631888)
Birth and childhood
Vivekananda was born Narendranath Datta (shortened to Narendra or Naren)[7] at his ancestral
home at 3 Gourmohan Mukherjee Street in Calcutta, the capital of British India, on 12 January 1863
during the Makar Sankranti festival.[8] He belonged to a traditional Bengali Kayastha family and
was one of nine siblings.[9] His father, Vishwanath Datta, was an attorney at the Calcutta High
Court.[10][11] Durgacharan Datta, Narendra's grandfather, was a Sanskrit and Persian scholar[12]
who left his family and became a monk at age twenty-five.[13] Bhuvaneswari Devi, was a devout
housewife.[12] The progressive, rational attitude of Narendra's father and the religious temperament
of his mother helped shape his thinking and personality.[14][15]
Narendra was interested spiritually from a young age, and used to meditate before the images of
deities such as Shiva, Rama, and Sita.[16] He was fascinated by wandering ascetics and monks.[15]
Narendra was naughty and restless as a child, and his parents often had difficulty controlling him.
His mother said, "I prayed to Shiva for a son and he has sent me one of his demons".[13]
Education
In 1871 Narendra enrolled at Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's Metropolitan Institution, where he
studied until his family moved to Raipur in 1877.[17] In 1879, after his family's return to Calcutta,
he received first-division marks in the Presidency College entrance examination. That year, he was
the only student at his college who received first-division marks.[17] Narendra was an avid
reader[18] and was interested in a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, religion, history,
social science, art and literature.[19] He was also interested in Hindu scriptures, including the
Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
Narendra was trained in Indian classical music,[20] and regularly participated in physical exercise,
sports and organised activities.[19]
Narendra studied Western logic, Western philosophy and European history at the General
Assembly's Institution (now known as the Scottish Church College).[21] In 1881 he passed the Fine
Arts examination, and completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1884.[22][23] Narendra studied the
works of David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Baruch Spinoza, Georg W. F.
Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Auguste Comte, John Stuart Mill and Charles Darwin.[24][25] He
became fascinated with the evolutionism of Herbert Spencer and corresponded with him,[26][27]
translating Spencer's book Education (1861) into Bengali.[28] While studying Western
philosophers, he also learned Sanskrit scriptures and Bengali literature.[25] William Hastie
(principal of General Assembly's Institution) wrote, "Narendra is really a genius. I have travelled far
and wide but I have never come across a lad of his talents and possibilities, even in German
universities, among philosophical students".[24] Some accounts have called Narendra a shrutidhara
(a person with a prodigious memory).[29][30][31]
Spiritual apprenticeship
See also: Swami Vivekananda and meditation
Narendra became a member of a Freemasonry lodge and a breakaway faction of the Brahmo Samaj
led by Keshub Chandra Sen and Debendranath Tagore.[21][32][33] His initial beliefs were shaped
by Brahmo concepts, which included belief in a formless God and the deprecation of idolatry.[16]
At this time, Narendra met Debendranath Tagore (the leader of Brahmo Samaj) and asked if he had
seen God. Instead of answering his question, Tagore said "My boy, you have the Yogi's eyes."[32]
[28] Not satisfied with his knowledge of philosophy, Narendra wondered if God and religion could
be made a part of one's growing experiences and deeply internalised. He asked several prominent
Calcutta residents if they had come "face to face with God", but none of their answers satisfied him.
With Ramakrishna
Main article: Relationship between Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda
Narendra's first introduction to Ramakrishna occurred in a literature class at General Assembly's
Institution when he heard Professor William Hastie lecturing on William Wordsworth's poem, The
Excursion.[34] While explaining the word "trance" in the poem, Hastie suggested that his students
visit Ramakrishna of Dakshineswar to understand the true meaning of trance. This prompted some
of his students (including Narendra) to visit Ramakrishna.[36][37][38]
 Vivekananda in Cossipore 1886
In November 1881,.[a] when Narendra was preparing for his upcoming F. A. examination, Ram
Chandra Datta accompanied him to Surendra Nath Mitra's, house where Ramakrishna was invited to
deliver a lecture.[40] At this meeting, Ramakrishna asked young Narendra to sing. Impressed by his
singing talent, he asked Narendra to come to Dakshineshwar.[41] Narendra did not consider this
their first meeting, and neither man mentioned this meeting later.[36]
In late 1881 or early 1882, Narendra went to Dakshineswar with two friends and met Ramakrishna.
[36] This meeting proved to be a turning point in his life.[42] Although he did not initially accept
Ramakrishna as his teacher and rebelled against his ideas, he was attracted by his personality and
began to frequently visit him at Dakshineswar.[43] He initially saw Ramakrishna's ecstasies and
visions as "mere figments of imagination"[14] and "hallucinations".[44] As a member of Brahmo
Samaj, he opposed idol worship, polytheism and Ramakrishna's worship of Kali.[45] He even
rejected the Advaita Vedanta of "identity with the absolute" as blasphemy and madness, and often
ridiculed the idea.[44] Narendra tested Ramakrishna, who faced his arguments patiently: "Try to see
the truth from all angles", he replied.[43]
Narendra's father's sudden death in 1884 left the family bankrupt; creditors began demanding the
repayment of loans, and relatives threatened to evict the family from their ancestral home. Narendra,
once a son of a well-to-do family, became one of the poorest students in his college.[46] He
unsuccessfully tried to find work and questioned God's existence,[47] but found solace in
Ramakrishna and his visits to Dakshineswar increased.[48]
One day Narendra requested Ramakrishna to pray to goddess Kali for their family's financial
welfare. Ramakrishna suggested him to go to the temple himself and pray. Following Ramakrishna's
suggestion, he went to the temple thrice, but failed to pray for any kind of worldly necessities and
ultimately prayed for true knowledge and devotion from the goddess.[49][50][51] Narendra
gradually grew ready to renounce everything for the sake of realising God, and accepted
Ramakrishna as his Guru.[43]
In 1885, Ramakrishna developed throat cancer, and was transferred to Calcutta and (later) to a
garden house in Cossipore. Narendra and Ramakrishna's other disciples took care of him during his
last days, and Narendra's spiritual education continued. At Cossipore, he experienced Nirvikalpa
samadhi.[52] Narendra and several other disciples received ochre robes from Ramakrishna, forming
his first monastic order.[53] He was taught that service to men was the most effective worship of
God.[14][52] Ramakrishna asked him to care for the other monastic disciples, and in turn asked
them to see Narendra as their leader.[54] Ramakrishna died in the early-morning hours of 16 August
1886 in Cossipore.[54][55]
Founding of first Ramakrishna Math at Baranagar
Main article: Baranagar Math
After Ramakrishna's death, his devotees and admirers stopped supporting his disciples. Unpaid rent
accumulated, and Narendra and the other disciples had to find a new place to live.[56] Many
returned home, adopting a Grihastha (family-oriented) way of life.[57] Narendra decided to convert
a dilapidated house at Baranagar into a new math (monastery) for the remaining disciples. Rent for
the Baranagar Math was low, raised by "holy begging" (mdhukar). The math became the first
building of the Ramakrishna Math: the monastery of the monastic order of Ramakrishna.[42]
Narendra and other disciples used to spend many hours in practising meditation and religious
austerities every day.[58] Narendra later reminisced about the early days of the monastery:[59]
We underwent a lot of religious practice at the Baranagar Math. We used to get up at 3:00 am and
become absorbed in japa and meditation. What a strong spirit of detachment we had in those days!
We had no thought even as to whether the world existed or not.
In 1887, Narendra compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru with Vaishnav
Charan Basak. Narendra collected and arranged most of the songs of this compilation, but could not
finish the work of the book for unfavourable circumstances.[60]
Monastic vows
In December 1886, the mother of Baburam[b] invited Narendra and his other brother monks to
Antpur village. Narendra and the other aspiring monks accepted the invitation and went to Antpur to
spend few days. In Antpur, in the Christmas Eve of 1886, Narendra and eight other disciples took
formal monastic vows.[58] They decided to live their lives as Jesus Christ lived.[58] Narendranath
took the name "Swami Vivekananda".[61]
Travels in India (18881893)
In 1888, Narendra left the monastery as a Parivrjaka the Hindu religious life of a wandering
monk, "without fixed abode, without ties, independent and strangers wherever they go".[62] His
sole possessions were a kamandalu (water pot), staff and his two favourite books: the Bhagavad
Gita and The Imitation of Christ.[63] Narendra travelled extensively in India for five years, visiting
centres of learning and acquainting himself with diverse religious traditions and social patterns.[64]
[65] He developed sympathy for the suffering and poverty of the people, and resolved to uplift the
nation.[64][66] Living primarily on bhiksha (alms), Narendra travelled on foot and by railway (with
tickets bought by admirers). During his travels he met, and stayed with Indians from all religions
and walks of life: scholars, dewans, rajas, Hindus, Muslims, Christians, paraiyars (low-caste
workers) and government officials.[66]
North
In 1888 Narendra's first destination was Varanasi, where he visited the places where Gautama
Buddha and Adi Shankara preached[67][68] and met Bengali writer Bhudev Mukhopadhyay and
Hindu saint Trailanga Swami.[69] After meeting Vivekananda, Mukhopadhyay said "Such vast
experience and insight at such an early age! I am sure he will be a great man".[67] Narendra also
met Sanskrit and Vedic scholar Babu Pramadadas Mitra,[70] with whom he corresponded on the
interpretation of Hindu scriptures.[70][69] After leaving Varanasi, he visited Ayodhya, Lucknow,
Agra, Vrindavan, Hathras and Rishikesh.[68] When he was staying in Vrindavan, one day, he saw a
man smoking a hookah. He asked to the man to give him a tobacco bowl, but the man refused to do
so explaining he was a man of lower caste. Narendra initially accepted his point and started
walking, but within few minutes, he started feeling ashamed, as he had been practising "non-duality
of soul" for a long time. He returned to the man, once again requested him to give him tobacco boil
and despite the man's reluctance, he took the hookah from him and started smoking.[71]
Vivekananda sitting, black and white image
Vivekananda as a wandering monk
After Ramakrishna's death, in January 1887 Vivekananda (then Narendranath Datta) and eight other
disciples of Ramakrishna took formal monastic vows in Baranagar Math. In 1888, Narendra left the
math and began life as a wandering monk. Both photos were taken at this time.[72]
While on the way to Haridwar, in September 1888,[73] Narendra stayed at Hathras. There in the
railway waiting room Narendra met Sharat Chandra Gupta, a railway station master.[74] Gupta went
to Narendra and asked if he was hungry, to which he got a reply in positive. He took Narendra to his
home. When Narendra asked him what food he was going to offer, Gupta quoted a Persian poem in
reply: "Oh beloved, I shall prepare the most delicious dish with the flesh of my heart".[75] Narendra
told Gupta that he had a great mission in life he wanted to serve his motherland where starvation
and poverty stalk millions of people. He narrated his dream of seeing India regaining her old glory.
During the conversations Gupta asked Narendra if he could help him anyhow. Narendra
immediately replied "Yes, take up the kamandalu and go begging". Gupta understood that he was
being asked to renounce his personal interest for the welfare of many. He decided to renounce the
world and became a disciple of Narendranath.[76] Narendra and Gupta left Hathras together.[76]
After leaving Hathras Narendra and Gupta first went to Haridwar, and from there travelled to
Rishikesh, on foot. Here Narendra initiated Gupta into Sannyasa and was named Swami Sadananda.
[77][78] Gupta was the directly initiated monastic disciple of Vivekananda.[77] Vivekananda called
him "the child of my spirit".[79]
Meeting with Pavhari Baba
Between 1888 and 1890, Narendra visited Vaidyanath and Allahabad. In January 1890 he went from
Allahabad to Ghazipur and met Pavhari Baba,[65][80] an Advaita Vedanta ascetic who spent much
of his time in meditation.[81] At the time he suffered from lumbago,[80] and it was becoming
impossible for him to move or sit in meditation.[82] After meeting Baba, Narendra wanted to
become his disciple and Baba asked him to stay a few more days at Ghazipur. However, the night
before his initiation Narendra had a dream in which Ramakrishna looked at him with a melancholy
face. This dream convinced Narendra that no one other than Ramakrishna could be his teacher, and
he abandoned the idea of becoming Baba's disciple.[83]
Return to Baranagar Math and Himalayan journey (189091)
During the first half of 1890, after the deaths of fellow Ramakrishna disciples Balaram Bose and
Suresh Chandra Mitra, Narendra returned to Baranagar Math because of ill health and to arrange for
the math's financial support.[84] After finishing his work in July, he left the math[74] (accompanied
by fellow monk Swami Akhandananda) for the Himalayas.
This constituted the first phase of a journey which would bring Narendra to the West.[74][85] He
visited the sacred sites of Nainital, Almora, Srinagar, Dehradun, Rishikesh and Haridwar. During
these travels, he met Swami Brahmananda, Saradananda, Turiyananda and Advaitananda. They
stayed at Meerut for several days engaged in meditation, prayer and study of the scriptures. At the
end of January 1891, Narendra left his fellows and travelled to Delhi.[85][86]
Rajputana (1891)
See also: Ajit Singh of Khetri Relationship with Swami Vivekananda
After visiting historical sites at Delhi, Narendra started his travel towards Rajputana. In these days,
he drew inspiration from the words of the Gautama Buddha [87][88][89]
Go forward without a path,
Fearing nothing, caring for nothing!
Wandering alone, like the rhinoceros!
Even as a lion, not trembling at noises,
Even as the wind, not caught in the net,
Even as the lotus leaf, untainted by water,
Do thou wander alone, like the rhinoceros!
In February 1891, he first went to Alwar, where he was warmly welcomed by the Hindus and the
Muslims.[89] There he told a Muslim religion scholar that one significant feature of the Quran is,
though it was written a thousand years ago, the book was free from "interpolation" and retained its
original purity.[90] When Narendra met the Mangal Singh, the king of Alwar, who was Westernised
in his outlooks. Singh asked Narendra questions and ridiculed Hindu idol worship. Narendra
attempted to explain to him that that worship of the Hindus are symbolic worship, but failed to
make the king understand. Then Narendra saw a painting hanging on the wall, it was the a painting
of the Singh's deceased father and asked him to spit on it. Singh became angry and retorted how he
could spit on his father. Narendra explained, though it was just a painting, not the king himself, it
reminds everybody about the king, similarly an idol worshipped by a Hindu is actually a symbolic
worship of the Supreme.[91][90]
From Alwar, Narendra went to Jaipur, where he studied Panini's Ashtadhyayi with a Sanskrit
scholar. Narendra then went to Ajmer, where he visited the palace of Akbar and the Dargah Sharif.
At Mount Abu he met Raja Ajit Singh of Khetri, who became an ardent devotee and supporter.[92]
Swami Tathagatananda, a senior monk in the Ramakrishna Order, wrote of their relationship:
... Vivekananda's friendship with Maharaja Ajit Singh of Khetri was enacted against the backdrop
of Khetri, a sanctified town in Northern Rajasthan, characterized by its long heroic history and
independent spirit. Destiny brought Swamiji and Ajit Singh together on 4 June 1891 at Mount Abu,
where their friendship gradually developed through their mutual interest in significant spiritual and
secular topics. The friendship intensified when they travelled to Khetri and it became clear that
theirs was the most sacred friendship, that of a Guru and his disciple.[93]
At Khetri Narendra delivered discourses to the Raja, became acquainted with pandit Ajjada
Adibhatla Narayana Dasu and studied the Mahbhya on the sutras of Panini. After two-and-a-half
months there, in October 1891 he left for Maharastra.[66][94]
West (18911892)
Narendra visited Ahmedabad, Wadhwan and Limbdi; at the former, he completed his studies of
Islamic and Jain cultures.[66] At Limbdi he met Thakur Saheb Jaswant Singh, who had been to
England and America. From him, Narendra first got the idea of going to the West to preach Vedanta.
He visited Junagadh and was the guest of Haridas Viharidas Desai, diwan of the state, who was so
charmed by his company that every evening he and all the state officials conversed with Narendra
until late at night. Narendra also visited Girnar, Kutch, Porbander, Dwaraka, Palitana, Nadiad,
Nadiad ni haveli and Baroda. He remained for nine months at Porbander, furthering his
philosophical and Sanskrit studies with learned pandits.[66]
Narendra's next destinations included Mahabaleshwar, Pune, Khandwa and Indore. At Kathiawar he
heard of the 1893 Parliament of the World's Religions, and was urged by his followers to attend it.
After a brief stay in Bombay in July 1892, he met Bal Gangadhar Tilak during a train journey.[95]
After staying with Tilak for a few days in Pune,[96] Narendra travelled to Belgaum in October 1892
and to Panaji and Margao in Goa, spending three days at Rachol Seminary (the oldest convent in
Goa, with rare religious manuscripts and printed works in Latin) studying Christian theological
works.[97]
South (18921893)
Narendra later travelled to Bangalore, where he became acquainted with K. Seshadri Iyer (diwan of
the Mysore state). Iyer described Narendra as "a magnetic personality and a divine force which were
destined to leave their mark on the history of his country". Iyer introduced him to the Maharaja
(king) of Mysore Chamaraja Wodeyar. Wodeyar invited Narendra to stay in his palace as a guest.
[98][99] The maharaja gave Narendra a letter of introduction to the diwan of Cochin and a railway
ticket.[100]
From Bangalore, Narendra visited Trissur, Kodungalloor and Ernakulam. At Ernakulam he met
Chattampi Swamikal, a contemporary of Narayana Guru, in early December 1892.[101] From
Ernakulam, Narendra travelled to Trivandrum, Nagercoil and reached Kanyakumari on foot on
Christmas Eve 1892.[102] At Kanyakumari, Narendra meditated on the "last bit of Indian rock"
(later known as the Narendra Rock Memorial). At Kanyakumari, Narendra had a "vision of one
India" (the "Kanyakumari resolve of 1892").[103] He wrote:
"At Cape Camorin sitting in Mother Kumari's temple, sitting on the last bit of Indian rockI hit
upon a plan: We are so many sanyasis wandering about, and teaching the people metaphysicsit is
all madness. Did not our Gurudeva use to say, 'An empty stomach is no good for religion?' We as a
nation have lost our individuality and that is the cause of all mischief in India. We have to raise the
masses."[103][104]
From Kanyakumari, Narendra visited Madurai and had meetings with the Raja of Ramnad Bhaskara
Sethupathi (to whom he had a letter of introduction). During his meetings, he had extensive
discussions on Hindu philosophy with eminent scholars like Mahavidwan R. Raghava Iyengar. The
raja became his disciple, urging him to attend the Parliament of Religions in Chicago. From
Madurai, Narendra visited Rameswaram, Pondicherry and Madras; there, he met some of his
disciples, specially Alasinga Perumal (who played important roles in collecting funds for his voyage
to America and later establishing the Ramakrishna Mission in Madras).[105] Perumal went door to
door in hopes of getting money for Narendra's travel.[106] With funds collected by his Madras
disciples, the kings of Mysore, Ramnad, Khetri, diwans and other followers, Narendra left Bombay
for Chicago on 31 May 1893 with the name "Vivekananda" which was suggested by Ajit Singh of
Khetri.[104] The name "Vivekananda" meant "the bliss of discerning wisdom".[107]
First visit to the West (18931897)
Vivekananda started his journey to the West on 31 May 1893[108] and visited several cities in Japan
(including Nagasaki, Kobe, Yokohama, Osaka, Kyoto and Tokyo),[109] China and Canada en route
to the United States,[108] reaching Chicago on 30 July 1893.[110][108] However, he was
disappointed to learn that no one without credentials from a bona fide organisation would be
accepted as a delegate. Vivekananda contacted Professor John Henry Wright of Harvard University,
who invited him to speak at Harvard.[111] On learning that Vivekananda lacked credentials to speak
at the Chicago Parliament, Wright said "To ask for your credentials is like asking the sun to state its
right to shine in the heavens".[112] Vivekananda wrote of the professor, "He urged upon me the
necessity of going to the Parliament of Religions, which he thought would give an introduction to
the nation".[112]
Parliament of the World's Religions
The Parliament of the World's Religions opened on 11 September 1893 at the Art Institute of
Chicago as part of the World's Columbian Exposition.[113][114][115] On this day, Vivekananda
gave a brief speech representing India and Hinduism.[116] He was initially nervous, bowed to
Saraswati (the Hindu goddess of learning) and began his speech with "Sisters and brothers of
America!".[117][115] At these words, Vivekananda received a two-minute standing ovation from
the crowd of seven thousand.[118] When silence was restored he began his address, greeting the
youngest of the nations on behalf of "the most ancient order of monks in the world, the Vedic order
of sannyasins, a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance".[119]
Vivekananda quoted two illustrative passages from the "Shiva mahimna stotram": "As the different
streams having their sources in different places all mingle their water in the sea, so, O Lord, the
different paths which men take, through different tendencies, various though they appear, crooked or
straight, all lead to Thee!" and "Whosoever comes to Me, through whatsoever form, I reach him; all
men are struggling through paths that in the end lead to Me."[119] Despite the brevity of his speech,
it voiced the spirit and sense of universality of the parliament.[119][120]
Parliament President John Henry Barrows said, "India, the Mother of religions was represented by
Swami Vivekananda, the Orange-monk who exercised the most wonderful influence over his
auditors".[117] Vivekananda attracted widespread attention in the press, which called him the
"cyclonic monk from India". The New York Critique wrote, "He is an orator by divine right, and his
strong, intelligent face in its picturesque setting of yellow and orange was hardly less interesting
than those earnest words, and the rich, rhythmical utterance he gave them". The New York Herald
noted, "Vivekananda is undoubtedly the greatest figure in the Parliament of Religions. After hearing
him we feel how foolish it is to send missionaries to this learned nation".[121] American
newspapers reported Vivekananda as "the greatest figure in the parliament of religions" and "the
most popular and influential man in the parliament".[122] The Boston Evening Transcript reported
that Vivekananda was "a great favourite at the parliament... if he merely crosses the platform, he is
applauded".[123] He spoke several more times at the Parliament on topics related to Hinduism,
Buddhism and harmony among religions until the parliament ended on 27 September 1893.
Vivekananda's speeches at the Parliament had the common theme of universality, emphasising
religious tolerance.[124] He soon became known as a "handsome oriental" and made a huge
impression as an orator.[125]
Lecture tours in the U.S. and England
"I do not come", said Swamiji on one occasion in America, "to convert you to a new belief. I want
you to keep your own belief; I want to make the Methodist a better Methodist; the Presbyterian a
better Presbyterian; the Unitarian a better Unitarian. I want to teach you to live the truth, to reveal
the light within your own soul."[126]
After the Parliament of Religions, he toured many parts of the US as a guest. His popularity opened
up new views for expanding on "life and religion to thousands".[125] During a question-answer
session at Brooklyn Ethical Society, he remarked, "I have a message to the West as Buddha had a
message to the East."
Vivekananda spent nearly two years lecturing in the eastern and central United States, primarily in
Chicago, Detroit, Boston, and New York. He founded the Vedanta Society of New York in 1894.
[127] By spring 1895 his busy, tiring schedule had affected his health.[128] He ended his lecture
tours and began giving free, private classes in Vedanta and yoga. Beginning in June 1895,
Vivekananda gave private lectures to a dozen of his disciples at Thousand Island Park in New York
for two months.[128]
During his first visit to the West he travelled to England twice, in 1895 and 1896, lecturing
successfully there.[129] In November 1895 he met Margaret Elizabeth Noble an Irish woman who
would become Sister Nivedita.[128] During his second visit to England in May 1896 Vivekananda
met Max Mller, a noted Indologist from Oxford University who wrote Ramakrishna's first
biography in the West.[120] From England, Vivekananda visited other European countries. In
Germany he met Paul Deussen, another Indologist.[130] Vivekananda was offered academic
positions in two American universities (one the chair in Eastern Philosophy at Harvard University
and a similar position at Columbia University); he declined both, since his duties would conflict
with his commitment as a monk.[128]
Left: Vivekananda in Greenacre, Maine (August 1894).[131] Right: Vivekananda at Mead sisters
house, South Pasadena in 1900.
Vivekananda attracted followers and admirers in the U.S. and Europe, including Josephine
MacLeod, William James, Josiah Royce, Robert G. Ingersoll, Nikola Tesla, Lord Kelvin, Harriet
Monroe, Ella Wheeler Wilcox, Sarah Bernhardt, Emma Calv and Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von
Helmholtz.[14][128][130][132] He initiated several followers : Marie Louise (a French woman)
became Swami Abhayananda, and Leon Landsberg became Swami Kripananda,[133] so that they
could continue the work of the mission of the Vedanta Society. This society even to this day is filled
with foreign nationals and is also located in Los Angeles.[134] During his stay in Los Angeles,
Vivekananda built a retreat to house Vedanta students. He called it Peace retreat or Santi Asrama.
[135] The American headquarters of the Vedanta Society (one of the twelve) in USA is located in
Los Angeles. There is also a Vedantha Press in Hollywood which publishes Hindu scriptures and
texts in English. [136] Christina Greenstidel of Detroit was also initiated by Vivekananda with a
mantra and she became Sister Christine,[137] and they established a close fatherdaughter
relationship.[138]
From the West, Vivekananda revived his work in India. He regularly corresponded with his
followers and brother monks,[c] offering advice and financial support. His letters from this period
reflect his campaign of social service,[139] and were strongly worded.[140] He wrote to Swami
Akhandananda, "Go from door to door amongst the poor and lower classes of the town of Khetri
and teach them religion. Also, let them have oral lessons on geography and such other subjects. No
good will come of sitting idle and having princely dishes, and saying "Ramakrishna, O Lord!"
unless you can do some good to the poor".[141][142] In 1895, Vivekananda founded the periodical
Brahmavadin to teach the Vedanta.[143] Later, Vivekananda's translation of the first six chapters of
The Imitation of Christ was published in Brahmavadin in 1889.[144] Vivekananda left for India on
16 December 1896 from England with his disciples, Captain and Mrs. Sevier and J.J. Goodwin. On
the way they visited France and Italy, and set sail for India from Naples on 30 December 1896.[145]
He was later followed to India by Sister Nivedita, who devoted the rest of her life to the education
of Indian women and India's independence.[128][146]
Back in India (18971899)
The ship from Europe arrived in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 15 January 1897,[145] and Vivekananda
received a warm welcome. In Colombo he gave his first public speech in the East, India, the Holy
Land. From there on, his journey to Calcutta was triumphant. Vivekananda travelled from Colombo
to Pamban, Rameswaram, Ramnad, Madurai, Kumbakonam and Madras, delivering lectures.
Common people and rajas gave him an enthusiastic reception. During his train travels, people often
sat on the rails to force the train to stop so they could hear him.[145] From Madras, he continued his
journey to Calcutta and Almora. While in the West, Vivekananda spoke about India's great spiritual
heritage; in India, he repeatedly addressed social issues: uplifting the people, eliminating the caste
system, promoting science and industrialisation, addressing widespread poverty and ending colonial
rule. These lectures, published as Lectures from Colombo to Almora, demonstrate his nationalistic
fervour and spiritual ideology.[147]
On 1 May 1897 in Calcutta, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission for social service. Its
ideals are based on Karma Yoga,[148][149] and its governing body consists of the trustees of the
Ramakrishna Math (which conducts religious work).[150] Both Ramakrishna Math and
Ramakrishna Mission have their headquarters at Belur Math.[120][151] Vivekananda founded two
other monasteries: one in Mayavati in the Himalayas (near Almora), the Advaita Ashrama and
another in Madras. Two journals were founded: Prabuddha Bharata in English and Udbhodan in
Bengali.[152] That year, famine-relief work was begun by Swami Akhandananda in the
Murshidabad district.[120][150]
Vivekananda earlier inspired Jamsetji Tata to set up a research and educational institution when they
travelled together from Yokohama to Chicago on Vivekananda's first visit to the West in 1893. Tata
now asked him to head his Research Institute of Science; Vivekananda declined the offer, citing a
conflict with his "spiritual interests".[153][154][155] He visited the Punjab, attempting to mediate
an ideological conflict between Arya Samaj (a reformist Hindu movement) and sanatan (orthodox
Hindus).[156] After brief visits to Lahore,[150] Delhi and Khetri, Vivekananda returned to Calcutta
in January 1898. He consolidated the work of the math and trained disciples for several months.
Vivekananda composed "Khandana BhavaBandhana", a prayer song dedicated to Ramakrishna, in
1898.[157]
Second visit to the West and final years (18991902)
Despite declining health, Vivekananda left for the West for a second time in June 1899[158]
accompanied by Sister Nivedita and Swami Turiyananda. Following a brief stay in England, he
went to the United States. During this visit, Vivekananda established Vedanta Societies in San
Francisco and New York and founded a shanti ashrama (peace retreat) in California.[159] He then
went to Paris for the Congress of Religions in 1900.[160] His lectures in Paris concerned the
worship of the lingam and the authenticity of the Bhagavad Gita.[159] Vivekananda then visited
Brittany, Vienna, Istanbul, Athens and Egypt. The French philosopher Jules Bois was his host for
most of this period, until he returned to Calcutta on 9 December 1900.[159]
After a brief visit to the Advaita Ashrama in Mayavati Vivekananda settled at Belur Math, where he
continued co-ordinating the works of Ramakrishna Mission, the math and the work in England and
the U.S. He had many visitors, including royalty and politicians. Although Vivekananda was unable
to attend the Congress of Religions in 1901 in Japan due to deteriorating health, he made
pilgrimages to Bodhgaya and Varanasi.[161] Declining health (including asthma, diabetes and
chronic insomnia) restricted his activity.[162]
Death
On 4 July 1902 (the day of his death)[163] Vivekananda awoke early, went to the chapel at Belur
Math and meditated for three hours. He taught Shukla-Yajur-Veda, Sanskrit grammar and the
philosophy of yoga to pupils,[164][165] later discussing with colleagues a planned Vedic college in
the Ramakrishna Math. At seven p.m. Vivekananda went to his room, asking not to be disturbed;
[164] he died at 9:10 p.m. while meditating.[166] According to his disciples, Vivekananda attained
mahasamdhi;[167] the rupture of a blood vessel in his brain was reported as a possible cause of
death.[168] His disciples believed that the rupture was due to his brahmarandhra (an opening in the
crown of his head) being pierced when he attained mahasamdhi. Vivekananda fulfilled his
prophecy that he would not live forty years. [169] He was cremated on a sandalwood funeral pyre
on the bank of the Ganges in Belur, opposite where Ramakrishna was cremated sixteen years earlier.
[170]
marginalisation and tribal people
Marginalisation is a complex phenomenon in the present-day world and a critical concern of
national and international communities. Its widespread occurrence is a consequence of several
interrelated factors in socio-economic development which gain significance in the era of
globalisation. In many Third World societies, people of the lower classes/castes [such as Dalit
and Adivasi (tribal) communities in India] are pushed to the margins of society as a result of
various historical and developmental factors. Tribal communities in India have been alienated
not only from the development processes, but even from their own dwellings. As mainstream
development processes tended to create social spaces of inequality, Dalit and tribal communities
face marginalisation virtually in every sphere of social life. Insofar as the marginalised groups
sustain a unique point of view shaped by their long-standing social position, the question of their
self-representation has become relevant in social research.
Since the mid-1970s, a number of tribal groups have emerged in India and tried to become
effective instruments for political articulation and mobilisation. Consequently, a new political
consciousness has been underway among the tribals, which is often referred to as identity
consciousness or identity politics. Questions such as who we are? are often raised by such
groups in the context of increasing marginalisation and alienation. Conceptually, identity politics
is linked with marginalisation. However, the term identity politics is widely used in social
sciences to describe phenomena as diverse as multiculturalism, womens movements, Dalit,
Adivasi movements, civil rights, lesbian and gay movements, separatist movements and violent
ethnic and nationalist conflicts in different parts of the world. Identity politics is assumed to be
cultural because identity groups advocating for recognition of and respect for their cultural
differences derive their distinct group identities from their cultural matrix. They assume that
activists organised around status identities understand these identities with their associated
cultures in essentialist rather than socially constructed terms. Hence, new theories of identity-
politics' have shifted explanations from interests and norms to identities and solidarities, from
the notion of the universal social agent to particularistic categories of concrete persons. The
present study dwells upon the question of marginalisation and identity politics in the specific
context of the tribal mobilisation in Kerala, a state which had earned much acclaim in the social
development index.
Statement of the Problem
The emerging theories of New Social Movements (NSMs) provide a framework for
understanding the phenomenon of marginalisation and the rise of identity politics among the
tribal communities. It would be of great interest to study how the tribal movements in India have
introduced a number of tactical and organisational innovations using the power of the media and
the expanded circuits of communication, and how they speak to a new audience in a different
way with a different voice. Obviously, the denial of civil and political rights, social repression,
exclusion, and economic inequality were the defining conditions of most tribal communities in
India.
The tribal communities in Kerala also continued to face marginalisation over decades.
Consequently, they are forced to create a specific space for themselves (though they constitute a
small minority of 1.10 per cent of the State's population). The fact that more than three-fourth of
the tribes are landless and that their social conditions (in areas such as housing, health and
sanitation, education, welfare etc) remained very much below the state average shows the extent
of marginalisation.
Plausibly, the basic question of the tribal communities in Kerala today is land alienation. Kerala
is a predominantly agrarian economy characterised by highly distorted distribution of land, and
adverse land-man ratio aggravated the inequality in terms of income and wealth. The land and
forest have been the vital sources of tribal livelihood but, over years, the tribal communities have
been marginalised and alienated as a result of the policies pursued by successive governments in
Kerala. It has created a miserable condition for them who were devoid of human dignity and
minimum amenities such as food, shelter, clothing etc. In spite of the Constitutional guarantees
and legislative measures, put in place from time to time by the Union as well as the State
governments, the tribal communities continued to suffer from the dispossession of their valuable
lands. Why this has happened in a state like Kerala, which has seen various democratic
movements and progressive/revolutionary politics for the last century, is a critical question that
needs to be addressed in the study.
A Profile of the Problem
Tribals are called Adivasis (original dwellers) in India who have been living in the subcontinent
from unrecorded time, and possibly driven them into the forests by more aggressive newcomer
actors. Currently, the tribal population of India accounts for nearly 8 per cent of the total
population. The Indian Constitution contains elaborate provisions for protecting the rights of
tribal communities and for the promotion of their interests. The Constitution envisages a two-
way approach to the tribal question: one is to protect them from various levels of exploitation
and the other is to promote their development at all levels. However, in spite of all constitutional
guarantees and legislative measures, the tribal communities continued to remain marginalised.
The scenario in Kerala is illustrative of this.
In Kerala, there are 35 tribal communities. Among them Mala Arayans, Paniyans, Kurumans,
Kurichyars and Irular are majority in number. Land is the mainstay of tribals and more than 90
per cent of them depend on agriculture and allied activities. Land is the only tangible asset of the
tribals and, therefore, they have an emotional attachment to the land. However, over years, the
land has been alienated, largely because of the expanding interests of the settlers from other parts
of Kerala. A watershed in the history of the tribal demand for the restoration of their land was the
1975 legislation for restoring alienated land to the tribals. But it could not be implemented in the
state due to the pervasive influence of the settlers. The alienated land has been, mostly, in the
hands of non-tribes. This has apparently set the stage for political mobilisation of the tribals in
the state.
Admittedly, successive governments in Kerala became a party to the perpetuation of injustice
against the tribal people. This provided a historical context of the emergence of identity politics
among the tribal communities which they effectively used for political mobilisation. The
discontent among tribals was visible since early 1990s. A section of the tribals who were
disappointed with the mainstream political parties formed an organization called Adivasi Gothra
Maha Sabha (AGMS) led by C.K. Janu. It was an organisation functioning among the tribal
communities in Kerala. AGMS has been able to bring the plight of tribals to the limelight and set
off a large-scale agitation, mostly in an unconventional way. The Muthanga struggle (in the
Wayanad district of Kerala) in February 2003 was a culmination of the adivasi frustration over
the failure of successive governments in the state to restore Adivasi land. The Adivasis had put
up huts and other shelters in the area and announced that they would start cultivating the
occupied area. Even after weeks of their occupation of the forest land, the government chose to
remain silent. Capitalising the aggressive mood of the local people and the agitating Adivasis, the
police launched its operation on 19 February resulting in human loss and considerable
destruction. For more than 1000 Adivasis living in the area for a month and a half, it was a day of
horror. Muthanga was a turning point for the tribal mobilisation in Kerala. The Adivasis not only
deployed unconventional tactics to highlight their marginalisation, but effectively utilised the
power of the media and the expanded circuits of communication.
After one year of the Muthanga incident, AGMS became Adivasi Rashrtiya Maha Sabha
(ARMS) and put candidates in the Lok Sabha elections. The establishment of ARMS seemed to
have opened a new history in the Adivasi struggle. It revealed the political consciousness of
Adivasi communities in Kerala with respect to the declaration of tribal habitations as Scheduled
Area under Scheduled V of the Article
244 of the Constitution. It may be noted that no Adivasi habitation in Kerala has been declared
Scheduled Area till this date, thus denying the enjoyment of this most vital and specific part of
the Constitution by the Adivasis of Kerala in stark contrast to their counterparts in other states in
India. Obviously, this paved the way for the political mobilisation of the Adivasis in Kerala.
Research Questions
The present study problematises the following questions:
1.Does marginalisation have any structural linkage with identity politics?
2.
Is the tribal question in Kerala a manifestation of the internal dynamics of
marginalisation?
3.Has marginalisation of the tribal communities led to identify politics, thereby propelling
the political mobilisation of Adivasis?
4.
Does the Adivasi struggle in Kerala represent the characteristics of new social
movements?
Objectives of the Study
Within the overall framework of new social movement theories, the study seeks:
1.to conceptualise the problems of marginalisation in the context of the struggles of the
indigenous peoples;
2.to comprehend the dynamics of identity politics in the background of the marginalisation
of tribal communities;
3.to situate the tribal question in Kerala against the backdrop of the internal dynamics of
marginalisation;
4.to examine the tribal land alienation in its socio-historical context; and
5.to analyse the dynamics of political mobilisation of the Adivasi communities in Kerala.
Hypotheses
1. Marginalisation appears to have a pervasive impact on the identity and the
living conditions of the tribal communities.
2. Identity politics seems to have a structural linkage with the alienation of
marginalised tribes in Kerala.
3. The Adivasis in Kerala have ostensible underprivileged position manifesting
itself in the social indicators of housing, health, education, sanitation, welfare
etc. which remain very much below the state average.
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